Leonardo da Vinci

Contents

1 Main article 1
1.1 Leonardo da Vinci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Relationships and inuences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.3 Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.4 Observation and invention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.5 Fame and reputation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.1.6 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.1.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.1.8 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.1.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.1.10 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.1.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2 Supporting articles 22
2.1 Leonardo da Vincis personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.2 Physical characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.3 Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.4 Personal relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.1.5 Diverse interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1.8 Additional reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 List of works by Leonardo da Vinci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.1 Major extant works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.2 Disputed attributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.3 Lost works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.4 Some recent attributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.5 Manuscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

i
ii CONTENTS

2.3 Science and inventions of Leonardo da Vinci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.3.1 Condensed biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.2 Approach to scientic investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.3 Leonardos notes and journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.4 Publication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.5 Natural science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.6 Mathematical studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3.7 Engineering and invention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.3.8 Leonardos inventions made reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3.9 Leonardos projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.3.10 Models based on Leonardos drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.3.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.12 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.14 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.4 Cultural depictions of Leonardo da Vinci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.4.1 Artworks after originals by Leonardo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.4.2 Representations of Leonardo in art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.4.3 References in other media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.4.4 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.4.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.4.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3 Major works 56
3.1 Mona Lisa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.1.1 Title and subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.1.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.1.3 Aesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.1.4 Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.1.5 Fame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.1.6 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.1.7 Early copies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.1.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.1.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.1.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.2 The Last Supper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.2.1 Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2.2 Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2.3 Damage and restorations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2.4 The Last Supper in culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2.5 Other speculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
CONTENTS iii

3.2.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3 The Virgin of the Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3.1 The paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.3.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.3.3 Subject matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.3.4 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.3.5 Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.3.6 Derivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.3.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.3.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.3.9 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.3.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.4 Vitruvian Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.4.1 Subject and title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.4.2 Evidence of collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.4.3 Derivative works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.4.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.4.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.4.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.4.7 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.4.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 83

4.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Chapter 1

Main article

1.1 Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo was, and is, renowned primarily as a painter.
Among his works, the Mona Lisa is the most famous and
most parodied portrait[6] and The Last Supper the most
Da Vinci redirects here. For other uses, see Da Vinci reproduced religious painting of all time.[4] Leonardos
(disambiguation). drawing of the Vitruvian Man is also regarded as a cultural
icon,[7] being reproduced on items as varied as the euro
This is a Renaissance Florentine name. The name da coin, textbooks, and[nb T-shirts. Perhaps fteen of his paint-
1]
Vinci is an indicator of birthplace, not a family name ings have survived. Nevertheless, these few works,
and the person is properly referred to by the given name together with his notebooks, which contain drawings, sci-
Leonardo. entic diagrams, and his thoughts on the nature of paint-
ing, compose a contribution to later generations of artists
rivalled only by that of his contemporary, Michelangelo.
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (Italian: [leonardo
di sr pjro da (v)vinti]; 15 April 1452 2 May Leonardo is revered for his technological ingenuity. He
1519), more commonly Leonardo da Vinci or simply conceptualised ying machines, a type of armoured ght-
Leonardo, was an Italian polymath whose areas of inter- ing vehicle,
[8]
concentrated solar power, an adding ma-
est included invention, painting, sculpting, architecture, chine, and the double hull. Relatively few of his de-
science, music, mathematics, engineering, literature, signs were constructed or even feasible during his life-
anatomy, geology, astronomy, botany, writing, history, time, as the modern scientic approaches to metallurgy
and cartography. He has been variously called the fa- and engineering were only in their infancy during the Re-
ther of palaeontology, ichnology, and architecture, and naissance. Some of his smaller inventions, however, such
is widely considered one of the greatest painters of all as an automated bobbin winder and a machine for testing
time. Sometimes credited with the inventions of the the tensile strength of wire, entered the world of manufac-
parachute, helicopter and tank, [1][2][3]
he epitomised the turing unheralded. A number of Leonardos most practi-
Renaissance humanist ideal. cal inventions are nowadays displayed as working models
at the Museum of Vinci. He made substantial discov-
Many historians and scholars regard Leonardo as the eries in anatomy, civil engineering, geology, optics, and
prime exemplar of the "Universal Genius" or Renais- hydrodynamics, but he did not publish his ndings and
sance Man, an individual of unquenchable curiosity they had no direct inuence on later science.[9]
and feverishly inventive imagination.[4] According to
art historian Helen Gardner, the scope and depth of his Today, Leonardo is widely considered one of [10] the most
interests were without precedent in recorded history, and diversely talented individuals ever to have lived.
his mind and personality seem to us superhuman, while
the man himself mysterious and remote.[4] Marco Rosci
notes that while there is much speculation regarding his
1.1.1 Life
life and personality, his view of the world was logical
rather than mysterious, and that the empirical methods See also: Personal life of Leonardo da Vinci
he employed were unorthodox for his time.[5]
Born out of wedlock to a notary, Piero da Vinci, and
a peasant woman, Caterina, in Vinci in the region Childhood, 14521466
of Florence, Leonardo was educated in the studio of
the renowned Florentine painter Andrea del Verrocchio. Leonardo was born on 15 April 1452 (Old Style) at the
Much of his earlier working life was spent in the service third hour of the night[nb 2] in the Tuscan hill town of
of Ludovico il Moro in Milan. He later worked in Rome, Vinci, in the lower valley of the Arno river in the ter-
Bologna and Venice, and he spent his last years in France ritory of the Medici-ruled Republic of Florence.[12] He
at the home awarded to him by Francis I of France. was the out-of-wedlock son of the wealthy Messer Piero

1
2 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE
Leonardos childhood home in Anchiano
Leonardos earliest known drawing, the Arno Valley (1473),
Uzi
Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci, a Florentine legal notary,
and Caterina, a peasant.[11][13][nb 3] Leonardo had no sur-
name in the modern sense da Vinci simply meaning
of Vinci"; his full birth name was Lionardo di ser Piero
da Vinci, meaning Leonardo, (son) of (Mes)ser Piero
from Vinci.[12] The inclusion of the title ser indicated
that Leonardos father was a gentleman.
Little is known about Leonardos early life. He spent
his rst ve years in the hamlet of Anchiano in the
home of his mother, and from 1457 lived in the house-
hold of his father, grandparents and uncle in the small
town of Vinci. His father had married a sixteen-year-
old girl named Albiera Amadori, who loved Leonardo
but died young[14] in 1465 without children. When
Leonardo was sixteen (1468), his father married again
to twenty-year-old Francesca Lanfredini, who also died
without children. Pieros legitimate heirs were born
from his third wife Margherita di Guglielmo (who
gave birth to six children:[15] Antonio, Giulian, Mad-
dalena, Lorenzo, Violante and Domenico) and his fourth
and nal wife, Lucrezia Cortigiani (who bore him an-
other six children:[16] Margherita, Benedetto, Pandolfo,
Guglielmo, Bartolomeo and Giovanni).[17][18]
In all Leonardo had twelve half-siblings, who were much
younger than he (the last was born when Leonardo was
forty years old) and with whom he had very few contacts,
but they caused him diculty after his fathers death in
the dispute over the inheritance.[18]
Leonardo received an informal education in Latin,
geometry and mathematics. In later life, Leonardo
recorded only two childhood incidents. One, which he
regarded as an omen, was when a kite dropped from the
sky and hovered over his cradle, its tail feathers brushing
his face.[19] The second occurred while he was exploring
in the mountains: he discovered a cave and was both ter-
ried that some great monster might lurk there and driven
by curiosity to nd out what was inside.[14]
Leonardos early life has been the subject of histori-
cal conjecture.[20] Vasari, the 16th-century biographer
of Renaissance painters, tells a story of Leonardo as a
very young man: A local peasant made himself a round
shield and requested that Ser Piero have it painted for
him. Leonardo responded with a painting of a monster
spitting re that was so terrifying that Ser Piero sold it to
a Florentine art dealer, who sold it to the Duke of Mi-
lan. Meanwhile, having made a prot, Ser Piero bought a
shield decorated with a heart pierced by an arrow, which
he gave to the peasant.[21]
Verrocchios workshop, 146676
The Baptism of Christ (147275), Uzi, by Verrocchio and
Leonardo
In 1466, at the age of fourteen, Leonardo was appren-
ticed to the artist Andrea di Cione, known as Verrocchio,
whose bottega (workshop) was one of the nest in
Florence.[22] He apprenticed as a garzone (studio boy) to
Andrea del Verrocchio, the leading Florentine painter and
sculptor of his day (and would do so for 7 years).[23] Other
famous painters apprenticed or associated with the work-
shop include Domenico Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli,
1.1. LEONARDO DA VINCI 3

and Lorenzo di Credi.[14][24] Leonardo would have been left Verrocchios studio and was no longer resident at his
exposed to both theoretical training and a vast range of fathers house. One writer, the Anonimo Gaddiano,
technical skills,[25] including drafting, chemistry, metal- claims that in 1480 Leonardo was living with the Medici
lurgy, metal working, plaster casting, leather working, and working in the Garden of the Piazza San Marco in
mechanics and carpentry as well as the artistic skills of Florence, a Neo-Platonic academy of artists, poets and
drawing, painting, sculpting and modelling.[26][nb 4] philosophers that the Medici had established.[13] In Jan-
Much of the painted production of Verrocchios work- uary 1478, he received an independent commission to
shop was done by his employees. According to Vasari, paint an altarpiece for the Chapel of St. Bernard in the
Palazzo Vecchio; in March 1481, he received a second in-
Leonardo collaborated with Verrocchio on his The Bap-
tism of Christ, painting the young angel holding Jesus dependent commission for The Adoration of the Magi for
the monks of San Donato a Scopeto.[30] Neither commis-
robe in a manner that was so far superior to his masters
that Verrocchio put down his brush and never painted sion was completed, the second being interrupted when
Leonardo went to Milan.
again, although this is believed to be apocryphal.[27]
Close examination reveals areas that have been painted orIn 1482, Leonardo, who according to Vasari was a tal-
touched-up over the tempera using the new technique of ented musician,[31] created a silver lyre in the shape
oil paint; the landscape, the rocks seen through the brown
of a horses head. Lorenzo de' Medici sent Leonardo
mountain stream and much of the gure of Jesus bearing to Milan, bearing the lyre as a gift, to secure peace
witness to the hand of Leonardo.[28] Leonardo may have with Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan.[32] At this time
been the model for two works by Verrocchio: the bronze Leonardo wrote an often-quoted letter describing the
statue of David in the Bargello and the Archangel Raphaelmany marvellous and diverse things that he could achieve
in Tobias and the Angel.[13] in the eld of engineering and informing Ludovico that
[24][33]
By 1472, at the age of twenty, Leonardo qualied as a he could also paint.
master in the Guild of Saint Luke, the guild of artists Leonardo worked in Milan from 1482 until 1499. He
and doctors of medicine,[nb 5] but even after his father was commissioned to paint the Virgin of the Rocks for
set him up in his own workshop, his attachment to Ver- the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception and
rocchio was such that he continued to collaborate with The Last Supper for the monastery of Santa Maria delle
him.[14] Leonardos earliest known dated work is a draw- Grazie.[34] In the spring of 1485, Leonardo travelled to
ing in pen and ink of the Arno valley, drawn on 5 August Hungary on behalf of Ludovico to meet Matthias Corvi-
1473.[nb 6][24] nus, for whom he is believed to have painted a Holy Fam-
ily.[35] Between 1493 and 1495, Leonardo listed a woman
called Caterina among his dependents in his taxation doc-
Professional life, 14761513 uments. When she died in 1495, the list of funeral expen-
ditures suggests that she was his mother.[36]
Leonardo was employed on many dierent projects
for Ludovico, including the preparation of oats and
pageants for special occasions, designs for a dome for
Milan Cathedral and a model for a huge equestrian
monument to Francesco Sforza, Ludovicos predeces-
sor. Seventy tons of bronze were set aside for cast-
ing it. The monument remained unnished for several
years, which was not unusual for Leonardo. In 1492, the
clay model of the horse was completed. It surpassed in
size the only two large equestrian statues of the Renais-
sance, Donatellos Gattamelata in Padua and Verrocchios
Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice, and became known as the
"Gran Cavallo".[24][nb 7] Leonardo began making detailed
plans for its casting;[24] however, Michelangelo insulted
Leonardo by implying that he was unable to cast it.[14]
In November 1494, Ludovico gave the bronze to be used
for cannon to defend the city from invasion by Charles
The Adoration of the Magi (1481), Uzi VIII.[24]
At the start of the Second Italian War in 1499, the in-
Florentine court records of 1476 show that Leonardo and vading French troops used the life-size clay model for
three other young men were charged with sodomy but the Gran Cavallo for target practice. With Ludovico
acquitted; homosexual acts were illegal in Renaissance Sforza overthrown, Leonardo, with his assistant Salai and
Florence.[13] From that date until 1478 there is no record friend, the mathematician Luca Pacioli, ed Milan for
of his work or even of his whereabouts.[29] In 1478, he
4 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

out Italy with his patron.[37] Leonardo created a map of

Cesare Borgias stronghold, a town plan of Imola in order
to win his patronage. Maps were extremely rare at the
time and it would have seemed like a new concept. Upon
seeing it, Cesare hired Leonardo as his chief military en-
gineer and architect. Later in the year, Leonardo pro-
duced another map for his patron, one of Chiana Valley,
Tuscany, so as to give his patron a better overlay of the
land and greater strategic position. He created this map in
conjunction with his other project of constructing a dam
from the sea to Florence, in order to allow a supply of
water to sustain the canal during all seasons.
Leonardo returned to Florence, where he rejoined the
Guild of Saint Luke on 18 October 1503. He spent two
years designing and painting a mural of The Battle of
Anghiari for the Signoria,[37] with Michelangelo design-
ing its companion piece, The Battle of Cascina.[nb 9] In
Florence in 1504, he was part of a committee formed to
relocate, against the artists will, Michelangelos statue of
David.[42]
In 1506 Leonardo returned to Milan. Many of his
most prominent pupils or followers in painting ei-
ther knew or worked with him in Milan,[14] includ-
ing Bernardino Luini, Giovanni Antonio Boltrao and
Study of horse from Leonardos journalsRoyal Library,
Marco d'Oggiono.[nb 10] At this time he may have com-
Windsor Castle
menced a project for an equestrian gure of Charles II
d'Amboise, the acting French governor of Milan.[43] A
[37]
Venice, where he was employed as a military architect wax model survives and, if genuine, is the only extant ex-
and engineer, devising methods to defend the city from ample of Leonardos sculpture.
naval attack.[14] On his return to Florence in 1500, he
Leonardo did not stay in Milan for long because his father
and his household were guests of the Servite monks at the
had died in 1504, and in 1507 he was back in Florence
monastery of Santissima Annunziata and were provided
trying to sort out problems with his brothers over his fa-
with a workshop where, according to Vasari, Leonardo
thers estate. By 1508 Leonardo was back in Milan, living
created the cartoon of The Virgin and Child with St Anne
in his own house in Porta Orientale in the parish of Santa
and St John the Baptist, a work that won such admiration
Babila.[44]
that men and women, young and old ocked to see it
as if they were attending a great festival.[38][nb 8]
Old age, 15131519

From September 1513 to 1516, under Pope Leo X,

Leonardo spent much of his time living in the Belvedere
in the Vatican in Rome, where Raphael and Michelan-
gelo were both active at the time.[44] In October 1515,
King Francis I of France recaptured Milan.[30] On 19 De-
cember, Leonardo was present at the meeting of Francis
I and Pope Leo X, which took place in Bologna.[14][45][46]
Leonardo was commissioned to make for Francis a me-
chanical lion that could walk forward then open its chest
to reveal a cluster of lilies.[47][nb 11] In 1516, he entered
Francis service, being given the use of the manor house
Clos Luc, now a public museum, near the kings resi-
dence at the royal Chteau d'Amboise. He spent the last
Leonardo da Vincis very accurate map of Imola, created for
three years of his life here, accompanied by his friend
Cesare Borgia
and apprentice, Count Francesco Melzi, and supported
[44]
In Cesena in 1502, Leonardo entered the service of by a pension totalling 10,000 scudi.
Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, acting as Leonardo died at Clos Luc, on 2 May 1519. Francis I
a military architect and engineer and travelling through- had become a close friend. Vasari records that the king
1.1. LEONARDO DA VINCI 5

Clos Luc in France, where Leonardo died in 1519

held Leonardos head in his arms as he died, although

this story, beloved by the French and portrayed in ro-
mantic paintings by Ingres, Mnageot and other French
artists, as well as by Angelica Kauman, may be legend
rather than fact.[nb 12] Vasari states that in his last days,
Leonardo sent for a priest to make his confession and to
receive the Holy Sacrament.[49] In accordance with his
will, sixty beggars followed his casket.[nb 13] Melzi was the
principal heir and executor, receiving, as well as money,
Leonardos paintings, tools, library and personal eects.
Leonardo also remembered his other long-time pupil and
companion, Salai, and his servant Battista di Vilussis,
who each received half of Leonardos vineyards. His Lorenzo Ghibertis Gates of Paradise (142552) were a source
brothers received land, and his serving woman received of communal pride. Many artists assisted in their creation
a black cloak of good stu with a fur edge.[nb 14][50]
Leonardo da Vinci was buried in the Chapel of Saint-
Hubert in Chteau d'Amboise in France. Giovanni.[52][53][54][55]
Some 20 years after Leonardos death, Francis was re- Leonardos youth was spent in a Florence that was orna-
ported by the goldsmith and sculptor Benvenuto Cellini mented by the works of these artists and by Donatellos
as saying: There had never been another man born in contemporaries, Masaccio, whose gurative frescoes
the world who knew as much as Leonardo, not so much were imbued with realism and emotion, and Ghiberti,
about painting, sculpture and architecture, as that he was whose Gates of Paradise, gleaming with gold leaf, dis-
a very great philosopher.[51] played the art of combining complex gure composi-
tions with detailed architectural backgrounds. Piero della
Francesca had made a detailed study of perspective,[56]
1.1.2 Relationships and inuences and was the rst painter to make a scientic study of light.
These studies and Albertis treatise De Pictura[57] were to
Florence: Leonardos artistic and social background have a profound eect on younger artists and in particular
on Leonardos own observations and artworks.[52][54][55]
Florence at the time of Leonardos youth was the centre
of Christian Humanist thought and culture.[22] Leonardo Massaccios "Expulsion from the Garden of Eden" de-
commenced his apprenticeship with Verrocchio in 1466, picting the naked and distraught Adam and Eve created
the year that Verrocchios master, the great sculptor a powerfully expressive image of the human form, cast
Donatello, died. The painter Uccello, whose early ex- into three dimensions by the use of light and shade, which
periments with perspective were to inuence the devel- was to be developed in the works of Leonardo in a way
opment of landscape painting, was a very old man. The that was to be inuential in the course of painting. The
painters Piero della Francesca and Filippo Lippi, sculp- humanist inuence of Donatellos David can be seen
tor Luca della Robbia, and architect and writer Leon Bat- in Leonardos late paintings, particularly John the Bap-
tista Alberti were in their sixties. The successful artists of tist.[52][53]
the next generation were Leonardos teacher Verrocchio, A prevalent tradition in Florence was the small altarpiece
Antonio del Pollaiuolo and the portrait sculptor Mino of the Virgin and Child. Many of these were created in
da Fiesole, whose lifelike busts give the most reliable tempera or glazed terracotta by the workshops of Filippo
likenesses of Lorenzo Medicis father Piero and uncle Lippi, Verrocchio and the prolic della Robbia family.[52]
6 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

The Portinari Altarpiece, by Hugo van der Goes for a Florentine

family

van der Goes arrived in Florence, bringing from Northern

Europe new painterly techniques that were to profoundly
aect Leonardo, Ghirlandaio, Perugino and others.[53]
In 1479, the Sicilian painter Antonello da Messina, who
worked exclusively in oils, travelled north on his way
to Venice, where the leading painter Giovanni Bellini
Small devotional picture by Verrocchio, c. 1470 adopted the technique of oil painting, quickly making it
the preferred method in Venice. Leonardo was also later
to visit Venice.[53][55]
Leonardos early Madonnas such as The Madonna with a Like the two contemporary architects Bramante and
carnation and the Benois Madonna followed this tradition Antonio da Sangallo the Elder, Leonardo experimented
while showing idiosyncratic departures, particularly in the with designs for centrally planned churches, a number of
case of the Benois Madonna in which the Virgin is set at which appear in his journals, as both plans and views, al-
an oblique angle to the picture space with the Christ Child though none was ever realised.[53][58]
at the opposite angle. This compositional theme was to
emerge in Leonardos later paintings such as The Virgin
and Child with St. Anne.[14]
Leonardo was a contemporary of Botticelli, Domenico
Ghirlandaio and Perugino, who were all slightly older than
he was.[53] He would have met them at the workshop of
Verrocchio, with whom they had associations, and at the
Academy of the Medici.[14] Botticelli was a particular
favourite of the Medici family, and thus his success as
a painter was assured. Ghirlandaio and Perugino were
both prolic and ran large workshops. They competently
delivered commissions to well-satised patrons who ap-
preciated Ghirlandaios ability to portray the wealthy cit-
izens of Florence within large religious frescoes, and Pe-
ruginos ability to deliver a multitude of saints and angels
of unfailing sweetness and innocence.[52]
These three were among those commissioned to paint the
walls of the Sistine Chapel, the work commencing with
Peruginos employment in 1479. Leonardo was not part
of this prestigious commission. His rst signicant com-
mission, The Adoration of the Magi for the Monks of Lorenzo de' Medici between Antonio Pucci and Francesco Sas-
Scopeto, was never completed.[14] setti, with Giulio de' Medici, fresco by Ghirlandaio
In 1476, during the time of Leonardos association with
Verrocchios workshop, the Portinari Altarpiece by Hugo Leonardos political contemporaries were Lorenzo
1.1. LEONARDO DA VINCI 7

Medici (il Magnico), who was three years older, and

his younger brother Giuliano, who was slain in the Pazzi
conspiracy in 1478. Leonardo was sent as an ambassador
by the Medici court to Ludovico il Moro, who ruled
Milan between 1479 and 1499.[53]
With Alberti, Leonardo visited the home of the Medici
and through them came to know the older Human-
ist philosophers of whom Marsiglio Ficino, proponent
of Neo Platonism; Cristoforo Landino, writer of com-
mentaries on Classical writings, and John Argyropou-
los, teacher of Greek and translator of Aristotle were
the foremost. Also associated with the Academy of the
Medici was Leonardos contemporary, the brilliant young
poet and philosopher Pico della Mirandola.[53][55][59]
Leonardo later wrote in the margin of a journal, The
Medici made me and the Medici destroyed me. While it
was through the action of Lorenzo that Leonardo received
his employment at the court of Milan, it is not known ex-
actly what Leonardo meant by this cryptic comment.[14]
Although usually named together as the three giants
of the High Renaissance, Leonardo, Michelangelo and
Raphael were not of the same generation. Leonardo was
twenty-three when Michelangelo was born and thirty-one
when Raphael was born.[53] Raphael lived until the age
of only 37 and died in 1520, the year after Leonardo Study for a portrait of Isabella d'Este (1500) Louvre
died, but Michelangelo went on creating for another 45
years.[54][55]
tably by Sigmund Freud.[65] Leonardos most intimate re-
lationships were perhaps with his pupils Salai and Melzi.
Melzi, writing to inform Leonardos brothers of his death,
Personal life described Leonardos feelings for his pupils as both lov-
ing and passionate. It has been claimed since the 16th
Main article: Personal life of Leonardo da Vinci century that these relationships were of a sexual or erotic
nature. Court records of 1476, when he was aged twenty-
Within Leonardos lifetime, his extraordinary powers of four, show that Leonardo and three other young men
invention, his outstanding physical beauty, innite were charged with sodomy in an incident involving a well-
grace, great strength and generosity, regal spirit and known male prostitute. The charges were dismissed for
tremendous breadth of mind, as described by Vasari,[60] lack of evidence, and there is speculation that since one
as well as all other aspects of his life, attracted the cu- of the accused, Lionardo de Tornabuoni, was related to
riosity of others. One such aspect was his respect for Lorenzo de' Medici, the family exerted its inuence to
[66]
life, evidenced by his vegetarianism and his habit, ac- secure the dismissal. Since that date much has been
cording to Vasari, of purchasing caged birds and releasing written about his presumed homosexuality and its role in
them. [61][62] his art, particularly in the androgyny and eroticism mani-
fested in John the Baptist and Bacchus and more explicitly
Leonardo had many friends who are now renowned either in a number of erotic drawings.[67]
in their elds or for their historical signicance. They in-
cluded the mathematician Luca Pacioli,[63] with whom
he collaborated on the book De divina proportione in Assistants and pupils
the 1490s. Leonardo appears to have had no close re-
lationships with women except for his friendship with Gian Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno, nicknamed Salai or
Cecilia Gallerani and the two Este sisters, Beatrice and Il Salaino (The Little Unclean One i.e., the devil), en-
Isabella.[64] While on a journey that took him through tered Leonardos household in 1490. After only a year,
Mantua, he drew a portrait of Isabella that appears to have Leonardo made a list of his misdemeanours, calling him
been used to create a painted portrait, now lost.[14] a thief, a liar, stubborn, and a glutton, after he had made
Beyond friendship, Leonardo kept his private life secret. o with money and valuables on at least ve occasions
His sexuality has been the subject of satire, analysis, and and spent a fortune on clothes.[68] Nevertheless, Leonardo
speculation. This trend began in the mid-16th century treated him with great indulgence, and he remained in
and was revived in the 19th and 20th centuries, most no- Leonardos household for the next thirty years.[69] Salai
8 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

Annunciation (14751480)Uzi, is thought to be Leonardos

earliest complete work

been described as a Divine painter.[73]

Among the qualities that make Leonardos work unique
are his innovative techniques for laying on the paint; his
detailed knowledge of anatomy, light, botany and geol-
ogy; his interest in physiognomy and the way humans reg-
ister emotion in expression and gesture; his innovative use
of the human form in gurative composition; and his use
of subtle gradation of tone. All these qualities come to-
gether in his most famous painted works, the Mona Lisa,
the Last Supper, and the Virgin of the Rocks.[74]

John the Baptist (c. 151316), Louvre. Leonardo is thought to

have used Salai as the model. Early works

executed a number of paintings under the name of An-

drea Salai, but although Vasari claims that Leonardo
taught him a great deal about painting,[70] his work is
generally considered to be of less artistic merit than oth-
ers among Leonardos pupils, such as Marco d'Oggiono
and Boltrao. In 1515, he painted a nude version of the
Mona Lisa, known as Monna Vanna.[71] Salai owned the
Mona Lisa at the time of his death in 1525, and in his will
it was assessed at 505 lire, an exceptionally high valuation
for a small panel portrait.[72]
In 1506, Leonardo took on another pupil, Count
Francesco Melzi, the son of a Lombard aristocrat, who
is considered to have been his favourite student. He
travelled to France with Leonardo and remained with
him until Leonardos death.[14] Melzi inherited the artis-
tic and scientic works, manuscripts, and collections of
Leonardo and administered the estate.

1.1.3 Painting

See also: List of works by Leonardo da Vinci

Despite the recent awareness and admiration of
Leonardo as a scientist and inventor, for the better part
of four hundred years his fame rested on his achieve-
ments as a painter. A handful of works that are either
authenticated or attributed to him have been regarded as
among the great masterpieces. These paintings are fa-
mous for a variety of qualities that have been much im-
itated by students and discussed at great length by con-
noisseurs and critics. By the 1490s Leonardo had already
Unnished painting of St. Jerome in the Wilderness (1480),
Vatican
Leonardo rst gained notoriety for his work on the
Baptism of Christ, painted in conjunction with Verroc-
chio. Two other paintings appear to date from his time at
Verrocchios workshop, both of which are Annunciations.
One is small, 59 centimetres (23 in) long and 14 centime-
1.1. LEONARDO DA VINCI
tres (5.5 in) high. It is a predella to go at the base of a
larger composition, a painting by Lorenzo di Credi from
which it has become separated. The other is a much larger
work, 217 centimetres (85 in) long.[75] In both Annuncia-
tions, Leonardo used a formal arrangement, like two well-
known pictures by Fra Angelico of the same subject, of
the Virgin Mary sitting or kneeling to the right of the pic-
ture, approached from the left by an angel in prole, with
a rich owing garment, raised wings and bearing a lily.
Although previously attributed to Ghirlandaio, the larger
work is now generally attributed to Leonardo.[76]
In the smaller painting, Mary averts her eyes and folds her
hands in a gesture that symbolised submission to Gods
will. Mary is not submissive, however, in the larger piece.
The girl, interrupted in her reading by this unexpected
messenger, puts a nger in her bible to mark the place
and raises her hand in a formal gesture of greeting or
surprise.[52] This calm young woman appears to accept
her role as the Mother of God, not with resignation but
with condence. In this painting, the young Leonardo
presents the humanist face of the Virgin Mary, recognis-
ing humanitys role in Gods incarnation.[nb 15]
Paintings of the 1480s
Virgin of the Rocks, National Gallery, London, demonstrates
Leonardos interest in nature
In the 1480s, Leonardo received two very important
9
commissions and commenced another work that was of
ground-breaking importance in terms of composition.
Two of the three were never nished, and the third took
so long that it was subject to lengthy negotiations over
completion and payment.
One of these paintings was St. Jerome in the Wilder-
ness, which Bortolon associates with a dicult period of
Leonardos life, as evidenced in his diary: I thought I
was learning to live; I was only learning to die.[14] Al-
though the painting is barely begun, the composition can
be seen and is very unusual.[nb 16] Jerome, as a penitent,
occupies the middle of the picture, set on a slight diago-
nal and viewed somewhat from above. His kneeling form
takes on a trapezoid shape, with one arm stretched to the
outer edge of the painting and his gaze looking in the op-
posite direction. J. Wasserman points out the link be-
tween this painting and Leonardos anatomical studies.[78]
Across the foreground sprawls his symbol, a great lion
whose body and tail make a double spiral across the base
of the picture space. The other remarkable feature is the
sketchy landscape of craggy rocks against which the g-
ure is silhouetted.
The daring display of gure composition, the landscape
elements and personal drama also appear in the great un-
nished masterpiece, the Adoration of the Magi, a com-
mission from the Monks of San Donato a Scopeto. It is
a complex composition, of about 250 x 250 centimetres.
Leonardo did numerous drawings and preparatory stud-
ies, including a detailed one in linear perspective of the
ruined classical architecture that forms part of the back-
ground. In 1482 Leonardo went to Milan at the behest of
Lorenzo de' Medici in order to win favour with Ludovico
il Moro, and the painting was abandoned.[13][76]
The third important work of this period is the Virgin of
the Rocks, commissioned in Milan for the Confraternity
of the Immaculate Conception. The painting, to be done
with the assistance of the de Predis brothers, was to ll a
large complex altarpiece.[79] Leonardo chose to paint an
apocryphal moment of the infancy of Christ when the in-
fant John the Baptist, in protection of an angel, met the
Holy Family on the road to Egypt. The painting demon-
strates an eerie beauty as the graceful gures kneel in
adoration around the infant Christ in a wild landscape
of tumbling rock and whirling water.[80] While the paint-
ing is quite large, about 200120 centimetres, it is not
nearly as complex as the painting ordered by the monks
of St Donato, having only four gures rather than about
fty and a rocky landscape rather than architectural de-
tails. The painting was eventually nished; in fact, two
versions of the painting were nished: one remained at
the chapel of the Confraternity, while Leonardo took the
other to France. The Brothers did not get their painting,
however, nor the de Predis their payment, until the next
century.[24][37]
10
Paintings of the 1490s
The Last Supper (1498)Convent of Sta. Maria delle Grazie,
Milan, Italy
Leonardos most famous painting of the 1490s is The Last
Supper, commissioned for the refectory of the Convent of
Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan. It represents the last
meal shared by Jesus with his disciples before his capture
and death, and shows the moment when Jesus has just
said one of you will betray me, and the consternation
that this statement caused.[24]
The novelist Matteo Bandello observed Leonardo at work
and wrote that some days he would paint from dawn till
dusk without stopping to eat and then not paint for three
or four days at a time.[81] This was beyond the compre-
hension of the prior of the convent, who hounded him
until Leonardo asked Ludovico to intervene. Vasari de-
scribes how Leonardo, troubled over his ability to ade-
quately depict the faces of Christ and the traitor Judas,
told the Duke that he might be obliged to use the prior as
his model.[82]
When nished, the painting was acclaimed as a mas-
terpiece of design and characterisation,[83] but it de-
teriorated rapidly, so that within a hundred years it
was described by one viewer as completely ruined.[84]
Leonardo, instead of using the reliable technique of
fresco, had used tempera over a ground that was mainly
gesso, resulting in a surface subject to mould and to
aking.[85] Despite this, the painting remains one of the
most reproduced works of art; countless copies have been
made in every medium from carpets to cameos.
Paintings of the 16th century
Among the works created by Leonardo in the 16th cen-
tury is the small portrait known as the Mona Lisa or la
Gioconda, the laughing one. In the present era it is ar-
guably the most famous painting in the world. Its fame
rests, in particular, on the elusive smile on the womans
face, its mysterious quality perhaps due to the subtly shad-
owed corners of the mouth and eyes such that the exact
nature of the smile cannot be determined. The shadowy
quality for which the work is renowned came to be called
"sfumato", or Leonardos smoke. Vasari, who is gener-
ally thought to have known the painting only by repute,
CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE
Mona Lisa or La Gioconda (150305/07)Louvre, Paris,
France
said that the smile was so pleasing that it seemed divine
rather than human; and those who saw it were amazed to
nd that it was as alive as the original.[86][nb 17]
Other characteristics of the painting are the unadorned
dress, in which the eyes and hands have no competition
from other details, the dramatic landscape background
in which the world seems to be in a state of ux, the
subdued colouring, and the extremely smooth nature of
the painterly technique, employing oils laid on much like
tempera and blended on the surface so that the brush-
strokes are indistinguishable.[nb 18] Vasari expressed the
opinion that the manner of painting would make even the
most condent master ... despair and lose heart.[89] The
perfect state of preservation and the fact that there is no
sign of repair or overpainting is rare in a panel painting
of this date.[90]
In the painting Virgin and Child with St. Anne the com-
position again picks up the theme of gures in a land-
scape, which Wasserman describes as breathtakingly
beautiful[91] and harkens back to the St Jerome picture
with the gure set at an oblique angle. What makes this
painting unusual is that there are two obliquely set gures
superimposed. Mary is seated on the knee of her mother,
St Anne. She leans forward to restrain the Christ Child as
he plays roughly with a lamb, the sign of his own impend-
ing sacrice.[24] This painting, which was copied many
times, inuenced Michelangelo, Raphael, and Andrea del
1.1. LEONARDO DA VINCI 11

Sarto,[92] and through them Pontormo and Correggio. mural in the Salone dei Cinquecento, Palazzo Vecchio,
The trends in composition were adopted in particular by Florence, and his team did nd evidence of an oil paint-
the Venetian painters Tintoretto and Veronese. ing underneath.[93][94]

Murals Drawings

Leonardo was not a prolic painter, but he was a most

prolic draftsman, keeping journals full of small sketches
and detailed drawings recording all manner of things that
took his attention. As well as the journals there exist
many studies for paintings, some of which can be identi-
ed as preparatory to particular works such as The Ado-
ration of the Magi, The Virgin of the Rocks and The Last
Supper.[95] His earliest dated drawing is a Landscape of
the Arno Valley, 1473, which shows the river, the moun-
tains, Montelupo Castle and the farmlands beyond it in
great detail.[14][95]
Among his famous drawings are the Vitruvian Man, a
study of the proportions of the human body; the Head
of an Angel, for The Virgin of the Rocks in the Louvre; a
botanical study of Star of Bethlehem; and a large drawing
(160100 cm) in black chalk on coloured paper of The
Virgin and Child with St. Anne and St. John the Baptist in
The Virgin and Child with St. Anne (c. 1510)Louvre the National Gallery, London.[95] This drawing employs
Museum the subtle sfumato technique of shading, in the manner of
the Mona Lisa. It is thought that Leonardo never made a
painting from it, the closest similarity being to The Virgin
and Child with St. Anne in the Louvre.[96]
Other drawings of interest include numerous studies gen-
erally referred to as caricatures because, although ex-
aggerated, they appear to be based upon observation of
live models. Vasari relates that if Leonardo saw a per-
son with an interesting face he would follow them around
all day observing them.[97] There are numerous stud-
ies of beautiful young men, often associated with Salai,
with the rare and much admired facial feature, the so-
called Grecian prole.[nb 19] These faces are often con-
trasted with that of a warrior.[95] Salai is often depicted
in fancy-dress costume. Leonardo is known to have de-
signed sets for pageants with which these may be asso-
ciated. Other, often meticulous, drawings show studies
of drapery. A marked development in Leonardos abil-
ity to draw drapery occurred in his early works. An-
The Virgin and Child with St. Anne and St. John the other often-reproduced drawing is a macabre sketch that
Baptist (c. 14991500)National Gallery, London was done by Leonardo in Florence in 1479 showing the
body of Bernardo Baroncelli, hanged in connection with
Leonardos The Battle of Anghiara was a fresco commis- the murder of Giuliano, brother of Lorenzo de' Medici,
sioned in 1505 for the Salone dei Cinquecento (Hall of in the Pazzi conspiracy.[95] With dispassionate integrity
the Five Hundred) in the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence. Its Leonardo has registered in neat mirror writing the colours
central scene depicted four men riding raging war horses of the robes that Baroncelli was wearing when he died.
engaged in a battle for possession of a standard, at the
Battle of Anghiari in 1440. At the same time his rival
Michelangelo, who had just nished his David, was des- 1.1.4 Observation and invention
ignated the opposite wall. All that remains of Leonardos
work is a copy by Rubens, but Maurizio Seracini is con- Main article: Science and inventions of Leonardo da
vinced it can still be found and has spent a lifetime search- Vinci
ing for it. He was allowed to drill some pilot holes in a
12 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

Journals and notes

See also: List of works by Leonardo da Vinci

Manuscripts
Renaissance humanism recognised no mutually exclu-

A page showing Leonardos study of a foetus in the womb (c.

