ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
WHAT IS ANATOMY?
Greek: to cut (tomy) and apart (ana)
Study of the structure & shape of the
body, body parts and their relationship
to one another
WHAT IS PHYSIOLOGY?
Study how the body and the parts
work/function
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANATOMY &
PHYSIOLOGY
1. Parts of your body form a well-
organized unit.
2. Parts has job to do to make the body
operate as a whole.
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
1. Chemical level
atoms; tiny building blocks of matter,
combine to form molecules (water,
sugar & proteins)
2. Cellular level
cells are made up of molecules and
the smallest units of all living things
it varies in shape and size
Small parasite, Large nerves,
Round RBC
3. Tissue level
Consist of similar type cells
4 basic tissues (1) Epithelial, (2)
Connective, (3) Muscular, (4)
Nervous
4. Organ level
Organs are made up of different
types of tissues
It has extremely complex functions
5. Organ System level
Different organs that work together
closely.
6. Organism level
Human organisms are made up of
many organ systems.
MAINTAINING LIFE
1. Maintaining Boundaries
Every living organism must be able to
maintain its boundaries so that its
inside remains distinct from its
outside.
2. Movement
Includes all the activities promoted
by the muscular system
walking/swimming.
3. Responsiveness or irritability
Ability to sense changes in the
environment and then to react to
them.
4. Digestion
Breaking down ingested food into
simple molecules that can be
absorbed into the blood.
5. Metabolism
Chemical reaction that occur within
body cells.
6. Excretion
Removing excreted or wastes from
the body.
7. Reproduction
Production of offspring.
8. Growth
Increase in size, usually accomplished
by an increase in the numbers of
cells.
DIFFERENT TERMS
Anterior Body Landmarks
1. Abdominal anterior body trunk
2. Acromial point of shoulder
3. Antecubital anterior elbow surface
4. Axillary armpit
5. Brachial arm
6. Buccal cheek area
7. Carpal wrist
8. Cervical neck region
9. Coxal hip
 10. Crural leg Contains all the structures within the
11. Digital fingers/toes chest, abdomen, visceral organs
12. Femoral thigh a. Thoracic cavity lungs, heart
13. Fibular lateral part of leg b. Abdominal cavity stomach, liver
14. Inguinal area where thigh meets & intestines
body trunks
15. Nasal nose area Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants
16. Oral mouth The four resulting quadrants are named
17. Orbital eye area according to their positions from the
18. Patellar anterior knee subjects point of view: the right upper
19. Pelvic area overlying the pelvis quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant
anteriorly (LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), and
20. Sternal breastbone area left lower quadrant (LLQ)
21. Tarsal ankle region
22. Thoracic chest
23. Umbilical navel

Posterior Body Landmarks

1. Calcaneal heel of the foot
2. Deltoid curve of shoulder formed
by large muscle
3. Cephalic head
4. Femoral thigh
5. Gluteal buttock
6. Lumbar area back between ribs &
hips
7. Occipital posterior surface of head Another division method, used
8. Olecranal posterior surface of primarily by anatomists, uses two
elbow transverse and two parasagittal planes.
These planes, positioned like a tic-tac-
9. Popliteal posterior knee area
toe grid on the abdomen, divide the
10. Sacral area between hips
cavity into nine regions.
11. Scapular shoulder blade region
12. Sural posterior surface of lower leg
13. Vertebral area of spine
14. Plantar sole of the foot

BODY CAVITIES
1. Dorsal Body Cavity
a. Cranial cavity space inside bony
skull
b. Spinal cavity cranial cavity to the
end of vertebral column
2. Ventral Body Cavity
Much larger than the dorsal cavity
 - The umbilical region is the centermost
region deep to and surrounding the
umbilicus (navel).
- The epigastric region is located superior
to the umbilical region
- The hypogastric (pubic) region is
located inferior to the umbilical region
- The right and left iliac, or inguinal,
regions are located lateral to the
hypogastric region
- The right and left lumbar regions lie
lateral to the umbilical region
- The right and left hypochondriac
regions lie lateral to the epigastric
region and deep to the ribs
CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
1. Water
Most abundant part of cell ranging
from 55% to 90%
(Characteristics of Water)
- It is a universal solvent.
