Semiconductor Lattice Structures

Diamond Lattices

Chapter 3: semiconductor The diamond-crystal lattice characterized by

science and light emitting diodes four covalently bonded atoms.
The lattice constant, denoted by ao, is 0.356,
0.543 and 0.565 nm for diamond, silicon, and
germanium, respectively.
Nearest neighbors are spaced ( 3ao / 4) units apart.

Of the 18 atoms shown in the figure, only 8 belong to the volume ao3.
Because the 8 corner atoms are each shared by 8 cubes, they contribute a
total of 1 atom; the 6 face atoms are each shared by 2 cubes and thus
contribute 3 atoms, and there are 4 atoms inside the cube.
The atomic density is therefore 8/ao3, which corresponds to 17.7, 5.00, and
4.43 X 1022 cm-3, respectively.

(After W. Shockley: Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors, Van Nostrand, Princeton, N.J., 1950.)

Semiconductor Lattice Structures

Diamond and Zincblende Lattices

How Many Silicon Atoms per cm-3?
Diamond lattice can be though of as an FCC structures with an Number of atoms in a unit cell:
extra atoms placed at a/4+b/4+c/4 from each of the FCC atoms
4 atoms completely inside cell
Each of the 8 atoms on corners are shared among cells
count as 1 atom inside cell
Each of the 6 atoms on the faces are shared among 2
cells count as 3 atoms inside cell
Total number inside the cell = 4 + 1 + 3 = 8
Cell volume:
(.543 nm)3 = 1.6 x 10-22 cm3
Density of silicon atoms
Diamond lattice Zincblende lattice = (8 atoms) / (cell volume) = 5 x 1022 atoms/cm3
Si, Ge GaAs, InP, ZnSe
The Zincblende lattice consist of a face centered cubic Bravais point lattice which contains
two different atoms per lattice point. The distance between the two atoms equals one quarter
of the body diagonal of the cube.
 Semiconductor Materials for
Optoelectronic Devices
The Si Crystal

Each Si atom has 4 nea

rest neighbors

lattice constant
= 5.431

400~450 450~470 470~557 557~567 567~572 572~585 585~605 605~630 630~700

diamond cubic lattice Pure Blue Blue Pure Green Green Yellow Green Yellow Amber Orange Red

Semiconductor Materials for

Semiconductor Optical Sources
Optoelectronic Devices

In0.57Ga0.43As0.95P0.05
In0.7Ga0.3As0.66P0.34
In0.14Ga0.86As
0.55 0.45
P
GaP(N)
SiC(Al)
InGaN

GaAs

GaSb
GaAs

InP
GaAs1-yPy
x = 0.43 In1-xGaxAs1-yPy
AlxGa1-xAs
In0.49AlxGa0.51-xP

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
Green
Orange

Red
Violet

Yellow
Blue

I n f r ar e d (um)
 Quantization Concept Periodic Table of the Elements

Group**
Period 1 18
IA VIIIA
plank constant 1A 8A
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 2
1 H IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA He
1.008 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 4.003

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18

11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB
------- VIII -------
IB IIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 1B 2B 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
Core electrons ------- 8 -------
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.47 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3

55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 190.2 195.1 197.0 200.5 204.4 207.2 209.0 (210) (210) (222)

87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 114 116 118

Valence electrons 7 Fr Ra Ac~ Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt --- --- --- --- --- ---

(223) (226) (227) (257) (260) (263) (262) (265) (266) () () () () () ()

Semiconductor Materials Semiconductor Materials

IV Compounds
SiC, SiGe

III-V Binary Compounds

AlP, AlAs, AlSb, GaN, GaP, GaAs,
GaSb, InP, InAs, InSb

III-V Ternary Compounds

AlGaAs, InGaAs, AlGaP

III-V Quternary Compounds

AlGaAsP, InGaAsP

II-VI Binary Compounds

ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS, CdSe, CdTe

II-VI Ternary Compounds

HgCdTe
 Atomic Bonding Covalent Bonding

Bonding forces in Solids

a. Ionic bonding (such as NaCl)
b. Metallic bonding (all metals)
c. Covalent bonding (typical Si)
d. Van der Waals bonding (water)
e. Mixed bonding (GaAs, ZnSe, ionic & covalent)

Quantization Concept Quantization Concept

The Shell Model

plank constant
L shell with
two sub shells
Nucleus

1s
Core electrons
K 2s
L 2p

1s22s22p2 or [He]2s22p2

The shell model of the atom in which the electrons are confined
Valence electrons
to live within certain shells and in sub shells within shells.
 Energy Band Formation (I) Energy Band Formation (I)

Band theory of solids

Two atoms brought together to form molecule
splitting of energy levels for outer electron shells

Allowed energy levels of Splitting of energy states into allowed bands

an electron acted on by separated by a forbidden energy gap
the Coulomb potential of as the atomic spacing decreases.
an atomic nucleus. The electrical properties of a crystalline material
correspond to specific allowed and forbidden energies
associated with an atomic separation related to the
lattice constant of the crystal.