1510) Royal Library, Windsor Castle

types and sizes, distributed by friends after his death

have found their way into major collections such as
the Royal Library at Windsor Castle, the Louvre, the
The Vitruvian Man (c. 1485) Accademia, Venice
Biblioteca Nacional de Espaa, the Victoria and Albert
Museum, the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, which
sive polarities between the sciences and the arts, and holds the twelve-volume Codex Atlanticus, and British Li-
Leonardos studies in science and engineering are some- brary in London, which has put a selection from the Codex
times considered as impressive and innovative as his artis- Arundel (BL Arundel MS 263) online.[98] The Codex Le-
tic work.[24] These studies were recorded in 13,000 pages icester is the only major scientic work of Leonardo in
of notes and drawings, which fuse art and natural phi- private hands; it is owned by Bill Gates and is displayed
losophy (the forerunner of modern science). They were once a year in dierent cities around the world.
made and maintained daily throughout Leonardos life
and travels, as he made continual observations of the Leonardos notes appear to have been intended for publi-
world around him.[24] cation because many of the sheets have a form and order
that would facilitate this. In many cases a single topic, for
Most of Leonardos writings are in mirror-image cursive. example, the heart or the human fetus, is covered in de-
While secrecy is often suggested as the reason for this tail in both words and pictures on a single sheet.[99][nb 21]
style of writing, it may have been more of a practical ex- Why they were not published during Leonardos lifetime
pediency. Since Leonardo wrote with his left hand, it was is unknown.[24]
probably easier for him to write from right to left.[nb 20]
Leonardos notes and drawings display an enormous
Scientic studies
range of interests and preoccupations, some as mundane
as lists of groceries and people who owed him money Leonardos approach to science was observational: he
and some as intriguing as designs for wings and shoes for
tried to understand a phenomenon by describing and de-
walking on water. There are compositions for paintings,
picting it in utmost detail and did not emphasise exper-
studies of details and drapery, studies of faces and emo-
iments or theoretical explanation. Since he lacked for-
tions, of animals, babies, dissections, plant studies, rock
mal education in Latin and mathematics, contemporary
formations, whirlpools, war machines, ying machinesscholars mostly ignored Leonardo the scientist, although
and architecture.[24] he did teach himself Latin. In the 1490s he studied math-
These notebooksoriginally loose papers of dierent ematics under Luca Pacioli and prepared a series of draw-
1.1. LEONARDO DA VINCI 13

Rhombicuboctahedron as published in Paciolis

De divina proportione

ings of regular solids in a skeletal form to be engraved as

plates for Paciolis book De divina proportione, published
in 1509.[24]
The content of his journals suggest that he was planning a Anatomical study of the arm, (1510)
series of treatises to be published on a variety of subjects.
A coherent treatise on anatomy was said to have been ob-
served during a visit by Cardinal Louis 'D' Aragons sec-
retary in 1517.[100] Aspects of his work on the studies
of anatomy, light and the landscape were assembled for
publication by his pupil Francesco Melzi and eventually
published as Treatise on Painting by Leonardo da Vinci
in France and Italy in 1651 and Germany in 1724,[101]
with engravings based upon drawings by the Classical
painter Nicolas Poussin.[102] According to Arasse, the
treatise, which in France went into 62 editions in fty
years, caused Leonardo to be seen as the precursor of
French academic thought on art.[24]
While Leonardos experimentation followed clear sci-
entic methods, a recent and exhaustive analysis of
Leonardo as a scientist by Fritjof Capra argues that
Leonardo was a fundamentally dierent kind of scien-
tist from Galileo, Newton and other scientists who fol-
lowed him in that, as a Renaissance Man, his theoris-
ing and hypothesising integrated the arts and particularly
painting.[103]

Anatomy and physiology

Leonardo started his study in the anatomy of the human

body under the apprenticeship of Andrea del Verrocchio,
who demanded that his students develop a deep knowl- Leonardos Physiological Sketch of the Human Brain and Skull.
edge of the subject.[104] As an artist, he quickly became (1510)
master of topographic anatomy, drawing many studies of
muscles, tendons and other visible anatomical features.
14 CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

As a successful artist, Leonardo was given permission to Engineering and inventions

dissect human corpses at the Hospital of Santa Maria
Nuova in Florence and later at hospitals in Milan and
Rome. From 1510 to 1511 he collaborated in his stud-
ies with the doctor Marcantonio della Torre. Leonardo
made over 240 detailed drawings and wrote about 13,000
words towards a treatise on anatomy.[105] These papers
were left to his heir, Francesco Melzi, for publication,
a task of overwhelming diculty because of its scope
and Leonardos idiosyncratic writing.[106] The project was
left incomplete at the time of Melzis death more than
50 years later, with only a small amount of the material
on anatomy included in Leonardos Treatise on painting,
published in France in 1632.[24][106] During the time that
Melzi was ordering the material into chapters for publi-
cation, they were examined by a number of anatomists
and artists, including Vasari, Cellini and Albrecht Drer,
who made a number of drawings from them.[106]
Leonardos anatomical drawings include many studies
of the human skeleton and its parts, and of muscles
and sinews. He studied the mechanical functions of
the skeleton and the muscular forces that are applied to A design for a ying machine, (1488) Institut de France, Paris
it in a manner that pregured the modern science of
biomechanics.[107] He drew the heart and vascular sys-
tem, the sex organs and other internal organs, making one During his lifetime, Leonardo was valued as an engineer.
of the rst scientic drawings of a fetus in utero.[95] The In a letter to Ludovico il Moro, he claimed to be able
drawings and notation are far ahead of their time, and if to create all sorts of machines both for the protection of
published would undoubtedly have made a major contri- a city and for siege. When he ed to Venice in 1499,
bution to medical science.[105] he found employment as an engineer and devised a sys-
Leonardo also closely observed and recorded the eects tem of moveable barricades to protect the city from at-
of age and of human emotion on the physiology, study- tack. He also had a scheme for diverting the ow of the
ing in particular the eects of rage. He drew many Arno river, a project on which Niccol Machiavelli also
gures who had signicant facial deformities or signs worked.[109][110] Leonardos journals include a vast num-
of illness.[24][95] Leonardo also studied and drew the ber of inventions, both practical and impractical. They
anatomy of many animals, dissecting cows, birds, mon- include musical instruments, a mechanical knight, hy-
keys, bears, and frogs, and comparing in his drawings draulic pumps, reversible crank mechanisms, nned mor-
their anatomical structure with that of humans. He also tar shells, and a steam cannon.[14][24]
made a number of studies of horses.[95] In 1502, Leonardo produced a drawing of a single span
Leonardos dissections and documentation of muscles, 720-foot (220 m) bridge as part of a civil engineering
nerves, and vessels helped to describe the physiology and project for Ottoman Sultan Beyazid II of Constantinople.
mechanics of movement. He attempted to identify the The bridge was intended to span an inlet at the mouth of
source of 'emotions and their expression. He found it dif- the Bosporus known as the Golden Horn. Beyazid did not
cult to incorporate the prevailing system and theories of pursue the project because he believed that such a con-
bodily humours, but eventually he abandoned these phys- struction was impossible. Leonardos vision was resur-
iological explanations of bodily functions. He made the rected in 2001 when a smaller bridge based on his design
[111][112]
observations that humours were not located in cerebral was constructed in Norway.
spaces or ventricles. He documented that the humours Leonardo was fascinated by the phenomenon of ight
were not contained in the heart or the liver, and that it for much of his life, producing many studies, including
was the heart that dened the circulatory system. He was Codex on the Flight of Birds (c. 1505), as well as plans for
the rst to dene atherosclerosis and liver cirrhosis. He several ying machines such as a apping ornithopter and
created models of the cerebral ventricles with the use of a machine with a helical rotor.[24] The British television
melted wax and constructed a glass aorta to observe the station Channel Four commissioned a 2003 documentary,
circulation of blood through the aortic valve by using wa- Leonardos Dream Machines, in which various designs
ter and grass seed to watch ow patterns. Vesalius pub- by Leonardo, such as a parachute and a giant crossbow,
lished his work on anatomy and physiology in De humani were interpreted, constructed and tested.[113][114] Some of
corporis fabrica in 1543.[108] those designs proved successful, whilst others fared less
well when practically tested.
1.1. LEONARDO DA VINCI 15

1.1.5 Fame and reputation
Main article: Cultural references to Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardos fame within his own lifetime was such that the
King of France carried him away like a trophy, and was
claimed to have supported him in his old age and held him
in his arms as he died.
Everyone acknowledged that this was true of
Leonardo da Vinci, an artist of outstanding
physical beauty, who displayed innite grace
in everything that he did and who cultivated
his genius so brilliantly that all problems he
studied he solved with ease.
Giorgio Vasari

Francis I of France receiving the last breath of Leonardo da

Vinci, by Ingres, 1818

The continued admiration that Leonardo commanded

from painters, critics and historians is reected in many
other written tributes. Baldassare Castiglione, author of
Il Cortegiano (The Courtier), wrote in 1528: "... An-
other of the greatest painters in this world looks down on
this art in which he is unequalled ...[116] while the biog-
rapher known as Anonimo Gaddiano wrote, c. 1540:
His genius was so rare and universal that it can be said
that nature worked a miracle on his behalf ....[117]
Burial site of Leonardo da Vinci in Amboise

Interest in Leonardo and his work has never diminished.

Crowds still queue to see his best-known artworks, T-
shirts still bear his most famous drawing, and writers con-
tinue to hail him as a genius while speculating about his
private life, as well as about what one so intelligent actu-
ally believed in.[24]
Giorgio Vasari, in the enlarged edition of Lives of the
Artists, 1568,[115] introduced his chapter on Leonardo da
Vinci with the following words:

In the normal course of events many

men and women are born with remarkable
talents; but occasionally, in a way that tran-
scends nature, a single person is marvellously
endowed by Heaven with beauty, grace and
talent in such abundance that he leaves other
men far behind, all his actions seem inspired
and indeed everything he does clearly comes
from God rather than from human skill.
Statue of Leonardo in Amboise
The 19th century brought a particular admiration for
Leonardos genius, causing Henry Fuseli to write in 1801:
Such was the dawn of modern art, when Leonardo da
Vinci broke forth with a splendour that distanced former
16
excellence: made up of all the elements that constitute 1.1.8 Footnotes
the essence of genius ...[118] This is echoed by A. E. Rio
who wrote in 1861: He towered above all other artists [1] There are 15 signicant artworks which are ascribed, ei-
through the strength and the nobility of his talents.[119] ther in whole or in large part, to Leonardo by most art his-
By the 19th century, the scope of Leonardos notebooks
was known, as well as his paintings. Hippolyte Taine
wrote in 1866: There may not be in the world an ex-
ample of another genius so universal, so incapable of ful-
lment, so full of yearning for the innite, so naturally
rened, so far ahead of his own century and the follow-
ing centuries.[120] Art historian Bernard Berenson wrote
in 1896: Leonardo is the one artist of whom it may be
said with perfect literalness: Nothing that he touched but
turned into a thing of eternal beauty. Whether it be the
cross section of a skull, the structure of a weed, or a
study of muscles, he, with his feeling for line and for light
and shade, forever transmuted it into life-communicating
values.[121]
The interest in Leonardos genius has continued un-
abated; experts study and translate his writings, analyse
his paintings using scientic techniques, argue over attri-
butions and search for works which have been recorded
but never found.[122] Liana Bortolon, writing in 1967,
said: Because of the multiplicity of interests that spurred
him to pursue every eld of knowledge ... Leonardo can
be considered, quite rightly, to have been the universal
genius par excellence, and with all the disquieting over-
tones inherent in that term. Man is as uncomfortable to-
day, faced with a genius, as he was in the 16th century.
Five centuries have passed, yet we still view Leonardo
with awe.[14]
1.1.6 Miscellaneous
Davinciite, a recently described mineral recognised in
2011 by the International Mineralogical Association, is
named in honour of the artist.[123]
1.1.7 See also
Aerial perspective
Italian Renaissance painting
Leonardo da Vinci, A Memory of His Childhood
Leonardo da Vinci-Fiumicino Airport
List of Italian painters
List of vegetarians
Medical Renaissance
Museo della Scienza e della Tecnologia Leonardo
da Vinci
Renaissance technology
CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE
torians. This number is made up principally of paintings
on panel but includes a mural, a large drawing on paper
and two works which are in the early stages of prepara-
tion. There are a number of other works that have also
been variously attributed to Leonardo.
[2] His birth is recorded in the diary of his paternal grandfa-
ther Ser Antonio, as cited by Angela Ottino della Chiesa in
Leonardo da Vinci, and Reynal & Co., Leonardo da Vinci
(William Morrow and Company, 1956): A grandson of
mine was born April 15, Saturday, three hours into the
night. The date was recorded in the Julian calendar; as it
was Florentine time and sunset was 6:40 pm, three hours
after sunset would be sometime around 9:40 pm which
was still 14 April by modern reckoning. The conversion
to the New Style calendar adds nine days; hence Leonardo
was born 23 April according to the modern calendar.[11]
[3] It has been suggested that Caterina may have been a slave
from the Middle East or at least, from the Mediter-
ranean. According to Alessandro Vezzosi, head of the
Leonardo Museum in Vinci, there is evidence that Piero
owned a Middle Eastern slave called Caterina. That
Leonardo had Middle Eastern blood is claimed to be sup-
ported by the reconstruction of a ngerprint as reported by
Falconi, Marta (12 December 2006) [1 December 2006].
Experts Reconstruct Leonardo Fingerprint (News ed.).
Washington Post. Associated Press. Retrieved 6 May
2013. The evidence, as stated in the article, is that 60%
of people of Middle Eastern origin share the pattern of
whirls found on the reconstructed ngerprint. The article
also states that the claim is refuted by Simon Cole, as-
sociate professor of criminology, law and society at the
University of California at Irvine: You can't predict one
persons race from these kinds of incidences, especially
if looking at only one nger. See also Hooper, John (12
April 2008). Da Vincis mother was a slave, Italian study
claims. The Guardian (News ed.). Retrieved 16 August
2015.
[4] The diverse arts and technical skills of Medieval and Re-
naissance workshops are described in detail in the 12th-
century text On Divers Arts by Theophilus Presbyter and
in the early 15th-century text Il Libro Dell'arte O Trattato
Della Pittui by Cennino Cennini.
[5] That Leonardo joined the guild before this time is deduced
from the record of payment made to the Compagnia di
San Luca in the companys register, Libro Rosso A, 1472
1520, Accademia di Belle Arti.[13]
[6] This work is now in the collection of the Uzi, Drawing
No. 8P.
[7] Verrocchios statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni was not cast
until 1488, after his death, and after Leonardo had already
begun work on the statue for Ludovico.
[8] In 2005, the studio was rediscovered during the restora-
tion of part of a building occupied for 100 years by the
Department of Military Geography.[39]
1.1. LEONARDO DA VINCI
[9] Both works are lost. The entire composition of Michelan-
gelos painting is known from a copy by Aristotole da San-
gallo, 1542.[40] Leonardos painting is only known from
preparatory sketches and several copies of the centre sec-
tion, of which the best known, and probably least accurate,
is by Peter Paul Rubens.[41]
[10] D'Oggiono is known in part for his contemporary copies
of the Last Supper.
[11] It is unknown for what occasion the mechanical lion was
made, but it is believed to have greeted the king at his
entry into Lyon and perhaps was used for the peace talks
between the French king and Pope Leo X in Bologna. A
conjectural recreation of the lion has been made and is on
display in the Museum of Bologna.[48]
[12] On the day of Leonardos death, a royal edict was issued
by the king at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, a two-day journey
from Clos Luc. This has been taken as evidence that King
Francis cannot have been present at Leonardos deathbed.
However, White in Leonardo: The First Scientist points
out that the edict was not signed by the king.
[13] This was a charitable legacy as each of the sixty paupers
would have been awarded an established mourners fee in
the terms of Leonardos will.
[14] The black cloak, of good quality material, was a ready-
made item from a clothier, with the fur trim being an
additional luxury. The possession of this garment meant
that Leonardos house keeper could attend his funeral re-
spectably attired at no expense to herself.
[15] Michael Baxandall lists 5 laudable conditions or reac-
tions of Mary to the presence and announcement of the
angel. These are: Disquiet, Reection, Inquiry, Submis-
sion and Merit. In this painting Marys attitude does not
comply with any of the accepted traditions.[77]
[16] The painting, which in the 18th century belonged to
Angelica Kauman, was later cut up. The two main sec-
tions were found in a junk shop and cobblers shop and
were reunited.[78] It is probable that outer parts of the
composition are missing.
[17] Whether or not Vasari had seen the Mona Lisa is the sub-
ject of debate. The opinion that he had not seen the paint-
ing is based mainly on the fact that he describes the Mona
Lisa as having eyebrows. Daniel Arasse in Leonardo da
Vinci discusses the possibility that Leonardo may have
painted the gure with eyebrows that were subsequently
removed. (They were not fashionable in the mid-16th
century.)[24] Pascal Cotte said in 2007 that, according
to his analysis of high resolution scans, the Mona Lisa
had eyebrows and eyelashes that have been subsequently
removed.[87]
[18] Jack Wasserman writes of the inimitable treatment of the
surfaces of the painting.[88]
[19] The Grecian prole has a continuous straight line from
forehead to nose-tip, the bridge of the nose being excep-
tionally high. It is a feature of many Classical Greek stat-
ues.
17
[20] Left-handed writers using a split nib or quill pen experi-
ence diculty pushing the pen from left to right across the
page.
[21] This method of organisation minimises of loss of data in
the case of pages being mixed up or destroyed.
1.1.9 References
[1] White 1968, p. 466
[2] Rumerman, Judy. Early Helicopter Technology. Cen-
tennial of Flight Commission, 2003. Retrieved 12 Decem-
ber 2010.
[3] Pilotfriend.com Leonardo da Vincis Helical Air Screw.
Pilotfriend.com. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
[4] Gardner, Helen (1970). Art through the Ages. pp. 450
456.
[5] Rosci, Marco (1977). Leonardo. p. 8.
[6] John Licheld, The Moving of the Mona Lisa, The In-
dependent, 2 April 2005 (accessed 2012-03-09)
[7] Vitruvian Man is referred to as iconic at the following
websites and many others:Vitruvian Man, Fine Art Clas-
sics, Key Images in the History of Science; Curiosity and
dierence Archived 30 January 2009 at the Wayback Ma-
chine.; The Guardian: The Real da Vinci Code
[8] Kaplan, Erez (1996). Roberto Guatellis Controver-
sial Replica of Leonardo da Vincis Adding Machine.
Archived from the original on 29 May 2011. Retrieved
19 August 2013.
[9] Capra, pp.56
[10] See the quotations from the following authors, in section
Fame and reputation: Vasari, Boltrao, Castiglione,
Anonimo Gaddiano, Berensen, Taine, Fuseli, Rio, Bor-
tolon.
[11] Vezzosi, Alessandro (1997). Leonardo da Vinci: Renais-
sance Man.
[12] His birth is recorded in the diary of his paternal grandfa-
ther Ser Antonio, as cited by Angela Ottino della Chiesa
in Leonardo da Vinci, p. 83
[13] della Chiesa, Angela Ottino (1967). The Complete Paint-
ings of Leonardo da Vinci. p. 83.
[14] Bortolon, Liana (1967). The Life and Times of Leonardo.
London: Paul Hamlyn.
[15] Margherita (da Vinci) in: geni.com [retrieved 15 June
2016].
[16] Lucrezia Cortigiani in: geni.com [retrieved 15 June 2016].
[17] Rosci, p. 20.
[18] Magnano, p. 138.
[19] Rosci, p. 21.
18
[20] Brigstoke, Hugh (2001). The Oxford Companion the West-
ern Art. Oxford, ENG, UK.
[21] Vasari, Giorgio (1568). Lives of the Artists. Penguin Clas-
sics. pp. 25859.
[22] Rosci, p.13
[23] Leonardo da Vinci Encarta (cached)". refseek.com.
Retrieved 8 November 2015.
[24] Arasse, Daniel (1998). Leonardo da Vinci.
[25] Rosci, p.27
[26] Martindale, Andrew (1972). The Rise of the Artist.
[27] Vasari, p.258
[28] della Chiesa, p. 88
[29] Priwer, Shana; Phillips, Cynthia (2006). The Everything
Da Vinci Book. p. 245.
[30] Wasserman, Jack (1975). Leonardo da Vinci. pp. 7778.
[31] Winternitz, Emanuel (1982). Leonardo Da Vinci As a
Musician.
[32] Rossi, Paolo (2001). The Birth of Modern Science. p. 33.
[33] Leonardos Letter to Ludovico Sforza. Leonardo-
History. Retrieved 5 January 2010.
[34] Kemp, Martin (2004). Leonardo.
[35] Franz-Joachim Verspohl, Michelangelo Buonarroti und
Leonardo Da Vinci: Republikanischer Alltag und Kn-
stlerkonkurrenz in Florenz zwischen 1501 und 1505 (Wall-
stein Verlag, 2007), p. 151.
[36] Codex II, 95 r, Victoria and Albert Museum, as cited by
della Chiesa p. 85
[37] della Chiesa, p.85
[38] Vasari, p.256
[39] Owen, Richard (12 January 2005). Found: the studio
where Leonardo met Mona Lisa. London: The Times.
Retrieved 5 January 2010.
[40] Goldscheider, Ludwig (1967). Michelangelo: paintings,
sculptures, architecture. Phaidon Press. ISBN 978-0-
7148-1314-1.
[41] della Chiesa, pp.106107
[42] Gaetano Milanesi, Epistolario Buonarroti, Florence
(1875), as cited by della Chiesa.
[43] Achademia Leonardi Vinci. Journal of Leonardo Stud-
ies & Bibliography of Vinciana. VIII: 243244. 1990.
[44] della Chiesa, p.86
[45] Georges Goyau, Franois I, Transcribed by Gerald Rossi.
The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume VI. Published 1909.
New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved on 4
October 2007
CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE
[46] Miranda, Salvador (19982007). The Cardinals of the
Holy Roman Church: Antoine du Prat. Retrieved 4 Oc-
tober 2007.
[47] Vasari, p.265
[48] Reconstruction of Leonardos walking lion (in Italian).
Retrieved 5 January 2010.
[49] Vasari, p.270
[50] Leonardos will. Leonardo-history. Retrieved 28
September 2007.
[51] Lucertini, Mario; Gasca, Ana Millan; Nicolo, Fernando
(2004). Technological Concepts and Mathematical Mod-
els in the Evolution of Modern Engineering Systems.
Birkhuser. ISBN 978-3-7643-6940-8. Retrieved 3 Oc-
tober 2007.
[52] Hartt, Frederich (1970). A History of Italian Renaissance
Art. pp. 127333.
[53] Rosci, Leonardo, chapter 1, the historical setting, pp.920
[54] Brucker, Gene A. (1969). Renaissance Florence.
[55] Rachum, Ilan (1979). The Renaissance, an Illustrated En-
cyclopedia.
[56] Piero della Francesca, On Perspective for Painting (De
Prospectiva Pingendi)
[57] Leon Battista Alberti, De Pictura, 1435. On Painting, in
English, De Pictura, in Latin
[58] Hartt, pp.39192
[59] Williamson, Hugh Ross (1974). Lorenzo the Magnicent.
[60] Vasari, p.253
[61] Vasari, p.257
[62] Mntz, Eugne (1898). Leonardo da Vinci. Artist,
Thinker, and Man of Science. Volume 1. London:
William Heinemann. p. 17.
[63] Bambach, Carmen (2003). Leonardo, Left-Handed
Draftsman and writer. New York: Metropolitan Mu-
seum of Art. Archived from the original on 10 November
2009. Retrieved 18 October 2009.
[64] Cartwright Ady, Julia. Beatrice d'Este, Duchess of Milan,
14751497. Publisher: J.M. Dent, 1899; Cartwright Ady,
Julia. Isabella D'Este, Marchioness of Mantua, 1474
1539. Publisher; J.M. Dent, 1903.
[65] Sigmund Freud, Eine Kindheitserinnerung des Leonardo
da Vinci, (1910)
[66] How do we know Leonardo was gay?". Bnl.gov. 3 May
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[67] Michael Rocke, Forbidden Friendships epigraph, p. 148
& N120 p.298
[68] Leonardo, Codex C. 15v, Institut of France. Trans.
Richter
1.1. LEONARDO DA VINCI 19

[69] della Chiesa, p. 84 [98] Sketches by Leonardo. Turning the Pages. British Li-
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[70] Vasari, p. 265
[99] Windsor Castle, Royal Library, sheets RL 19073v74v
[71] Gross, Tom. Mona Lisa Goes Topless. Paintingsdi- and RL 19102, respectively.
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[72] Rossiter, Nick (4 July 2003). Could this be the secret
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[102] Leonardo da Vinci (Italian artist, engineer, and scientist)
[73] His fame is discussed by Daniel Arasse in Leonardo da : Sculpture Encyclopdia Britannica. Britannica.com.
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[74] These qualities of Leonardos works are discussed by [103] Capra, Fritjof. The Science of Leonardo; Inside the Mind
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[76] Berti, Luciano (1971). The Uzi. pp. 5962. trieved 16 September 2016.
[77] Baxandall, Michael (1974). Painting and Experience in [105] Alastair Sooke, Daily Telegraph, 28 July 2013, Leonardo
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[78] Wasserman, pp.1046
[106] Keele Kenneth D (1964). Leonardo da Vincis Inuence
[79] Wasserman, p.108 on Renaissance Anatomy (PDF). Med Hist. 8: 360
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[80] The Mysterious Virgin. National Gallery, London. Re- . PMID 14230140.
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[107] Mason, Stephen F. (1962). A History of the Sciences. New
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[82] Vasari, p.263 [108] Jones, Roger (2012). Leonardo da Vinci: anatomist.
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[83] Vasari, p.262 doi:10.3399/bjgp12X649241. ISSN 0960-1643.
[84] della Chiesa, p.97 [109] Masters, Roger (1996). Machiavelli, Leonardo and the
Science of Power.
[85] della Chiesa, p.98
[110] Masters, Roger (1998). Fortune is a River: Leonardo
[86] Vasari, p.267
Da Vinci and Niccol Machiavellis Magnicent Dream to
[87] The Mona Lisa had brows and lashes. BBC News. 22 Change the Course of Florentine History.
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[111] The Leonardo Bridge Project. Vebjorn-sand.com.
[88] Wasserman, p. 144 Archived from the original on 4 November 2011. Re-
trieved 29 October 2011.
[89] Vasari, p.266
[112] Levy, Daniel S. (4 October 1999). Dream of the Mas-
[90] della Chiesa, p.103 ter. Time magazine. Archived from the original on 12
September 2007. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
[91] Wasserman, p.150
[113] Leonardos Dream Machines (TV Movie 2003)". IMDb.
[92] della Chiesa, p.109
[114] British Library online gallery (retrieved 10 October 2013)
[93] A High-Tech Hunt for Lost Art. The New York Times.
6 October 2009. Retrieved 19 March 2016. [115] Vasari, p.255
[94] Lecture by Seracini, 2012, https://www.ted.com/talks/ [116] Castiglione, Baldassare (1528). Il Cortegiano.
maurizio_seracini_the_secret_lives_of_paintings?
language=en#t-48953 [117] Anonimo Gaddiani, elaborating on Libro di Antonio
Billi, 15371542
[95] Popham, A.E. (1946). The Drawings of Leonardo da
Vinci. [118] Fuseli, Henry (1801). Lectures. II.

[96] della Chiesa, p. 102 [119] Rio, A.E. (1861). L'art chrtien.

[97] Vasari, p. 261 [120] Taine, Hippolyte (1866). Voyage en Italie.

 20
[121] Berenson, Bernard (1896). The Italian Painters of the
Renaissance.
[122] Henneberger, Melinda. ArtNews article about current
studies into Leonardos life and works. Art News Online.
Archived from the original on 5 May 2006. Retrieved 10
January 2010.
[123] Davinciite, Na12K3Ca6Fe 3 2+ Zr3(Si26O73OH)Cl2,
a New K,Na-Ordered mineral of the eudialyte group
from the Khibiny Alkaline Pluton, Kola Peninsula,
Russia. Geology of Ore Deposits. 55: 532540.
doi:10.1134/S1075701513070076.
1.1.10 Bibliography
Arasse, Daniel (1997). Leonardo da Vinci. Ko-
necky & Konecky. ISBN 1-56852-198-7.
Baxandall, Michael (1974). Painting and Experience
in Fifteenth Century Italy. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-881329-5.
Bayer, Andrea (2004). Painters of reality: the legacy
of Leonardo and Caravaggio in Lombardy. New
York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN
978-1-58839-116-2.
Brence, Fred (1965). Lonard de Vinci, L'homme
et son oeuvre. Somogy. Dpot lgal 4 trimestre
1965.
Berti, Luciano (1971). The Uzi. Scala.
Bortolon, Liana (1967). The Life and Times of
Leonardo. Paul Hamlyn, London.
Brigstoke, Hugh (2001). The Oxford Companion the
Western Art. U.S.: Oxford University Press. ISBN
0-19-866203-3.
Brucker, Gene A. (1969). Renaissance Florence.
Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-11370-0.
Capra, Fritjof (2007). The Science of Leonardo.
U.S.: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-51390-6.
Cennini, Cennino (2009). Il Libro Dell'arte O Trat-
tato Della Pittui. U.S.: BiblioBazaar. ISBN 978-1-
103-39032-8.
Chiesa, Angela Ottino della (1967). The Complete
Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci. Penguin Classics
of World Art series. ISBN 0-14-008649-8.
Cremante, Simona (2005). Leonardo da Vinci:
Artist, Scientist, Inventor. Giunti. ISBN 88-09-
03891-6.
Hartt, Frederich (1970). A History of Italian Re-
naissance Art. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-
23136-2.
CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE
Martin, Martin Kemp (2004). Leonardo. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-280644-0.
Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the
Royal Library, Windsor Castle. New York: The
Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1983. ISBN 978-
0-87099-362-6.
Nicolo, Mario Lucertini, Ana Millan Gasca, Fer-
nando (2004). Technological Concepts and Mathe-
matical Models in the Evolution of Modern Engineer-
ing Systems. Birkhauser. ISBN 3-7643-6940-X.
Lupia, John N. The Secret Revealed: How to Look at
Italian Renaissance Painting. Medieval and Renais-
sance Times, Vol. 1, no. 2 (Summer, 1994): 617.
ISSN 1075-2110.
Magnano, Milena (2007). Leonardo, collana I Geni
dell'arte. Mondadori Arte. ISBN 978-88-370-
6432-7.
Martindale, Andrew (1972). The Rise of the Artist.
Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-56006-4.
Masters, Roger (1996). Machiavelli, Leonardo and
the Science of Power. University of Notre Dame
Press. ISBN 0-268-01433-7.
Masters, Roger (1998). Fortune is a River:
Leonardo Da Vinci and Niccol Machiavellis Mag-
nicent Dream to Change the Course of Florentine
History. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-452-28090-7.
Mntz, Eugne (1898). Leonardo da Vinci. Artist,
Thinker, and Man of Science. Volume 1. London:
William Heinemann.
Mntz, Eugne (1898). Leonardo da Vinci. Artist,
Thinker, and Man of Science. Volume 2. London:
William Heinemann.
O'Malley, Charles D.; Sounders, J. B. de C.
M. (1952). Leonardo on the Human Body:
The Anatomical, Physiological, and Embryological
Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci. With Transla-
tions, Emendations and a Biographical Introduction.
Henry Schuman, New York.
Nicholl, Charles (2005). Leonardo da Vinci: The
Flights of the Mind. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-029681-
6.
Nuland, Sherwin B. (2001). Leonardo Da Vinci.
Phoenix Press. ISBN 0-7538-1269-X.
Popham, A.E. (1946). The Drawings of Leonardo
da Vinci. Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-60462-7.
Priwer, Shana; Phillips, Cynthia (2006). The Ev-
erything Da Vinci Book: Explore the Life and Times
of the Ultimate Renaissance Man. Adams Media.
ISBN 1-59869-101-5.
1.1. LEONARDO DA VINCI 21

Rachum, Ilan (1979). The Renaissance, an Illus- Complete text & images of Richters translation of
trated Encyclopedia. Octopus. ISBN 0-7064-0857-8. the Notebooks
Richter, Jean Paul (1970). The Notebooks of Web Gallery of Leonardo Paintings
Leonardo da Vinci. Dover. ISBN 0-486-22572-0.
volume 2: ISBN 0-486-22573-9. A reprint of the Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci
original 1883 edition. Da Vinci Decoded Article from The Guardian
Rosci, Marco (1977). Leonardo. Bay Books Pty The true face of Leonardo Da Vinci?
Ltd. ISBN 0-85835-176-5.
Leonardo da Vincis Ethical Vegetarianism
Rossi, Paolo (2001). The Birth of Modern Science.
Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-22711-3. The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci
Santi, Bruno (1990). Leonardo da Vinci. Scala / Leonardo da Vinci at BBC Science
Riverside.
Yahoo news, 500-year-old Leonardo da Vinci sculp-
Theophilus (1963). On Divers Arts. U.S.: Univer- ture 'Horse and Rider' unveiled
sity of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-79482-2.
Leonardo da Vinci: Anatomist The Queens
Wasserman, Jack (1975). Leonardo da Vinci. Gallery, Buckingham Palace, Friday, 4 May 2012 to
Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-0262-1. Sunday, 7 October 2012. High-resolution anatomi-
cal drawings.
Vasari, Giorgio (1568). Lives of the Artists. Pen-
guin Classics, trans. George Bull 1965. ISBN 0-14- Leonardo da Vinci, Master Draftsman, Catalog of an
044164-6. exhibition held at the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York, 22 Jan. 30 March 2003.
Williamson, Hugh Ross (1974). Lorenzo the Mag-
nicent. Michael Joseph. ISBN 0-7181-1204-0.
Winternitz, Emanuel (1982). Leonardo Da Vinci As
a Musician. U.S.: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-
0-300-02631-3.
Vezzosi, Alessandro (1997). Leonardo da Vinci:
Renaissance Man (English translation ed.). Thames
& Hudson Ltd, London. ISBN 0-500-30081-X.
Zollner, Frank (2003). Leonardo da Vinci: The
Complete Paintings and Drawings. Taschen. ISBN
3-8228-1734-1. [The chapter The Graphic Works
is by Frank Zollner & Johannes Nathan].

1.1.11 External links

Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Leonardo da
Vinci". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert
Appleton Company.
Leonardo da Vinci and the Virgin of the Rocks, A
dierent point of view
Works by Leonardo da Vinci at Project Gutenberg

Leonardo da Vinci by Maurice Walter Brockwell at
Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Leonardo da Vinci at Internet
Archive
Leonardo da Vinci at the Mathematics Genealogy
Project
Chapter 2

Supporting articles

2.1 Leonardo da Vincis personal Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci, a Floren-
tine legal notary, and Caterina, a peasant.[4][5] His full
life birth name was Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci, mean-
ing Leonardo, (son) of (Mes)ser Piero from Vinci. The
Warning: Page using Template:Infobox artist with inclusion of the title ser indicated that Leonardos fa-
unknown parameter imagesize (this message is shown ther was a gentleman.
only in preview).
Leonardo spent his rst ve years in the hamlet of
Anchiano in the home of his mother, then from 1457
The personal life of Leonardo da Vinci (15 April 1452 lived in the household of his father, grandparents and un-
2 May 1519) has been a subject of interest, inquiry, cle, Francesco, in the small town of Vinci. His father
and speculation since the years immediately following his had married a sixteen-year-old girl named Albiera,[6] Ser
death. Leonardo has long been regarded as the archetypal Piero married four times and produced children by his
Renaissance man, described by the Renaissance biogra- two later marriages.[7] Leonardos seven brothers were
pher Giorgio Vasari as having qualities that transcended later to argue with him over the distribution of his fathers
nature and being marvellously endowed with beauty, estate.
grace and talent in abundance.[1] Interest in and curiosity
about Leonardo has continued unabated for ve hundred
years.[2] Modern descriptions and analysis of Leonardos
character, personal desires and intimate behavior have
been based upon various sources: records concerning
him, his biographies, his own written journals, his paint-
ings, his drawings, his associates, and commentaries that
were made concerning him by contemporaries.