- It favors the dissociation of an
electrolytes.
- It has a great fluidity thus serves
as a vehicle for the transport of
materials.
- It has a high surface tension.
- It has the ability to absorb a large
amount of heat.
2. Minerals & Mineral Salts
Essential to life deposited to the
bone, teeth or shells made up of
calcium carbonate & calcium
phosphate.
Blood contains several minerals
acting as buffers
3. Gases
a. Carbon dioxide carried in 3 ways:
1. 5% in solution in the plasma as
carbonic acid
2. 10% in combination, with amino
groups of hemoglobin
3. 85% in form of Sodium &
Potassium, bicarbonates (blood
salts).
*Carbon dioxide given off because it is
toxic to the cells of the body.
b. Oxygen
Primarily carried by RBC and partly
by the plasma.
It is taken in primarily for oxidation
4. Carbohydrates
Reserve food present only in plants
Provide heat & energy
Simplest form: glucose
Sugar and their derivatives are the
principal of carbohydrates.
FORMS OF SUGAR
1. Monosaccharides
Simple sugar made up of one, 6
carbon sugars.
Example:
- Glucose dextrose or grape sugar
- Galactose sugar in milk
- Fructose fruit sugar
2. Oligosaccharides
Double sugars made up of two, 6
carbon sugar (12 carbon sugars)
Example:
- Lactose (milk sugar) = glucose &
galactose
- Sucrose (cane or beet sugar) =
glucose & fructose
- Maltose (malt sugar)
3. Polysaccharides
Multiple sugars or a combination of
more than 2:
a. Cellulose present in plants and
consist of 2, 000 glucose
b. Starch reserve food present
only in plants
c. Glycogen (animal starch)
reserve food. *present only in
animals and is made up of 12 to 18
glucose.
5. Fats or Lipids
Provides heat and energy
Glycerol & fatty acids (simplest form)
FORMS OF FAT
1. Fats solid at 20C, contain a large
amount of saturated fatty acids.
2. Oils liquid at 20C, contain a large
amount of unsaturated fatty acids.
3. True fats can exist as a solid & liquid
under ordinary room temperature.
(Example: Butter)
4. Waxes beeswax
5. Tallow candles
IMPORTANT MOLECULES OF LIFE
Protein (CHON)
Provide energy within the
protoplasm
Catalysts (enzymes) & hormones
Antigens and antibodies
Nucleic Acids
Polymers of monomers called
nucleotides
Large protein molecules which are
vital in protein synthesis and heredity
Two types: (1) Deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) present only in nucleus. (2)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) found in
nucleus and cytoplasm.
Records hereditary information in
every living organism
Vitamins
Organic compounds needed in
minute amount and usually are of
plant origin.
Required for normal growth and
development
Not manufactured by animals
Can be grouped into two: (1) Fat
soluble vitamins A, D, E, K. (2) Water
soluble vitamins C, B1, B2, B6, B12,
Niacin, H (Biotin).
Example of Fat Soluble Vitamins:
i. Vitamin A
Maintains the integrity of epithelial
tissues
Contains the visual purple of retina
Sources: liver, egg yolk, milk,
cream, green & yellow vegetables
ii. Vitamin D
Promotes growth of bones and
teeth
Sources: margarine, butter milk,
cheese, liver
iii. Vitamin E
Relates the cellular respiration
Prevents hemolysis in RBC
Sources: oil from wheat and corn,
soybeans, mayonnaise, salad
dressing
iv. Vitamin K
Maintains the prothrombin level in
the blood plasma
Sources: liver, dark green leaves,
wheat, beans, vegetable oil,
tomatoes and egg yolk
Example of Water Soluble Vitamins:
i. Vitamin C
Heals wounds and bones fractures
Sources: fresh fruit like citrus fruits
ii. Vitamin B1
Maintains good appetite and for
normal functioning of nerves
Sources: lean pork, liver and some
shellfish, unpolished rice
iii. Vitamin B2
Maintain healthy skin, tongue,
mouth, proper growth and diet
Sources: cheese milk, eggs, liver,
whole grain, green leafy vegetable
and weeds
iv. Vitamin B6
Involved in amino acid
Sources: vegetable oil of corn,
olives, peanut wheat and rice grain
v. Vitamin B12
Essential for the normal function of
nerve, bone marrow and prevents
anemia
Sources: animal proteins
vi. Niacin (folic acid)
Maintains normal growth, healthy
skin and nervous system
 Sources: plants and animals
protein
vii. Biotin (H)
Sources: liver, organ meat, egg
yolk, milk
THE CELL
The smallest and basic structures of
life
Cytology study about cell
Scientist who discovered about cells:
- Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (17th
century) discovery of the cells &
their structures was scientific output
of the simple microscope.