Energy Band Formation (II) Energy Band Formation (III)

Energy Bandgap Pauli Exclusion Principle Conceptual development of the energy band model.
where no states exist
N isolated Si-atoms Crystalline Si N -atoms Etop
Mostly

Electron energy
empty

Electron energy
Electron energy
4N allowed-states
p (Conduction Band) Ec
s n=3
No states
Eg
6N p-states total Ev
4N allowed-states Mostly
2N s-states total filled
(Valance Band)
(4N electrons total) Ebottom
Only 2 electrons, of spin 1/2, can
occupy the same energy state at
the same point in space. Electron energy p 4N empty states
As atoms are brought closer towards
one another and begin to bond s
Strongly bonded materials: small together, their energy levels must 2N+2N filled states
interatomic distances. split into bands of discrete levels
Thus, the strongly bonded materials can so closely spaced in energy, they
have larger energy bandgaps than do can be considered a continuum of Decreasing atom spacing
weakly bonded materials. isolated Si lattice
allowed energy.
Si atoms spacing
 Energy Band Formation (IV) Energy Band

Broadening of allowed energy levels into allowed energy bands Energy band diagrams.
separated by forbidden-energy gaps as more atoms influence each
electron in a solid.

N electrons filling half of the 2N A completely empty band separated

allowed states, as can occur in a metal. by an energy gap Eg from a band
whose 2N states are completely filled
by 2N electrons, representative of an
One-dimensional Two-dimensional diagram in which
insulator.
representation energy is plotted versus distance.

Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators

Typical band structures of Metal Typical band structures of Semiconductor

Electron Energy, E Covalent bond

Si ion core (+4e)
Free electron Electron energy, E
Vacuum Ec+
3s Band E =0
level ConductionBand(CB)
Empty of electrons at 0 K.
2 p Band
3p Overlapping Ec
3s energy bands
Band gap = Eg
2p
2s 2 s Band Electrons Ev

Valence Band (VB)

Full of electrons at 0 K.

0
1s 1s
ATOM SOLID
A simplified two dimensional The energy band diagram of
In a metal the various energy bands overlap to give a single band of energies view of a region of the Si electrons in the Si crystal at
that is only partially full of electrons. crystal showing covalent absolute zero of temperature.
There are states with energies up to the vacuum level where the electron is free.
bonds.
 Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators

Typical band structures at 0 K.

Carrier Flow for Metal

Carrier Flow for Metals.mov

Carrier Flow for Semiconductor

Carrier Flow for Semiconductors.mov Insulator Semiconductor Metal

Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators Energy Band Diagram

Range of conductivities exhibited by various materials. Electrons within an infinite potential energy well of spatial width L,
its energy is quantized.
Insulators Semiconductors Conductors
( h k n2 ) n
Many ceramics En = kn = n = 1,2,3...
2me L
Alumina Superconductors n=3
h k n : electron momentum E3
Diamond Inorganic Glasses 2
Mica Metals Energy increases x x
Polypropylene parabolically with the infinite square potential
Degenerately
PVDF Soda silica glass wavevector kn. E2
n=2
doped Si Alloys
PET Borosilicate Pure SnO2
Intrinsic Si m
Amorphous Te Graphite NiCrAg E1 n=1
SiO2 Intrinsic GaAs
As2Se3 -a/2 0 +a/2 -a/2 0 +a/2
V(x) V=0 Energy state Wavefunction Probability density
x
-a/2 0 +a/2
10-18 10-15 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3 100 103 106 109 1012
This description can be used to the behavior of electron in a Metal
Conductivity (m)-1 within which their average potential energy is V(x) 0 inside, and very
large outside.
 3.1 Energy Band Diagram 3.1 Energy Band Diagram

E-k diagram, Bloch function. within the Crystal! E-k diagram, Bloch function.

PE(r)

r Potential Energy of the electron d 2 2m e

+ 2 [ E V ( x )] = 0 V ( x ) = V ( x + ma )
around an isolated atom dx 2 h
m = 1,2,3...
When N atoms are arranged to
form the crystal then there is an
Schrdinger equation Periodic Potential
overlap of individual electron PE
V(x) functions.