2.1.1 Biography

Leonardos childhood home in Anchiano

Burial place of Leonardo da Vinci, in the Chapel of Saint-
Leonardo was born on 14 April 1452, at the third hour of Hubert, Chteau d'Amboise, France
the night[3] in the Tuscan hill town of Vinci, in the lower
valley of the Arno River in the territory of the Republic of At the age of about fourteen Leonardo was apprenticed by
Florence. He was the out-of-wedlock son of the wealthy his father to the artist Andrea del Verrocchio. Leonardo

22
2.1. LEONARDO DA VINCIS PERSONAL LIFE 23

was eventually to become a paid employee of Verroc-

chios studio. During his time there, Leonardo met many
of the most important artists to work in Florence in
the late fteenth century including Botticelli, Domenico
Ghirlandaio and Pietro Perugino. Leonardo helped Ver-
rocchio paint The Baptism of Christ, completed around
1475. According to Vasari, Verrocchio, on seeing the
beauty of the angel that his young pupil had painted, never
painted again.[8]
Florence was at this time a republic, but the city was in-
creasingly under the inuence of a single powerful family,
the Medici, led by Lorenzo de' Medici, who came to be
known as Lorenzo the Magnicent. In 1481 Leonardo
commenced an important commission, the painting of a
large altarpiece for the church of S. Donato a Scopeto.
The work was never completed. Leonardo left Florence
and travelled to Milan carrying a gift from Lorenzo to the
regent ruler, Ludovico Sforza. He was employed by Lu-
dovico from 1481 to 1499, during which time his most
important works were the Virgin of the Rocks, the Last
Supper and a huge model of a horse for an equestrian
monument which was never completed. Other impor-
tant events during this time were the arrival in his stu-
dio of the boy Salai in 1490, and in 1491 the marriage
of Ludovico Sforza to Beatrice d'Este for which he orga-
nized the celebrations. When Milan was invaded by the
French in 1499, Leonardo left and spent some time in
Venice, and possibly Rome and Naples before returning
to Florence.[9] A statue of Leonardo outside the Uzi Gallery in Florence, based
In Florence, Leonardo lived at premises of the Servite upon contemporary descriptions
Community, and at that time drew the large cartoon for
the Madonna and Child and St Anne which attracted a lot of bright colours, and at a time when most mature men
of popular attention. He is also reported to have had a wore long garments, Leonardos preferred outt was the
job to do for King Louis XII of France.[9] Between 1506 short tunic and hose generally worn by younger men. This
and 1513 Leonardo was once again based mostly in Mi- image of Leonardo has been recreated in the statue of him
lan. In 1507 Francesco Melzi joined his household as that stands outside the Uzi Gallery.
an apprentice, and remained with him until his death. In
1513 Leonardo left Milan for Rome and was employed
by the Medici family. In 1516 he went to France as court Vasaris descriptions
painter to King Francis I.[9] The king gave the chateau of
Clos Luc as his home and regarded him with great es- According to Vasari, In the normal course of events
teem. It is said that the king held Leonardos head as he many men and women are born with various remarkable
died. Leonardo is buried in the Chapel of Saint-Hubert qualities and talents; but occasionally, in a way that tran-
adjacent to the Chteau d'Amboise in France. scends nature, a single person is marvellously endowed by
heaven with beauty, grace and talent in such abundance
that he leaves other men far behind... Everyone acknowl-
2.1.2 Physical characteristics edged that this was true of Leonardo da Vinci, an artist of
outstanding physical beauty who displayed innite grace
Descriptions and portraits of Leonardo combine to cre- in everything he did and who cultivated his genius so bril-
ate an image of a man who was tall, athletic and ex- liantly that all problems he studied were solved with ease.
tremely handsome. He was at least 5 ft 8 in (1.73 m) He possessed great strength and dexterity; he was a man
[8]
tall, the length of his skeleton.[10] Portraits indicate that of regal spirit and tremendous breadth of mind...
as an older man, he wore his hair long, at a time when
most men wore it cropped short, or reaching to the shoul-
Portraits and self-portraits
ders. While most men were shaven or wore close-cropped
beards, Leonardos beard owed over his chest. Leonardos face is best known from a drawing in red chalk
His clothing is described as being unusual in his choice that appears to be a self-portrait. However, there is some
24 CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLES

controversy over the identity of the subject, because the in opposition to the benets that one can gain through
man represented appears to be of a greater age than the awareness, humility and endeavour.
67 years lived by Leonardo. A solution which has been Little is known about Leonardos intimate relationships
put forward is that Leonardo deliberately aged himself from his own writing. Some evidence of Leonardos per-
in the drawing, as a modern forensic artist might do, in sonal relationships emerges both from historic records
order to provide a model for Raphaels painting of him and from the writings of his many biographers.
as Plato in The School of Athens. A prole portrait in
the Ambrosiana Gallery in Milan is generally accepted
to be a portrait of Leonardo, and also depicts him with
2.1.4 Personal relationships
owing beard and long hair. This image was repeated
in the woodcut designed for the rst edition of Vasaris
Leonardos pupils
Lives.[11]
In a 2008 TED talk, artist Siegfried Woldhek, based on
Leonardos features in Andrea del Verrocchio's bronze
statue of David, proposed that Leonardo may have done
three self-portraits: Portrait of a Musician, the Vitruvian
Man and the aforementioned Portrait of a Man in Red
Chalk.[12]

Left-handedness

It has been written that Leonardo may be the most uni-

versally recognized left-handed artist of all time, a fact
documented by numerous Renaissance authors, and man-
ifested conspicuously in his drawing and handwriting. Francesco Melzi, by
In his notebooks, he wrote in mirror image because of Boltrao, c. 1510
his left handedness (it was easier for him), and he was
falsely accused of trying to protect his work.[13] Early Ital-
ian connoisseurs were divided as to whether Leonardo
also drew with his right hand. More recently, Anglo-
American art historians have for the most part discounted
suggestions of ambidexterity.[14]

2.1.3 Character
Leonardo da Vinci was described by his early biographers
as a man with great personal appeal, kindness, and gen-
erosity. He was generally well loved by his contempo-
raries.
Drawing by Leonardo of
According to Vasari, Leonardos disposition was so lov- a young man presumed to be Salai
able that he commanded everyones aection. He was
a sparkling conversationalist who charmed Ludovico il
Moro with his wit. Vasari sums him up by saying: In
appearance he was striking and handsome, and his mag- Leonardos pupils
nicent presence brought comfort to the most troubled
soul; he was so persuasive that he could bend other peo- Leonardo maintained long-lasting relationships with two
ple to his will. He was physically so strong that he could pupils who were apprenticed to him as children. These
withstand violence and with his right hand he could bend were Gian Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno, who entered his
the ring of an iron door knocker or a horseshoe as if they household in 1490 at the age of 10,[15][16] and Count
were lead. He was so generous that he fed all his friends, Francesco Melzi, the son of a Milan aristocrat who was
rich or poor.... Through his birth Florence received a very apprenticed to Leonardo by his father in 1506, at the age
great gift, and through his death it sustained an incalcula- of 14, remaining with him until his death.
ble loss. Gian Giacomo was nicknamed Salai or il Salaino mean-
Some of Leonardos philosophies can be found in a series ing the little devil. Vasari describes him as a grace-
of fables that he wrote. Prevalent themes include the dan- ful and beautiful youth with ne curly hair. The Little
gers of an inated sense of self-worth, often as described Devil lived up to his nickname: a year after his enter-
2.1. LEONARDO DA VINCIS PERSONAL LIFE 25

ing the household Leonardo made a list of the boys mis- ecution: all accusations of sodomy had to be signed,
demeanours, calling him a thief, a liar, stubborn, and a but this one was not. (Such accusations could be made
glutton. But despite Salais thievery and general delin- secretly, but not anonymously.) There is speculation
quency he made o with money and valuables on at that since the family of one of the accused, Leonardo
least ve occasions, spent a fortune on apparel, includ- Tornabuoni, was associated with Lorenzo de' Medici, the
ing twenty-four pairs of shoes, and eventually died in a family exerted its inuence to secure the dismissal.[23][24]
duel he remained Leonardos servant, and assistant for Sodomy was theoretically an extremely serious oense,
thirty years. At Leonardos death he was bequeathed the carrying the death penalty, but its very seriousness made
Mona Lisa, a valuable piece even then, valued in Salais it equally dicult to prove. It was also an oence
own will at the equivalent of 200,000. for which punishment was very seldom handed down in
contemporary Florence, where homosexuality was su-
Melzi accompanied Leonardo in his nal days in France.
On Leonardos death he wrote a letter to inform ciently widespread and tolerated to make the word Flo-
renzer (Florentine) slang for homosexual in Germany.[25]
Leonardos brothers, describing him as like an excellent
father to me and goes on to say: Everyone is grieved Michael White points out that willingness to discuss as-
at the loss of such a man that Nature no longer has it in pects of Leonardos sexual identity has varied according
her power to produce. [17] Melzi subsequently played an to contemporary attitudes.[26][27] His near-contemporary
important role as the guardian of Leonardos notebooks, biographer Vasari makes no reference to Leonardos sex-
preparing them for publication in the form directed by the uality whatsoever.[8] In the 20th century biographers
master, but was not to see this project realized. made explicit reference to a probability that Leonardo
was homosexual[28] though others concluded that for
much of his life he was celibate.[29]
Leonardos sexuality

Little is self revealed about Leonardos sexuality, as, al-

though he left hundreds of pages of writing, very little of
it is personal in nature. He left no letters, poetry or di-
ary that indicate any romantic interest. He never married
and it cannot be stated with certainty that he had a sex-
ually intimate relationship with any person, male or fe-
male. One of the few references that Leonardo made to
sexuality in his notebooks states: The act of procreation
and anything that has any relation to it is so disgusting that
human beings would soon die out if there were no pretty
faces and sensuous dispositions.[18] This statement has
been the subject of various extrapolations and interpreta-
tions in attempts to gain a picture of his sexuality. John the Baptist,
The only historical document concerning Leonardos sex- Leonardo (1513-16) Several copies exist, including one
ual life is an accusation of sodomy made in 1476, [19] by Salai himself.
while he was still at the workshop of Verrocchio.[20] Flo-
rentine court records show that on April 9, 1476, an
anonymous denunciation was left in the tamburo (let-
ter box) in the Palazzo della Signoria (town hall) ac-
cusing a young goldsmith and male prostitute, Jacopo
Saltarelli (sometimes referred to as an artists model)
of being party to many wretched aairs and con-
sents to please those persons who request such wicked-
ness of him. The denunciation accused four people
of sodomizing Saltarelli: Leonardo da Vinci, a tailor
named Baccino, Bartolomeo di Pasquino, and Leonardo
Tornabuoni, a member of the aristocratic Tornabuoni
family. Saltarellis name was known to the authorities be-
cause another man had been convicted of sodomy with The Incarnate Angel,
him earlier the same year.[21] Charges against the ve workshop of Leonardo, (charcoal drawing, c. 1515).
were dismissed on the condition that no further accu-
sations appear in the tamburo. The same accusation
Elizabeth Abbott, in her History of Celibacy, contends
did in fact appear on June 7 but charges were again
[22] that, although Leonardo was probably homosexual, the
dismissed. The charges were dismissed because the
trauma of the sodomy case converted him to celibacy for
accusations did not meet the legal requirement for pros-
26 CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLES

the rest of his life.[30] A similar view of a homosexually-

inclined but chaste Leonardo appears in a famous 1910
paper by Sigmund Freud, Leonardo da Vinci, A Memory
of His Childhood, which analysed a memory Leonardo
described of having been attacked as a baby by a bird
of prey that opened his mouth and stuck me with the
tail inside my lips again and again. Freud claimed the
symbolism was clearly phallic, but argued that Leonardos
homosexuality was latent: that he did not act on his
desires.[31][32] Freuds work, and other, more recent,
attempts to psychoanalyse Leonardo, are discussed at
length in Bradley Collinss book Leonardo, Psychoanaly-
sis and Art History.[33]
Other authors contend that Leonardo was actively homo-
sexual. Serge Bramly states that the fact that Leonardo
warns against lustfulness certainly need not mean that he Francis I of France receiving the last breath of Leonardo da
himself was chaste.[27] David M. Friedman argues that Vinci, by Ingres, 1818
Leonardos notebooks show a preoccupation with men
and with sexuality uninterrupted by the trial and agrees and was a close friend of Niccol Machiavelli.
with art historian Kenneth Clark that Leonardo never be-
came sexless.[31][34] Michael White, in Leonardo: The He had a close, long-lasting friendship with Isabella
First Scientist, says it is likely that the trial simply made d'Este, a renowned patroness of the arts, whose
Leonardo cautious and defensive about his personal re- portrait he drew while on a journey that took him
lationships and sexuality, but did not dissuade him from through Mantua.
intimate relationships with men: there is little doubt that
Leonardo remained a practising homosexual.[35] Other The de Predis brothers and collaboration on Virgin
homosexual relationships, with a man named Fioravante of the Rocks.
di Domenico and a young falconer, Bernardo di Simone,
Feud with Michelangelo
are suggested in Michael Whites biography.
Leonardos late painting of John the Baptist is often cited
as support of the case that Leonardo was homosexual. 2.1.5 Diverse interests
There is also an erotic drawing of Salai known as the The
Incarnate Angel, perhaps by the hand of Leonardo, which Main article: Science and inventions of Leonardo da
was one of a number of such drawings once among those Vinci
contained in the British Royal Collection, but later dis-
persed. The particular drawing, showing an angel with an Giorgio Vasari says of the child Leonardo He would have
erect phallus, was rediscovered in a German collection in been very procient in his early lessons, if he had not been
1991. It appears to be a humorous take on Leonardos so volatile and exible; for he was always setting him-
St. John the Baptist.[36] The painting of John the Baptist self to learn a multitude of things, most of which were
was copied by several of Leonardos followers, including shortly abandoned. When he began the study of arith-
Salai. The drawing may also be by one of Leonardos metic, he made, within a few months, such remarkable
pupils, perhaps Salai himself, as it appears to have been progress that he could bae his master with the questions
drawn by the right, rather than the left hand, and bears and problems that he raised... All the time, through all his
strong resemblance to Salais copy of the painting. other enterprises, Leonardo never ceased drawing...
Leonardos father, Ser Piero, realising that his sons tal-
Patrons, friends and colleagues ents were extraordinary, took some of his drawings to
show his friend, Andrea del Verrocchio, who ran one of
Leonardo da Vinci had a number of powerful patrons, the largest artists workshops in Florence. Leonardo was
including the King of France. He had, over the years, a accepted for apprenticeship and soon proved himself a
large number of followers and pupils. rst class geometrician. Vasari says that during his youth
Leonardo made a number of clay heads of smiling women
His patrons included the Medici, Ludovico Sforza and children from which casts were still being made and
and Cesare Borgia, in whose service he spent the sold by the workshop some 80 years later. Among his
years 1502 and 1503, and King Francis I of France. earliest signicant known paintings are an Annunciation
in the Uzi, the angel that he painted as a collaboration
He had working relations with two other notable sci- with Verrocchio in the Baptism of Christ, and a small pre-
entists, Luca Pacioli and Marcantonio della Torre, della of the Annunciation to go beneath an altarpiece by
2.1. LEONARDO DA VINCIS PERSONAL LIFE 27

Lorenzo di Credi. The little predella picture is probably of silver, and of sonorous and resonant tone. Lorenzo
the earliest. de' Medici saw this lyre and wishing to better his relation-
The diversity of Leonardos interests, remarked on by ship with Ludovico Sforza, the usurping Duke of Milan,
Vasari as apparent in his early childhood, was to express he sent Leonardo to present this lyre to the Duke as a
itself in his journals which record his scientic observa- gift. Leonardos musical performances so far surpassed
tions of nature, his meticulous dissection of corpses to those of Ludovicos court musicians that the Duke was
understand anatomy, his experiments with machines for delighted.
ying, for generating power from water and for besieging
cities, his studies of geometry and his architectural plans, Love of nature
as well as personal memos and creative writing including
fables. Leonardo always loved nature. One of the reasons was
because of his childhood environment. Near his child-
hood house were mountains, trees, and rivers. There were
Leonardos rsum also many animals. This environment gave him the per-
fect chance to study the surrounding area; it also may have
Leonardo sent the following letter to Ludovico Sforza, the encouraged him to have interest in painting. Later in life
ruler of Milan, in 1482: he recalls his exploration of an ominous cavern in the
mountains as formative.
Most Illustrious Lord: Having now su-
ciently seen and considered the proofs of all
Vegetarianism
those who count themselves masters and inven-
tors in the instruments of war, and nding that
Leonardos love of animals has been documented both in
their invention and use does not dier in any
contemporary accounts as recorded in early biographies,
respect from those in common practice, I am
and in his notebooks. Remarkably for the period, he even
emboldened... to put myself in communication
questioned the morality of eating animals when it was not
with your Excellency, in order to acquaint you
necessary for health. Statements from his notebook and a
with my secrets. I can construct bridges which
comment by a contemporary have led to the widely held
are very light and strong and very portable with
view that he was vegetarian.
which to pursue and defeat an enemy... I can
also make a kind of cannon, which is light Edward MacCurdy (one of the two translators and com-
and easy of transport, with which to hurl small pilers of Leonardos notebooks into English) wrote:
stones like hail... I can noiselessly construct to
any prescribed point subterranean passages ...The mere idea of permitting the exis-
either straight or winding passing if neces- tence of unnecessary suering, still more that
sary under trenches or a river... I can make of taking life, was abhorrent to him. Vasari
armored wagons carrying artillery, which can tells, as an instance of his love of animals, how
break through the most serried ranks of the en- when in Florence he passed places where birds
emy. In time of peace, I believe I can give you were sold he would frequently take them from
as complete satisfaction as anyone else in the their cages with his own hand, and having paid
construction of buildings, both public and pri- the sellers the price that was asked would let
vate, and in conducting water from one place them y away in the air, thus giving them back
to another. I can execute sculpture in bronze, their liberty.
marble or clay. Also, in painting, I can do as That this horror of inicting pain was such
much as anyone, whoever he may be. If any as to lead him to be a vegetarian is to be in-
of the aforesaid things should seem impossi- ferred from a reference which occurs in a letter
ble or impractical to anyone, I oer myself as sent by Andrea Corsali to Giuliano di Lorenzo
ready to make a trial of them in your park or de' Medici, in which, after telling him of an In-
in whatever place shall please your Excellency, dian race called Gujerats who neither eat any-
to whom I commend myself with all possible thing that contains blood nor permit any in-
humility. [37] jury to any living creature, he adds 'like our
Leonardo da Vinci.'[38][39]

Musical ability Leonardo wrote the following in his notebooks, which

were not deciphered and made available for reading until
It appears from Vasaris description that Leonardo rst the 19th century:
learned to play the lyre as a child and that he was very
talented at improvisation. In about 1479 he created a lyre If you are as you have described yourself
in the shape of a horses head, which was made mostly the king of the animals it would be better
28
for you to call yourself king of the beasts since
you are the greatest of them all! why do you
not help them so that they may presently be able
to give you their young in order to gratify your
palate, for the sake of which you have tried to
make yourself a tomb for all the animals? Even
more I might say if to speak the entire truth
were permitted me.[40]
Weapons and war
One might question Leonardos concern for human life,
given his weapon designs. Nothing came of his designs
for oensive weapons.[41] It is possible his mention of his
capabilities of creating weapons helped him in his quest to
nd powerful patrons, or perhaps he was fond of drawing
them as he was of gargoyles. He did work on fortica-
tions, however. In his own words:
When besieged by ambitious tyrants I nd a means of
oence and defense in order to preserve the chief gift of
nature, which is liberty; and rst I would speak of the
position of the walls, and then of how the various peoples [11] Angela Otino della Chiesa, Leonardo da Vinci, Penguin,
can maintain their good and just lords.[40]
He referred to war as pazzia bestialissima, the most bes-
tial madness.[41]
And thou, man, who by these labours dost look upon
the marvelous works of nature, if thou judgest it to be [13] Bambach, Carmen C., Leonardo, Left-Handed Draftsman
an atrocious act to destroy the same, reect that it is an
innitely atrocious act to take away the life of man.[40]
2.1.6 See also
Bacchus (Leonardo)
2.1.7 References
[1] Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Artists p. 254
[2] Bortolon, Liana (1967). The Life and Times of Leonardo.
London: Paul Hamlyn.
[3] His birth is recorded in the diary of his paternal grand-
father Ser Antonio, as cited by Angela Ottino dejmnnm
m nmn,mn,zxnmzn lla Chiesa in Leonardo da Vinci, and
Reynal & Co., Leonardo da Vinci (William Morrow and
Compy, 1956): A grandson of mine was born April
15, Saturday, three hours into the night. The date was
recorded in the Julian calendar; as it was Florentine time
and sunset was 6:40 pm, three hours after sunset would
be sometime around 9:40 pm which was still April 14 by
modern reckoning. The conversion to the New Style cal-
endar adds nine days; hence Leonardo was born April 23
according to the modern calendar.
[4] Vezzosi, Alessandro (1997). Leonardo da Vinci: Renais-
sance Man.
CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLES
[5] della Chiesa, Angela Ottino (1967). The Complete Paint-
ings of Leonardo da Vinci. p. 83.
[6] Bortolon, Liana (1967). The Life and Times of Leonardo.
London: Paul Hamlyn.
[7] Rosci, p. 20.
[8] Vasari, Giorgio (2006). The Life of Leonardo da Vinci.
Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1-4286-2880-0.
[9] Martin Kemp, Leonardo seen from the inside out, Oxford
University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-19-280644-0 pp. 255-
274
[10] Mrs. Charles W. Heaton (1874), Leonardo da Vinci and
his works, Kessinger Publishing, Whitesh, MT, 2004, p.
204: The skeleton, which measured ve feet eight inches,
accords with the height of Leonardo da Vinci. The skull
might have served for the model of the portrait Leonardo
drew of himself in red chalk a few years before his death.
M. Robert Fleury, head master of the Fine Art School at
Rome, has handled the skull with respect, and recognized
in it the grand and simple outline of this human yet divine
head, which once held a world within its limits.
1967, ISBN 0-14-008649-8
[12] TED2008. "''Siegfried Woldhek shows how he found the
true face of Leonardo''". Ted.com. Retrieved 2013-07-
18.
and Writer, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived Jan-
uary 16, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
[14] Bambach. Archived January 16, 2008, at the Wayback
Machine.
[15] White, Michael (2000). Leonardo, the rst scientist. Lon-
don: Little, Brown. p. 133. ISBN 0-316-64846-9.
[16] Oreno (in Italian). IT.
[17] Martin Kemp, Leonardo seen from the inside out, Oxford
University Press, (2004) ISBN 0-19-280644-0
[18] Sigmund Freud: Leonardo da Vinci, translated by
Abraham Brill, 1916, chapter I. bartleby.com, after Ed-
mondo Solmi: Leonardo da Vinci. German Translation
by Emmi Hirschberg. Berlin, 1908, p. 24 books.google.
In Edmondo Solmi: Leonardo (1452-1519), 2nd ed.,
Firenze G. Barbra 1907, p. 21 archive.org, the quote
reads: L' atto del coito e le membra a quello ado-
prate, scriver Leonardo con ardita espressione, son di
tanta bruttura, che, se non fusse la bellezza de' volti e
li ornamenti delli opranti e la sfrenata disposizione, la
natura perderebbe la spezie umana. The source is given
as W[indsor]. An[atomical manuscript]. A. 8v, p. 227
archive.org, = the vertebral column RL 19007v, cf. Mar-
tin Clayton (2010) p. 158 books.google
[19] "''Denuncia contro Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)''".
Giovannidallorto.com. Retrieved 2013-07-18.
[20] Caravaggio and his two cardinals Creighton Gilbert,
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio; p. 303 N96.
2.1. LEONARDO DA VINCIS PERSONAL LIFE
[21] Crompton, p. 265
[22] Wittkower and Wittkower, pp. 17071
[23] Saslow, Ganymede in the Renaissance: Homosexuality in
Art and Society, 1986, p. 197.
[24] "''Leonardo da Vinci How do we know Leonardo was
gay?'', website. Bnl.gov. 2001-05-03. Retrieved 2013-
07-18.
[25] White, Michael (2000). Leonardo, the rst scientist. Lon-
don: Little, Brown. p. 70. ISBN 0-316-64846-9.
[26] White, Michael (2000). Leonardo, the rst scientist. Lon-
don: Little, Brown. p. 137. ISBN 0-316-64846-9.
(Leonardos homosexuality has been) a subject too sen-
sitive to investigate candidly
[27] Bramly, Serge (1994). Leonardo: The Artist and the Man.
Penguin. ISBN 0-14-023175-7.
[28] White, Michael (2000). Leonardo, the rst scientist.
London: Little, Brown. p. 7. ISBN 0-316-64846-9.
(Leonardo was) a homosexual vegetarian born out of
wedlock
[29] Abbott, Elizabeth (2001). History of Celibacy. James
Clark & Co. p. 21. ISBN 0-7188-3006-7.
[30] Abbott, Elizabeth (2001). History of Celibacy. James
Clark & Co. p. 341. ISBN 0-7188-3006-7. To minimize
or deny his homosexual orientation, he probably opted for
the safety device of chastity
[31] Friedman, David M (2003). A Mind of Its Own: A Cul-
tural History of the Penis. Penguin. p. 48. ISBN 0-14-
200259-3.
[32] Freud, Sigmund (1964). Leonardo Da Vinci and a Mem-
ory of His Childhood. Norton. ISBN 0-393-00149-0.
[33] Collins, Bradley I. (1997). Leonardo, Psychoanalysis, and
Art History. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University
Press. ISBN 0-8101-1419-4.
[34] Clark, Kenneth (1988). Leonardo da Vinci. Viking.
p. 274. Those who wish, in the interests of morality,
to reduce Leonardo, that inexhausible source of creative
power, to a neutral or sexless agency, have a strange idea
of doing service to his reputation.
[35] White, Michael (2000). Leonardo, the rst scientist. Lon-
don: Little, Brown. p. 95. ISBN 0-316-64846-9.
[36] Sewell, Brian. Sunday Telegraph, April 5, 1992.
[37] Full, and somewhat dierent, translation under the head-
ing Drafts of Letters to Lodovico il Moro (1340-1345).
1340. in The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci, volume
2, translated by Jean Paul Richter, 1888, https://archive.
org/stream/thenotebooksofle04999gut/8ldv210.txt
[38] Edward MacCurdy, The Mind of Leonardo da Vinci
(1928) in Leonardo da Vincis Ethical Vegetarianism
29
[39] Richter, Jean Paul (1970) [1883]. The Literary Works of
Leonardo da Vinci (3rd ed.)., gives the passage in Italian
as Alcuni gentili chiamati Guzzarati non si cibano di cosa
alcuna che tenga sangue, n fra essi loro consentono che si
noccia ad alcuna cosa animata, come il nostro Leonardo
da Vinci.
[40] MacCurdy, Edward (1956) [1939]. The Notebooks of
Leonardo da Vinci.
[41] Robert Payne, Leonardo (1978)
2.1.8 Additional reading
Taylor, Rachel Annand (1991). Leonardo The Flo-
rentine: A Study in Personality. Easton Press. (hard-
back).
Abbott, Elizabeth (2001). A History of Celibacy. Da
Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81041-7.
Crompton, Louis (2006). Homosexuality and Civ-
ilization. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-
02233-5.
Gilbert, Creighton and Michelangelo Merisi da Car-
avaggio (1995). Caravaggio and His Two Cardinals.
Penn State Press. ISBN 0-271-01312-5.
Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from
the Royal Library, Windsor Castle. New York:
The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1983. ISBN
9780870993626.
Wittkower, Rudolph and Margaret Wittkower
(2006). Born Under Saturn: The Character and
Conduct of Artists : A Documented History from An-
tiquity to the French Revolution. New York, New
York Review of Books. ISBN 1-59017-213-2.
2.1.9 External links
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Leonardo da
Vinci". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert
Appleton Company.
Leonardo and the Virgin of the Rocks: What is the
real story behind these remarkable paintings?
Leonardo da Vinci by Maurice Walter Brockwell' at
Project Gutenberg
Vasari Life of Leonardo: in Lives of the Most Emi-
nent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects.
Leonardos Will
Leonardo da Vinci ngerprint reconstructed
Leonardo da Vincis Ethical Vegetarianism
The Art of War: Leonardo da Vincis War Machines
Leonardo da Vinci interactive timeline
30
2.2 List of works by Leonardo da
Vinci
The Last Supper is Leonardo da Vincis most famous work of
religious art and his only surviving mural.
Leonardo da Vinci (baptised Leonardo di ser Piero da
Vinci) ( pronunciation ), (April 15, 1452 May 2,
1519) was one of the leading artists of the High Latt. Fif-
teen works are generally attributed either in whole or in
large part to him. Most are paintings on panel, with the
remainder a mural, a large drawing on paper, and two
works in the early stages of preparation. The authorship
of several paintings traditionally attributed to Leonardo
being disputed. Two major works are known only as
copies. Works are regularly attributed to Leonardo with
varying degrees of credibility. None of Leonardos paint-
ings are signed. The attributions here draw on the opin-
ions of various scholars.[1]
The small number of surviving paintings is due in part
to Leonardos frequently disastrous experimentation with
new techniques, and his chronic procrastination. Nev-
ertheless, these few works together with his notebooks,
which contain drawings, scientic diagrams, and his
thoughts on the nature of painting, comprise a contribu-
tion to later generations of artists rivalled only by that of
his contemporary, Michelangelo.
2.2.1 Major extant works
2.2.2 Disputed attributions
2.2.3 Lost works
2.2.4 Some recent attributions
2.2.5 Manuscripts
2.2.6 References
Sources for attribution status
[1] Madonna Litta: Leonardo da Vinci with Giovanni Anto-
nio Boltrao (Kemp 2011, p. 254); Leonardo da Vinci
CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLES
(Syson 2011); Boltrao (?) after a design by Leonardo
(Zllner 2011, p. 227)
[2] Portrait of a Musician: Leonardo da Vinci (Kemp 2011,
p. 254); Giovanni Antonio Boltrao (?) and Leonardo
(?) (Zllner 2011, p. 225)
[3] Buccleuch Madonna: Leonardo da Vinci and an anony-
mous 16th-century painter (Syson 2011, p. 294); Work-
shop of Leonardo after a design by Leonardo (Zllner
2011, p. 239)
[4] Lansdowne Madonna: Sala after a design by Leonardo
(Zllner 2011, p. 238)
[5] La Scapigliata: Follower of Leonardo (Syson 2011, p.
198, n. 9); ascribed today to Leonardo (Marani 2000,
p. 140)
Citations
[1] della Chiesa, Angela Ottino (1967). The Complete Paint-
ings of Leonardo da Vinci. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-008649-
8.
[2] Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Artists, 1568; this edition
Penguin Classics, trans. George Bull 1965, ISBN 0-14-
044164-6
[3] M. Kemp, entry for The Lady with an Ermine in the
exhibition Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration
(Washington-New Haven-London) pp 271f, states the
identication of the sitter in this painting as Cecilia
Gallerani is reasonably secure;" Janice Shell and Grazioso
Sironi, Cecilia Gallerani: Leonardos Lady with an Er-
mine Artibus et Historiae 13 No. 25 (1992:47-66) discuss
the career of this identication since it was rst suggested
in 1900.
[4] Marani 2000, p. 339
[5] Kemp 2011, 253
[6] Syson 2011, 294
[7] Arasse, Daniel (1997). Leonardo da Vinci. Konecky &
Konecky. ISBN 1-56852-198-7.
[8] Kemp, Martin (2004). Leonardo. Oxford: Oxford Uni-
versity Press. p. 251. The work does not appear in Kemp
2011.
[9] Adams, James (October 13, 2005). Montreal art expert
identies da Vinci drawing. The Globe and Mail. Re-
trieved 2009-10-14.
[10] The Mark of a Masterpiece by David Grann, The New
Yorker, vol. LXXXVI, no. 20, July 12 & 19, 2010, ISSN
0028-792X
[11] For a partial list of scholars who accept the attribution, see
Bailey, Martin (31 October 2011). Leonardos Saviour
of the World rediscovered in New York. The Art News-
paper. Retrieved 21 February 2012.
[12] Syson 2011, 302
2.2. LIST OF WORKS BY LEONARDO DA VINCI
[13] Scaramella, A. D. Artwork Analysis self Portrait in Red
Chalk by Leonardo Da Vinci. Finearts.com. Helium Inc.
Retrieved 16 November 2014.
[14] Emergency Treatment for Leonardo da Vincis Self-
Portrait. news.universityproducts.com. Archival Prod-
ucts. Retrieved 16 November 2014.
[15] Marani 2000, p. 431
[16] Rubin & Wright 1999, pp. 84 and 118, n. 25
[17] Shearman, John (1992). Only Connect...: Art and the
Spectator in the Italian Renaissance. Oxford: Oxford
University Press: 33.
[18] Delieuvin 2012, cat. 80
[19] Delieuvin 2012, cat. 81
[20] St John the Baptist. Your Paintings. BBC. Retrieved 15
July 2013.
[21] Arie, Sophie (16 February 2005). Fingerprint puts
Leonardo in the frame. The Guardian. Retrieved 2007-
09-27.
[22] A lost Leonardo? Top art historian says maybe. Uni-
versal Leonardo. Retrieved 2007-09-27.
[23] Bertelli, Carlo (November 19, 2005). Due allievi non
fanno un Leonardo (in Italian). Il Corriere della Sera.
Retrieved 2007-09-27.
[24] Stephane Fitch DaVincis Fingerprints, 12.22.03 accessed
7 July 2009. Martin Kemp, the expert on Leonardos n-
gerprints, had not examined the painting when the article
was written.
[25] A similar image, without the tormentors, is in the Her-
mitage Museum, St Petersburg.
[26] Self-portrait of Leonardo, Surrentum Online, accessed
2010-11-06
[27] "'Early Mona Lisa' painting claim disputed. BBC News.
27 September 2012. Retrieved 26 January 2013.
[28] "'Horse and Rider' Discovered Leonardo Da Vinci Sculp-
ture. Hungton Post. 14 August 2012. Retrieved 16
January 2014.
[29] Remarkable 500-year-old Leonardo Da Vinci casting of
horse and rider unveiled after original was lost for cen-
turies. Daily Mail News. 29 August 2012. Retrieved 16
January 2014.
[30] Leonardo da Vincis 'Horse and Rider'". BBC News. 28
August 2012. Retrieved 16 January 2014.
[31] The Forster Codices: Leonardo da Vincis Notebooks at
the V&A. Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 4
November 2012.
[32] Paris Manuscript B. Universal Leonardo. University of
the Arts, London. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
[33] Paris Manuscript C. Universal Leonardo. University of
the Arts, London. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
31
[34] Paris Manuscript A. Universal Leonardo. University of
the Arts, London. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
[35] Paris Manuscript H. Universal Leonardo. University of
the Arts, London. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
[36] Paris Manuscript M. Universal Leonardo. University of
the Arts, London. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
[37] Paris Manuscript L. Universal Leonardo. University of
the Arts, London. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
[38] Paris Manuscript K. Universal Leonardo. University of
the Arts, London. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
[39] Paris Manuscript I. Universal Leonardo. University of
the Arts, London. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
[40] Paris Manuscript D. Universal Leonardo. University of
the Arts, London. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
[41] Paris Manuscript F. Universal Leonardo. University of
the Arts, London. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
[42] Paris Manuscript E. Universal Leonardo. University of
the Arts, London. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
[43] Paris Manuscript G. Universal Leonardo. University of
the Arts, London. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
[44] Codex Madrid I. Universal Leonardo. University of the
Arts, London. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
[45] Codex Madrid II. Universal Leonardo. University of
the Arts, London. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
[46] Bambach 2003, p. 723
[47] Codex Urbinas and lost Libro A. Universal Leonardo.
University of the Arts, London. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
Bibliography
Bambach, Carmen C., ed. (2003). Leonardo da
Vinci: Master Draftsman. New Haven and Lon-
don: Yale University Press.
Chapman, Hugo; Faietti, Marzia (2010). Fra An-
gelico to Leonardo: Italian Renaissance Drawings.
London: British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-7141-
2667-8.
Covi, Dario A. (2005). Andrea del Verrocchio:
Life and Work. Arte e archeologia: Studi e doc-
umenti (27). Florence: Leo S. Olschki Editore.
Delieuvin, Vincent, ed. (2012). Saint Anne:
Leonardo da Vincis Ultimate Masterpiece. Milan:
Ocina Libraria.
Kemp, Martin (2006). Leonardo da Vinci: The
Marvellous Works of Nature and Man. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1992-0778-
7.
Kemp, Martin (2011). Leonardo: Revised edi-
tion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
32 CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLES

Marani, Pietro C. (2000). Leonardo da Vinci: The of invention. Many of his designs, such as the mov-
Complete Paintings. New York: Harry N. Abrams, able dikes to protect Venice from invasion, proved too
Inc. costly or impractical. Some of his smaller inventions en-
tered the world of manufacturing unheralded. As an en-
Rubin, Patricia Lee; Wright, Alison (1999). Re- gineer, Leonardo conceived ideas vastly ahead of his own
naissance Florence: The Art of the 1470s. London: time, conceptually inventing an improved version of the
National Gallery Publications. helicopter, an armoured ghting vehicle, the use of con-
centrated solar power, a calculator, a rudimentary the-
Syson, Luke; Larry Keith; Arturo Galansino; Antoni
ory of plate tectonics and the double hull. In practice,
Mazzotta; Scott Nethersole; Per Rumberg (2011).
he greatly advanced the state of knowledge in the elds
Leonardo da Vinci: Painter at the Court of Milan.
of anatomy, astronomy, civil engineering, optics, and the
London: National Gallery.
study of water (hydrodynamics).
Zllner, Frank (2011). Leonardo da Vinci: The Leonardos most famous drawing, the Vitruvian Man, is
Complete Paintings and Drawings. 1. Cologne: a study of the proportions of the human body, linking art
Taschen. and science in a single work that has come to represent
Renaissance Humanism.

2.2.7 External links

2.3.1 Condensed biography
Leonardo da Vinci and the Virgin of the Rocks, A
dierent point of view Main article: Leonardo da Vinci
Web Gallery of Leonardo Paintings

Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci

Leda and the Swan copies by Leonardaschi

Leonardo da Vinci, Master Draftsman, exhibition

catalog fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan
Museum of Art

Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the

Royal Library, Windsor Castle, exhibition catalog
fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum
of Art

The Codex Arundel on the British Librarys Digi- The Arno Valley
tised Manuscripts Website

NOTE: This is a brief summary of Leonardos

2.3 Science and inventions of early life and journals with particular emphasis
Leonardo da Vinci on his introduction to science.