- Robert Hooke (1665) discovered
the cell is present in the thin slices of
cork and other plant materials.
- Robert Brown (1833) discovered
the nucleus is the central part of the
cell.
- Matthias Schleiden (1838) stated
that cells are unit structures of plants.
- Theodore Schwann (1939) a
zoologist said that cells are unit
structure in animals
- Rudolf Virchow (1958) German
biologist who stated that every cell
has risen from other cells and that it
is made possible through cell division.
Cell Theory:
1. Living things are composed of one or
more units called cell.
2. Cells are capable of independent
existence.
3. New cells arise from preexisting cells.
Two Types of Cells
1. Prokaryotic cells do not have
membraneenclosed nucleus.
Example: (bacteria) = unicellular
2. Eukaryotic cells have definite
nucleus and cell organelles. Example:
(plants, animals, fungi) = membrane, is responsible for
multicellular
Cell Organelles
1. Plasma Membrane also called cell
membrane
Barrier between the interior &
exterior environment of the cell.
Regulates the coming in and out
of substances of the cell.
Membranes are fluid and have
the consistency of vegetable oil.
Lipids and proteins of the
membrane are always in motion,
like the surface of a soap bubble.
Proteins in and on the
membrane form patterns or
mosaics.
Scientists call the modern view
of membrane the Fluid Mosaic
Model.
Cilia & Flagella movable hair
like structure; functions either in
the moving of the cell or moving
liquids or small particles across
the surface of the cell.
Microvilli & Pinocytic vesicles
minute finger-like projections,
for engulfing droplets of water in
the process called pinocytosis
the cell is able to drink.
2. Nucleus central part of the cell
Cell structure which is the first
one to be observed.
Within the nucleus is the
nucleoplasm, a semi fluid
material, where elongated
structures called chromosomes
are suspended.
DNA and protein make up a
chromosome.
DNA contains the genetic
blueprint of the cell.
The nucleolus, which has no
 ribosome production and
synthesis of protein.
3. Cytoplasm made up of complex
mixture of materials
Food nutrients are generally
received, processed and used in
the cytoplasm.
Part of the cell where waste is
removed
Suspended in it are structure
called cell organelles or
cytoplasmic organelles.