Leonardo da Vinci (April 15, 1452 May 2, 1519) was

Main article: Leonardo da Vinci born the illegitimate son of Messer Piero, a notary, and
Caterina, a peasant woman. His early life was spent
Leonardo da Vinci (14521519) was an Italian in the region of Vinci, in the valley of the Arno River
polymath, regarded as the epitome of the "Renaissance near Florence, rstly with his mother and in later child-
Man", displaying skills in numerous diverse areas of hood in the household of his father, grandfather and uncle
study. Whilst most famous for his paintings such Francesco.
as the Mona Lisa and the Last Supper, Leonardo His curiosity and interest in scientic observation were
is also renowned in the elds of civil engineer- stimulated by his uncle Francesco, while his grandfathers
ing, chemistry, geology, geometry, hydrodynamics, keeping of journals set an example which he was to follow
mathematics, mechanical engineering, optics, physics, for most of his life, diligently recording in his own jour-
pyrotechnics, and zoology. nals both the events of the day, his visual observations, his
While the full extent of his scientic studies has only plans and his projects. The journals of Leonardo contain
become recognized in the last 150 years, he was, dur- matters as mundane as grocery lists and as remarkable as
ing his lifetime, employed for his engineering and skill diagrams for the construction of a ying machine.
2.3. SCIENCE AND INVENTIONS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI 33

In 1466, Leonardo was sent to Florence to the workshop

of the artist Verrocchio, in order to learn the skills of an
artist. At the workshop, as well as painting and drawing,
he learnt the study of topographical anatomy.[1] He was
also exposed to a very wide range of technical skills such
as drafting, set construction, plasterworking, paint chem-
istry, and metallurgy.

Studies of a ftus from Leonardos journals

From Leonardos journals - studies of an old man and the action

of water.

Among the older artists whose work stimulated

Leonardos scientic interest was Piero della Francesca,
then a man in his 60s, who was one of the earliest
artists to systematically employ linear perspective in
his paintings, and who had a greater understanding of
the science of light than any other artist of his date.
While Leonardos teacher, Verrocchio, largely ignored
Pieros scientically disciplined approach to painting,
Leonardo and Domenico Ghirlandaio, who also worked
at Verrocchios workshop, did not. Two of Leonardos
earliest paintings, both scenes of the Annunciation show
his competent understanding of the linear perspective.
Leonardo da Vinci was profoundly observant of nature,
his curiosity having been stimulated in early childhood
by his discovery of a deep cave in the mountains and his
intense desire to know what lay inside. His earliest dated
drawing, 1473, is of the valley of the Arno River, where
he lived. It displays some of the many scientic interests
that were to obsess him all his life, in particular geology
and hydrology. [2]

2.3.2 Approach to scientic investigation

During the Renaissance, the study of art and science was
not perceived as mutually exclusive; on the contrary, the
one was seen as informing upon the other. Although
Leonardos training was primarily as an artist, it was
largely through his scientic approach to the art of paint-
ing, and his development of a style that coupled his scien-
tic knowledge with his unique ability to render what he
saw that created the outstanding masterpieces of art for
which he is famous.
As a scientist, Leonardo had no formal education in Latin A recent and exhaustive analysis of Leonardo as a sci-
Investigating the motion of the arm.
and mathematics and did not attend a university. Because
of these factors, his scientic studies were largely ignored
by other scholars. Leonardos approach to science was
one of intense observation and detailed recording, his
tools of investigation being almost exclusively his eyes.
His journals give insight into his investigative processes.
34 CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLES

entist by Fritjof Capra argues that Leonardo was a funda-
mentally dierent kind of scientist from Galileo, Newton,
and other scientists who followed him, his theorizing and
hypothesizing integrating the arts and particularly paint-
ing. Capra sees Leonardos unique integrated, holistic
views of science as making him a forerunner of modern
systems theory and complexity schools of thought.[3]
I wished to avoid falling into this fault, it would
be necessary in every case when I wanted to
copy [a passage] that, not to repeat myself, I
should read over all that had gone before; and
all the more since the intervals are long be-
tween one time of writing and the next.[4]

2.3.5 Natural science

2.3.3 Leonardos notes and journals

Leonardo kept a series of journals in which he wrote al-

most daily, as well as separate notes and sheets of obser-
vations, comments and plans. He wrote and drew with
his left hand, and most of his writing is in mirror script,
which makes it dicult to read. Much has survived to
illustrate Leonardos studies, discoveries and inventions.
On his death, his writings were left mainly to his pupil
Melzi with the apparent intention that his scientic work
should be published. This did not take place in Melzis
lifetime, and the writings were eventually bound in dif-
ferent forms and dispersed. Some of his works were pub-
lished as a Treatise on Painting 165 years after his death.

2.3.4 Publication

Leonardo illustrated a book on mathematical proportion

in art written by his friend Luca Pacioli and called De div-
Study of the graduations of light and shade on a sphere
ina proportione, published in 1509. He was also prepar- (chiaroscuro).
ing a major treatise on his scientic observations and me-
chanical inventions. It was to be divided into a number of
sections or Books, Leonardo leaving some instructions
as to how they were to be ordered. Many sections of it Light
appear in his notebooks.
Leonardo wrote:
These pages deal with scientic subjects generally but
also specically as they touch upon the creation of art-
The lights which may illuminate opaque
works. In relating to art, this is not science that is depen-
bodies are of 4 kinds. These are: diused light
dent upon experimentation or the testing of theories. It
as that of the atmosphere... And Direct, as that
deals with detailed observation, particularly the observa-
of the sun... The third is Reected light; and
tion of the natural world, and includes a great deal about
there is a 4th which is that which passes through
the visual eects of light on dierent natural substances
[translucent] bodies, as linen or paper or the
such as foliage.[4]
like.[4]
Leonardo wrote:
For an artist working in the 15th century, some study of
Begun at Florence, in the house of Piero the nature of light was essential. It was by the eective
di Braccio Martelli, on the 22nd day of March painting of light falling on a surface that modelling, or
1508. And this is to be a collection without a three-dimensional appearance was to be achieved in a
order, taken from many papers which I have two-dimensional medium. It was also well understood by
copied here, hoping to arrange them later each artists like Leonardos teacher, Verrocchio, that an ap-
in its place, according to the subjects of which pearance of space and distance could be achieved in a
they may treat. But I believe that before I am at background landscape by painting in tones that were less
the end of this [task] I shall have to repeat the in contrast and colors that were less bright than in the fore-
same things several times; for which, O reader! ground of the painting. The eects of light on solids were
do not blame me, for the subjects are many and achieved by trial and error, since few artists except Piero
memory cannot retain them [all] and say: I will della Francesca actually had accurate scientic knowl-
not write this because I wrote it before. And if edge of the subject.
2.3. SCIENCE AND INVENTIONS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI
The Lady with an Ermine
At the time when Leonardo commenced painting, it was
unusual for gures to be painted with extreme contrast of
light and shade. Faces, in particular, were shadowed in
a manner that was bland and maintained all the features
and contours clearly visible. Leonardo broke with this.
In the painting generally titled The Lady with an Ermine
(about 1483) he sets the gure diagonally to the picture
space and turns her head so that her face is almost parallel
to her nearer shoulder. The back of her head and the
further shoulder are deeply shadowed. Around the ovoid
solid of her head and across her breast and hand the light
is diused in such a way that the distance and position of
the light in relation to the gure can be calculated.
Leonardos treatment of light in paintings such as The Vir-
gin of the Rocks and the Mona Lisa was to change for- In the 1490s he wrote about demonstrating muscles and
ever the way in which artists perceived light and used it sinews to students:
in their paintings. Of all Leonardos scientic legacies,
this is probably the one that had the most immediate and
noticeable eect.
Human anatomy
Leonardo wrote:
...to obtain a true and perfect knowledge ...
I have dissected more than ten human bodies,
destroying all the other members, and remov-
ing the very minutest particles of the esh by
which these veins are surrounded, ... and as
35
one single body would not last so long, since it
was necessary to proceed with several bodies
by degrees, until I came to an end and had a
complete knowledge; this I repeated twice, to
learn the dierences...[4]
Study of the proportions of the head.
Topographic anatomy Leonardo began the formal
study of the topographical anatomy of the human body
when apprenticed to Andrea del Verrocchio. As a stu-
dent he would have been taught to draw the human body
from life, to memorize the muscles, tendons and visible
subcutaneous structure and to familiarise himself with the
mechanics of the various parts of the skeletal and muscu-
lar structure. It was common workshop practice to have
plaster casts of parts of the human anatomy available for
students to study and draw.
If, as is thought to be the case, Leonardo painted the
torso and arms of Christ in The Baptism of Christ on
which he famously collaborated with his master Verroc-
chio, then his understanding of topographical anatomy
had surpassed that of his master at an early age as can
be seen by a comparison of the arms of Christ with those
of John the Baptist in the same painting.
Remember that to be certain of the point of
origin of any muscle, you must pull the sinew
from which the muscle springs in such a way
as to see that muscle move, and where it is at-
tached to the ligaments of the bones.[4]
His continued investigations in this eld occupied many
pages of notes, each dealing systematically with a partic-
ular aspect of anatomy. It appears that the notes were
intended for publication, a task entrusted on his death to
his pupil Melzi.
In conjunction with studies of aspects of the body are
drawings of faces displaying dierent emotions and many
36 CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLES

Dissection As Leonardo became successful as an artist,

he was given permission to dissect human corpses at the
hospital Santa Maria Nuova in Florence. Later he dis-
sected in Milan at the hospital Maggiore and in Rome at
the hospital Santo Spirito (the rst mainland Italian hos-
pital). From 1510 to 1511 he collaborated in his studies
with the doctor Marcantonio della Torre.

I have removed the skin from a man who

was so shrunk by illness that the muscles were
worn down and remained in a state like thin
membrane, in such a way that the sinews in-
stead of merging in muscles ended in wide
membrane; and where the bones were covered
by the skin they had very little over their natural
size.[4]

In 30 years, Leonardo dissected 30 male and female

corpses of dierent ages. Together with Marcantonio,
he prepared to publish a theoretical work on anatomy and
made more than 200 drawings. However, his book was
published only in 1680 (161 years after his death) under
the heading Treatise on painting.

Two anatomical studies

drawings of people suering facial deformity, either con-

genital or through illness. Some of these drawings, gener-
ally referred to as caricatures, on analysis of the skeletal
proportions, appear to be based on anatomical studies.

The organs of a womans body.

Among the detailed images that Leonardo drew are many

studies of the human skeleton. He was the rst to describe
the double S form of the backbone. He also studied the
inclination of pelvis and sacrum and stressed that sacrum
was not uniform, but composed of ve fused vertebrae.
He also studied the anatomy of the human foot and its
connection to the leg, and from these studies, he was able
to further his studies in biomechanics.
Leonardo was a physiologist as well as an anatomist,
Dissection of the skull. studying the function of the human body as well as ex-
2.3. SCIENCE AND INVENTIONS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI 37

amining and recording its structure. He dissected and

drew the human skull and cross-sections of the brain,
transversal, sagittal, and frontal. These drawings may be
linked to a search for the sensus communis, the locus of
the human senses,[5] which, by Medieval tradition, was
located at the exact physical center of the skull.
Leonardo studied internal organs, being the rst to draw
the human appendix and the lungs, mesentery, urinary
tract, reproductive organs, the muscles of the cervix and
a detailed cross-section of coitus. He was one of the rst
to draw a scientic representation of the fetus in the in-
trautero.
Leonardo studied the vascular system and drew a dis-
sected heart in detail. He correctly worked out how heart
valves ebb the ow of blood yet he did not fully under-
stand circulation as he believed that blood was pumped
to the muscles where it was consumed. In 2005 a UK
heart surgeon, Francis Wells, from Papworth Hospital
Cambridge, pioneered repair to damaged hearts, using
Leonardos depiction of the opening phase of the mi-
tral valve to operate without changing its diameter allow-
ing an individual to recover more quickly. Wells said
Leonardo had a depth of appreciation of the anatomy
and physiology of the body - its structure and function -
that perhaps has been overlooked by some.[6]
Leonardos observational acumen, drawing skill, and the
clarity of depiction of bone structures reveal him at
his nest as an anatomist. However, his depiction of
the internal soft tissues of the body are incorrect in
many ways, showing that he maintained concepts of
anatomy and functioning that were in some cases millen- Comparison of the leg of a man and a dog.
nia old, and that his investigations were probably ham-
pered by the lack of preservation techniques available
at the time. Leonardos detailed drawing of the inter-
stance of the brain which comes down the nos-
nal organs of a woman (See left) reveal many traditional
[7][8] trils, which form a spacious receptacle for the
misconceptions.
sense of smell, which enters by a great number
Leonardos study of human anatomy led also to the design of cartilaginous vesicles with several passages
of an automaton which has come to be called Leonardos leading up to where the brain, as before said,
robot, was probably made around the year 1495 but was comes down.[4]
rediscovered only in the 1950s.

Comparative anatomy In the early 1490s Leonardo was commissioned to create

Leonardo not only studied human anatomy, but the
anatomy of many other animals as well. He dissected
cows, birds, monkeys and frogs, comparing in his draw-
ings their anatomical structure with that of humans. On
one page of his journal Leonardo drew ve prole studies
of a horse with its teeth bared in anger and, for compari-
son, a snarling lion and a snarling man.
I have found that in the composition of
the human body as compared with the bodies
of animals, the organs of sense are duller and
coarser... I have seen in the Lion tribe that the
sense of smell is connected with part of the sub-
a monument in honour of Francesco Sforza. In his note-
books are a series of plans for an equestrian monument.
There are also a large number of related anatomical stud-
ies of horses. They include several diagrams of a standing
horse with the angles and proportions annotated, anatom-
ical studies of horses heads, a dozen detailed drawings of
hooves and numerous studies and sketches of horses rear-
ing.
He studied the topographical anatomy of a bear in detail,
making many drawings of its paws. There is also a draw-
ing of the muscles and tendons of the bears hind feet.
Other drawings of particular interest include the uterus
of a pregnant cow, the hindquarters of a decrepit mule
and studies of the musculature of a little dog.
38 CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLES

Botany In both the Annunciation pictures the grass is dotted with

Leonardo wrote:
All the branches of a tree at every stage of
its height when put together are equal in thick-
ness to the trunk [below them].[4]
blossoming plants.
The plants which appear in both the versions of The Vir-
gin of the Rocks demonstrate the results of Leonardos
studies in a meticulous realism that makes each plant
readily identiable to the botanist.

The science of botany was long established by Leonardos Geology

time, a treatise on the subject having been written as
early as 300 BCE.[9] Leonardos study of plants, result-
ing in many beautiful drawings in his notebooks, was not
to record in diagramatic form the parts of the plant, but
rather, as an artist and observer to record the precise ap-
pearance of plants, the manner of growth and the way that
individual plants and owers of a single variety diered
from one another.

A topographical map

As an adult, Leonardo had only two childhood memo-

ries, one of which was the nding of a cave in the Apen-
nines. Although fearing that he might be attacked by a
wild beast, he ventured in driven by the burning desire to
see whether there might be any marvelous thing within.
Leonardos earliest dated drawing is a study of the Arno
Valley, strongly emphasizing its geological features. His
notebooks contain landscapes with a wealth of geological
Study of sedge observation from the regions of both Florence and Milan,
often including atmospheric eects such as a heavy rain-
One such study shows a page with several species of storm pouring down on a town at the foot of a mountain
ower of which ten drawings are of wild violets. Along range.
with a drawing of the growing plant and a detail of a leaf,
It had been observed for many years that strata in moun-
Leonardo has repeatedly drawn single owers from dif-
tains often contained bands of sea shells. Conservative
ferent angles, with their heads set dierently on the stem.
science said that these could be explained by the Great
Apart from owers the notebooks contain many draw- Flood described in the Bible. Leonardos observations
ings of crop plants including several types of grain and a convinced him that this could not possibly be the case.
variety of berries including a detailed study of bramble.
There are also water plants such as irises and sedge. His And a little beyond the sandstone conglom-
notebooks also direct the artist to observe how light re- erate, a tufa has been formed, where it turned
ects from foliage at dierent distances and under dif- towards Castel Florentino; farther on, the mud
ferent atmospheric conditions. was deposited in which the shells lived, and
A number of the drawings have their equivalents in which rose in layers according to the levels
Leonardos paintings. An elegant study of a stem of lilies at which the turbid Arno owed into that sea.
may have been for one of Leonardos early Annunciation And from time to time the bottom of the sea
paintings, carried in the hand of the Archangel Gabriel. was raised, depositing these shells in layers, as
2.3. SCIENCE AND INVENTIONS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI 39

Cartography

Leonardos accurate map of Imola for Cesare Borgia.

The Virgin of the Rocks
may be seen in the cutting at Colle Gonzoli,
laid open by the Arno which is wearing away
the base of it; in which cutting the said layers
of shells are very plainly to be seen in clay of
a bluish colour, and various marine objects are
found there.[4]
In the early 16th century maps were rare and often in-
accurate. Leonardo produced several extremely accurate
maps such as the town plan of Imola created in 1502 in
order to win the patronage of Cesare Borgia. Borgia was
so impressed that he hired him as a military engineer and
architect. Leonardo also produced a map of Chiana Val-
ley in Tuscany, which he surveyed, without the benet
of modern equipment, by pacing the distances. In 1515,
Leonardo produced a map of the Roman Southern Coast
which is linked to his work for the Vatican and relates to
his plans to drain the marshland.
Recent research by Donato Pezzutto suggests that the
background landscapes in Leonardos paintings depict
specic locations as aerial views with enhanced depth,
employing a technique called cartographic perspective.
Pezzutto identies the location of the Mona Lisa to the
Val di Chiana, the Annunciation to the Arno Valley, the
Madonna of the Yarnwinder to the Adda Valley and The
Virgin and Child with St Anne to the Sessia Valley.[11]

Hydrodynamics
This quotation makes clear the breadth of Leonardos
understanding of geology, including the action of water Leonardo wrote:
in creating sedimentary rock, the tectonic action of the
Earth in raising the sea bed and the action of erosion in
the creation of geographical features. All the branches of a water [course] at ev-
ery stage of its course, if they are of equal
In Leonardos earliest paintings we see the remarkable at- rapidity, are equal to the body of the main
tention given to the small landscapes of the background, stream.[4]
with lakes and water, swathed in a misty light. In the
larger of the Annunciation paintings is a town on the edge
of a lake. Although distant, the mountains can be seen to Among Leonardos drawings are many that are studies of
be scored by vertical strata. This characteristic can be the motion of water, in particular the forms taken by fast-
observed in other paintings by Leonardo, and closely re- owing water on striking dierent surfaces.
sembles the mountains around Lago di Garda and Lago Many of these drawings depict the spiralling nature of
d'Iseo in Northern Italy. It is a particular feature of both water. The spiral form had been studied in the art of the
the paintings of The Virgin of the Rocks, which also in- Classical era and strict mathematical proportion had been
clude caverns of fractured, tumbled, and water-eroded applied to its use in art and architecture. An awareness
limestone.[10] of these rules of proportion had been revived in the early
40
Studies of water
Renaissance. In Leonardos drawings can be seen the in-
vestigation of the spiral as it occurs in water.
There are several elaborate drawings of water curling over
an object placed at a diagonal to its course. There are sev-
eral drawings of water dropping from a height and curl-
ing upwards in spiral forms. One such drawing, as well
as curling waves, shows splashes and details of spray and
bubbles.
Leonardos interest manifested itself in the drawing of
streams and rivers, the action of water in eroding rocks,
and the cataclysmic action of water in oods and tidal
waves. The knowledge that he gained from his studies
was employed in devising a range of projects, particularly
in relation to the Arno River. None of the major works
was brought to completion.
Astronomy
The earth is not in the centre of the Suns
orbit nor at the centre of the universe, but in the
centre of its companion elements, and united
with them. And any one standing on the moon,
when it and the sun are both beneath us, would
see this our earth and the element of water upon
it just as we see the moon, and the earth would
light it as it lights us.[4][12]
CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLES
Alchemy
Claims are sometimes made that Leonardo da Vinci was
an alchemist. He was trained in the workshop of Ver-
rocchio, who according to Vasari, was an able alchemist.
Leonardo was a chemist in so much as that he experi-
mented with dierent media for suspending paint pig-
ment. In the painting of murals, his experiments resulted
in notorious failures with the Last Supper deteriorating
within a century, and the Battle of Anghiari running o
the wall. In Leonardos many pages of notes about artistic
processes, there are some that pertain to the use of silver
and gold in artworks, information he would have learned
as a student.[13]
Leonardos scientic process was based mainly upon ob-
servation. His practical experiments are also founded in
observation rather than belief. Leonardo, who questioned
the order of the solar system and the deposit of fossils by
the Great Flood, had little time for the alchemical quests
to turn lead into gold or create a potion that gave eternal
life.
Leonardo said about alchemists:
The false interpreters of nature declare that
quicksilver is the common seed of every metal,
not remembering that nature varies the seed ac-
cording to the variety of the things she desires
to produce in the world.[4][14]
Old alchemists... have never either by
chance or by experiment succeeded in creat-
ing the smallest element that can be created
by nature; however [they] deserve unmeasured
praise for the usefulness of things invented for
the use of men, and would deserve it even
more if they had not been the inventors of nox-
ious things like poisons and other similar things
which destroy life or mind.[15]
And many have made a trade of delu-
sions and false miracles, deceiving the stupid
multitude.[4]
2.3.6 Mathematical studies
Perspective
The art of perspective is of such a nature as
to make what is at appear in relief and what is
in relief at.[4]
During the early 15th century, both Brunelleschi and
Alberti made studies of linear perspective. In 1436 Al-
berti published della Pittura (On Painting), which
includes his ndings on linear perspective. Piero della
Francesca carried his work forward and by the 1470s a
2.3. SCIENCE AND INVENTIONS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI
number of artists were able to produce works of art that
demonstrated a full understanding of the principles of
linear perspective.
Draft of the perspective for Adoration of the Magi
Leonardo studied linear perspective and employed it in
his earlier paintings. His use of perspective in the two
Annunciations is daring, as he uses various features such
as the corner of a building, a walled garden and a path to
The rhombicuboctahedron, as published in De divina propor-
contrast enclosure and spaciousness.
The unnished Adoration of the Magi was intended to be
a masterpiece revealing much of Leonardos knowledge
of gure drawing and perspective. There exists a number
of studies that he made, including a detailed study of the
perspective, showing the complex background of ruined
Classical buildings that he planned for the left of the pic-
ture. In addition, Leonardo is credited with the rst use
of anamorphosis, the use of a perspective to produce
an image that is intelligible only with a curved mirror or
from a specic vantage point.[16]
Leonardo wrote:
Those who are in love with practice without
knowledge are like the sailor who gets into a
ship without rudder or compass and who never
can be certain whether he is going. Practice
must always be founded on sound theory, and
to this Perspective is the guide and the gateway;
and without this nothing can be done well in the
matter of drawing.[4]
Geometry
While in Milan in 1496 Leonardo met a traveling monk
and academic, Luca Pacioli. Under him, Leonardo stud-
ied mathematics. Pacioli, who rst codied and recorded
the double entry system of bookkeeping,[17] had already
published a major treatise on mathematical knowledge,
collaborated with Leonardo in the production of a book
called De divina proportione about mathematical and
artistic proportion. Leonardo prepared a series of draw-
ings of regular solids in a skeletal form to be engraved as
plates. De divina proportione was published in 1509.
All the problems of perspective are made
clear by the ve terms of mathematicians,
41
tione.
which are:the point, the line, the angle, the
supercies and the solid. The point is unique
of its kind. And the point has neither height,
breadth, length, nor depth, whence it is to be
regarded as indivisible and as having no dimen-
sions in space.[4]
2.3.7 Engineering and invention
Vasari in Lives of the Artists says of Leonardo:
He made designs for mills, fulling ma-
chines and engines that could be driven by
water-power... In addition he used to make
models and plans showing how to excavate
and tunnel through mountains without di-
culty, so as to pass from one level to an-
other; and he demonstrated how to lift and
draw great weights by means of levers, hoists
and winches, and ways of cleansing harbours
and using pumps to suck up water from great
depths.
Practical inventions and projects
Leonardo was a master of mechanical principles. He uti-
lized leverage and cantilevering, pulleys, cranks, gears,
including angle gears and rack and pinion gears; parallel
linkage, lubrication systems and bearings. He under-
stood the principles governing momentum, centripetal
force, friction and the aerofoil and applied these to his
inventions. His scientic studies remained unpublished
with, for example, his manuscripts describing the pro-
42
A machine for grinding convex lenses
cesses governing friction predating the introduction of
Amontons' Laws of Friction by 150 years.[18]
It is impossible to say with any certainty how many or
even which of his inventions passed into general and prac-
tical use, and thereby had impact over the lives of many
people. Among those inventions that are credited with
passing into general practical use are the strut bridge,
the automated bobbin winder, the rolling mill, the ma-
chine for testing the tensile strength of wire and the lens-
grinding machine pictured at right. In the lens-grinding
machine, the hand rotation of the grinding wheel oper-
ates an angle-gear, which rotates a shaft, turning a geared
dish in which sits the glass or crystal to be ground. A
single action rotates both surfaces at a xed speed ratio
determined by the gear.
As an inventor, Leonardo was not prepared to tell all that
he knew:
How by means of a certain machine many
people may stay some time under water. How
and why I do not describe my method of re-
maining under water, or how long I can stay
without eating; and I do not publish nor divulge
these by reason of the evil nature of men who
would use them as means of destruction at the
bottom of the sea, by sending ships to the bot-
tom, and sinking them together with the men in
them. And although I will impart others, there
is no danger in them; because the mouth of the
CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLES
tube, by which you breathe, is above the water
supported on bags of corks.[4]
Bridges and hydraulics
Various hydraulic machines
Leonardos study of the motion of water led him to design
machinery that utilized its force. Much of his work on
hydraulics was for Ludovico il Moro. Leonardo wrote to
Ludovico describing his skills and what he could build:
very light and strong bridges that can
easily be carried, with which to pursue, and
sometimes ee from, the enemy; and others
safe and indestructible by re or assault, easy
and convenient to transport and place into po-
sition.
Among his projects in Florence was one to divert the
course of the Arno, in order to ood Pisa. Fortunately,
this was too costly to be carried out. He also surveyed
Venice and came up with a plan to create a movable dyke
for the citys protection against invaders.
In 1502, Leonardo produced a drawing of a single span
240 m (720 ft) bridge as part of a civil engineering
project for Ottoman Sultan Beyazid II of Istanbul. The
bridge was intended to span an inlet at the mouth of the
Bosphorus known as the Golden Horn. Beyazid did not
pursue the project, because he believed that such a con-
struction was impossible. Leonardos vision was resur-
2.3. SCIENCE AND INVENTIONS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI
rected in 2001 when a smaller bridge based on his design propelled by horses with a pillion rider, carries in front of
was constructed in Norway.
War machines
An arsenal
Leonardos letter to Ludovico il Moro assured him:
When a place is besieged I know how to cut
o water from the trenches and construct an
innite variety of bridges, mantlets and scal-
ing ladders, and other instruments pertaining
to sieges. I also have types of mortars that
are very convenient and easy to transport....
when a place cannot be reduced by the method
of bombardment either because of its height
or its location, I have methods for destroying
any fortress or other stronghold, even if it be
founded upon rock. ....If the engagement be
at sea, I have many engines of a kind most ef-
cient for oence and defence, and ships that
can resist cannons and powder.
In Leonardos notebooks there is an array of war ma- very expensive and proved not to be useful.
chines which includes a vehicle to be propelled by two
men powering crank shafts. Although the drawing it-
self looks quite nished, the mechanics were apparently
not fully developed because, if built as drawn, the ve-
hicle would never progress in a forward direction. In a
BBC documentary, a military team built the machine and
changed the gears in order to make the machine work.
It has been suggested that Leonardo deliberately left this
error in the design, in order to prevent it from being put
to practice by unauthorized people.[19] Another machine,
43
it four scythes mounted on a revolving gear, turned by a
shaft driven by the wheels of a cart behind the horses.
Leonardos proposed vehicle
Leonardos notebooks also show cannons which he
claimed to hurl small stones like a storm with the smoke
of these causing great terror to the enemy, and great loss
and confusion. He also designed an enormous crossbow.
Following his detailed drawing, one was constructed by
the British Army, but could not be made to re success-
fully. In 1481 Leonardo designed a breech-loading, wa-
ter cooled cannon with three racks of barrels allowed the
re-loading of one rack while another was being red and
thus maintaining continuous re power. The fan type
gun with its array of horizontal barrels allowed for a wide
scattering of shot.
Leonardo was the rst to sketch the wheel-lock musket
c. 1500 AD (the precedent of the intlock musket which
rst appeared in Europe by 1547), although as early as
the 14th century the Chinese had used a intlock 'steel
wheel' in order to detonate land mines.[20]
While Leonardo was working in Venice, he drew a sketch
for an early diving suit, to be used in the destruction of
enemy ships entering Venetian waters. A suit was con-
structed for a BBC documentary using pigskin treated
with sh oil to repel water. The head was covered by a
helmet with two eyeglasses at the front. A breathing tube
of bamboo with pigskin joints was attached to the back
of the helmet and connected to a oat of cork and wood.
When the scuba divers tested the suit, they found it to be a
workable precursor to a modern diving suit, the cork oat
acting as a compressed air chamber when submerged.[21]
His inventions were very futuristic which meant they were
Flight
In Leonardos infancy a hawk had once hovered over
his cradle. Recalling this incident, Leonardo saw it as
prophetic.
An object oers as much resistance to the
air as the air does to the object. You may see
44 CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLES

Design for a ying machine with wings based closely upon the
structure of a bats wings.

tated in the opposite direction to the rotor.[24]

While he designed a number of man powered ying ma-
chines with mechanical wings that apped, he also de-
signed a parachute and a light hang glider which could
have own.[25]

Musical instrument

Main article: viola organista

The viola organista was an experimental musical instru-

The ight of a bird ment invented by Leonardo da Vinci. It was the rst
bowed keyboard instrument (of which any record has sur-
vived) ever to be devised.
that the beating of its wings against the air sup-
ports a heavy eagle in the highest and rarest Leonardos original idea, as preserved in his notebooks
atmosphere, close to the sphere of elemental of 14881489 and in the drawings in the Codex Atlanti-
re. Again you may see the air in motion over cus, was to use one or more wheels, continuously rotating,
the sea, ll the swelling sails and drive heavily each of which pulled a looping bow, rather like a fanbelt
laden ships. From these instances, and the rea- in an automobile engine, and perpendicular to the instru-
sons given, a man with wings large enough and ments strings.
duly connected might learn to overcome the re-
sistance of the air, and by conquering it, suc-
ceed in subjugating it and rising above it.[4]
2.3.8 Leonardos inventions made reality
In the late 20th century, interest in Leonardos inventions
The desire to y is expressed in the many studies and escalated. There have been many projects which have
drawings. His later journals contain a detailed study of sought to turn diagrams on paper into working models.
the ight of birds and several dierent designs for wings One of the factors is the awareness that, although in the
based in structure upon those of bats which he described 15th and 16th centuries Leonardo had available a limited
as being less heavy because of the impenetrable nature of range of materials, modern technological advancements
the membrane. There is a legend that Leonardo tested the have made available a number of robust materials of light-
ying machine on Monte Ceceri with one of his appren- weight which might turn Leonardos designs into reality.
tices, and that the apprentice fell and broke his leg.[22] Ex- This is particularly the case with his designs for ying ma-
perts Martin Kemp and Liana Bortolon agree that there chines.
is no evidence of such a test, which is not mentioned in A diculty encountered in the creation of models is that
his journals. often Leonardo had not entirely thought through the me-
One design that he produced shows a ying machine to chanics of a machine before he drew it, or else he used a
be lifted by a man-powered rotor.[23] It would not have sort of graphic shorthand, simply not bothering to draw a
worked since the body of the craft itself would have ro- gear or a lever at a point where one is essential in order to
2.3. SCIENCE AND INVENTIONS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI 45

2.3.9 Leonardos projects

A parabolic compass.

Model of a ying machine by Leonardo in the V&A museum An aerial screw, sugges-
tive of a helicopter.
make a machine function. This lack of renement of me-
chanical details can cause considerable confusion. Thus
many models that are created, such as some of those on
display at Clos Luce, Leonardos home in France, do not
work, but would work, with a little mechanical tweaking.

Exhibitions
Cannons.
Leonardo da Vinci Gallery at Museo Nazionale della
Scienza e della Tecnologia Leonardo da Vinci in
Milan; permanent exhibition, the biggest collection
of Leonardos projects and inventions.[26]

Models of Leonardos designs are on permanent dis-

play at Clos Luce.

The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, held an

exhibition called Leonardo da Vinci: Experience, Walking on water.
Experiment and Design in 2006

Logitech Museum
2.3.10 Models based on Leonardos draw-
The Da Vinci Machines Exhibition was held in a ings
pavilion in the Cultural Forecourt, at South Bank,
Brisbane, Queensland, Australia in 2009. The ex-
hibits shown were on loan from the Museum of
Leonardo da Vinci, Florence, Italy.

Television programs

The U.S. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), aired

Model of Leonardos parachute.
in October 2005, a television programme called
Leonardos Dream Machines, about the building and
successful ight of a glider based upon Leonardos
design.

The Discovery Channel began a series called Doing

DaVinci in April 2009, in which a team of builders Model after Leonardos
try to construct various da Vinci inventions based on design for the Golden Horn Bridge.
his designs.[27]
46
Model of a ghting vehicle
by Leonardo
Model of a ywheel
2.3.11 See also
Studies of the Fetus in the Wombtwo colored an-
notated sketches by Leonardo da Vinci
List of works by Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vincis personal life
2.3.12 Notes
[1] Topographical anatomy is the anatomy that is visible on
the surface of the body.
[2] Liana Bortolon, The Life and Times of Leonardo, Paul
Hamlyn, 1967
[3] Capra, Fritjof. The Science of Leonardo; Inside the Mind
of the Genius of the Renaissance. (New York, Doubleday,
2007)
[4] Jean Paul Richter editor 1880, The Notebooks of Leonardo
da Vinci Dover, 1970, ISBN 0-486-22572-0. (accessed
2007-02-04)
[5]
[6] Da Vinci clue for heart surgeon. BBC News. 2005-09-
28. Retrieved 2013-07-18.
[7] Martin Kemp, Leonardo, Oxford University Press, (2004)
ISBN 0-19-280644-0
[8] Live Science
[9] E.g. Theophrastus, On the History of Plants.
[10] The London painting of the Virgin of the Rocks is de-
nounced by the geologist Ann C. Pizzorusso, of New
York, as largely by the hand of someone other than
Leonardo, because the rocks appear incongruous and the
lake looks like a fjord. Pizzorusso says Fjords do not ex-
ist in Italy and it is highly unlikely the glacial lakes of the
Lombard region would have such steep relief surround-
ing them. In fact, the glacial lake, Garda, has just such
steep geological formations. The sedimentary red lime-
stone which appears in the picture is also typical of Italy.
CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLES
[11] Pezzutto, Donato (2012-10-24). Leonardos Landscapes
as Maps. OPUSeJ. Retrieved 2012-11-07.
[12] See Da Vincis notebooks on astronomy.
[13] Bruce T. Moran, Distilling Knowledge, Chemistry,
Alchemy and the Scientic Revolution, (2005) ISBN 0-
674-01495-2
[14] Quicksilver is an old name for mercury.
[15] Irma Ann Richter and Teresa Wells, Leonardo da Vinci -
Notebooks, Oxford University Press (2008) ISBN 978-0-
19-929902-7
[16] Animations of anamorphosis of Leonardo and other
artists. Illusionworks.com. Retrieved 2013-07-18.
[17] L. Murphy Smith, Luca Pacioli: The Father of Accounting
[18] Leonardo da Vinci (14521519)". Nano-world.org. Re-
trieved 2013-07-24.
[19] Da Vinci war machines designed to fail"". The Age.
Melbourne. December 14, 2002.
[20] Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 199.
[21] Youtube Video of the BBC documentary.
[22] Liana Bortolon, Leonardo, Paul Hamlyn, (1967)
[23] The Helicopter Leonardo Da Vincis Inventions.
leonardodavincisinventions.com. Retrieved 2016-03-21.
[24] see Helicopter for detailed description of solutions and
types of functional helicopter.
[25] U.S. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), Leonardos
Dream Machine, October 2005
[26] Leonardo. Museoscienzaorg. Retrieved May 16, 2016.
[27] About Doing DaVinci : Doing DaVinci : Discovery
Channel Archived April 19, 2009, at the Wayback Ma-
chine.
2.3.13 References
Bsmbach, Carmen (2003). Leonardo da Vinci, Mas-
ter Draftsman. New Haven: Yale University Press.
p. 414. ISBN 0-300-09878-2.
2.3.14 Further reading
Moon, Francis C. (2007). The Machines of
Leonardo da Vinci and Franz Reuleaux, Kinematics
of Machines from the Renaissance to the 20th Cen-
tury. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-5598-0.
Capra, Fritjof (2007). The Science of Leonardo; In-
side the Mind of the Genius of the Renaissance. New
York: Doubleday.
2.4. CULTURAL DEPICTIONS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI 47

2.3.15 External links

The Art of War: Leonardo da Vincis War Machines

Complete text & images of Richters translation of

the Notebooks

Leonardo da Vinci: Experience, Experiment, De-

sign (review)

Some digitized notebook pages with explanations

from the British Library (Non HTML5 Available)

Digital and animated compendium of anatomy note-

book pages

BBC Leonardo homepage

Leonardo da Vinci: The Leicester Codex

Leonardos Letter to Ludovico Sforza

Animations of anamorphosis of Leonardo and other Raphael's depiction of Plato in his fresco The School of Athens
artists in the Vatican is believed to be a portrait of Leonardo da Vinci.

The Invention of the Parachute

Da Vinci - The Genius: A comprehensive traveling

exhibition about Leonardo da Vinci

The technical drawings of Leonardo da Vinci - a

high resolution gallery

Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the

Royal Library, Windsor Castle, exhibition catalog
fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum
of Art

Leonardo da Vinci, Master Draftsman, exhibition

catalog fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan
Museum of Art

2.4 Cultural depictions of

Leonardo da Vinci
Main article: Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci (April 15, 1452 May 2, 1519) West German stamp commemorating Leonardos 500th birthday
was an Italian Renaissance painter and polymath who
achieved legendary fame and iconic status within his own
lifetime. His renown primarily rests upon his brilliant He has been repeatedly acclaimed the greatest genius to
achievements as a painter, the Mona Lisa and the Last have lived. His painting of the Mona Lisa has been the
Supper, being two of the most famous artworks ever cre- most imitated artwork of all time and his drawing the
ated, but also upon his diverse skills as a scientist and Vitruvian Man iconically represents the fusion of Art and
inventor. He became so highly valued during his lifetime Science.
that the King of France bore him home like a trophy of Leonardos biography has appeared in many forms, both
war, supported him in his old age and, according to leg- scholarly and ctionalized. Every known aspect of his life
end, cradled his head as he died. has been scrutinized and analyzed. His paintings, draw-
Leonardos portrait was used, within his own lifetime, as ings and notebooks have been studied, reproduced and
the iconic image of Plato in Raphael's School of Athens. analyzed for ve centuries. The interest in and apprecia-
His biography was written in superlative terms by Vasari. tion of the character of Leonardo and his talents has never
48 CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLES

waned. No painting has been more imitated and satirised than the
Leonardo has appeared in many ctional works, such as Mona Lisa. Beginning possibly with a naked portrait of
novels, television shows and movies, the rst such ction Diane de Poitiers by Clouet, the pose and expression have
dating from the 16th century. Various characters have been freely adapted to many female portraits. The avant-
been named after him. garde art world has made note of the undeniable fact of
the Mona Lisas popularity. Because of the paintings
overwhelming stature, Dadaists and Surrealists often pro-
2.4.1 Artworks after originals by duce modications and caricatures. Already in 1883, Le
rire, an image of a Mona Lisa smoking a pipe, by Sapeck
Leonardo
(Eugne Bataille), was shown at the "Incoherents" show in
Paris. In 1919, Marcel Duchamp, one of the most inu-
Copies
ential modern artists, created L.H.O.O.Q., a Mona Lisa
parody made by adorning a cheap reproduction with a
moustache and a goatee, as well as adding the rude in-
scription, when read out loud in French sounds like Elle
a chaud au cul literally translated: she has a hot ass.
This is a manner of implying the woman in the painting is
in a state of sexual excitement and availability. This was
intended as a Freudian joke,[1] referring to Leonardos al-
leged homosexuality. According to Rhonda R. Shearer,
the apparent reproduction is in fact a copy partly mod-
elled on Duchamps own face.[2]
Salvador Dal, famous for his surrealist work, painted Self
portrait as Mona Lisa in 1954.[3] In 1963 following the
paintings visit to the United States, Andy Warhol cre-
ated serigraph prints of multiple Mona Lisas called Thirty
Peter Paul Rubens' copy of the lost Battle of Anghiari are Better than One, like his works of Marilyn Mon-
roe (Twenty-ve Coloured Marilyns, 1962), Elvis Presley
[4]
Leonardos pupils and followers copied or closely imi- (1964) and Campbells soup (19611962).
tated many of his pictures. Several of his important works
exist only as copies by his admirers. These include: Replicas of lost works

His cartoon of The Virgin and Child with St Anne "Il Gran Cavallo". This monumental bronze horse, 7
and St John the Baptist copied as an oil painting by metres (24 feet) high, is a conjectural re-creation of a
Luini clay horse that was created in Milan by Leonardo da
Vinci for the Ludovico Sforza and was intended to be
The Battle of Anghiari was copied several times by cast in bronze. Leonardo never nished the project be-
unknown Florentine artists as well by Peter Paul cause of war with France, and the clay horse was ruined.
Rubens. This representation was based on a number of Leonardos
preparatory drawings. It was created in 1999 in New
Leda and the Swan exists only as copies in the
York and given to the city of Milan.
Louvre and Villa Borhgese.

Other much much-copied works include: Presentation of existing works

Mona Lisa for which Angela della Chiesa cites 14
examples of which 6 are bare-breasted. These in-
clude paintings by Bernardino Luini, Sala and Joos
van Cleve.
John the Baptist for which there exist at least ve ver-
sions by other hands including Salai.
Parodies
The Last Supper is to be the subject of an animation by
British lm-maker Peter Greenaway, who plans to project
interpretative images onto its surface to enliven the scene
in which the apostles all question Jesus statement that one
of them will betray him.[5]
2.4.2 Representations of Leonardo in art
The Death of Leonardo

Main article: Mona Lisa replicas & reinterpretations The story of Leonardo dying in the arms of the French
king Francis I, although apocryphal,[6] appealed to the
2.4. CULTURAL DEPICTIONS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI 49

sicism. A number of his paintings had passed into the

Royal collection and certain elements of them were much
imitated. Leonardos manner of soft shading known
as sfumato was particularly adapted by Ingres, Jacques-
Louis David and their followers. An inuential paint-
ing was Leda and the swan, now regarded as by a pupil
of Leonardo but then generally accepted as the masters
work.

Statues

A monument to Leonardo was erected in 1872 in

Piazza del Scala, Milan. It comprises ve mar-
ble statues by Pietro Magni, of Leonardo and his
Mnageot's The Death of Leonardo da Vinci, 1781
pupils Cesare da Sesto, Giovanni Antonio Boltraf-
o, Marco d'Oggiono and Andrea Salaino, and
four reliefs depicting scenes in Leonardos life.

A statue of Leonardo by the Bulgarian sculptor

Assen Peikov stands outside Leonardo da Vinci
Fiumicino Airport (Rome).[8]

Leonardo Monument, Milan

The Death of Leonardo by Ingres, 1818

self-image of later French kings and to French history

painters of the 18th and 19th centuries.
Apparently on commission from Louis XVI,[7] Mnageot
painted The Death of Leonardo da Vinci in the arms of
Francis I in 1781, setting it in a background of classi- The statue of Leonardo outside the
cal statuary. This painting, which was the triumph of Uzi, Florence
the Salon of 1781, included a portrayal of the Borghese
Gladiator (Mnageot probably having seen it at the Villa
Borghese during his stay at the French Academy in Rome
from 1769 to 1774), although this was an anachronism
since Leonardo died in 1519, about ninety years before
the statue was discovered.
In 1818 the French painter Jean Auguste Dominique In-
Statue of Leonardo in the
gres depicted the scene of Leonardos death which is
pose of a river god in Amboise
shown taking place in the home Clos Luc provided
for him at Amboise by King Francis I. The King is
shown supporting Leonardos head as he dies, as de-
scribed by Vasari, watched by the Dauphin who is com-
2.4.3 References in other media
forted by a cardinal. A distraught young man may repre-
sent Leonardos pupil Melzi.
Novels and short stories
The treatment of this subject by Ingres is indicative of
Leonardos iconic status and also specically that he was The Romance of Leonardo da Vinci (1901) by
of particular signicance to the school of French Clas- Dmitry Merezhkovsky.
50 CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLES

The Second Mrs. Giaconda (1975) by E. L. Konigs- to be lost in the present day, while back in Renais-
burg is a childrens novel about why Leonardo sance Florence his friend Tomasso Masini desper-
painted the Mona Lisa. ately tries to save him.

Leonardo Da Vinci: Detective a short story by Leonardo da Vinci is a signicant character in

Theodore Mathieson, portrays him using his genius
to solve a murder during his time in France.
Pasquales Angel by Paul J. McAuley, set in
an alternate universe Florence, portrays Leonardo
as the Great Engineer, creating a premature
industrial revolution (see clockpunk).
The novel The Memory Cathedral by Jack Dann is
a ctional account of a lost year in the life of
Leonardo. Dann has his genius protagonist actually
create his ying machine.
The novel Pilgrim by Timothy Findley describes
the encounters of an immortal named Pilgrim with
Leonardo da Vinci among others, as told to Carl
Jung.
Terry Pratchett's character Leonard of Quirm is a
pastiche of Leonardo.
Three novels by Martin Woodhouse and Robert
Ross feature the adventures of Leonardo da Vinci
in the guise of a James Bond-type spy of the Italian
Renaissance: The Medici Guns (1974); The Medici
Emerald and The Medici Hawks.
the novels; Assassins Creed: Renaissance and
Assassins Creed: Brotherhood (novel), books
based on the video game series Assassins Creed.
Leonardo is portrayed as a close friend of the pro-
tagonist, Ezio Auditore da Firenze, a Florentine no-
blemans son who joined the Assassin Brotherhood
after the murder of his father and brothers by the rul-
ing families of Italy, each part of the once thought
disbanded Knights Templar. Leonardo helps the as-
sassin decipher encrypted codex pages left behind
by legendary master assassin, Altair (the protagonist
of the original Assassins Creed game). Leonardos
ying machine is successfully built and helps Ezio
travel across Venice in order to assassinate one of
his targets. Leonardo makes a brief appearance in
Assassins Creed: Revelations (novel). Ezio and his
close friend and fellow Assassin, Niccol Machi-
avelli visit him during the week that he died, present
at his side while he passes away. Machiavelli recalls
a rumour that King Francis cradled his head in his
arms as he died, to which Ezio remarked: "'Some
people even Kings will do anything for public-
ity'".

The Secret Supper (2006) by Javier Sierra explores The Da Vinci Code This work of ction has been the
the symbology of Leonardos Last Supper, and its centre of controversy over the accuracy of its depictions
threat to the Catholic Church, as he is painting the of Christianity and of da Vinci.
fresco in 15th century Milan. A bestselling 2003 novel by Dan Brown, adapted and re-
leased as a major motion picture in 2006, The Da Vinci
Black Madonna (1996) by Carl Sargent and Marc
Code revolves around a conspiracy based on elements of
Gascoigne, is set in the Shadowrun game universe
Leonardos Last Supper and other works. A preface to
and portrays Leonardo as still living in the 21st cen-
the novel claims that depictions of artworks, secret so-
tury, blackmailing corporations to nance his inven-
cieties and rites described within the novel are factual.
tions.
For this reason much of the content of the novel has been
The Medici Seal, a childrens novel by Theresa Bres- widely accepted by readers as authoritative. Because the
lin (2006). theme involves a conspiracy within the Church over the
life of Jesus and the suggestion that the Church has hidden
In the Children of the Red King series, a Donatella the facts of his marriage, there has been a strong reaction
Di Vinci married a Bertram Babbington-Bloor. Do- against the novel and much material published examining
natella was the daughter of an Italian magician. No and refuting its claims.
connection between Leonardo and Donatella has
Within the novel it is claimed that from 15101519,
been stated since.
Leonardo was the Grand Master of a secret society, the
In Robert Heinlens The Door Into Summer, Dr. Priory of Sion. In reality this society existed only as
Twitchell recounts a tale of a student whom he dis- a 20th-century hoax, but author Dan Brown used as a
placed in time by 500 years. While there was no way source the 1982 pseudohistory book The Holy Blood and
of knowing whether the student went to the past or the Holy Grail. The writers of this book had based their
the future, Dr. Twitchell hints that he believes it was research on forged medieval documents that had been
the past due to the students nameLeonard Vin- created as part of the Priory of Sion fraud. The mix
cent. of fact and ction in the documents made it dicult
to discount immediately as a forgery. For example, it
In the novel Saturns Apprentice by M.A. Lang, an was claimed that the Grand Master prior to Leonardo
alchemical experiment gone wrong causes Leonardo was Botticelli, who had indeed had an association with
2.4. CULTURAL DEPICTIONS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI
Leonardo, as they were both students at the Florence
workshop of Andrea del Verrocchio.
The Priory of Sion story and the veracity of The Holy
Blood and the Holy Grail was eventually debunked, and
many of those involved publicly recanted, although Dan
Brown continued to assert that the facts as presented were
true.
In portraying the Priory of Sion as fact The Da Vinci
Code expanded on the claims in The Holy Blood and the
Holy Grail:
That there were additional secrets hidden in
Leonardos paintings, such as an M letter in the
painting of The Last Supper, indicating the presence
of Mary Magdalene and that the gure to the left of Films which refer to Leonardos works or inventions:
Jesus traditionally said to represent John the Evan-
gelist actually represents Mary Magdalene.
That the Mona Lisa was actually a self-portrait.
That among the dierences in the two versions of
the painting of the Virgin of the Rocks which hang
in the Louvre and Londons National Gallery, is the
fact that in the Louvre painting the baby to the left
of the picture depicts Jesus, and to the right John the
Baptist, rather than the accepted view, which is the
other way round.
That Leonardo invented a cryptex for carrying secret
messages.
The book also used a variation of Leonardos backwards
handwriting to hide a secret message on the American
bookjacket.
Among the many criticisms of Browns writing is that
he uses the name da Vinci (meaning from Vinci) in
the manner that surnames are commonly used nowadays.
Leonardo would never have been referred to simply as da
Vinci in his lifetime. Such designations were appended to
common baptismal names in order to identify individuals.
Film
Films which are about the life of Leonardo or in which
he appears as a character:
Leonardo Da Vinci (1919), silent lm [9]
The Life of Leonardo da Vinci (1971) starring
Philippe Leroy as Leonardo da Vinci
Nothing Left to Do But Cry (1984) starring Roberto
Benigni and Massimo Troisi
Quest of the Delta Knights (1993) depicting a c-
tional version of the young Leonardo
Leonardo Da Vinci (1996) Animated movie[10]
51
Ever After (1998) starring Drew Barrymore and
Patrick Godfrey as Leonardo da Vinci
Christie Malrys Own Double-Entry (2000) starring
Mattia Sbragia as Leonardo da Vinci[11]
Leonardo (2003), TV movie starring Mark Rylance
as Leonardo da Vinci[12]
Mr. Peabody & Sherman (2014), da Vinci
and Peabody work together to build a machine to
recharge the wabac. However, Peabody rst helps
da Vinci make Mona Lisa smile. At the end of the
lm, da Vinci and Mona Lisa are doing grati.
Hudson Hawk (1991) starring Bruce Willis and
Danny Aiello revolves around Leonardo da Vincis
inventions
The Da Vinci Code (2006) starring Tom Hanks
The Da Vinci Treasure (2006) depicts Da Vincis
paintings as clues that lead to enlightenment
The Three Musketeers (2011) depicts the muske-
teers stealing plans by Da Vinci for an airship from
'Leonardos vault' in Venice
"Mr. Peabody & Sherman" (2014 lm) Sherman
and Penny y through Florence with da Vincis ying
machine until Peabody spots them.
Theatre
Peter Barnes's 1969 play Leonardos Last Supper
centres on Leonardo being resurrected in a lthy
charnel house after being prematurely declared
dead.
David Davalos's 2002 play Daedalus tells a fanta-
sized story of Leonardos time as a military engineer
in the service of Cesare Borgia, in the company of
Lucrezia Borgia and Niccol Machiavelli.
Music
Author Charles Anthony Silvestri and composer
Eric Whitacre collaborated to create an opera
brve based on text from da Vincis journals and
original text by Silvestri. This piece, Leonardo
Dreams of His Flying Machine, was modeled af-
ter da Vincis conceptual ying machine. This
piece was written on commission by the American
Choral Directors Association as the second piece in
Whitacres series of Element Works, the rst be-
ing Cloudburst, written in 1992.
52
Dream Theater vocalist James LaBrie performed as
Leonardo in the progressive metal album 'Leonardo:
The Absolute Man', an album which itself explored
his life and works through the milieu of music.
In the Red Hot Chili Peppers video for
Californication, a cartoon John Frusciante can
be seen riding Leonardos helicopter.
Mona Lisa is used as a stage name by Kimber-
ley Leadbetter, an American pop and R&B singer-
songwriter.
The Ballad of Mona Lisa is a song by Panic! at the
Disco, an American rock band, published in Febru-
ary 2011.
Television ction
1966: In the SF sitcom My Favorite Martian episode
Martin Meets His Match, Martin uses his time
machine to bring Da Vinci to the present day to help
him repair his spaceship. Instead, da Vinci decides
to steal back his painting the Mona Lisa and take it
back with him.
1967: In the Bewitched episode Samanthas Da
Vinci Dilemma, Aunt Clara tries to conjure up a
house painter, but she goofs and summons Leonardo
da Vinci from the past instead.
1969: In the Star Trek episode "Requiem for
Methuselah", Leonardo da Vinci is revealed to be
one of many aliases to Flint, an immortal man
born in the year 3834 BC. Leonardos abilities and
knowledge are thus attributed to centuries of sci-
entic and artistic study. Leonardo appears again
in the Star Trek universe, in the series Star Trek:
Voyager, where he and his workshop are created
as a holographic simulation. Actor James Daly
played Flint/Leonardo in Star Trek, while John
Rhys-Davies portrayed Leonardo in Star Trek: Voy-
ager. Also, in the S.C.E. (Stareet Corps of En-
gineers) novellas, the main starship of the series is
called the U.S.S. da Vinci (NCC-81623), a Sabre-
class vessel, named for the artist.
1969: In the Ironside Season 2 episode The
Prophecy, a ctional Leonardo painting called The
Seraglio is stolen from a museum. A psychic friend
of Ironsides tells Mark Sanger he will catch a lovely
black girl all in silver and emeralds with golden rings
around her ankles, and it is Mark who saves the
paintingwhich features a bejeweled black woman
dancing in a seragliofrom rolling into the sea to-
ward the end of the episode.
1970: In the British comedy series Monty Pythons
Flying Circus in the Art Gallery Strike sketch in
the episode Spam, the Mona Lisa was used in two
CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLES
animated links by Terry Gilliam, the rst as one of
many paintings going on strike (she dons a cap and
declares in a low-pitched voice, I'm o) and as a
temptress who reveals large breasts under her gar-
ment; here she tells the viewer (in a seductive, smoky
American accent), Come over here to my window,
big boy.
1979: The Doctor Who story City of Death features
a theft of the Mona Lisa. The Doctor goes back in
time to visit Leonardos workshop and claims to be
an old acquaintance of the artist. Leonardo also ap-
pears as a character in several Doctor Who novels.
1984- : In the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles cartoon
series, comics, lms, and other media, the leader of
the turtles is named Leonardo after Da Vinci.[13]
1989: In The Super Mario Bros. Super Show! live-
action segment The Painting, the Mario Bros. nd
a painting which happens to be Leonardo da Vincis
painting "The Last Supper". They call up Howard
Stevens (played by the shows producer Andy Hey-
ward), and he explains that its the second Last
Supper by Leonardo da Vinci Rooney. How-
ever, upon further examination, they discover that
the painting is actually worthless because it was
painted by an impostor, Leonard da Vinci Ma-
honey. Howard was able to identify it as Mahoneys
painting because one of the people in the painting is
Mahoneys uncle, Roy Orbisoni Mahoney. The in-
formation dealing with da Vinci in this episode is
incorrect.
1989-1990: The anime Time Quest features Profes-
sor Leonardo as inventor of the kettle-shaped time
machine, who is revealed to be Leonardo da Vinci
in the nal episodes.
1995: The cartoon The Tick features Leonardo in
Leonardo DaVinci and his Fightin' Genius Time
Commandos!" (Season 2, Episode 17) in which
a number of famous inventors are brought to the
present by an inventor seeking to take credit for
their work. (Other inventors include Ben Franklin,
George Washington Carver, and the neolithic inven-
tor of the wheel, named Wheel.) Leonardo is por-
trayed as being able to create fantastic ying devices
out of rudimentary objects.
1998: An episode of Histeria! focusing on the Re-
naissance featured a cartoon caricature of Leonardo
as a host. Over the course of the episode, he is criti-
cized by Worlds Oldest Woman for wearing a dress,
and also parodies the 1960s Batman series as Re-
naissance Man, with Loud Kiddington as his side-
kick.
1999: In the animated television series Dilbert (TV
series) episode "Art" has Leonardo as the secret ruler
2.4. CULTURAL DEPICTIONS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI
of the art world. He reveals that he discovered im- Comics and graphic novels
mortality centuries ago through the invention of the
fountain of youth.
1999: In Blackadder: Back & Forth, Baldrick builds
a time machine to Leonardos exact design specica-
tions and it actually works. Earlier in the Blackadder
series the episode Money featured a painter by the
name of Leonardo Acropolis, ostensibly based on
Leonardo.
2001-2006: The television show Alias features a
character Milo Giacomo Rambaldi, a ctional char-
acter clearly based on Leonardo.
2006: Featured on the History Channel's Man, Mo-
ment, Machine.
2006: The Boston Legal episode "The Nutcrack-
ers" portrayed the main character, Alan Shore, as
the Mona Lisa, a play on his stoic demeanor in the
show.[14]
2010: The Futurama episode "The Duh-Vinci
Code" reveals Leonardo to be an alien from Planet
Vinci, which is inhabited by brilliant intellectuals of
human appearance. However, he is considered to be
the least intelligent of the planets inhabitants and is
bullied by everyone else for it. He came to Earth as
a means of escape, but eventually returned to Vinci
after being disillusioned by how much more unin-
telligent the people of Earth were compared to him.
He builds a new machine designed to kill his tor-
mentors, but it is sabotaged by Philip J. Fry, and
Leonardo is crushed to death when he pulls a lever
on the machine that drops a giant cog on him.
2011: The Family Guy episode "The Big Bang The-
ory" follows Stewie and Brian on a quest to stop
Bertram from killing Leonardo, which would per-
manently erase Stewie from the universe.
2011-2012: The BBC series Leonardo centers
around Da Vinci when he was a teenager (played by
Jonathan Bailey).
2013: Da Vincis Demons is an historical fantasy se-
ries about Leonardo da Vinci at the age of 25. Da Computer and video games
Vinci is involved in political intrigue amongst the
Italian city-states, the Vatican, and the mystery cult In Marios Time Machine, the MS-DOS and SNES
known as the Sons of Mithras.
2013: In the Sky Arts feature-length documentary
Inside the Mind of Leonardo, Da Vinci is played by
Peter Capaldi.
Advertising
Benetton's 1988 United Superstars of Benetton as a "Renaissance man. Some of Leonardos work
print and billboard campaign, paired with Julius
Caesar[15]
53
The DC Comics Elseworlds story "Black Master-
piece", in Batman Annual No. 18, shows Leonardos
apprentice becoming a Renaissance Batman, using
the Masters devices in his war on Florentine crime.
DC Comicss Vertigo division published a ten-issue
miniseries strongly laced with sex, violence, and
magic[13] about Leonardo, entitled Chiaroscuro:
The Private Lives of Leonardo da Vinci.[13]
In the mainstream DC Universe, according to Secret
Origins No. 27, Leonardo is an ancestor of the
famed Freemason Cagliostro, as well as Zatara
and Zatanna who are both magicians (in both the
Magic (illusion) and Magic (paranormal) senses)
and superheroes. Also, in Final Night No. 2, it
was revealed that Vandal Savage had blackmailed
Leonardo into painting the Mona Lisa.
The Dargaud cartoon character Lonard by Turk
and De Groot.
The Daily Mirror comic strip character Garth saved
Leonardo from the Black Death in the 1972 strip
Orb of the Trimandias, written by Jim Edgar and
illustrated by Frank Bellamy.
In 1979, the French weekly Journal de Mickey pub-
lished a Mickey Mouse adventure based in Renais-
sance Florence. Goofy is Leonardo, and Mickey
gets him to paint the portrait of Mona Lisa, who is
represented by Clarabelle Cow.
Leonardo appeared as a character in the now defunct
Marvel Comics imprint Epic Comics mini series The
Light and Darkness War.
Leonardo da Vinci appears in the current Marvel
S.H.I.E.L.D. series (which is now a series of mini
series) by Jonathan Hickman. Leonardo is depicted
as a leader of a sacred order called the Brotherhood
of the Shield, and has been shown to time travel to
the storys present, set in the late 1950s and early
1960s.
releases of the game feature Leonardo as a non-
player character. His notes are stolen by Bowser
after the latter travels back in time, and Mario
travels back in time himself to Florence to return
the notes. In the area, Mario meets several of
Leonardos contemporaries, including Michelangelo
and an apprentice of Andrea del Verrocchio, who
talk about Leonardos past, innovations, and status
is also seen, including his concept of a helicopter (re-
ferred to in-game as a drawing of air screw), his
54 CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLES

Vitruvian Man (referred to in-game as a drawing of of Donatello, Michelangelo and Raphael, engaged
Ideal Man), and the Mona Lisa, which he can only in a battle rap with the eponymous Teenage Mutant
complete once Mario returns his notes to him. Ninja Turtles.

In The Journeyman Project 2: Buried in Time a tem-

poral saboteur has tampered with several historical 2.4.4 Gallery
items in the past to pass on technological informa-
tion to an alien race. One of them is the Codex At-
lanticus. The player is to explore da Vincis studio
while he was working for Ludovico Sforza.

In Rise of Legends (2006), the Vinci faction uses

steampunk technology inspired by Leonardo.

In Soulcalibur Legends there is a character that bears

Engraving from The
a striking resemblance to Leonardo, and even has the
Swedish Family Journal, 186487, artist Evald
same name.
Hansen.
In Elite Beat Agents, one mission has the agents go
back in time to help Leonardo paint the Mona Lisa.
He is only ever referred to as Leo or Leonard.

In Civilization, Leonardos Workshop is one of the

most useful World Wonders"; Leonardo also ap-
pears as a Great Person.

Leonardo is an important supporting character in

Assassins Creed series. In Assassins Creed II, An engraved representation
a young Leonardo befriends the protagonist, Ezio of da Vinci from Wallace Woods The Hundred
Auditore da Firenze, in 1476 when introduced by Greatest Men (1885), based on an 1817 engraving
Ezios mother Maria, a patron of Leonardos. He by Raaello Sanzio Morghen.[16]
later helps Ezio by deciphering pages of an ancient
Assassin Codex written by legendary Assassin Men-
tor Altar Ibn-La'Ahad and using his mechanical
know-how to build various devices, inventions and
weapons. An older Leonardo appears in Assassins
Creed: Brotherhood, having been forced to make
war machines for Cesare Borgia and Rodrigo Bor-
gia and asking Ezio to help him by destroying them.
In the DLC The Da Vinci Disappearance for Broth- Leonardos drawing of the
erhood, Leonardo is kidnapped by Hermeticists, Vitruvian Man is used in many contexts, including
members of the Cult of Hermes, and Ezio must res- T-shirts.
cue him. The DLC also includes Leonardos pupil
and suspected lover, Sala.

In Super Monday Night Combat, a clone of Leonardo

da Vinci under the name of Leo is playable.

In LittleBigPlanet 2, a tutorial and supporting char- The Last Supper carved in

acter is also named Da Vinvi with some few dier- salt in the Wieliczka Salt Mine
ence: he wore 3-d glasses, his head is made of craft,
and his rst name is Larry.

In Fate/Grand Order, Leonardo is portrayed as a fe-

2.4.5 References
male and a Caster class Servant.
[1] Jones, Jonathan (26 May 2001). L.H.O.O.Q., Marcel
Duchamp (1919)". The Guardian. UK. Retrieved 12 June
Online
2009.
2014: In the Epic Rap Battles of History episode [2] Marting, Marco De (2003). Mona Lisa: Who is Hidden
Artists vs. TMNT, da Vinci, portrayed by Link Behind the Woman with the Mustache?". Art Science Re-
Neal of Rhett and Link, appears alongside portrayals search Laboratory. Retrieved 27 April 2008.
2.4. CULTURAL DEPICTIONS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI 55

[3] Dal, Salvador. Self Portrait as Mona Lisa. Mona Lisa

Images for a Modern World by Robert A. Baron (from
the catalog of an exhibition at the Museum of Modern
Art and the Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1973, p. 195).
Retrieved 24 October 2009.

[4] Sassoon, Donald (2003). Becoming Mona Lisa. Harvest

Books via Amazon Search Inside. p. 251. ISBN 0-15-
602711-9.

[5] Robert Booth (2008-02-15). Greenaway prepares to cre-

ate Da Vinci coda. The Guardian. Retrieved 2013-07-
24.

[6] King Francis cannot have been present because the day
after Leonardos death, a royal edict was issued by the
King at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, a two-day journey dis-
tant from Clos Luce.

[7] According to Franois-Charles Joullain ls, Rexions sur

la peinture et la gravure 1786:2.

[8] Shkodrova, Albena. Innocent as a Barbarian, Nostalgic

for a Lost World. Balkan Travellers. Retrieved 17 April
2013.

[9] Leonardo Da Vinci on Internet Movie Database

[10] Leonardo Da Vinci on Internet Movie Database

[11] Christie Malrys Own Double-Entry on Internet Movie

Database

[12] Leonardo on Internet Movie Database

[13] Fairbrother, Trevor (1997). The Ongoing Saga of

Leonardos Legend. In Kotz, Suzanne. The Ongoing
Saga of Leonardos Legend (ill. ed.). Seattle: Seattle Art
Museum, in assoc. w. University of Washington Press.
p. 48. ISBN 978-0-295-97688-4. OCLC 37465464. Re-
trieved 27 January 2013.

[14] Script for Boston Legal episode The Nutcracker""

(PDF). p. 11. Retrieved 2013-10-22.

[15] Benetton Group: Evolution of Communication Strategy

scribd.com Accessed February 21, 2010

[16] Leonardo da Vinci. lacma.org. Retrieved November 8,

2015.

2.4.6 External links

Leonardo da Vinci (Character) on Internet Movie
Database
Chapter 3

Major works

3.1 Mona Lisa Vasaris account of the Mona Lisa comes from his biog-
raphy of Leonardo published in 1550, 31 years after the
This article is about the painting. For other uses, see artists death. It has long been the best-known source of
Mona Lisa (disambiguation). information on the provenance of the work and identity of
the sitter. Leonardos assistant Sala, at his death in 1524,
owned a portrait which in his personal papers was named
The Mona Lisa (/mon lis/; Italian: Monna Lisa la Gioconda, a painting bequeathed to him by Leonardo.
[mnna liza] or La Gioconda [la dokonda], French:
La Joconde [la k d]) is a half-length portrait of Lisa That Leonardo painted such a work, and its date, were
Gherardini by the Italian Renaissance artist Leonardo da conrmed in 2005 when a scholar at Heidelberg Uni-
Vinci that has been described as the best known, the versity discovered a marginal note in a 1477 printing
most visited, the most written about, the most sung about, of a volume written by the ancient Roman philosopher
the most parodied work of art in the world.[1] Cicero. Dated October 1503, the note was written by
Leonardos contemporary Agostino Vespucci. This note
The painting is a portrait of Lisa Gherardini, the wife likens Leonardo to renowned Greek painter Apelles, who
of Francesco del Giocondo, and is in oil on a white is mentioned in the text, and states that Leonardo was at
Lombardy poplar panel, and is believed to have been that time working on a painting of Lisa del Giocondo.[7]
painted between 1503 and 1506. Leonardo may have
continued working on it as late as 1517. It was acquired
by King Francis I of France and is now the property of
the French Republic, on permanent display at the Louvre
Museum in Paris since 1797.[2]
The subjects expression, which is frequently described
as enigmatic,[3] the monumentality of the composition,
the subtle modelling of forms, and the atmospheric illu- A margin note by Agostino Vespucci (visible at right) discovered
sionism were novel qualities that have contributed to the in a book at Heidelberg University. Dated 1503, it states that
continuing fascination and study of the work.[4] Leonardo was working on a portrait of Lisa del Giocondo.

The model, Lisa del Giocondo,[8][9] was a member of

3.1.1 Title and subject
Main article: Lisa del Giocondo
The title of the painting, which is known in English as
Mona Lisa, comes from a description by Renaissance
art historian Giorgio Vasari, who wrote Leonardo un-
dertook to paint, for Francesco del Giocondo, the por-
trait of Mona Lisa, his wife.[5][6] Mona in Italian is a
polite form of address originating as ma donna simi-
lar to Maam, Madam, or my lady in English. This be-
came madonna, and its contraction mona. The title of
the painting, though traditionally spelled Mona (as used
by Vasari[5] ), is also commonly spelled in modern Italian
as Monna Lisa ("mona" being a vulgarity in some Italian
dialects) but this is rare in English.
the Gherardini family of Florence and Tuscany, and the
wife of wealthy Florentine silk merchant Francesco del
Giocondo.[10] The painting is thought to have been com-
missioned for their new home, and to celebrate the birth
of their second son, Andrea.[11] The Italian name for
the painting, La Gioconda, means jocund (happy or
jovial) or, literally, the jocund one, a pun on the fem-
inine form of Lisas married name, "Giocondo.[10][12] In
French, the title La Joconde has the same meaning.
Before that discovery, scholars had developed several
alternative views as to the subject of the painting. Some
argued that Lisa del Giocondo was the subject of a dif-
ferent portrait, identifying at least four other paintings
as the Mona Lisa referred to by Vasari.[13][14] Several
other women have been proposed as the subject of the
painting.[15] Isabella of Aragon,[16] Cecilia Gallerani,[17]

56
3.1. MONA LISA
Costanza d'Avalos, Duchess of Francavilla,[15] Isabella
d'Este, Pacica Brandano or Brandino, Isabela Gualanda,
Caterina Sforzaeven Sala and Leonardo himselfare
all among the list of posited models portrayed in the
painting.[18][19] The consensus of art historians in the 21st
century maintains the long-held traditional opinion, that
the painting depicts Lisa del Giocondo.[7]
3.1.2 History
Main article: Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci began painting the Mona Lisa in 1503
Presumed self-portrait by Leonardo da Vinci, executed in red
chalk sometime between 1512 and 1515
or 1504 in Florence, Italy.[20] Although the Louvre states
that it was doubtless painted between 1503 and 1506,[4]
the art historian Martin Kemp says there are some di-
culties in conrming the actual dates with certainty.[10]
According to Leonardos contemporary, Giorgio Vasari,
after he had lingered over it four years, [he] left it
unnished.[6] Leonardo, later in his life, is said to have
regretted never having completed a single work.[21]
In 1516, Leonardo was invited by King Franois I to work
at the Clos Luc near the kings castle in Amboise. It is La Joconde est Retrouve (Mona Lisa is Found), Le Petit
believed that he took the Mona Lisa with him and contin- Parisien, 13 December 1913
ued to work after he moved to France.[18] Art historian
Carmen C. Bambach has concluded that Leonardo prob- On 21 August 1911, the painting was stolen from the
57
ably continued rening the work until 1516 or 1517.[22]
Upon his death, the painting was inherited with other
works by his pupil and assistant Sala.[10] Francis I bought
the painting for 4,000 cus and kept it at Palace of
Fontainebleau, where it remained until Louis XIV moved
the painting to the Palace of Versailles. After the French
Revolution, it was moved to the Louvre, but spent a
brief period in the bedroom of Napoleon in the Tuileries
Palace.
During the Franco-Prussian War (187071) it was moved
from the Louvre to the Brest Arsenal.[23] During World
War II, the painting was again removed from the Louvre
and taken safely, rst to Chteau d'Amboise, then to the
Loc-Dieu Abbey and Chteau de Chambord, then nally
to the Ingres Museum in Montauban.
In December 2015, it was reported that French sci-
entist Pascal Cotte had found a hidden portrait under-
neath the surface of the painting using reective light
technology.[24] The portrait is an underlying image of
a model looking o to the side.[25] Having been given
access to the painting by Louvre in 2004, Cotte spent
ten years using layer amplication methods to study the
painting.[24] According to Cotte, the underlying image is
Leonardos original Mona Lisa.[24][26]
Theft and vandalism
58
Vacant wall in the Salon Carr, Louvre after the painting was
stolen in 1911
Louvre.[27] The theft was not discovered until the next
day, when painter Louis Broud walked into the museum
and went to the Salon Carr where the Mona Lisa had
been on display for ve years, only to nd four iron pegs
on the wall. Broud contacted the head of the guards, who
thought the painting was being photographed for promo-
tional purposes. A few hours later, Broud checked back
with the Section Chief of the Louvre who conrmed that
the Mona Lisa was not with the photographers. The Lou-
vre was closed for an entire week during the investigation.
The Mona Lisa on display in the Uzi Gallery, in Florence,
1913. Museum director Giovanni Poggi (right) inspects the paint-
ing.
CHAPTER 3. MAJOR WORKS
French poet Guillaume Apollinaire, who had once called
for the Louvre to be burnt down, came under suspicion
and was arrested and imprisoned. Apollinaire implicated
his friend Pablo Picasso, who was brought in for question-
ing. Both were later exonerated.[28][29] Two years later
the thief revealed himself. Louvre employee Vincenzo
Peruggia had stolen the Mona Lisa by entering the build-
ing during regular hours, hiding in a broom closet, and
walking out with it hidden under his coat after the mu-
seum had closed.[12] Peruggia was an Italian patriot who
believed Leonardos painting should have been returned
for display in an Italian museum.
Peruggia may have been motivated by an associate whose
copies of the original would signicantly rise in value
after the paintings theft. A later account suggested
Eduardo de Valerno had been the mastermind of the
theft and had commissioned forger Yves Chaudron to cre-
ate six copies of the painting to sell in the U.S. while
the location of the original was unclear.[30] However, the
original painting remained in Europe. After having kept
the Mona Lisa in his apartment for two years, Peruggia
grew impatient and was caught when he attempted to sell
it to directors of the Uzi Gallery in Florence. It was
exhibited in the Uzi Gallery for over two weeks and
returned to the Louvre on 4 January 1914.[31] Peruggia
served six months in prison for the crime and was hailed
for his patriotism in Italy.[29] Before its theft, the Mona
Lisa was not widely known outside the art world. It was
not until the 1860s that some critics, a thin slice of the
French intelligentsia, began to hail it as a masterwork of
Renaissance painting.[32]
In 1956, part of the painting was damaged when a vandal
threw acid at it.[33] On 30 December of that year, a rock
was thrown at the painting, dislodging a speck of pigment
near the left elbow, later restored.[34]
The use of bulletproof glass has shielded the Mona Lisa
from subsequent attacks. In April 1974, a woman, upset
by the museums policy for disabled people, sprayed red
paint at it while it was being displayed at the Tokyo Na-
tional Museum.[35] On 2 August 2009, a Russian woman,
distraught over being denied French citizenship, threw a
ceramic teacup purchased at the Louvre; the vessel shat-
tered against the glass enclosure.[36][37] In both cases, the
painting was undamaged.
3.1.3 Aesthetics
The Mona Lisa bears a strong resemblance to many Re-
naissance depictions of the Virgin Mary, who was at that
time seen as an ideal for womanhood.[38]
The depiction of the sitter in three-quarter prole is
similar to late 15th-century works by Lorenzo di Credi
and Agnolo di Domenico del Mazziere.[38] Zllner notes
that the sitters general position can be traced back to
Flemish models and that in particular the vertical slices
of columns at both sides of the panel had precedents
3.1. MONA LISA 59

Detail of Lisas hands, her right hand resting on her left.