3 TYPES OF CELL DIVISION
1. Unicellular cells
Undergo direct cell division or
amitosis a simple process
involving membrane growth by
duplicating its genetic materials
2. Multicellular cells
Undergo indirect cell division +
mitosis
3. Meiosis
Development and maturation of
gametes or reproductive cells
Mitosis Cell Cycle:
1. G1/1st Interphase chromosomes
single stranded & uncoiled
2. S phase mitosis division
3. Mitosis divided into 4 stages:
(1) Prophase centrioles become
visible and move to opposite
poles)
(2) Metaphase migrates and aligns
(3) Anaphase moving toward
opposite pole of the spindle
(4) Telophase chromosomes
become longer & thinner
(5) Interphase chromosome no
longer visible: cytokinesis
complete)
TISSUES
Group of cells that are similar in
structure & function
Histology study of tissues
Functions of the body tissues
(1) Covering (Epithelium)
(2) Support (Connective)
(3) Movement (Muscle)
(4) Control (Nervous)
Epithelial tissue lining, covering tissues
of the body. Functions: (1) Protection, (2)
Absorption, (3) Filtration, (4) Secretion
Classifications of Epithelial cell
Simple squamous epithelium
Location: Air sacs of lungs & lining of the
heart, blood vessels & lymphatic vessels
Function: Allows materials to pass
through by diffusion and filtration
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Location: In ducts and secretory of small
glands and in kidney tubules
Function: Secretes and absorbs
Simple columnar epithelium
Location: Bronchi, uterine tubes, and
uterus; smooth (nonciliated tissues) in
digestive tract, bladder
Function: Absorbs; secretes mucous and
enzymes
Pseudostratified columnar
epithelium
Location: Ciliated tissue lines the
trachea and much of the upper
respiratory tract
Function: Secretes mucus, ciliated tissue
moves mucus
Stratified squamous epithelium
Location: Lines the esophagus, mouth,
and vagina
Function: Protects against abrasion
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
Location: Sweat glands, salivary glands,
mammary glands
Function: Protective tissue
 Stratified columnar epithelium
Location: Male urethra and the ducts of
some glands
Function: Secretes and protects
Transitional epithelium
Location: lines the bladder, urethra and
the ureters
Function: Allows the urinary organs to
expand and stretch
Connective tissue connects body parts,
most abundant and widely distributed of
the type. Functions: (1) Protecting, (2)
Supporting, (3) Binding together.
Types of Connective tissue
1. Bone called osseous tissue
Composed of bone cells in cavities
called lacunae
Surrounded by layers of a very hard
matrix that contains calcium salts.
Functions: (1) Protect, (2) Support
other body organs
2. Cartilage less hard, more flexible
than bone
3 Types of Cartilage
(1) Hyaline cartilage (glass) support
the structures of the larynx or
voice box, joints.
(2) Fibrocartilage cushion like disk
between the vertebrae of the
spinal column.
(3) Elastic cartilage supports the
external ear
3. Dense Connective tissue dense
fibrous tissue
Forms strong rope like structures
such as tendons and ligaments
Tendons attach skeletal muscles
to bones
Ligaments connects bones to
bones at joints
4. Loose Connective Tissue
Softer and have more cells and
fewer fibers
Kinds of loose connective tissue: (1)
Areolar tissue soft, pliable tissue
that cushions and protects body
organ. (2) Adipose tissue
commonly called fat.
5. Blood
Considered a connective tissue
because it consists of blood cells
Surrounded by a nonliving fluid
called blood plasma
Muscle Tissue contract or shorten and to
produce movement.
Types of Muscle tissue
1. Skeletal muscle voluntary (attached
to the skeleton)
2. Cardiac muscle involuntary (found
only in heart)
3. Smooth muscle visceral (walls of
hollow organ)
Nervous Tissue called: neurons
Functions: irritability & conductivity
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Functions of the Skin
Regulation of body temperature
Blood reservoir
Protection
Cutaneous sensations
Excretion and absorption
Synthesis of Vitamin D
Organs of Integumentary System
Skin and its accessory structures
(hair, nails, glands, blood vessels,
muscles, nerves)
Dermatology
medical specialty for diagnosis &
treatment of disorders of
integumentary system.
Structure of the Skin
Skin (cutaneous membrane) covers
body and is the largest organ of the
body (by surface area and weight)
Consists of two major layers: (1)
Outer, thinner layer called epidermis
(epithelial tissue) and (2) Inner,
thicker layer called dermis
Beneath the dermis is a containing collagen & elastic fibers.
subcutaneous layer (hypodermis)
which attaches the skin to the
underlying tissue & organs.
Epidermis composed of keratinized
stratified squamous epithelium.
Contains four major types of cells:
1. Keratinocytes (90% of cell)
produces keratin, which is a tough
fibrous protein that provides
protection.
2. Melanocytes produce the
pigment melanin which protects
against damage by UV radiation.
3. Langerhans cells immune
responses, arise from red bone
marrow.
4. Merkel cells function in the
sensation of touch.