Leonardo chose this gesture rather than a wedding ring to de-
pict Lisa as a virtuous woman and faithful wife.[42]

Some researchers claim that it was common at this time

for genteel women to pluck these hairs, as they were con-
sidered unsightly.[44][45] In 2007, French engineer Pascal
Cotte announced that his ultra-high resolution scans of
Detail of the background (right side) the painting provide evidence that Mona Lisa was orig-
inally painted with eyelashes and with visible eyebrows,
but that these had gradually disappeared over time, per-
in Flemish portraiture.[39] Woods-Marsden cites Hans haps as a result of overcleaning.[46] Cotte discovered the
Memlings portrait of Benededetto Portinari (1487) or painting had been reworked several times, with changes
Italian imitations such as Sebastiano Mainardis pendant made to the size of the Mona Lisas face and the direc-
portraits for the use of a loggia, which has the eect tion of her gaze. He also found that in one layer the sub-
of mediating between the sitter and the distant land- ject was depicted wearing numerous hairpins and a head-
scape, a feature missing from Leonardos earlier portrait dress adorned with pearls which was later scrubbed out
of Ginevra de' Benci.[40] and overpainted.[47]
The woman sits markedly upright in a pozzetto arm- There has been much speculation regarding the paintings
chair with her arms folded, a sign of her reserved posture. model and landscape. For example, Leonardo probably
Her gaze is xed on the observer. The woman appears painted his model faithfully since her beauty is not seen
alive to an unusual extent, which Leonardo achieved by as being among the best, even when measured by late
his method of not drawing outlines (sfumato). The soft quattrocento (15th century) or even twenty-rst century
blending creates an ambiguous mood mainly in two fea- standards.[48] Some art historians in Eastern art, such
tures: the corners of the mouth, and the corners of the as Yukio Yashiro, argue that the landscape in the back-
eyes.[41] ground of the picture was inuenced by Chinese paint-
[49]
The painting was one of the rst portraits to depict the ings, but this thesis has been contested for lack of clear
[49]
sitter in front of an imaginary landscape, and Leonardo evidence.
was one of the rst painters to use aerial perspective.[43] Research in 2003 by Professor Margaret Livingstone of
The enigmatic woman is portrayed seated in what appears Harvard University said that Mona Lisas smile disap-
to be an open loggia with dark pillar bases on either side. pears when looked with direct vision, known as foveal,
Behind her, a vast landscape recedes to icy mountains. because of the way the human eye processes visual infor-
Winding paths and a distant bridge give only the slight- mation it is less suited to pick up shadows directly, how-
est indications of human presence. Leonardo has cho- ever peripheral vision can pick up shadows well.[50]
sen to place the horizon line not at the neck, as he did Research in 2008 by a geomorphology professor at
with Ginevra de' Benci, but on a level with the eyes, thus Urbino University and an artist-photographer revealed
linking the gure with the landscape and emphasizing the likenesses of Mona Lisa's landscapes to some views in
mysterious nature of the painting.[40] the Montefeltro region in the Italian provinces of Pesaro,
Mona Lisa has no clearly visible eyebrows or eyelashes. Urbino and Rimini.[51][52]
60
3.1.4 Conservation
The Mona Lisa has survived for more than 500 years, and
an international commission convened in 1952 noted that
the picture is in a remarkable state of preservation.[53]
This is partly due to a variety of conservation treatments
the painting has undergone. A detailed analysis in 1933
by Madame de Gironde revealed that earlier restorers had
acted with a great deal of restraint.[53] Nevertheless, ap-
plications of varnish made to the painting had darkened
even by the end of the 16th century, and an aggressive
1809 cleaning and revarnishing removed some of the up-
permost portion of the paint layer, resulting in a washed-
out appearance to the face of the gure. Despite the treat-
ments, the Mona Lisa has been well cared for through-
out its history, and although the panels warping caused
the curators some worry,[54] the 200405 conservation
team was optimistic about the future of the work.[53]
Poplar panel
At some point, the Mona Lisa was removed from its origi-
nal frame. The unconstrained poplar panel warped freely
with changes in humidity, and as a result, a crack devel-
oped near the top of the panel, extending down to the
hairline of the gure. In the mid-18th century to early
19th century, two buttery-shaped walnut braces were in-
serted into the back of the panel to a depth of about one
third the thickness of the panel. This intervention was
skilfully executed, and successfully stabilized the crack.
Sometime between 1888 and 1905, or perhaps during the
pictures theft, the upper brace fell out. A later restorer
glued and lined the resulting socket and crack with cloth.
The picture is kept under strict, climate-controlled condi-
tions in its bulletproof glass case. The humidity is main-
tained at 50% 10%, and the temperature is maintained
between 18 and 21 C. To compensate for uctuations in
relative humidity, the case is supplemented with a bed of
silica gel treated to provide 55% relative humidity.[53]
Frame
Because the Mona Lisa's poplar support expands and con-
tracts with changes in humidity, the picture has experi-
enced some warping. In response to warping and swelling
experienced during its storage during World War II, and
to prepare the picture for an exhibit to honour the an-
niversary of Leonardos 500th birthday, the Mona Lisa
was tted in 1951 with a exible oak frame with beech
crosspieces. This exible frame, which is used in addition
to the decorative frame described below, exerts pressure
on the panel to keep it from warping further. In 1970,
the beech crosspieces were switched to maple after it was
found that the beechwood had been infested with insects.
In 200405, a conservation and study team replaced the
maple crosspieces with sycamore ones, and an additional
CHAPTER 3. MAJOR WORKS
metal crosspiece was added for scientic measurement of
the panels warp.
The Mona Lisa has had many dierent decorative frames
in its history, owing to changes in taste over the centuries.
In 1909, the Comtesse de Bhague gave the portrait its
current frame,[55] a Renaissance-era work consistent with
the historical period of the Mona Lisa. The edges of the
painting have been trimmed at least once in its history
to t the picture into various frames, but no part of the
original paint layer has been trimmed.[53]
Cleaning and touch-up
The rst and most extensive recorded cleaning, revarnish-
ing, and touch-up of the Mona Lisa was an 1809 wash and
revarnishing undertaken by Jean-Marie Hooghstoel, who
was responsible for restoration of paintings for the gal-
leries of the Muse Napolon. The work involved clean-
ing with spirits, touch-up of colour, and revarnishing the
painting. In 1906, Louvre restorer Eugne Denizard per-
formed watercolour retouches on areas of the paint layer
disturbed by the crack in the panel. Denizard also re-
touched the edges of the picture with varnish, to mask
areas that had been covered initially by an older frame.
In 1913, when the painting was recovered after its theft,
Denizard was again called upon to work on the Mona
Lisa. Denizard was directed to clean the picture with-
out solvent, and to lightly touch up several scratches to
the painting with watercolour. In 1952, the varnish layer
over the background in the painting was evened out. Af-
ter the second 1956 attack, restorer Jean-Gabriel Gouli-
nat was directed to touch up the damage to Mona Lisa's
left elbow with watercolour.[53]
In 1977, a new insect infestation was discovered in the
back of the panel as a result of crosspieces installed to
keep the painting from warping. This was treated on the
spot with carbon tetrachloride, and later with an ethylene
oxide treatment. In 1985, the spot was again treated with
carbon tetrachloride as a preventive measure.[53]
Display
On 6 April 2005following a period of curatorial
maintenance, recording, and analysisthe painting was
moved to a new location within the museums Salle
des tats. It is displayed in a purpose-built, climate-
controlled enclosure behind bulletproof glass.[56] Since
2005 the painting has been illuminated by an LED lamp,
and in 2013 a new 20 watt LED lamp was installed,
specially designed for this painting. The lamp has a
Colour Rendering Index up to 98, and minimizes infrared
and ultraviolet radiation which could otherwise degrade
the painting.[57] The renovation of the gallery where the
painting now resides was nanced by the Japanese broad-
caster Nippon Television.[58] About 6 million people view
the painting at the Louvre each year.[18]
3.1. MONA LISA 61

Mona Lisa behind bulletproof glass at the Louvre Museum

3.1.5 Fame
US President John F. Kennedy, Madeleine Malraux, Andr Mal-
raux, Jacqueline Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson at the unveil-
ing of the Mona Lisa at the National Gallery of Art during its
visit to Washington D.C., 8 January 1963

From December 1962 to March 1963, the French govern-

ment lent it to the United States to be displayed in New
York City and Washington, D.C.[63] It was shipped on the
new liner SS France. In New York an estimated 1.7 mil-
lion people queued in order to cast a glance at the Mona
Lisa for 20 seconds or so.[61] In 1974, the painting was
exhibited in Tokyo and Moscow.[64]
2014: Mona Lisa is among the greatest attractions in the Louvre.
In 2014, 9.3 million people visited the Louvre,[65] Former
director Henri Loyrette reckoned that 80 percent of the
Today the Mona Lisa is considered the most famous people only want to see the Mona Lisa.[66]
painting in the world, but until the 20th century it was
simply one among many highly regarded artworks.[59]
Once part of King Francis I of France's collection, the Financial worth
Mona Lisa was among the very rst artworks to be exhib-
ited in Louvre, which became a national museum after Before the 196263 tour, the painting was assessed for in-
the French Revolution. From the 19th century Leonardo surance at $100 million. The insurance [67]
was not bought.
began to be revered as a genius and the paintings popu- Instead, more was spent on security. Adjusted for in-
larity grew from the mid-19th century when French in- ation using the US Consumer Price Index, $100 million
[68]
telligentsia developed a theme that it was somehow mys- in 1962 is around US$782 million in 2015 making it,
terious and a representation of the femme fatal.[60] The in practice, by far the most valued painting in the world.
Baedeker guide in 1878 called it the most celebrated In 2014 a France 24 article suggested that the painting
work of Leonardo in the Louvre,[61] but the painting was could be sold to help ease the national debt, although it
known more by the intelligentsia than the general public. was noted that the Mona Lisa and other such art works
The 1911 theft of the Mona Lisa and its subsequent re- were prohibited from being sold due to French heritage
turn, however, was reported worldwide, leading to a mas- law, which states that Collections held in museums that
sive increase in public recognition of the painting. Dur- belong to public bodies are[69]
considered public property
ing the 20th century it was an object for mass reproduc- and cannot be otherwise.
tion, merchandising, lampooning and speculation, and
was claimed to have been reproduced in 300 paintings
and 2,000 advertisements.[61] It has been said that the
3.1.6 Legacy
Mona Lisa was regarded as just another Leonardo until
early last century, when the scandal of the paintings theft See also: Mona Lisa replicas and reinterpretations
from the Louvre and subsequent return kept a spotlight on
it over several years.[62] Before its completion the Mona Lisa had already begun
62 CHAPTER 3. MAJOR WORKS

to inuence contemporary Florentine painting. Raphael, French urban artist known pseudonymously as Invader
who had been to Leonardos workshop several times, has created versions on city walls in Paris and Tokyo us-
promptly used elements of the portraits composition and ing his trademark mosaic style.[79] A collection of Mona
format in several of his works, such as Young Woman with Lisa parodies may be found on YouTube.[80] A 2014 New
Unicorn (c. 1506[70] ), and Portrait of Maddalena Doni Yorker magazine cartoon parodies the supposed enigma
(c. 1506). Celebrated later paintings by Raphael, La ve- of the Mona Lisa smile in an animation showing progres-
lata (151516) and Portrait of Baldassare Castiglione (c. sively maniacal smiles.
151415), continued to borrow from Leonardos paint-
ing. Zollner states that None of Leonardos works would
exert more inuence upon the evolution of the genre than 3.1.7 Early copies
the Mona Lisa. It became the denitive example of the
Renaissance portrait and perhaps for this reason is seen
not just as the likeness of a real person, but also as the
embodiment of an ideal.[71]
Early commentators such as Vasari and Andr Flibien
praised the picture for its realism, but by the Victorian era
writers began to regard the Mona Lisa as imbued with a
sense of mystery and romance. In 1859 Thophile Gau-
tier wrote that the Mona Lisa was a sphinx of beauty
who smiles so mysteriously and that Beneath the form
expressed one feels a thought that is vague, innite, in-
expressible. One is moved, troubled ... repressed desires,
hopes that drive one to despair, stir painfully. Walter Pa-
ter's famous essay of 1869 described the sitter as older
than the rocks among which she sits; like the vampire, she
has been dead many times, and learned the secrets of the
grave; and has been a diver in the deep seas, and keeps
their fallen day about her.[72] By the early 20th century
some critics started to feel the painting had become a
repository for subjective exegeses and theories,[73] and
upon the paintings theft in 1911, Renaissance historian
Bernard Berenson admitted that it had simply become
an incubus, and I was glad to be rid of her.[73][74]
The avant-garde art world has made note of the undeni-
able fact of the Mona Lisa's popularity. Because of the
paintings overwhelming stature, Dadaists and Surrealists
often produce modications and caricatures. Already in
1883, Le rire, an image of a Mona Lisa smoking a pipe, by
Sapeck (Eugne Bataille), was shown at the "Incoherents" Perspective Mona Lisa to the Prado museum
show in Paris. In 1919, Marcel Duchamp, one of the most
inuential modern artists, created L.H.O.O.Q., a Mona
Lisa parody made by adorning a cheap reproduction with
a moustache and goatee. Duchamp added an inscription, Prado Museum La Gioconda
which when read out loud in French sounds like Elle a
chaud au cul meaning: she has a hot ass, implying the Main article: Mona Lisa (Prados version)
woman in the painting is in a state of sexual excitement
and intended as a Freudian joke.[75] According to Rhonda
R. Shearer, the apparent reproduction is in fact a copy A version of Mona Lisa known as Mujer de mano de
partly modelled on Duchamps own face.[76] Leonardo Abince (Leonardo da Vincis handy-woman)
held in Madrids Museo del Prado was for centuries con-
Salvador Dal, famous for his surrealist work, painted Self sidered to be a work by Leonardo. However, since its
portrait as Mona Lisa in 1954.[77] In 1963 following the restoration in 2012 it is considered to have been executed
paintings visit to the United States, Andy Warhol cre- by one of Leonardos pupils in his studio at the same
ated serigraph prints of multiple Mona Lisas called Thirty time as Mona Lisa was being painted.[81] Their conclu-
are Better than One, like his works of Marilyn Mon- sion, based on analysis obtained after the picture under-
roe (Twenty-ve Coloured Marilyns, 1962), Elvis Pres- went extensive restoration, that the painting is probably
ley (1964) and Campbells soup (196162).[78] The Mona by Sala (1480-1524) or by Melzi (1493-1572). This has
Lisa continues to inspire artists around the world. A been called into question by others.[82]
3.1. MONA LISA 63

Copy of Mona Lisa

commonly attributed to Sala

Perspective Mona Lisa to the Louvre museum

The Prado Museum

La Gioconda

The restored painting is from a slightly dierent per-

spective than the original Mona Lisa, leading to the
speculation that it is part of the worlds rst stereoscopic
pair.[83][84][85] However, a more recent report has demon-
strated that this stereoscopic pair in fact gives no reliable
stereoscopic depth.[86]

The Isleworth Mona

Lisa

Isleworth Mona Lisa

Main article: Isleworth Mona Lisa

A version of the Mona Lisa known as the Isleworth Mona

Lisa was rst bought by an English nobleman in 1778 and
was rediscovered in 1913 by Hugh Blaker, an art con-
noisseur. The painting was presented to the media in
2012 by the Mona Lisa Foundation.[87] The owners claim
that Leonardo contributed to the painting, a theory that
Leonardo experts such as Zllner and Kemp deny has any 16th century copy at
substance.[88] the Hermitage by unknown artist
64
3.1.8 See also
List of most expensive paintings
3.1.9 References
Notes
[1] Licheld, John (1 April 2005). The Moving of the Mona
Lisa. The Independent.
[2] Carrier, David (2006). Museum Skepticism: A History of
the Display of Art in Public Galleries. Duke University
Press. p. 35. ISBN 0822387573.
[3] Cohen, Philip (23 June 2004). Noisy secret of Mona
Lisas. New Scientist. Retrieved 27 April 2008.
[4] Mona Lisa Portrait of Lisa Gherardini, wife of
Francesco del Giocondo. Muse du Louvre. Retrieved
11 March 2012.
[5] Italian: Prese Lionardo a fare per Francesco del Giocondo
il ritratto di mona Lisa sua moglieVasari 1879, p. 39
[6] Clark, Kenneth (March 1973). Mona Lisa. The
Burlington Magazine (vol 115 ed.). 115 (840): 144151.
ISSN 0007-6287. JSTOR 877242.
[7] Mona Lisa Heidelberg discovery conrms identity.
University of Heidelberg. Retrieved 4 July 2010.
[8] German experts crack the ID of 'Mona Lisa'". MSN. 14
January 2008. Archived from the original on 16 January
2008. Retrieved 15 January 2008.
[9] Researchers Identify Model for Mona Lisa. The New
York Times. Retrieved 15 January 2008.
[10] Kemp 2006, pp. 261262
[11] Farago 1999, p. 123
[12] Bartz 2001, p. 626
[13] Stites, Raymond S. (January 1936). Mona LisaMonna
Bella. Parnassus (vol 8 ed.). College Art Association. 8
(1): 710, 2223. doi:10.2307/771197. JSTOR 771197.
[14] Littleeld 1914, p. 525
[15] Wilson 2000, pp. 364366
[16] Debelle, Penelope (25 June 2004). Behind that secret
smile. The Age. Melbourne. Retrieved 6 October 2007.
[17] Johnston, Bruce (8 January 2004). Riddle of Mona Lisa
is nally solved: she was the mother of ve. The Daily
Telegraph. UK. Archived from the original on 11 October
2007. Retrieved 6 October 2007.
[18] Chaundy, Bob (29 September 2006). Faces of the
Week. BBC. Retrieved 5 October 2007.
[19] Nicholl, Charles (28 March 2002). The myth of the
Mona Lisa. The Guardian. UK. Retrieved 6 October
2007.
CHAPTER 3. MAJOR WORKS
[20] Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. (2005). An Age of Voyages,
13501600. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 26.
ISBN 0-19-517672-3.
[21] Thomas, Henry; Lee Thomas, Dana (1940). Living bi-
ographies of great painters. Garden City Publishing Co.,
Inc. p. 49.
[22] Leonardo, Carmen Bambach, Rachel Stern, and Alison
Manges (2003). Leonardo da Vinci, master draftsman.
New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 234. ISBN
1588390330
[23] Bohm-Duchen, Monica (2001). The private life of a mas-
terpiece. University of California Press. p. 53. ISBN
978-0-520-23378-2. Retrieved 10 October 2010.
[24] Hidden portrait 'found under Mona Lisa', says French
scientist. BBC. 8 December 2015. Retrieved 8 Decem-
ber 2015.
[25] Secret Portrait Hidden Under Mona Lisa, Claims French
Scientist. Newsweek. 8 December 2015. Retrieved 8
December 2015.
[26] McAloon, Jonathan. The Missing Mona Lisa. Apollo.
[27] Theft of the Mona Lisa. Stoner Productions via Public
Broadcasting Service (PBS). Retrieved 24 October 2009.
[28] R. A. Scotti (April 2010). Vanished Smile: The Mysterious
Theft of the Mona Lisa. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-307-
27838-8.
[29] Top 25 Crimes of the Century: Stealing the Mona Lisa,
1911. TIME. 2 December 2007. Archived from the orig-
inal on 14 July 2007. Retrieved 15 September 2007.
[30] The Lost Mona Lisa by R. A. Scotti (Random House,
2010)
[31] Noah Charney, Chronology of the Mona Lisa: History
and Thefts, The Secret History of Art, Blouin Artinfo
Blogs. Retrieved 2015-10-25.
[32] The Theft That Made The 'Mona Lisa' A Masterpiece.
NPR. 30 July 2011. Retrieved 26 August 2014.
[33] Faces of the week. BBC. 29 September 2006. Re-
trieved 27 April 2008.
[34] Mona FAQ. Mona Lisa Mania. Archived from the orig-
inal on 1 June 2009. Retrieved 7 Jan 2010.
[35] "'Mona Lisa' Still Smiling, Undamaged After Womans
Spray Attack in Tokyo. Sarasota Herald-Tribune. 21
April 1974. Retrieved 9 October 2012.
[36] Mona Lisa attacked by Russian woman. Xinhua News
Agency. 12 August 2009. Retrieved 12 August 2009.
[37] Russian tourist hurls mug at Mona Lisa in Louvre. As-
sociated Press. 11 August 2009. Retrieved 11 August
2009.
[38] Zllner, Frank (2000). Leonardo Da Vinci, 1452-1519.
ISBN 9783822859797.
3.1. MONA LISA
[39] Zllner, Frank. Leonardos Portrait of Mona Lisa del
Giocondo (PDF). p. 16.
[40] Woods-Marsden p. 77 n. 100
[41] E.H. Gombrich, The Story of Art". Artchive.com. Re-
trieved 2013-06-03.
[42] Farago 1999, p. 372
[43] The Mona Lisa (La Gioconda)". BBC. 25 October 2009.
Retrieved 24 October 2009.
[44] Turudich 2003, p. 198
[45] McMullen, Roy (1976). Mona Lisa: The Picture and the
Myth. Macmillan Publishers. ISBN 0-333-19169-2.
[46] Holt, Richard (22 October 2007). Solved: Why Mona
Lisa doesn't have eyebrows. The Daily Telegraph. UK.
Retrieved 11 March 2010.
[47] Ghose, Tia (December 9, 2015). Lurking Beneath the
'Mona Lisa' May Be the Real One. Livescience.com.
[48] Irene Earls, Artists of the Renaissance, Greenwood Press,
2004, p.113. ISBN 0-313-31937-5
[49] Salgueiro, Heliana Angotti (2000). Paisaje y art.
University of So Paulo. p. 74. ISBN 85-901430-1-5.
[50] BBC NEWS - Entertainment - Mona Lisa smile secrets
revealed.
[51] Rosetta Borchia and Olivia Nesci, Codice P. Atlante il-
lustrato del reale paesaggio della Gioconda, Mondadori
Electa, 2012, ISBN 978-88-370-9277-1
[52] Researchers identify landscape behind the Mona Lisa.
The Times. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
[53] Mohen, Jean-Pierre (2006). Mona Lisa: inside the Paint-
ing. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. p. 128. ISBN 0-8109-4315-
8.
[54] Ageing Mona Lisa worries Louvre. BBC News. 26
April 2004. Retrieved 24 October 2009.
[55] Biographical index of collectors of pastels. Pastel-
lists.com. Retrieved 2013-06-03.
[56] Mona Lisa gains new Louvre home. BBC. 6 April 2005.
Retrieved 27 April 2008.
[57] Fontoynont, Marc et al. "Lighting Mona Lisa with LEDs"
Note. SBI / Aalborg University, June 2013.
[58] Nippon Television Network Corporation. Ntv.co.jp. 6
April 2005. Retrieved 21 November 2010.
[59] Riding, Alan (6 April 2005). In Louvre, New Room
With View of 'Mona Lisa'". The New York Times. Re-
trieved 7 October 2007.
[60] Sassoon, Donald. Why is the Mona Lisa Famous?". La
Trobe University Podcast. Retrieved 20 January 2014.
[61] Sassoon, Donald (2001). Mona Lisa: the Best-Known
Girl in the Whole Wide World. History Workshop Jour-
nal (vol 2001 ed.). Oxford University Press. 2001 (51):
1. doi:10.1093/hwj/2001.51.1. ISSN 1477-4569.
65
[62] Gopnik, Blake (May 7, 2004). A Record Picasso and
the Hype Price of Status Objects. The Washington Post.
Retrieved November 28, 2016.
[63] Stolow, Nathan (1987). Conservation and exhibitions:
packing, transport, storage, and environmental consider-
ation. Butterworths. p. 188. ISBN 978-0-408-01434-2.
Retrieved 10 October 2010.
[64] Bohm-Duchen, Monica (2001). The private life of a mas-
terpiece. University of California Press. p. 65. ISBN
978-0-520-23378-2. Retrieved 10 October 2010.
[65] The French Ministry of Foreign aairs. The Louvre, the
most visited museum in the world (01.15)". France Diplo-
matie :: Ministry of Foreign Aairs and International De-
velopment.
[66] On a Mission to Loosen Up the Louvre. The New York
Times. 11 October 2009.
[67] Young, Mark, ed. (1999). The Guinness Book of World
Records 1999. Bantam Books. p. 381. ISBN 0-553-
58075-2.
[68] Six Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. Dollar
Amount, 1790 to Present. Measuring Worth. Retrieved
9 August 2013.
[69] Culture - Could France sell the Mona Lisa to pay o its
debts?". France 24.
[70] Zollner gives a date of c. 1504, most others say c. 1506
[71] Zllner, Frank. Leonardo Da Vinci, 1452-1519. p. 161.
[72] Clark, Kenneth (1999). Mona Lisa. In Farago, Claire
J. Leonardo Da Vinci, Selected Scholarship: Leonardos
projects, c. 1500-1519. p. 214. ISBN 9780815329350.
[73] The myth of the Mona Lisa. The Guardian.
[74] Samuels, Ernest; Samuels, Jayne (1987). Bernard
Berenson, the Making of a Legend. p. 215. ISBN
9780674067790.
[75] Jones, Jonathan (26 May 2001). L.H.O.O.Q., Marcel
Duchamp (1919)". The Guardian. UK. Retrieved 12 June
2009.
[76] Marting, Marco De (2003). Mona Lisa: Who is Hidden
Behind the Woman with the Mustache?". Art Science Re-
search Laboratory. Retrieved 27 April 2008.
[77] Dal, Salvador. Self Portrait as Mona Lisa. Mona Lisa
Images for a Modern World by Robert A. Baron (from
the catalog of an exhibition at the Museum of Modern
Art and the Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1973, p. 195).
Retrieved 24 October 2009.
[78] Sassoon, Donald (2003). Becoming Mona Lisa. Harvest
Books via Amazon Search Inside. p. 251. ISBN 0-15-
602711-9.
[79] The 20,000 Rubiks Cube Mona Lisa. metro.co.uk. 29
January 2009. Retrieved 18 July 2014.
[80] Best Funny Mona Lisa Parodies La Gioconda Painting NO
Panic! at the Disco. YouTube. 18 September 2014.
66 CHAPTER 3. MAJOR WORKS

[81] La Gioconda, Leonardos atelier. Museo Nacional del
Prado. Retrieved 7 December 2015.
[82] The 'Prado Mona Lisa' - The Mona Lisa Foundation.
The Mona Lisa Foundation.
[83] Carbon, C. C.; Hesslinger, V. M. (August 2013). Da
Vincis Mona Lisa Entering the Next Dimension (PDF).
Perception. 42 (8): 887893. doi:10.1068/p7524. PMID
24303752. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
Wilson, Colin (2000). The Mammoth Encyclopedia
of the Unsolved. Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN
0-7867-0793-3.
Woods-Marsden, Joanna (2001), Portrait of the
Lady, 1430 - 1520, in Brown, David Alan, Virtue
& Beauty, London: Priceton University Press, pp.
6487, ISBN 0691090572

[84] Carbon, Claus-Christian; Hesslinger, Vera M. Restoring 3.1.10 External links

Depth to Leonardos Mona Lisa. American Scientist. 103
(6): 404409. doi:10.1511/2015.117.1. Retrieved 7 De-
cember 2015. (Subscription required (help)).
[85] Tweened animated gif of Mona Lisa and Prado version by
Carbon and Hesslinger
[86] Brooks, K. R. (1 January 2017). Depth Perception and
the History of Three-Dimensional Art: Who Produced
the First Stereoscopic Images?". i-Perception. 8 (1).
doi:10.1177/2041669516680114. Retrieved 25 January
2017.
[87] Dutta, Kunal (15 December 2014). "'Early Mona Lisa':
Unveiling the one-in-a-million identical twin to Leonardo
da Vinci painting.
[88] Alastair Sooke. The Isleworth Mona Lisa: A second
Leonardo masterpiece?". BBC.
Bibliography
Bartz, Gabriele (2001). Art and architecture, Lou-
vre. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 978-0-7607-
2577-1. Retrieved 10 October 2010.
Bohm-Duchen, Monica (2001). The private life of
a masterpiece. University of California Press. ISBN
978-0-520-23378-2. Retrieved 10 October 2010.
Farago, Claire J. (1999). Leonardos projects, c.
15001519. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-8153-
2935-0. Retrieved 10 October 2010.
Sassoon, Donald, Prof. (21 January 2014). #26:
Why is the Mona Lisa Famous?. La Trobe Univer-
sity podcast blog. Archived from the original on 4
July 2015. of the podcast audio.
Kobb, Gustav The Smile of the Mona Lisa" The
Lotus Magazine Vol. 8, No. 2 (Nov. 1916), pp.
6774
Mona Lisa, Leonardos Earlier Version. Zrich,
Switzerland: The Mona Lisa Foundation. Archived
from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 5
November 2015.
True Colors of the Mona Lisa Revealed (Press re-
lease). Paris: Lumiere Technology. October 19,
2006. Archived from the original on 26 June 2015.
Retrieved 5 November 2015.
Scientic analyses conducted by the Center for Re-
search and Restoration of the Museums of France
(C2RMF) Compare layers of the painting as re-
vealed by x-radiography, infrared reectographya
and ultraviolet uorescence
Stealing Mona Lisa. Dorothy & Thomas Hoobler.
May 2009. excerpt of book. Vanity Fair
Discussion by Janina Ramirez and Martin Kemp:
Art Detective Podcast, 18 Jan 2017

Kemp, Martin (2006). Leonardo da Vinci: the mar-

3.2 The Last Supper
vellous works of nature and man. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280725-0. Retrieved 10 Oc- The Last Supper (Italian: Il Cenacolo [il tenakolo] or
tober 2010. L'Ultima Cena [lultima tena]) is a late 15th-century
mural painting by Leonardo da Vinci in the refectory of
Littleeld, Walter (1914). The Two Mona the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan. It is one
Lisas"". The Century: a popular quarterly. Scribner of the worlds most famous paintings.[1]
& Co. 87.
The work is presumed to have been commenced around
Turudich, Daniela (2003). Plucked, Shaved & 14951496 and was commissioned as part of a plan of
Braided: Medieval and Renaissance Beauty and renovations to the church and its convent buildings by
Grooming Practices 10001600. Streamline Press. Leonardos patron Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. The
ISBN 1-930064-08-X. painting represents the scene of The Last Supper of Jesus
with his disciples, as it is told in the Gospel of John,
Vasari, Giorgio (1879) [1550]. Le vite de' pi ec- 13:21. Leonardo has depicted the consternation that
cellenti pittori, scultori ed architettori (vol 4 ed.). occurred among the Twelve Disciples when Jesus an-
Florence: G.C. Sansoni. nounced that one of them would betray him.
3.2. THE LAST SUPPER
Due to the methods used, and a variety of environmen-
tal factors, as well as intentional damage, very little of
the original painting remains today, despite numerous
restoration attempts, the last being completed in 1999.
3.2.1 Painting
Crucixion, opposite Leonardos Last Supper
The Last Supper, ca. 1520, by Giovanni Pietro Rizzoli, called
Giampietrino (active 1508-1549), after Leonardo da Vinci, oil
on canvas, currently in the collection of The Royal Academy of
Arts, London; full-scale copy that was the main source for the
twenty-year restoration of the original (1978-1998). It includes
several lost details such as Christs feet and the salt cellar spilled
by Judas. Giampietrino is thought to have worked closely with
Leonardo when he was in Milan.
The Last Supper, ca. 1520, Andrea Solari, after Leonardo da
Vinci, oil on canvas, currently in the Leonardo da Vinci Museum,
Tongerlo Abbey.
The Last Supper measures 460 cm 880 cm (180 in
350 in) and covers an end wall of the dining hall at
67
the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan,
Italy. The theme was a traditional one for refectories,
although the room was not a refectory at the time that
Leonardo painted it. The main church building had only
recently been completed (in 1498), but was remodeled
by Bramante, hired by Ludovico Sforza to build a Sforza
family mausoleum.[2] The painting was commissioned by
Sforza to be the centerpiece of the mausoleum.[3] The
lunettes above the main painting, formed by the triple
arched ceiling of the refectory, are painted with Sforza
coats-of-arms. The opposite wall of the refectory is
covered by the Crucixion fresco by Giovanni Donato
da Montorfano, to which Leonardo added gures of the
Sforza family in tempera. (These gures have deterio-
rated in much the same way as has The Last Supper.)
Leonardo began work on The Last Supper in 1495 and
completed it in 1498he did not work on the paint-
ing continuously. The beginning date is not certain, as
the archives of the convent for the period have been
destroyed, and a document dated 1497 indicates that
the painting was nearly completed at that date.[4] One
story goes that a prior from the monastery complained
to Leonardo about the delay, enraging him. He wrote to
the head of the monastery, explaining he had been strug-
gling to nd the perfect villainous face for Judas, and that
if he could not nd a face corresponding with what he
had in mind, he would use the features of the prior who
complained.[5][6]
A study for The Last Supper from Leonardos notebooks showing
nine apostles identied by names written above their heads
The Last Supper specically portrays the reaction given
by each apostle when Jesus said one of them would be-
tray him. All twelve apostles have dierent reactions to
the news, with various degrees of anger and shock. The
apostles are identied from a manuscript[7] (The Note-
books of Leonardo da Vinci p. 232) with their names
found in the 19th century. (Before this, only Judas, Pe-
ter, John and Jesus were positively identied.) From left
to right, according to the apostles heads:
Bartholomew, James, son of Alphaeus, and Andrew
form a group of three; all are surprised.
Judas Iscariot, Peter, and John form another group
of three. Judas is wearing green and blue and is in
68
shadow, looking rather withdrawn and taken aback
by the sudden revelation of his plan. He is clutch-
ing a small bag, perhaps signifying the silver given to
him as payment to betray Jesus, or perhaps a refer-
ence to his role within the 12 disciples as treasurer.[8]
He is also tipping over the salt cellar. This may be
related to the near-Eastern expression to betray the
salt meaning to betray ones Master. He is the only
person to have his elbow on the table and his head is
also horizontally the lowest of anyone in the paint-
ing. Peter looks angry and is holding a knife pointed
away from Christ, perhaps foreshadowing his violent
reaction in Gethsemane during Jesus arrest. The
youngest apostle, John, appears to swoon.
Jesus
Apostle Thomas, James the Greater, and Philip are
the next group of three. Thomas is clearly upset; the
raised index nger foreshadows his incredulity of the
Resurrection. James the Greater looks stunned, with
his arms in the air. Meanwhile, Philip appears to be
requesting some explanation.
Matthew, Jude Thaddeus, and Simon the Zealot are
the nal group of three. Both Jude Thaddeus and
Matthew are turned toward Simon, perhaps to nd
out if he has any answer to their initial questions.
In common with other depictions of the Last Supper from
this period, Leonardo seats the diners on one side of the
table, so that none of them has his back to the viewer.
Most previous depictions excluded Judas by placing him
alone on the opposite side of the table from the other
eleven disciples and Jesus, or placing halos around all the
disciples except Judas. Leonardo instead has Judas lean
back into shadow. Jesus is predicting that his betrayer
will take the bread at the same time he does to Saints
Thomas and James to his left, who react in horror as Je-
sus points with his left hand to a piece of bread before
them. Distracted by the conversation between John and
Peter, Judas reaches for a dierent piece of bread not
noticing Jesus too stretching out with his right hand to-
wards it (Matthew 26: 23). The angles and lighting draw
attention to Jesus, whose head is located at the vanishing
point for all perspective lines.
The painting contains several references to the number
3, which represents the Christian belief in the Holy Trin-
ity. The Apostles are seated in groupings of three; there
are three windows behind Jesus; and the shape of Jesus
gure resembles a triangle. There may have been other
references that have since been lost as the painting dete-
riorated.
A rst restoration was attempted in 1726 by Michelan-
Important copies gelo Bellotti, who lled in missing sections with oil paint
then varnished the whole mural. This repair did not last
Two early copies of The Last Supper are known to ex- well and another restoration was attempted in 1770 by
ist, presumed to be work by Leonardos assistants. The an otherwise unknown artist named Giuseppe Mazza.
CHAPTER 3. MAJOR WORKS
copies are almost the size of the original, and have sur-
vived with a wealth of original detail still intact.[10] One
copy, by Giampietrino, is in the collection of the Royal
Academy of Arts, London, and the other, by Cesare da
Sesto, is installed at the Church of St. Ambrogio in Ponte
Capriasca, Switzerland. A third copy (oil on canvas) is
painted by Andrea Solari (ca. 1520) and is currently at
display in the Leonardo da Vinci Museum of the Tongerlo
Abbey, Belgium.
3.2.2 Medium
For this work, Leonardo sought a greater detail and lumi-
nosity than could be achieved with traditional fresco.[11]
He painted The Last Supper on a dry wall rather than
on wet plaster, so it is not a true fresco. Because a
fresco cannot be modied as the artist works, Leonardo
instead chose to seal the stone wall with a double layer
of dried plaster.[11] Then, borrowing from panel paint-
ing, he added an undercoat of white lead to enhance the
brightness of the oil and tempera that was applied on
top. This was a method that had been described previ-
ously, by Cennino Cennini in the 14th century. However,
Cennini had recommended the use of secco for the -
nal touches alone.[12] These techniques were important
for Leonardos desire to work slowly on the painting, giv-
ing him sucient time to develop the gradual shading or
chiaroscuro that was essential in his style.
3.2.3 Damage and restorations
Because the painting was on a thin exterior wall, the ef-
fects of humidity were felt more keenly, and the paint
failed to properly adhere to the wall. Because of the
method used, soon after the painting was completed on
February 9, 1498 it began to deteriorate.[11] As early
as 1517, the painting was starting to ake. By 1556
fewer than sixty years after it was nishedLeonardos
biographer Giorgio Vasari described the painting as al-
ready ruined and so deteriorated that the gures were
unrecognizable. By the second half of the sixteenth cen-
tury Gian Paolo Lomazzo stated that, the painting is
all ruined.[11] In 1652, a doorway was cut through the
(then unrecognisable) painting, and later bricked up; this
can still be seen as the irregular arch shaped structure near
the center base of the painting. It is believed, through
early copies, that Jesus feet were in a position symboliz-
ing the forthcoming crucixion. In 1768, a curtain was
hung over the painting for the purpose of protection; it in-
stead trapped moisture on the surface, and whenever the
curtain was pulled back, it scratched the aking paint.
3.2. THE LAST SUPPER 69