Four (thin skin)/Five (thick skin)
major layers:
1. Stratum basale (deepest layer)
continuous cell division occurs
which produces all other layers.
2. Stratum spinosum 8-10 layers of
keratinocytes.
3. Stratum granulosum includes
keratohyalin & lamellar granules.
4. Stratum lucidum (thick skin)
skin of the fingertips, palms &
soles.
5. Stratum corneum composed of
many sublayers of flat, dead
keratinocytes.
Keratinization accumulation of
more and more protective keratin.
Occurs as cells move from the
deepest layer to the surface layer.
Dandruff - an excess of keratinized
cells shed from the scalp.
Dermis composed of connective tissue,
Contains two layers
1. Outer papillary region areolar
connective tissue, dermal papillae,
corpuscles of touch & free nerve
endings
2. Deeper reticular region dense
irregular connective tissue, adipose
cells, hair follicles, nerves, sebaceous
(oil) glands and sweat glands.
Striae or stretch marks can appear if
skin is stretched too much
Lines of cleavage tension lines in
skin indicate predominant direction of
underlying collagen fibers
Epidermal ridges form basis for
fingerprints & footprints
Dermatoglyphic study of pattern of
epidermal ridges
Skin Color
Variations arise from amount of 3
pigments: Melanin, Carotene &
Hemoglobin.
Melanin a yellow-red or brown-black
pigment produced by melanocytes
absorbs UV radiation
amount of melanin cause skins color to
vary from pale yellow to red to tan to
black
number of melanocytes same in all
people; different skin color due to
amount of pigment produced.
Benign localized overgrowth of
melanocytes is a nevus or mole.
 Albinism inherited inability to
produce melanin.
Vitiligo partial or complete loss of
melanocytes from patches of skin
Carotene yellow-orange pigment (found
in the stratum corneum, dermis &
subcutaneous layer)
Hemoglobin red color (located in
erythrocytes)
Subcutaneous (subQ) layer (hypodermis)
Not part of the skin but functions to
attach the skin to the underlying
tissues and organs.
This layer (sometimes dermis) contains
lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles which
detects external pressure applied to
skin.
Accessory Structure of the Skin
(include hair, skin glands & nails)
Hairs (pili)
Functions: (1) Protection, (2)
Reduction of heat loss, (3) Sensing
light touch
Composed of dead, keratinized
epidermal cells
Consists of (1) Shaft, (2) Root, (3) Hair
follicle, (4) Epithelial root sheath, (5)
Dermal root sheath.
Types of hair: Lanugo, Vellus hair,
Terminal hair.
Hair color is determined by the
amount and type of melanin.
Sebaceous (oil) glands connected
to hair follicles.
Skin glands
Sebaceous glands secrete oily
substance called sebum. Sebum
prevents dehydration of hair & skin.
Sudoriferous (sweat) glands
2 Types:
1. Eccrine sweat glands cools
body by evaporating,
eliminates small amount of
muscle.
2. Apocrine sweat glands
located in the skin of axilla,
groin, bearded facial regions of
adult males.
Ceruminous glands modified sweat
gland located in the ear canal.
Produce waxy secretion called
cerumen (earwax).
Nails
Composed of hard, keratinized
epidermal cells located over the
dorsal surfaces of ends of fingers and
roes.
Consists of: free edge, nail body
(plate) with a whitish lunula as its
base, nail root.
Types of Skin
1. Thin (hairy) skin covers all body
regions except palms, palmar surface
of digits and soles.
2. Thick (hairless) skin covers palms,
palmar surface of digits and sole.
Aging & the Integumentary Skin (Effects):
Wrinkling
Decrease of skins immune
responsiveness
Decrease of sweat production
Dehydration and cracking of skin
Decrease of hair and nail growth
Decrease in skin thickness
Loss of subcutaneous fat
Sensory Receptors of Skin
1. Meissners Corpuscle touch
receptors located near the surface of
the skin; light touch.
2. Organ of Ruffinis Angelo Ruffini
(Italian anatomist) is responsible for
the sensation of the stretch of the
skin and perception of heat
3. Pacinian Corpuscle vibration and
deep touch.