The painting as it looked in the 1970s

billa Barcilon guided a major restoration project which

undertook to stabilize the painting, and reverse the dam-
age caused by dirt and pollution. The 18th- and 19th-
century restoration attempts were also reverted. Since it
had proved impractical to move the painting to a more
controlled environment, the refectory was instead con-
verted to a sealed, climate-controlled environment, which
meant bricking up the windows. Then, detailed study was
undertaken to determine the paintings original form, us-
ing scientic tests (especially infrared reectoscopy and
microscopic core-samples), and original cartoons pre-
served in the Royal Library at Windsor Castle. Some
A protective structure was built in front of the da Vinci wall areas were deemed unrestorable. These were re-painted
fresco. This photo shows the bombing damage in 1943, suggest- using watercolor in subdued colors intended to indicate
ing the magnitude of the greater damage that was averted. they were not original work, while not being too distract-
ing.
This restoration took 21 years and, on 28 May 1999, the
Mazza stripped o Bellottis work then largely repainted
painting was returned to display. Intending visitors were
the painting; he had redone all but three faces when he
required to book ahead and could only stay for 15 min-
was halted due to public outrage. In 1796, French rev-
utes. When it was unveiled, considerable controversy was
olutionary anti-clerical troops used the refectory as an
aroused by the dramatic changes in colors, tones, and
armory; they threw stones at the painting and climbed lad-
even some facial shapes. James Beck, professor of art
ders to scratch out the Apostles eyes. The refectory was
history at Columbia University and founder of ArtWatch
then later used as a prison; it is not known if any of the
International, had been a particularly strong critic.[13]
prisoners may have damaged the painting. In 1821, Ste-
Michael Daley, director of ArtWatch UK, has also com-
fano Barezzi, an expert in removing whole frescoes from
plained about the restored version of the painting. He
their walls intact, was called in to remove the painting to a
has been critical of Christs right arm in the image which
safer location; he badly damaged the center section before
has been altered from a draped sleeve to what Daley calls
realizing that Leonardos work was not a fresco. Barezzi
mu-like drapery.[14]
then attempted to reattach damaged sections with glue.
From 1901 to 1908, Luigi Cavenaghi rst completed a
careful study of the structure of the painting, then began
3.2.4 The Last Supper in culture
cleaning it. In 1924, Oreste Silvestri did further cleaning,
and stabilised some parts with stucco.
The Last Supper has frequently been referenced, repro-
During World War II, on August 15, 1943, the refectory duced, or parodied in Western culture. Some of the more
was struck by Allied bombing; protective sandbagging notable examples are:
prevented the painting from being struck by bomb splin-
ters, but it may have been damaged further by the
vibration. From 1951 to 1954, another clean-and- Painting, mosaic, and photography
stabilise restoration was undertaken by Mauro Pelliccioli.
A 16th-century oil on canvas copy is conserved in
the abbey of Tongerlo, Antwerp, Belgium. It reveals
Major restoration many details that are no longer visible on the origi-
nal. The Roman mosaic artist Giacomo Raaelli made
The paintings appearance by the late 1970s had become another life-sized copy (18091814) in the Viennese
badly deteriorated. From 1978 to 1999, Pinin Bram- Minoritenkirche.
70 CHAPTER 3. MAJOR WORKS

all guile that expresses the divine nature

more visibly than I ever saw it in any other
picture.[19]
Mary Shelley, Travel Writing (1996), Pages
131132

Film

In Luis Buuel's Spanish lm Viridiana, a tableau vivant

of Leonardos painting is staged with beggars. Another
beggar 'photographs the scene by ashing them. This
The Last Supper made in salt in Wieliczka Salt Mine (Poland)
scene contributed to its refusal by the Vatican who called
it blasphemous.
Modern art The painting is parodied in Mel Brooks's movie History
of the World, Part I, making Leonardo a contemporary of
In 1955, Salvador Dal painted The Sacrament of the Last Jesus.
Supper, with Jesus portrayed as blond and clean shaven,
pointing upward to a spectral torso while the apostles are
gathered around the table heads bowed so that none may 3.2.5 Other speculation
be identied. It is reputed to be one of the most popular
paintings in the collection of the National Gallery of Art
The Last Supper has been the target of much speculation
in Washington, D.C.
by writers and historical revisionists alike, usually cen-
In 1986, Andy Warhol was commissioned to produce a tered on purported hidden messages or hints found within
series of paintings based on The Last Supper that were the painting, especially since the publication of the novel
exhibited initially in Milan. This was his last series of The Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown in 2003.
paintings before his death.[15]
Dan Brown proposed that the person to Jesus right (left
Sculptor Marisol Escobar rendered The Last Supper as of Jesus from the viewers perspective), was not John the
a life-sized, three-dimensional, sculptural assemblage Apostle, but Mary Magdalene. This speculation origi-
using painted and drawn wood, plywood, brownstone, nated in earlier books The Templar Revelation (1997) by
plaster, and aluminum. This work, Self-Portrait Look- Lynn Picknett and The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail
ing at The Last Supper, (198284) is in New Yorks by Michael Baigent, Henry Lincoln and Richard Leigh
Metropolitan Museum of Art.[16] (1982). These claims have been contested by other writ-
In 2001, Chinese artist Zeng Fanzhi painted Last Supper, ers, such as Carl E. Olsen and Sandra Miesel in The Da
showing 13 mask-wearing people seated at a table strewn Vinci Hoax, as well as by art historians. Christopher Ho-
with watermelon fragments. The oil painting was sold for dapp and Alice Von Kannon commented If he [John]
$23.3 million at Sothebys auction on October 7, 2013, looks eeminate and needs a haircut, so does James, the
setting a new record for contemporary Asian artwork.[17] second gure on the left,[20] the one with the sort of Bette
Midler look about him.
In 1998, modern artist Vik Muniz displayed a recreation
of The Last Supper, made entirely out of Bosco Chocolate Giovanni Maria Pala, an Italian musician, has indicated
Syrup.[18] that the positions of hands and loaves of bread can be
interpreted as notes on a musical sta and, if read from
right to left, as was characteristic of Leonardos writing,
Literature form a musical composition.[21][22][23]

Author Mary Shelley describes her impression of the

painting in her travel narrative, Rambles in Germany and 3.2.6
Italy published in 1844:
First we visited the fading inimitable
fresco of Leonardo da Vinci. How vain are
copies! not in one, nor in any print, did i ever
see the slightest approach to the expression in
our Saviors face, such as it is in the original.
Majesty and lovethese are the words that
would describe itjoined to an absence of
Notes
[1] Leonardo Da Vincis 'The Last Supper' reveals more se-
crets. sciencedaily.com. Retrieved March 3, 2014.
[2] Santa Maria delle Grazie & The Last Supper. Time-
out.com. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
[3] Leonardos Itinerary: Early maturity in Milan (1482-
1499)". Museo Galileo. 5 March 2008. Retrieved 2012-
12-21.
3.3. THE VIRGIN OF THE ROCKS 71

[4] Kenneth Clark.Leonardo da Vinci, Penguin Books 1939, 3.2.7 Further reading
1993, p144.
Steinberg, Leo. Leonardos Incessant 'Last Supper'".
[5] The Last Supper. lairweb.org.nz. Retrieved 2012-12-
New York: Zone Books, 2001.
21.

[6] DaVinci. The Mark Steel Lectures. Series 2. Episode 2.
The Open University. 7 October 2003. BBC. Retrieved
2012-12-21.
[7] The Notebooks of Leonardo Da VinciComplete by
Leonardo da Vinci. Gutenberg.org. 1 January 2004. Re-
trieved 2012-02-14.
[8] Cfr. Matthew 26:15; John 12:6 and 13:29.
Detailed review of Steinbergs 'Incessant Last Sup-
per' at 3 Pipe Problem
Bertelli, Carlo (November 1983). Restoration Re-
veals The Last Supper. National Geographic. Vol.
164 no. 5. pp. 664684. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC
643483454.

[9] Leonardos Last Supper". Smarthistory at Khan 3.2.8 External links

Academy. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
Ocial website
[10] Last Supper (copy after Leonardo)". University of the
Arts, London. Retrieved 2008-08-11.
Leonardos Last Supper and the three layers
[11] Leonardos Last Supper. Smart history presented by the
Khan Academy. Retrieved 25 February 2014. John the Apostle in Art

[12] The Last Supper. The Last Supper. Retrieved 25 Febru-
ary 2014.
[13] Phillip William (24 May 1999). The Last Supper or a
dogs dinner?". The Guardian. guardian.co.uk. Retrieved
2012-12-21.
Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the
Royal Library, Windsor Castle, exhibition catalog
fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, which contains material on The Last Supper
(see index)

[14] Dayla Alberge (14 March 2012). Have art restorers ru-
ined Leonardos masterpiece?". The Independent. Re-
trieved 2012-12-21. 3.3 The Virgin of the Rocks
[15] Haden-Guest, Anthony (3 August 1999). Warhols Last The Virgin of the Rocks (sometimes the Madonna of the
Supper. Artnet. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
Rocks) is the name used for two paintings by Leonardo da
[16] Self-Portrait Looking at The Last Supper. Metropolitan Vinci, of the same subject, and of a composition which is
Museum of Art. Retrieved 2012-12-21. identical except for several signicant details. The version
generally considered the prime version, that is the earlier
[17] Zengs Last Supper Sells for Record $23.3 Million at of the two, hangs in The Louvre in Paris and the other
Sothebys Auction. WSJ.com. October 7, 2013. in the National Gallery, London. The paintings are both
nearly 2 metres (over 6 feet) high and are painted in oils.
[18] Goldberg, Vicki (25 September 1998). ART REVIEW; Both were painted on wooden panel; that in the Louvre
Its a Leonardo? Its a Corot? Well, No, Its Chocolate has been transferred to canvas.[1]
Syrup. The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Both paintings show the Madonna and Child Jesus with
[19] Shelley, Mary (1996). Travel Writing. London: Picker- the infant John the Baptist and an angel, in a rocky setting
ing. pp. 131132. ISBN 1-85196-084-8. which gives the paintings their usual name. The signi-
cant compositional dierences are in the gaze and right
[20] Christopher Hodapp, Alice Von Kannon, The Templar
hand of the angel. There are many minor ways in which
Code For Dummies, page 257 (Wiley Publishing, Inc.,
the works dier, including the colours, the lighting, the
2007. ISBN 978-0-470-12765-0).
ora, and the way in which sfumato has been used. Al-
[21] Rossella Lorenzi (9 November 2007). Leonardos 'Last though the date of an associated commission is docu-
Supper' Hides True Da Vinci Code. Discovery News. mented, the complete histories of the two paintings are
Retrieved 2012-12-21. unknown, and lead to speculation about which of the two
is earlier.
[22] Da Vincis Last Supper has hidden music (includes link
to recording)". Extra.beloblog.com. Retrieved 2009-02- Two further paintings are associated with the commis-
08. sion: side panels each containing an angel playing a musi-
cal instrument and completed by associates of Leonardo.
[23] mp3 le of the composition, hosted.ap.org These are both in the National Gallery, London.
72 CHAPTER 3. MAJOR WORKS

3.3.1 The paintings In 1479 the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception

contracted Francesco Zavattari and Giorgio della Chiesa
Louvre version to decorate the vault of the chapel.[9] In 1480 the Con-
fraternity of the Immaculate Conception contracted Gia-
The Virgin of the Rocks in the Louvre is considered by como del Maino to create a large wooden altarpiece with
most art historians to be the earlier of the two and date spaces for paintings and with carvings and decoration, to
from around 14831486. Most authorities agree that the be placed above the altar of the chapel. Final payment
work is entirely by Leonardo.[2] It is about 8 cm (3 in) was to be made on August 7, 1482.[9]
taller than the London version. The rst certain record of
this picture is in 1625, when it was in the French royal
collection. It is generally accepted that this painting was
produced to fulll a commission of 1483 in Milan. It
is hypothesised that this painting was privately sold by
Leonardo and that the London version was painted at
a later date to ll the commission.[2] There are a num-
ber of other theories to explain the existence of two
paintings.[3][4] This painting is regarded as a perfect ex-
ample of Leonardos "sfumato" technique.

London version

A very similar painting in the National Gallery, London,

is also ascribed to Leonardo da Vinci, and ascribed a
date before 1508.[5] Originally thought to have been par-
tially painted by Leonardos assistants, study of the paint-
ing during the recent restoration has led the conservators
Commission for the painting
from the National Gallery to conclude that the greater part
of the work is by the hand of Leonardo.[6] However its
precise attribution is still the subject of a debate.[7] It was
painted for the chapel of the Confraternity of the Immac-
ulate Conception, in the church of San Francesco Mag-
giore in Milan. It was sold by the church, very likely in On April 25, 1483, Prior Bartolomeo Scorlione and the
1781, and certainly by 1785, when it was bought by Gavin Confraternity contracted Leonardo da Vinci, and the
Hamilton, who took it to England. After passing through brothers Ambrogio and Evangelista de Predis to provide
various collections, it was bought by the National Gallery the painted panels for the altarpiece.[9] The contract was
in 1880.[2] not explicit about what each artist was to do. Leonardo
was referred to in the contract as Master. Ambrogio de
Predis was also a painter.[9] It is presumed that Evange-
Angels lista de Predis was a gilder and assisted in preparing the
colours.
Two paintings of angels playing musical instruments are
The details of the painting, colouring and gilding are set
believed to have been part of the composition that was
out in the contract.[10] The central panel was to be a paint-
set into the altarpiece. These two pictures, now in the
ing showing the Virgin Mary and Christ Child, with two
National Gallery, London, are thought to have been com-
prophets, probably David and Isaiah, surrounded by an-
pleted between 1490 and 1495. One, an angel in red, is
gels. Above them was to be a lunette containing a relief
thought to be the work of Ambrogio de Predis while the
panel of God the Father and the Virgin Mary, beneath
angel in green is thought to be the work of a dierent
which was a panel showing the crib. The relief gures
assistant of Leonardo, perhaps Francesco Napoletano.[8]
were to be brightly painted and gilded. To either side of
the central painting were to be painted panels showing
3.3.2 History four angelic musicians on one side and four singing an-
gels on the other. A number of sculptured relief panels
Chapel of the Immaculate Conception were to depict the life of the Virgin Mary. Details of the
colours and the gilding of the major parts were specied
[10]
The Chapel of the Immaculate Conception was founded in the contract.
prior to 1335 by Beatrice d'Este, wife of Galeazzo I, Duke The due date of installation was December 8, 1483, the
of Milan. The Chapel was attached to the church of S. Feast Day of the Immaculate Conception, giving seven
Francesco Grande, Milan.[9] months for its completion.[9]
3.3. THE VIRGIN OF THE ROCKS 73

and Ambrogio then requested Ludovico Sforza, the Duke

of Milan, to intervene on their behalf. It was suggested
that the altarpiece should be assessed by experts and eval-
uated, for the nal payment. The artists also suggested
that if an agreement over price could not be met, then
they should remove the artwork.[9]
In 1503 Ambrogio again appealed for payment, on his
own behalf and that of the heirs of his now deceased
brother, Evangelista.[9] On March 9, 1503, Louis XII of
France, who had invaded Lombardy in 1499, wrote to the
commander of Milan requesting that he intervene on be-
half of the artists.[9] On June 23, 1503, the Confraternity
set out a deed contesting de Predis request for evaluation
or return of the painting.[9] On April 27, 1506 an eval-
uation was made. It was judged that the work was still
incomplete. Leonardo was requested to nish it, but he
was still absent from Milan.[9]
On August 18, 1508, the painting was delivered and put
Angel by an unknown into place.[9] On August 7, 1507, and October 23, 1508,
painter, perhaps Bernardino Luini or Francesco Napole- Ambrogio received two payments totalling 200 Lire. The
tano receipt of this payment is acknowledged in correspon-
dence by Leonardo.[9]

15242011

National Gallery painting In 1524 and 1576 the Vir-

gin of the Rocks in the Chapel of the Immaculate Con-
ception, presumably the London version, was invoked
against the plague.[11] In 1576, the altarpiece was re-
moved from the Chapel and the chapel was demolished.[9]
In mid-1785, Gavin Hamilton, a painter and dealer, pur-
chased the Virgin of the Rocks from Count Cicogna,
administrator of the religious body which succeeded the
Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception. Hamiltons
heirs sold the painting to Lord Lansdowne.[9] In 1880, the
painting was sold by the Earl of Suolk to the National
Gallery for 9,000 guineas. It was reported at that time to
be in a poor state and was attributed by some critics to
Angel probably by Am-
Leonardo and by others to Bernardino Luini.[9]
brogio de Predis.
In June 2005, the painting was examined by infra-red
reectogram. This imaging revealed a draft of a dif-
ferent painting beneath the visible one. The draft por-
trays a woman, probably kneeling, with her right hand
Payment outstretched and her left on her heart.[12][13] Some re-
searchers believe that the artists original intention was
On May 1, 1483 there was an initial payment of 100 Lire. to paint an adoration of the infant Jesus.[14] Many
This was followed by payments of 40 Lire per month from other pentimenti are visible under x-ray or infra-red
July 1483 until February 1485 totalling 800 Lire.[9] A - examination.[12]
nal payment was to be negotiated upon completion and In 2009/2010 the painting underwent cleaning and con-
delivery of the work in December 1483.[9] servation work,[6] returning to display in July 2010. The
Between 149095, Ambrogio and Leonardo wrote to the National Gallery, in a preliminary announcement of the
Confraternity stating that the centrepiece had cost the results of the work, said that it revealed that the paint-
whole 800 Lire and they asked for a further 1,200 Lire, ing was largely, possibly entirely, by Leonardo, and un-
according to the contract. The Confraternity oered nished in parts. The full publication of the ndings was
them only 100 Lire as a result of the petition.[9] Leonardo released later in 2010.[15]
74 CHAPTER 3. MAJOR WORKS

Louvre painting In 1625 the Virgin of the Rocks now

in the Louvre was seen at Fontainebleau by Cassiano dal
Pozzo. In 1806, the French restorer, Fr Hacquin trans-
ferred the Louvre Virgin of the Rocks from its panel onto
canvas.[9] For a brief time in 201112 it was hung to-
gether with the London painting as part of an exhibition
in the National Gallery on Leonardos activity as painter
to the court of Ludovico Sforza.[16]

Side panels The two panels from the completed altar-

piece containing gures of angels playing musical instru-
ments were acquired by the National Gallery, London in
1898.[8]

3.3.3 Subject matter

Female head study by Leonardo for the Madonna of the Rocks,

Royal Library of Turin.

met the Holy Family on the road.[18] The Louvre web-

site refers to the angel in the painting as "Gabriel" (but
the description of the painting in the Louvre still refers to
Uriel). This accords with the Apocryphal gospel of John
the Baptist, which describes his removal from Bethlehem
as by Gabriel rather than Uriel and does not mention the
meeting on the road to Egypt.[1]
The subject of the Virgin Mary with the Christ Child be-
ing adored by John the Baptist was common in the art
of Renaissance Florence. John the Baptist is the patron
saint of Florence and has often been depicted in the art of
that city.[19] Those who painted and sculpted the subject
of the Virgin and Child with St John include Fra Filippo
Lippi, Raphael, and Michelangelo.[20][21][22]
In both paintings the scene is depicted taking place
against a background of rock formations. While scenes
of the Nativity were sometimes depicted as taking place
Detail of Christ Child and angel, Louvre in a cave, and Kenneth Clark points to the existence of
an earlier rocky landscape in an adoration painted for
[23]
The subject of the two paintings is the adoration of the the Medici family by Fra Filippo Lippi the setting
[1]
Christ Child by the infant John the Baptist. This sub- was unprecedented and gave to the paintings their usual
ject relates to a non-Biblical event which became part name of the Virgin of the Rocks.
of the medieval tradition of the Holy Familys journey
into Egypt. The Gospel of Matthew relates that Joseph
the husband of Mary was warned in a dream that King 3.3.4 Description
Herod would attempt to kill the child Jesus, and that he
was to take the child and his mother and ee to safety.[17] Composition
There are a series of non-Biblical narratives that relate
to the journey to Egypt. One of these concerns Jesus The two paintings of the Virgin of the Rocks, that now
cousin, John the Baptist, whose family, like that of Jesus, belonging to the National Gallery, London, and that be-
resided in the town of Bethlehem where the Massacre of longing to the Louvre Museum, Paris, are the same in
the Innocents was to take place. According to legend, subject matter and in overall composition, indicating that
John was escorted to Egypt by the Archangel Uriel, and one is derivative of the other. The two paintings dier
3.3. THE VIRGIN OF THE ROCKS 75

in compositional details, in colour, in lighting and in the

handling of the paint.
Both paintings show a grouping of four gures, the Virgin
Mary, the Christ Child, the infant John the Baptist and
an angel arranged into a triangular composition within
the painting and set against a background of rocks, and a
distant landscape of mountains and water. In both paint-
ings the Virgin Mary makes the apex of the pyramidal
gure group, stretching one hand to include John the Bap-
tist and raising the other above the head of the Christ
Child in a blessing. John the Baptist kneels, gazing to-
wards the Christ Child with his hands together in an atti-
tude of prayer. The Christ Child sit towards the front of
the painting, supported by the angel, and raising his right
hand in a sign of Benediction towards the kneeling John.

Dierences

Compositionally, all the gures are slightly larger in the

London painting than in the Louvre painting.[3] The main
compositional dierence between the two paintings is that
while in the London painting, the angels right hand rests
on his/her knee, in the Louvre painting the hand is raised,
the index nger pointing at John the Baptist. The eyes of Detail of green angel
the angel are turned down in a contemplative manner in
the London painting, but in the Louvre picture are turned Louvre version, the haloes and Johns traditional cruci-
to gaze in the general direction of the viewer.[24] form reed sta. Davies says it is not certain if these
In the London painting, all the forms are more dened, details which are painted in gold are contemporary with
including the bodily forms of the clothed gures.[3] The the painting or have been added by a later artist.[2] The
rocks are painted in meticulous detail, while the forms details of the owers are also quite dierent in the two
of the background in the painting in the Louvre are all paintings, with those in the Louvre painting being botan-
more hazy.[3] The contrast between light and shade on ically accurate, and those in the London painting being
the gures and faces in the London painting are all much fanciful creations.[27]
sharper.[24] The faces and forms in the Louvre painting
are more delicately painted and subtly blurred by sfumato.
The lighting in the Louvre painting is softer and appears Angel musicians
warmer, but this may be the result of the tone of the var-
nish on the surface. In keeping with their conservative The two paintings of angels that are associated with the
handling of Leonardos works, the Louvre version has Virgin of the Rocks and are in the National Gallery do
not undergone signicant restoration or cleaning.[25] The not properly full the original commission for two panels
Louvre painting remains much as it was in 1939 when each showing four angels, singing on one side and playing
Kenneth Clark lamented that We can form no real con- musical instruments on the other. There are only two mu-
ception of the colour, the values, or the general tone of sicians, both turned the same direction and both playing
the original, buried as it is under layer upon layer of thick musical instruments. One, in green, plays a vielle, and
yellow varnish. In the darks some mixture of bitumen has the other, in red, plays a lute. The positions of the feet
made the surface cake and crack like mud, and there are and the drapery are similar, indicating that the same de-
innumerable patches of old repaint all over the picture. sign has in part been utilised for both. The angel in red
All this must be borne in mind before we say that at this is thought to be the work of Ambrogio de Predis.[28] The
date Leonardo was a dark painter and an uninteresting angel in green is the work of an unknown associate of
colourist.[26] Leonardo. The National Gallery suggests that it might be
[28]
Another dierence is in the colouring of the robes, partic- the work of Francesco Napoletano.
ularly those of the angel. The London painting contains In both cases the angel is standing in a grey painted niche.
no red, while in the Louvre painting, the angel is robed A reectogram of the Angel in green with a Vielle re-
in bright red and green, with the robes arranged dier- vealed part of a painted landscape.[28] The background of
ently from those of the angel in London.[3] The London the Angel in red with a Lute could not be determined be-
version contains traditional attributes missing from the cause the grey paint on that painting is thick and opaque.
76
While it is commonly thought that the two angel panels
were originally placed on either side of the central panel,
an article published by the National Gallery suggests that
they were placed higher up on the altarpiece.[28]
3.3.5 Interpretation
Detail, London
The relationship between the two paintings remains
much debated.[29] Matters of debate include the dates
of the two paintings, their authorship and the nature of
their symbolism. For a few months in 2011 and 2012 the
two paintings were brought together, possibly for the rst
time, in the same room in an exhibition at the National
Gallery.[16]
Dates
It is generally accepted by art historians that the Louvre
version is the earlier work. Martin Davies, former di-
rector of the National Gallery, described the painting in
the Louvre as being stylistically close to Leonardos ear-
lier works and the London painting more suggestive of
his maturer style, and therefore that later of the two, and
derivative of the Louvre painting.[2] Most authors agree
that the Louvre painting was the one that was painted to
full the commission of 1483.[30]
Some writers, including Martin Davies, feel that 1483 is
too late a date for the Louvre version, and suggest that the dis, painted under Leonardos supervision between 1485
painting had already been begun and perhaps completed
in Florence before the commission. Wasserman, Ottino
della Chiesa and others have pointed out that the mea- Since the recent cleaning, the National Gallerys cura-
surements of both paintings are compatible with the altar- tor Luke Syson has stated that the quality which has
CHAPTER 3. MAJOR WORKS
piece, and that it is an unlikely coincidence that Leonardo
painted a picture that tted the dimensions, at a time prior
to the commission.[3] Wasserman suggests that perhaps
the Louvre painting was extended to t the arched shape,
and that the joint is no longer visible since the painting
was transferred to canvas in the 19th century.[31] Davies
suggests that Leonardo painted the second version in the
1480s to full the commission, and based it on the ear-
lier work.[2] Kenneth Clark agrees with this interpreta-
tion, placing the Louvre painting prior to 1481 and the
London painting from 1483.[32]
The theory that is most commonly used to explain the ex-
istence of the two paintings is that Leonardo painted the
Louvre Virgin of the Rocks to full the commission, giv-
ing it a date of 1483, and that he then sold it to another
client, and painted the London version as a replacement.
In line with this theory, it is hypothesised that the Lou-
vre painting was not sold until the later 1480s, after some
haggling over the nal payment. The London painting
was commenced in perhaps 1486 as a substitution for the
original Louvre version, and was not ready for installa-
tion until 1508, after prolonged disagreement and nego-
tiation. This explanation, which della Chiesa attributes to
Venturi and Poggi,[33] has gained very wide acceptance,
and is the version of events described on both the National
Gallery and the Louvre websites.[1][34][35] Martin Kemp
dates the Louvre painting to 14831490 and the London
painting to 14951508.[5]
Not all authors are in agreement with either the dating
or the theory that the Louvre painting was the earlier,
was sold, and the London painting done as a substitute.
According to Taylor, the London painting is stylistically
the earlier of the two, being more meticulous, in keeping
with the product of Leonardos Florentine training, while
the Louvre painting has more in common with the Last
Supper and the Virgin and Child with St Anne, including
the delicate use of sfumato.[4] Taylor argues that the Lon-
don painting fulls the requirements of the commission of
1483 in terms of iconography, and that the iconography
of the Louvre painting indicates that it was painted for
an entirely dierent clientele, and gives it a date in the
1490s.[36]
Authorship
It has always been agreed that the Louvre Virgin of the
Rocks is entirely by the hand of Leonardo da Vinci. The
Virgin of the Rocks in London has generally been seen
as having been designed by Leonardo and executed with
the assistants.[34] The Louvre website and various authors
suggest that the entire painting is by Ambrogio de' Pre-
1508, or perhaps largely the work of de Predis, with mi-
nor intervention by Leonardo.[1][37]
3.3. THE VIRGIN OF THE ROCKS 77

3.3.7 Notes

3.3.8 References
[1] Virgin of the Rocks. Louvre.fr. Retrieved 2013-07-17.

[2] Martin Davies, Catalogue of the Earlier Italian Schools

[3] Angela Ottino della Chiesa, p. 94

[4] Tamsyn Taylor, Leonardo da Vinci and the Virgin of the

Rocks and Comparison of style

[5] Kemp, pp. 250251

[6] The Virgin of the Rocks: Da Vinci decoded, Jonathan

Jones, The Guardian, 13 July 2010

[7] The daodil code: doubts revived over Leonardos Virgin

of the Rocks in London, Dalya Alberge, The Guardian,
9 December 2014

[8] S. Franceso Altarpiece. Nationalgallery.org.uk. Re-

trieved 2013-07-17.

[9] Angela Ottino della Chiesa, The Complete Paintings of

Bernardino Luini, The Holy Family with St. John. Museo del Leonardo da Vinci pp. 9395
Prado, Madrid
[10] Angela Ottino della Chiesa, p. 93

[11] Wasserman, p 110

been revealed indicates that the work is mostly by the [12] The Hidden Leonardo. Nationalgallery.org.uk. Re-
hand of Leonardo, and that participation of members of trieved 2013-07-17.
Leonardos workshop was almost certainly less than pre-
[13] White, Susan D. (2006). Draw Like Da Vinci. London:
viously thought.[6]
Cassell Illustrated. ISBN 1-84403-444-5. p. 137.
The geologist Ann C. Pizzorusso argues that there are ge-
[14] New Leonardo picture discovered. BBC News. July 1,
ological inaccuracies in the London version, unlike the
2005.
Louvre version, which mean it is unlikely to have come
from Leonardos hand.[38] Taylor refutes this, drawing at- [15] "''Leonardos 'Virgin of the Rocks back on display''". Na-
tention to the fact that at the time of writing, Pizzorusso tionalgallery.org.uk. 2011-11-09. Retrieved 2013-07-17.
had plainly not seen the glacial lakes to which she re-
[16] "''Leonardos 'Virgin of the Rocks paintings united''".
ferred, and had mistaken clumps of moss for sandstone
Nationalgallery.org.uk. Retrieved 2013-07-17.
boulders.[39]
[17] The Gospel of Matthew, Chapter 2, verses 1315

[18] Uriel. Websters-online-dictionary.org. Retrieved 2013-

07-17.

3.3.6 Derivations [19] Paoletti and Radke, p. 79

[20] Paoletti and Radke, p. 261

In her 1967 book (published in English in 1985) Angela
[21] David Thompson, Raphael, the Life and Legacy, BBC,
Ottino della Chiesa cites four paintings derived to some
(1983), ISBN 0-563-20149-5
degree from The Virgin of the Rocks: the Holy Family and
St. John by Bernardino Luini in the Museo del Prado in [22] Ludwig Goldscheider, Michelangelo: Paintings, Sculp-
Madrid, the Thuelin Madonna by Marco d'Oggiono in the tures, Architecture, Phaidon, (!964)
Thuelin collection in Paris and the Holy Infants Embrac-
[23] Clark, p. 51
ing by Joos van Cleve in the Capodimonte Museum in
Naples. This image was much copied by Flemish artists [24] Jack Wasserman, pp. 108118
such as Joos van Cleve and Quentin Matsys there is a
[25] Graham-Dixon, Andrew (23 October 2011). The mys-
small painting in Chatsworth by the latter. There is also
tery of the two Madonnas. Sunday Telegraph.
a smaller copy of The Virgin of the Rocks (oil on wood)
possibly by Joos van Cleve or his circle (private collection [26] Leonardo da Vinci: An Account of his development as an
Berlin). Artist
78 CHAPTER 3. MAJOR WORKS

[27] Luke Syson interviewed by Alistair Sooke, The Virgin of A.E. Popham (1946). The Drawings of Leonardo
the Rocks compared, accessed 2011-12-12 da Vinci. Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-60462-7.
[28] Billinge, Syson and Spring, Altered Angels accessed 2012- Marco Rosci (1977). Leonardo. Bay Books Pty Ltd.
02-06
ISBN 0-85835-176-5.
[29] Paoletti and Radke, p. 362
Tamsyn Taylor, (2011) Leonardo da Vinci and the
[30] Kemp, Zllner and others Virgin of the Rocks, accessed 2012-02-06
[31] Wasserman, p. 108
Jack Wasserman (1975). Leonardo da Vinci.
[32] Clark, pp. 4953 Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-0262-1.

[33] Angela Ottino della Chiesa, p.95
[34] National Gallery, Virgin of the Rocks
[35] Zllner F, Leonardo da Vinci, Taschen, (2003) p.223
Frank Zollner (2003). Leonardo da Vinci: The
Complete Paintings and Drawings. Taschen. ISBN
3-8228-1734-1. [The chapter The Graphic Works
is by Frank Zollner & Johannes Nathan].

[36] Tamsyn Taylor, Summary of the case

[37] Wasserman, p. 114; Marco Rosci, p.55 3.3.10 External links

[38] Pizzorusso, Ann. Leonardos Geology: The Authenticity Ocial page from the National Gallery
of the Virgin of the Rocks, pp. 197200
Ocial page from the Louvre
[39] T. Taylor, Leonardo and the Virgin of the Rocks, The
Geology
Leonardo da Vinci and the Virgin of the Rocks,
Which is the earlier? A dierent point of view
3.3.9 Bibliography
Illustrations of the Paris and London versions
Louvre Ocial Website, Virgin of the Rocks, ac-
geological analysis of the two paintings by Ann C
cessed 2011-12-11
Pizzorusso
National Gallery, London Website, Virgin of the
Rocks, accessed 2012-02-06 The side panels, National Gallery, click link for the
other one
Daniel Arasse (1997). Leonardo da Vinci. Konecky
& Konecky. ISBN 1-56852-198-7. Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the
Royal Library, Windsor Castle, exhibition catalog
Luciano Berti (1971). The Uzi. Scala. fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Mu-
Rachel Billinge, Luke Syson and Marika Spring, seum of Art, which contains material on Virgin of
Altered Angels: Two Panels from the Immacu- the Rocks (see index)
late Conception Altarpiece once in San Francesco
Grande, Milan, accessed 2012-01-05
3.4 Vitruvian Man
Angela Ottino della Chiesa (1967). The Complete
Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci. Penguin Classics
of World Art series. ISBN 0-14-008649-8. The Vitruvian Man (Italian: Le proporzioni del corpo
umano secondo Vitruvio, which is translated to The pro-
Martin Davies (1961). Catalogue of the Earlier Ital- portions of the human body according to Vitruvius), or
ian Schools. National Gallery Catalogues, London. simply L'Uomo Vitruviano ([lwmo vitruvjano]), is a
ISBN 0-901791-29-6. drawing by Leonardo da Vinci around 1490.[1] It is ac-
companied by notes based on the work of the architect
Frederich Hartt (1970). A History of Italian Re- Vitruvius. The drawing, which is in pen and ink on pa-
naissance Art. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500- per, depicts a man in two superimposed positions with his
23136-2. arms and legs apart and inscribed in a circle and square.
Martin Kemp (2004). Leonardo. Oxford University The drawing and text are sometimes called the Canon
Press. ISBN 0-19-280644-0. of Proportions or, less often, Proportions of Man. It is
kept in the Gabinetto dei disegni e stampe of the Gallerie
Pizzorusso, Ann, Leonardos Geology: The Authen- dell'Accademia, in Venice, Italy, under reference 228.
ticity of the Virgin of the Rocks, Leonardo, Vol. 29, Like most works on paper, it is displayed to the public
No. 3 (1996), pp. 197200, The MIT Press, JSTOR only occasionally.[2][3]
3.4. VITRUVIAN MAN
The drawing is based on the correlations of ideal human
proportions with geometry described by the ancient Ro-
man architect Vitruvius in Book III of his treatise De ar-
chitectura. Vitruvius described the human gure as being
the principal source of proportion among the classical or-
ders of architecture. Vitruvius determined that the ideal
body should be eight heads high. Leonardos drawing is
traditionally named in honor of the architect.
3.4.1 Subject and title
This image demonstrates the blend of mathematics and
art during the Renaissance and demonstrates Leonardos
deep understanding of proportion. In addition, this pic-
ture represents a cornerstone of Leonardos attempts to
relate man to nature. Encyclopdia Britannica online
states, Leonardo envisaged the great picture chart of
the human body he had produced through his anatomical
drawings and Vitruvian Man as a cosmograa del minor
mondo (cosmography of the microcosm). He believed
the workings of the human body to be an analogy for the
workings of the universe.
According to Leonardos preview in the accompanying
text, written in mirror writing, it was made as a study of
the proportions of the (male) human body as described in
Vitruvius. The text is in two parts, above[lower-alpha 1] and
below[lower-alpha 2] the image.
The rst paragraph of the upper part reports Vitruvius:
Vetruvio, architect, puts in his work on architecture that
the measurements of man are in nature distributed in this
manner, that is:
a palm is four ngers
a foot is four palms
a cubit is six palms
four cubits make a man
a pace is four cubits
a man is 24 palms
and these measurements are in his buildings. The second
paragraph reads: if you open your legs enough that your
head is lowered by one-fourteenth of your height and raise
your hands enough that your extended ngers touch the
line of the top of your head, know that the centre of the
extended limbs will be the navel, and the space between
the legs will be an equilateral triangle.
The lower section of text gives these proportions:
the length of the outspread arms is equal to the
height of a man
from the hairline to the bottom of the chin is one-
tenth of the height of a man
79
from below the chin to the top of the head is one-
eighth of the height of a man
from above the chest to the top of the head is one-
sixth of the height of a man
from above the chest to the hairline is one-seventh
of the height of a man.
the maximum width of the shoulders is a quarter of
the height of a man.
from the breasts to the top of the head is a quarter
of the height of a man.
the distance from the elbow to the tip of the hand is
a quarter of the height of a man.
the distance from the elbow to the armpit is one-
eighth of the height of a man.
the length of the hand is one-tenth of the height of
a man.
the root of the penis is at half the height of a man.
the foot is one-seventh of the height of a man.
from below the foot to below the knee is a quarter
of the height of a man.
from below the knee to the root of the penis is a
quarter of the height of a man.
the distances from below the chin to the nose and
the eyebrows and the hairline are equal to the ears
and to one-third of the face.
The points determining these proportions are marked
with lines on the drawing. Below the drawing itself is
a single line equal to a side of the square and divided into
four cubits, of which the outer two are divided into six
palms each, two of which have the mirror-text annota-
tion palmi"; the outermost two palms are divided into
four ngers each, and are each annotated diti.
Leonardo is clearly illustrating Vitruvius De architectura
3.1.2-3 which reads:
For the human body is so designed by na-
ture that the face, from the chin to the top of
the forehead and the lowest roots of the hair,
is a tenth part of the whole height; the open
hand from the wrist to the tip of the middle
nger is just the same; the head from the chin
to the crown is an eighth, and with the neck and
shoulder from the top of the breast to the low-
est roots of the hair is a sixth; from the middle
of the breast to the summit of the crown is a
fourth. If we take the height of the face itself,
the distance from the bottom of the chin to the
under side of the nostrils is one third of it; the
nose from the under side of the nostrils to a
80
line between the eyebrows is the same; from
there to the lowest roots of the hair is also a
third, comprising the forehead. The length of
the foot is one sixth of the height of the body; of
the forearm, one fourth; and the breadth of the
breast is also one fourth. The other members,
too, have their own symmetrical proportions,
and it was by employing them that the famous
painters and sculptors of antiquity attained to
great and endless renown.
Similarly, in the members of a temple there
ought to be the greatest harmony in the sym-
metrical relations of the dierent parts to the
general magnitude of the whole. Then again,
in the human body the central point is natu-
rally the navel. For if a man be placed at on
his back, with his hands and feet extended, and
a pair of compasses centred at his navel, the
ngers and toes of his two hands and feet will
touch the circumference of a circle described
therefrom. And just as the human body yields
a circular outline, so too a square gure may be
found from it. For if we measure the distance
from the soles of the feet to the top of the head,
and then apply that measure to the outstretched
arms, the breadth will be found to be the same
as the height, as in the case of plane surfaces
which are perfectly square.[4]
Leonardos drawing combines a careful reading of the
ancient text with his own observation of actual human
bodies. In drawing the circle and square he correctly ob-
serves that the square cannot have the same centre as the
circle,[5] the navel, but is somewhat lower in the anatomy.
This adjustment is the innovative part of Leonardos
drawing and what distinguishes it from earlier illustra-
tions. He also departs from Vitruvius by drawing the arms
raised to a position in which the ngertips are level with
the top of the head, rather than Vitruviuss much lower
angle, in which the arms form lines passing through the
navel.
The drawing itself is often used as an implied symbol of
the essential symmetry of the human body, and by exten-
sion, the symmetry of the universe as a whole.[6]
It may be noticed by examining the drawing that the com-
bination of arm and leg positions actually creates sixteen
dierent poses. The pose with the arms straight out and
the feet together is seen to be inscribed in the superim-
posed square. On the other hand, the spread-eagle pose
is seen to be inscribed in the superimposed circle.
The drawing was purchased from Gaudenzio de' Pagave
by Giuseppe Bossi,[7] who described, discussed and illus-
trated it in his monograph on Leonardos The Last Supper,
Del Cenacolo di Leonardo da Vinci libri quattro (1810).[8]
The following year he excerpted the section of his mono-
graph concerned with the Vitruvian Man and published it
as Delle opinioni di Leonardo da Vinci intorno alla sim-
CHAPTER 3. MAJOR WORKS
metria de'Corpi Umani (1811), with a dedication to his
friend Antonio Canova.[9]
After Bossis death in 1815 the Vitruvian Man was ac-
quired in 1822, along with a number of his drawings, by
the Gallerie dell'Accademia in Venice, Italy, and has re-
mained there since.[10]
3.4.2 Evidence of collaboration
Evidence has been found that Leonardo might have been
inuenced by the work of Giacomo Andrea de Ferrara,
a Renaissance architect, expert on Vitruvius, and close
friend of his.[11] Giacomo Andreas original drawing has
only one set of arms and legs while Leonardos has the
position of his mans arms and legs change.[12]
Another possible inuence for Leonardos depiction
could have been the codex depictions of human propor-
tions in architecture by Francesco di Giorgio, a Sienese
architect who compiled in 1470 an unpublished treatise
on civil and military architecture (Trattato di Architettura
Civile e Militare).
3.4.3 Derivative works
The Vitruvian Man has inspired a number of derivative
works:
Cesare Cesariano (1521) who edited the impor-
tant 1521 edition of De Architectura of Vitruvius
(Leonardo da Vinci is supposed to have provided the
illustrations for this edition).
Albrecht Drer (1528) in his book Vier Bcher von
menschlicher Proportion (four books on human pro-
portions)
Pietro di Giacomo Cataneo (1554)
Heinrich Lautensack (1618)
William Blake (1795) Glad Day, now known as
"Albion rose. This representation is without the
circle and square.
The Italian 1 euro coin
The cover for the In Flames album Clayman is a ver-
sion of this.
A large-scale model of the Vitruvian Man was con-
structed for Burning Man in 2016.[13]
The 2016 HBO original series Westworld features a
derivation of the Vitruvian Man within its logo
3.4. VITRUVIAN MAN
3.4.4 See also
Anthropometry
Body proportions
Leonardos robot
Modulor
3.4.5 Notes
[1] Above the image:
Vetruvio, architecto, mecte nella sua
op(er)a d'architectura, chelle misure dell'omo
sono dalla natura
disstribuite inquessto modo cio che 4 diti fa 1
palmo, et 4 palmi fa 1 pie, 6 palmi fa un chu-
bito, 4
cubiti fa 1 homo, he 4 chubiti fa 1 passo, he
24 palmi fa 1 homo ecqueste misure son ne'
sua editi.
Settu ap(r)i ta(n)to le ga(m)be chettu chali da
chapo 1/14 di tua altez(z)a e ap(r)i e alza
tanto le b(r)acia che cholle lunge dita tu tochi
la linia della
somita del chapo, sappi che 'l cie(n)tro delle
stremita delle
ap(er)te me(m)bra a il bellicho. Ello spatio
chessi truova infralle ga(m)be a tria(n)golo
equilatero
[2] Below the image:
Tanto ap(r)e l'omo nele b(r)accia,
qua(n)to ella sua alteza.
Dal nasscimento de chapegli al ne di
sotto del mento il decimo dell'altez(z)a
del(l)'uomo. Dal di socto del mento alla
som(m)i-
t del chapo he l'octavo dell'altez(z)a
dell'omo. Dal di sop(r)a del pecto alla
som(m)it del chapo a il sexto dell'omo. Dal
di so-
p(r)a del pecto al nasscime(n)to de chapegli
a la sectima parte di tucto l'omo. Dalle tette
al di sop(r)a del chapo a
la quarta parte dell'omo. La mag(g)iore
larg(h)ez(z)a delle spalli chontiene ins [la
oct] la quarta parte dell'omo. Dal go-
mito alla punta della mano a la quarta
parte dell'omo, da esso gomito al termine
della isspalla a la octava
parte d'esso omo; tucta la mano a la decima
parte dell'omo. Il menb(r)o birile nasscie nel
mez(z)o dell'omo. Il
pi a la sectima parte dell'omo. Dal di socto
del pi al di socto del ginochio a la quarta
parte dell'omo.
Dal di socto del ginochio al nasscime(n)to del
memb(r)o a la quarta parte dell'omo. Le
parti chessi truovano infra
il me(n)to e 'l naso e 'l nasscime(n)to de
81
chapegli e quel de cigli ciasscuno spatio
p(er)se essimile alloreche 'l terzo del volto
3.4.6 References
[1] The Secret Language of the Renaissance - Richard Stemp
[2] The Vitruvian man. Leonardodavinci.stanford.edu. Re-
trieved 2010-08-20.
[3] Da Vincis Code. Witcombe.sbc.edu. Retrieved 2010-
08-20.
[4] Ten Books on Architecture. Book III, Chapter I, On
Symmetry: In Temples And In The Human Body"".
Gutenberg.org. 2006-12-31. Retrieved 2010-08-20.
[5] The Vitruvian Man and the squaring of the circle de-
tailed. Arthistory.about.com. 2010-06-15. Retrieved
2010-08-20.
[6] Bibliographic reference. The Whole Universe Book.
Retrieved 2011-11-30.
[7] Bossi, Giuseppe (1810)Del Cenacolo di Leonardo da
Vinci libri quattro (in Italian) Milano: Stamperia Reale
p.208
[8] Bibliographic reference. Ursusbooks.com. Retrieved
2010-08-20.
[9] Bibliographical notice, no. 319. Lib.rochester.edu. Re-
trieved 2010-08-20.
[10] LEONARDO DA VINCI. THE UNIVERSAL MAN.
venezia.net. Retrieved 2014-02-13.
[11] The Other Vitruvian Man. Smithsonian Magazine.
2012-02-01.
[12] Did Leonardo da Vinci copy his famous 'Vitruvian
Man'?". 2012-01-31.
[13] Behind The Scenes At The Most Ambitious Man Build
In Burning Man History. Fast Company. Retrieved 30
August 2016.
3.4.7 Sources
Lester, Toby (2012). Da Vincis Ghost: Genius, Ob-
session, and How Leonardo Created the World in
His Own Image. New York: Free Press. ISBN
9781439189238.
3.4.8 External links
Willamette University site on Vitruvian Man
Stanford University site on Vitruvian Man
Leonardos Vitruvian Man
Vitruvian Man Video
82 CHAPTER 3. MAJOR WORKS

Contemporary interpretation of Vitruvian Man

Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the

Royal Library, Windsor Castle, exhibition catalog
fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, which contains material on Vitruvian Man
(see index)
Chapter 4

Text and image sources, contributors, and

licenses

4.1 Text
Leonardo da Vinci Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci?oldid=781164539 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus
Manske, RjLesch, WojPob, Eloquence, Mav, Rjstott, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, LA2, Danny, Christopher Mahan, JeLuF, Gianfranco,
William Avery, SimonP, Peterlin~enwiki, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Zoe, Imran, Mintguy, Montrealais, Olivier, Leandrod, Frecklefoot, Patrick,
Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, JakeVortex, Dougmerritt, Llywrch, Lezek, Shyamal, Gabbe, Menchi, Tannin, Ixfd64, Sannse,
Karl Stas, Shoaler, Delirium, Skysmith, Pcb21, Ppareit, Looxix~enwiki, Fantasy, Ahoerstemeier, William M. Connolley, Muriel Got-
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83
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4.1. TEXT 85

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86 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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4.1. TEXT 87

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jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Photography *own work www.lucnix.be Original artist: Photography Luc Viatour
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commons/8/84/Ambrogio_de_Predis_-_Portrait_of_a_Woman_-_WGA18378.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web
Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/p/predis/ambrogio/port_wom.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a>
Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/p/predis/ambrogio/port_wom.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
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width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Giovanni Ambrogio de Predis
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main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.drawingsofleonardo.org Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
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posture_and_body_mechanics_08.web.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ziv lenzner
File:Andrea_del_Verrocchio,_Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Baptism_of_Christ_-_Uffizi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Andrea_del_Verrocchio%2C_Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Baptism_of_Christ_-_Uffizi.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by
DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Andrea del Verrocchio
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commons/9/9a/Andrea_del_Verrocchio_-_Mary_with_the_Child_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
fAG8x3dcYNWKQg at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Andrea del Verrocchio
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'A'_(PSF).png Original artist: 'A'_(PSF).png: Pearson Scott Foresman
File:Bacchus_(painting).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Bacchus_%28painting%29.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: 1. leonardo-davinci.net.au, primarly uploaded to the english wikipedia
Original artist: Workshop of Leonardo da Vinci
File:Baldassare_Castiglione,_by_Raffaello_Sanzio,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/9/94/Baldassare_Castiglione%2C_by_Raffaello_Sanzio%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Photographed by Elsa Lambert of C2RMF on 2010-06-23, retouched from File:Balthazar Castiglione, by Raaello Sanzio,
from C2RMF.jpg, originally C2RMF: Galerie de tableaux en trs haute dnition: image page Original artist: Raphael
4.2. IMAGES 91

File:Bernardino_Luini_-_Holy_Family_with_the_Infant_St_John_-_WGA13760.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/

wikipedia/commons/0/05/Bernardino_Luini_-_Holy_Family_with_the_Infant_St_John_-_WGA13760.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/luini/father/2/holy_fam.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60'
/></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/luini/father/2/holy_fam.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Bernardino Luini
File:Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg
License: CC0 Contributors: https://openclipart.org/detail/105859/booksajsvg-aj-ashton-01 Original artist: AJ on openclipart.org
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the_Cross_%28cropped%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Davinci,_christ_carrying_the_cross.jpg, 2009-08-10 11:59 (UTC)
Davinci,_christ_carrying_the_cross.jpg: Dgump
Original artist: Unknown. Based on a drawing and the gures from The Battle of Anghiari by Leonardo da Vinci
File:Clos_luce_04_straight.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Clos_luce_04_straight.JPG License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Wikimedia Commons Original artist: Nadgevillain
File:Codex_Forster_Book_I_Fol_7.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Codex_Forster_Book_I_Fol_
7.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.universalleonardo.org/work.php?id=482 Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
(14521519)
File:Codex_arundel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Codex_arundel.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.universalleonardo.org Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Codex_ashburnham.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Codex_ashburnham.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.universalleonardo.org Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
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main Contributors: scann depuis l'original Original artist: Lonard de Vinci
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Birds.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.universalleonardo.org/essays.php?id=550 Original artist: en:Leonardo da Vinci
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domain Contributors: http://www.universalleonardo.org Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
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nal artist: ?
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tributors: HubbleSite: gallery, release. Original artist: NASA, ESA, J. Hester and A. Loll (Arizona State University)
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License: Public domain Contributors: scanned by NobbiP Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
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cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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utors: Own work Original artist: RexxS
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Public domain Contributors: www.ncm.com Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
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Original artist: ?
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Machine.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.drawingsofleonardo.org Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
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The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
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tors: Own work - Louis-garden Original artist: Francesco di Giorgio
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tors: Own work - Louis-garden Original artist: Francesco di Giorgio
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File:Firma_de_Leonardo_Da_Vinci.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Firma_de_Leonardo_Da_

Vinci.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Codex Forster III (Milan, about 1490-1493) Victoria and Albert Museum / V&A Prints
http://www.vandaprints.com/image.php?id=68396 Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
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artist: ?
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sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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lic domain Contributors: File:Fra Bartolomeo 001.jpg Original artist: Fra Bartolomeo
File:Francesco_melzi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Francesco_melzi.jpg License: Public domain
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Boltrao
File:Francois_I_recoit_les_derniers_soupirs_de_Leonard_de_Vinci_by_Ingres.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/7/79/Francois_I_recoit_les_derniers_soupirs_de_Leonard_de_Vinci_by_Ingres.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Petit Palais 19th Century Collection Original artist: Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres
File:Ghirlandaio_a-pucci-lorenzo-de-medici-f-sassetti_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/
Ghirlandaio_a-pucci-lorenzo-de-medici-f-sassetti_1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http:
//www.wga.hu/art/g/ghirland/domenico/5sassett/frescoes/5confir3.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https:
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href='http://www.wga.hu/html/g/ghirland/domenico/5sassett/frescoes/5confir3.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information
icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png'
width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_
icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png
2x' data-le-width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Domenico Ghirlandaio
File:Giampetrino-Leonardo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Giampetrino-Leonardo.jpg License:
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La_Gioconda_(copia_del_Museo_del_Prado)_(restaurada).jpg' class='image'><img alt='La Gioconda (copia del Museo del
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height='2952' /></a>
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data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/
20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/
30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png
2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/f/francesc/5other/3tratta3.html' data-
x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_
icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/
Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original
artist: Francesco di Giorgio
File:Gylleneportarna.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Gylleneportarna.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Created by Domeij Original artist: Gates of Paradise
File:Hugo_van_der_Goes_006.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Hugo_van_der_Goes_006.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Dis-
tributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Hugo van der Goes
File:IngresDeathOfDaVinci.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/IngresDeathOfDaVinci.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres
File:Isabella_d'este.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Isabella_d%27este.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/08heads/07isabel.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
4.2. IMAGES 93

alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20'

height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60'
/></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/leonardo/08heads/07isabel.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Isleworthml.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Isleworthml.JPG License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: http://www.originaldo.com/monacomp2.jpeg Original artist: unknown after Leonardo da Vinci
File:JFK,_Marie-Madeleine_Lioux,_Andr_Malraux,_Jackie,_L.B._Johnson,_unveiling_Mona_Lisa_at_National_Gallery_
of_Art.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/JFK%2C_Marie-Madeleine_Lioux%2C_Andr%C3%
A9_Malraux%2C_Jackie%2C_L.B._Johnson%2C_unveiling_Mona_Lisa_at_National_Gallery_of_Art.png License: Public domain
Contributors: This media is available in the holdings of the National Archives and Records Administration, cataloged under the National
Archives Identier (NAID) 194219. Original artist: Robert L. Knudsen
File:Juan_de_Juanes_002.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Juan_de_Juanes_002.jpg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by
DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Juan de Juanes
File:Last_supper_right_wall.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e7/Last_supper_right_wall.jpg License: Fair use
Contributors:
Nichols, Lynn H. (1995). <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='http://books.google.com/books?id=
tX1TGQAACAAJ,<span>,&,</span>,dq=The+Rape+of+Europa,<span>,&,</span>,client=refox-a'>The Rape of Europa: The
Fate of Europes Teasures in the Third Reich and the Second World War.</a> New York: Vintage Books. 10-ISBN 0-679-75686-8;
13-ISBN 978-0-679-75686-6; OCLC 32531154 Original artist: ?
File:Leda_and_the_Swan_1505-1510.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Leda_and_the_Swan_
1505-1510.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/05copies/5leda.jpg'
data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/
20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/
30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png
2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/leonardo/05copies/5leda.html' data-
x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_
icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/
Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_
icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Cesare
da Sesto
File:Leonardesco,_forse_ambrogio_de_predis,_angelo_di_dx_della_vergine_delle_rocce_di_londra.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Leonardesco%2C_forse_ambrogio_de_predis%2C_angelo_di_dx_
della_vergine_delle_rocce_di_londra.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/
giovanni-ambrogio-de-predis-an-angel-in-red-with-a-lute Original artist: Giovanni Ambrogio de Predis
File:Leonardesco,_forse_ambrogio_de_predis,_angelo_di_sx_della_vergine_delle_rocce_di_londra.jpg Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Leonardesco%2C_forse_ambrogio_de_predis%2C_angelo_di_sx_della_vergine_
delle_rocce_di_londra.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk Original artist: Associate of Leonardo
da Vinci (Francesco Napoletano?) nationalgallery.org.uk
File:Leonardo,_san_girolamo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Leonardo%2C_san_girolamo.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/01/8jerome.jpg' data-x-
rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.
svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.
svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/leonardo/01/8jerome.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Information icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_
icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.
svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/
40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Leonardo da
Vinci
File:Leonardo,_ultima_cena_(restored)_04.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Leonardo%2C_
ultima_cena_%28restored%29_04.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Milena Magnano, Leonardo, collana I Geni dell'arte,
Mondadori Arte, Original artist: see lename or category
File:Leonardo-Flywheel-screenshot.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/
Leonardo-Flywheel-screenshot.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Leonardo_-_St._Anne_cartoon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Leonardo_-_St._Anne_
cartoon.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_Da_Vinci{}s_Brain_Physiology.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Leonardo_Da_
Vinci%27s_Brain_Physiology.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/med/study/ugr/mbchb/societies/
surgical/events/invited_lecture_-/ Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_Da_Vinci_-_Annunciazione.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Leonardo_Da_
Vinci_-_Annunciazione.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.marysrosaries.com/collaboration/index.php?title=File:
Annunciation_-_Leonardo_Da_Vinci_-_Annunciazione.jpeg Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
94 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Leonardo_Da_Vinci_-_Vergine_delle_Rocce_(Louvre).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/

Leonardo_Da_Vinci_-_Vergine_delle_Rocce_%28Louvre%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: gallerix.ru Original artist:
Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_Design_for_a_Flying_Machine,_c._1488.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/
Leonardo_Design_for_a_Flying_Machine%2C_c._1488.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.drawingsofleonardo.org/
Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_IMG_1759.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Leonardo_IMG_1759.JPG License:
CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist:
File:Leonardo_Sala_delle_Asse_detail.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Leonardo_Sala_delle_
Asse_detail.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/03/5ceilin1.jpg'
data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/
20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/
30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png
2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/leonardo/03/5ceilin1.html' data-x-
rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_
icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/
Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original
artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_Salai.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Leonardo_Salai.JPG License: Public domain
Contributors: A.E.Popham The Drawings of Leonardo Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_anatomy_of_dog_and_man.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Leonardo_anatomy_
of_dog_and_man.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: A.E.Popham The Drawings of Leonardo Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_cannons.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Leonardo_cannons.JPG License: Public
domain Contributors: Bortolon, The Life and Times of Leonardo, Paul Hamlyn Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci,_Madonna_of_the_Yarnwinder,_Buccleuch_version.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/5/50/Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_Madonna_of_the_Yarnwinder%2C_Buccleuch_version.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/05copies/1yarnwin.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60'
/></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/leonardo/05copies/1yarnwin.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information
icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png'
width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_
icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png
2x' data-le-width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Leonardo_da_Vinci.jpeg License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Leonardo_da_Vinci01.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_(attrib)-_la_Belle_Ferroniere.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/
Leonardo_da_Vinci_%28attrib%29-_la_Belle_Ferroniere.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000
Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: ?
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_(attrib)_-_The_Holy_Infants.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/
Leonardo_da_Vinci_%28attrib%29_-_The_Holy_Infants.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: https://web.archive.org/web/
20110207131622/http://lost-leonardo.com/ Original artist: After Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_(ur_Svenska_Familj-Journalen).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/
Leonardo_da_Vinci_%28ur_Svenska_Familj-Journalen%29.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Adorazione_dei_Magi_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/2/27/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Adorazione_dei_Magi_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
RQFL5tibYCPGOg at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Anatomical_studies_of_the_shoulder_-_WGA12824.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/0/04/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Anatomical_studies_of_the_shoulder_-_WGA12824.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/10anatom/3should1.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60'
/></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/leonardo/10anatom/3should1.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information
icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png'
width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_
icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png
2x' data-le-width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Angelo_Incarnato.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Leonardo_da_
Vinci_-_Angelo_Incarnato.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.itsjustlife.com/monsalai.html
http://octaviologia.blogspot.com/2008/04/dos-libros.html Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Annunciazione_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
9/93/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Annunciazione_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: sAErNLFH1KFYmw at
Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
4.2. IMAGES 95

File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Female_head_(La_Scapigliata)_-_WGA12716.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/9/91/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Female_head_%28La_Scapigliata%29_-_WGA12716.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/04/2scapigl.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60'
/></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/leonardo/04/2scapigl.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Ginevra_de'_Benci_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/3/39/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Ginevra_de%27_Benci_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
9QEdQ-BD4WEqPQ at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Last_Supper_(copy)_-_WGA12732.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
2/23/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Last_Supper_%28copy%29_-_WGA12732.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web
Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/05copies/7lastsup.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a>
Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/leonardo/05copies/7lastsup.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: ?
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Plan_of_Imola_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
8/85/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Plan_of_Imola_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: hgEpMgZ5mn6R4A at
Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Portrait_of_a_Musician.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Leonardo_
da_Vinci_-_Portrait_of_a_Musician.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work (Personal work) Original artist: Leonardo da
Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Saint_John_the_Baptist_C2RMF_retouched.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/b/b8/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Saint_John_the_Baptist_C2RMF_retouched.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on
File:Saint Jean-Baptiste, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF.jpg, originally: C2RMF: Galerie de tableaux en trs haute dnition: image
page Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Studies_of_the_foetus_in_the_womb.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/
63/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Studies_of_the_foetus_in_the_womb.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Hi! Magazine (direct link)
Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_The_Last_Supper_high_res.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/
Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_The_Last_Supper_high_res.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: File:ltima_Cena_-_Da_Vinci_5.jpg
Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Ultima_cena_-_ca_1975.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/
Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Ultima_cena_-_ca_1975.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Archive URL: http://web.archive.org/
web/20051129063555/http://www.initaly.com/regions/artists/lastsupp.htm Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Virgin_and_Child_with_Ss_Anne_and_John_the_Baptist.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/c/c8/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Virgin_and_Child_with_Ss_Anne_and_John_the_Baptist.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: National Gallery collection Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Virgin_and_Child_with_St_Anne_C2RMF_retouched.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/4/44/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Virgin_and_Child_with_St_Anne_C2RMF_retouched.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: original le: C2RMF: Galerie de tableaux en trs haute dnition: image page Original artist: C2RMF (digitizaed) /
user:Dcoetzee (retouched)
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Virgin_of_the_Rocks_(National_Gallery_London).png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Virgin_of_the_Rocks_%28National_Gallery_London%29.png License: Public domain
Contributors: The National Gallery Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Virgin_of_the_Rocks_(detail)_-_WGA12696.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/1/18/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Virgin_of_the_Rocks_%28detail%29_-_WGA12696.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/02/2virg_p2.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60'
/></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/leonardo/02/2virg_p2.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_presumed_self-portrait_-_WGA12798.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/3/38/Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_presumed_self-portrait_-_WGA12798.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web
Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/08heads/12selfpo.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg'
96 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20'

srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a>
Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/leonardo/08heads/12selfpo.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_028.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Leonardo_da_Vinci_028.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Dis-
tributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_Benois_Madonna.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Leonardo_da_Vinci_
Benois_Madonna.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.theartgallery.com.au/ArtEducation/greatartists/DaVinci/4_
Benois_Madonna/index.html Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_Golden_Horn_Bridge_model_right.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d1/
Leonardo_da_Vinci_Golden_Horn_Bridge_model_right.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
I (Lourakis (talk)) created this work entirely by myself. Original artist:
Lourakis (talk)
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_LUCAN_Hohenstatt_1_portrait.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/
Leonardo_da_Vinci_LUCAN_Hohenstatt_1_portrait.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Photo by Nico Barbatelli Original artist:
Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_LUCAN_self-portrait_PORTRAIT.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/
Leonardo_da_Vinci_LUCAN_self-portrait_PORTRAIT.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Museum of the Ancient People of Lu-
cania, Italy Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_Madonna_of_the_Carnation.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/
Leonardo_da_Vinci_Madonna_of_the_Carnation.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der
Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_Virgin_of_the_Rocks_(National_Gallery_London).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/4/49/Leonardo_da_Vinci_Virgin_of_the_Rocks_%28National_Gallery_London%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
1. The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publish-
ing GmbH.
Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci and workshop
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_attributed_-_Madonna_Litta.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/
Leonardo_da_Vinci_attributed_-_Madonna_Litta.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Hermitage Torrent
Original artist: Attributed to Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_helicopter.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Leonardo_da_Vinci_
helicopter.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ausschnitt aus http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Leonardo_da_Vinci_
helicopter_and_lifting_wing.jpg Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_or_Boltraffio_(attrib)_Salvator_Mundi_circa_1500.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/1/1f/Leonardo_da_Vinci_or_Boltraffio_%28attrib%29_Salvator_Mundi_circa_1500.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
[1] Original artist: Attributed to Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_parachute_04659a.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Leonardo_da_
Vinci_parachute_04659a.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nevit Dilmen
File:Leonardo_da_vinci,_Double_manuscript_page_on_the_Sforza_monument.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/9/98/Leonardo_da_vinci%2C_Double_manuscript_page_on_the_Sforza_monument.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/15sculpt/2sforza3.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60'
/></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/leonardo/15sculpt/2sforza3.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_da_vinci,_Flying_machine.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Leonardo_da_vinci%
2C_Flying_machine.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/
12engine/3flying1.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/
6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/
Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.
svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/leonardo/12engine/3flying1.html'
data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_
icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/
Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_
icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist:
Leonardo da Vinci
4.2. IMAGES 97

File:Leonardo_da_vinci,_The_Virgin_and_Child_with_Saint_Anne_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/b/bb/Leonardo_da_vinci%2C_The_Virgin_and_Child_with_Saint_Anne_01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/04/4stanne.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60'
/></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/leonardo/04/4stanne.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: ?
File:Leonardo_da_vinci,_Town_plan_of_Imola.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/
Leonardo_da_vinci%2C_Town_plan_of_Imola.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a
href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/13maps/1imola.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a>
Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/leonardo/13maps/1imola.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_di_ser_Piero_da_Vinci_-_Portrait_de_Mona_Lisa_(dite_La_Joconde)_-_Louvre_779_-_Detail_(hands).jpg
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Leonardo_di_ser_Piero_da_Vinci_-_Portrait_de_Mona_Lisa_%28dite_
La_Joconde%29_-_Louvre_779_-_Detail_%28hands%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Louvre info RMN image uploaded
without further processing. Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_di_ser_Piero_da_Vinci_-_Portrait_de_Mona_Lisa_(dite_La_Joconde)_-_Louvre_779_-_Detail_(right_
landscape).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Leonardo_di_ser_Piero_da_Vinci_-_Portrait_de_
Mona_Lisa_%28dite_La_Joconde%29_-_Louvre_779_-_Detail_%28right_landscape%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Louvre info RMN image uploaded without further processing. Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_flight_of_bird.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Leonardo_flight_of_bird.JPG Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Bortolon, The Life and Times of Leonardo, Paul Hamlyn Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_flying_machine.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Leonardo_flying_machine.JPG
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: TTaylor
File:Leonardo_machine_for_grinding_convex_lenses.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/
Leonardo_machine_for_grinding_convex_lenses.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Bortolon, The Life and Times of Leonardo,
Paul Hamlyn Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_machines.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Leonardo_machines.JPG License: Public
domain Contributors: Bortolon, The Life and Times of Leonardo, Paul Hamlyn Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_parabolic_compass.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Leonardo_parabolic_
compass.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Bortolon, The Life and Times of Leonardo, Paul Hamlyn Original artist: Leonardo da
Vinci
File:Leonardo_polyhedra.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Leonardo_polyhedra.png License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Leonardo_study_AdorationofMagi.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Leonardo_study_
AdorationofMagi.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Bortolon, The Life and Times of Leonardo, Paul Hamlyn Original artist:
Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_study_Madonna_of_the_rocks.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Leonardo_study_
Madonna_of_the_rocks.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://blog.al.com/mhuebner/2008/09/rare_drawings_by_leonardo_
da_v.html Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_tank.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Leonardo_tank.JPG License: Public domain
Contributors: Bortolon, The Life and Times of Leonardo, Paul Hamlyn Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_topographical_map.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Leonardo_topographical_
map.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: A.E.Popham The Drawings of Leonardo Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Leonardo_walking_on_water.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Leonardo_walking_on_water.
JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Bortolon, The Life and Times of Leonardo, Paul Hamlyn. Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:File:
Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Original artist: User:Trappist the monk
File:Lombardia_Milano2_tango7174.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Lombardia_Milano2_
tango7174.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tango7174
File:Lorenzo_di_Credi_-_Madonna_Dreyfus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/
Lorenzo_di_Credi_-_Madonna_Dreyfus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http:
//www.wga.hu/art/l/lorenzo/credi/3pomegra.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a>
Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/lorenzo/credi/3pomegra.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
98 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Lorenzo di Credi
File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: New version of Image:Loudspeaker.png, by AzaToth and compressed by Hautala Original artist: Nethac DIU, waves corrected by
Zoid
File:Madonna_of_the_Yarnwinder.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Madonna_of_the_
Yarnwinder.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://abcgallery.com/L/leonardo/leonardo29.html Original artist:
pl: szkoa Leonarda da Vinci
en: school of Leonarda da Vinci
File:Marcel_Duchamp_Mona_Lisa_LHOOQ.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6e/Marcel_Duchamp_Mona_
Lisa_LHOOQ.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:MonaLisaShield.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/MonaLisaShield.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0
Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/cayetano/2170060100/ Original artist: Cayetano
File:Mona_Lisa,_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/ec/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Cropped and relevelled from File:Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF.jpg. Originally C2RMF: Galerie de tableaux en trs
haute dnition: image page Original artist: C2RMF: Galerie de tableaux en trs haute dnition: image page
File:Mona_Lisa_(copy,_Hermitage).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Mona_Lisa_%28copy%2C_
Hermitage%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: 1. The Hermitage, St. Petersburg, the old web site
Original artist: Anonymous, After Leonardo da Vinci
File:Mona_Lisa_(copy,_Thalwil,_Switzerland).JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Mona_Lisa_
%28copy%2C_Thalwil%2C_Switzerland%29.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: The world of Leonardo, 1452-1519 by Robert
Wallace Original artist: Salai
File:Mona_Lisa_Found,_La_Joconde_est_Retrouve,_Le_Petit_Parisien,_Numro_13559,_13_December_1913.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Mona_Lisa_Found%2C_La_Joconde_est_Retrouv%C3%A9e%2C_Le_Petit_
Parisien%2C_Num%C3%A9ro_13559%2C_13_December_1913.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: <a data-x-rel='nofollow'
class='external text' href='http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k564913t/f1.image'>La Joconde est Retrouve, Le Petit Parisien, Numro
13559, 1913/12/13 (Numro 13559)</a> Original artist: Le Petit Parisien
File:Mona_Lisa_Louvre_PERSPECTIVA.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Mona_Lisa_Louvre_
PERSPECTIVA.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ingegneriadellelizia
File:Mona_Lisa_margin_scribble.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Mona_Lisa_margin_scribble.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ub.uni-heidelberg.de Original artist: Agostino Vespucci
File:Mona_Lisa_stolen-1911.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Mona_Lisa_stolen-1911.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: The Two Mona Lisas by Walter Littleeld, article from Century Magazine, Vol. 87, N 4 (Feb 1914).
Published by The Century Company
Direct link to article Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img
alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.
svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.
svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/
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File:Mona_lisa_Prado_PERSPECTIVA.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Mona_lisa_Prado_
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cense: LGPL Contributors: Own work based on Image:Nuvola apps kcmsystem.png by Alphax originally from [1] Original artist:
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utors: ? Original artist: ?
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File:Peter_Paul_Ruben{}s_copy_of_the_lost_Battle_of_Anghiari.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/
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Rubens
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File:Predis,_Giovanni_Ambrogio_de__Angel_in_green_with_a_vielle,_part_of_S._Francesco_altarpiece,_Milan_(bust)__
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utors: <a class='external text' href='http://mail.wikipedia.org/pipermail/wikide-l/2005-April/012195.html'>The Yorck Project: 10.000
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Raphael
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This image is available from Gallica Digital Library under the digital ID bpt6k2412478/f9.
Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
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artist: ?
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tributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable
author provided. Mobius assumed (based on copyright claims).
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inal artist: Leonardo da Vinci
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Landscape.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.drawingsofleonardo.org Original artist: ?
100 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Study_of_horse.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Study_of_horse.jpg License: Public domain

Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/l/leonardo/11nature/11horse1.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20'
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upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60'
/></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/l/leonardo/11nature/11horse1.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci
File:Study_of_the_Graduations_of_Shadows_on_Spheres.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/
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utors: TTaylor Original artist: Leonardo
File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png License: Public domain Contributors:
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