0
a a
PE of the electron, V(x), inside the k ( x ) = U k ( x ) e i k x
crystal is periodic with a period a.
Periodic Wave function
x
x=0 a 2a 3a x=L Bloch Wavefunction
Surface Crystal Surface
There are many Bloch wavefunction solutions to the one-dimensional crystal each
Moving through Lattice.mov identified with a particular k value, say kn which act as a kind of quantum number.

The electron potential energy [PE, V(x)], inside the crystal is periodic with the
same periodicity as that of the crystal, a.
Each k (x) solution corresponds to a particular kn and
Far away outside the crystal, by choice, V = 0 (the electron is free and PE = 0).
represents a state with an energy Ek.

3.1 Band Diagram 3.1 Energy Band Diagram

E-k diagram of a direct bandgap semiconductor The energy is plotted as a function of the wave number, k,
along the main crystallographic directions in the crystal.
E-k diagram The Energy Band
E Diagram
k Si Ge GaAs

CB
Conduction
Empty e-
Band (CB) e- k
E E
c c
E h h
g
E E
Valence v v
Band (VB) h+ Occupied h+
k
VB

k
/a /a

The E-k curve consists of many discrete points with each point corresponding to a
possible state, wavefunction k (x), that is allowed to exist in the crystal. The bottom axis describe different directions of the crystal.
The points are so close that we normally draw the E-k relationship as a continuous
curve. In the energy range Ev to Ec there are no points [no k (x) solutions].
 3.1 Energy Band Diagram 3.1 Energy Band

E-k diagram
A simplified energy band diagram with the highest almost-filled
band and the lowest almost-empty band.
E E E

CB
Indirect Bandgap, Eg
Ec CB vacuum level
Direct Bandgap Eg Photon CB Ec Ec
Ev Er
kcb Phonon
Ev Ev : electron affinity
VB
VB kvb VB
k k k k k k
GaAs Si Si with a recombination center
conduction band edge
In GaAs the minimum of In Si, the minimum of the CB is Recombination of an electron
the CB is directly above displaced from the maximum of and a hole in Si involves a
the maximum of the VB. the VB. recombination center.
direct bandgap indirect bandgap semiconductor valence band edge
semiconductor.

3. 1 Electrons and Holes Electrons and Holes

Generation of Electrons and Holes Electrons: Electrons in the conduction band that are free to move throughout the crystal.
Holes: Missing electrons normally found in the valence band
(or empty states in the valence band that would normally be filled).
Electron energy, E

Ec+
CB
Ec
h > Eg Free e
Eg h hole
e
Hole h+
Ev

VB
0

A photon with an energy greater Each line between Si-Si atoms is a

then Eg can excitation an electron valence electron in a bond.
from the VB to the CB. When a photon breaks a Si-Si bond, a These particles carry electricity.
free electron and a hole in the Si-Si Thus, we call these carriers
bond is created.
 3.1 Effective Mass (I) 3.1 Carrier Movement Within the Crystal

An electron moving in respond to an applied electric field.

E
E

Density of States Effective Masses at 300 K

within a Vacuum within a Semiconductor crystal

dv dv
F = q E = m0 F = q E = m n
dt dt

It allow us to conceive of electron and holes as quasi-classical particles Ge and GaAs have lighter electrons than Si which results in faster devices
and to employ classical particle relationships in semiconductor crystals or
in most device analysis.

3.1 Effective Mass (II) 3.1 Energy Band Diagram

The energy is plotted as a function of the wave number, k,

Electrons are not free but interact with periodic potential of the lattice.
along the main crystallographic directions in the crystal.
Wave-particle motion is not as same as in free space.

Si Ge GaAs

Moving through Lattice.mov

The bottom axis describe different directions of the crystal.
Curvature of the band determine m*.
m* is positive in CB min., negative in VB max.
 3.1 Mass Approximation Covalent Bonding

The motion of electrons in a crystal can be visualized and described

in a quasi-classical manner.

In most instances
The electron can be thought of as a particle.
The electronic motion can be modeled using Newtonian
mechanics.

The effect of crystalline forces and quantum mechanical properties

are incorporated into the effective mass factor.
m* > 0 : near the bottoms of all bands
m* < 0 : near the tops of all bands

Carriers in a crystal with energies near the top or bottom of an

energy band typically exhibit a constant (energy-independent)
effective mass.

` d 2E
2 = constant : near band edge
dk

Covalent Bonding Band Occupation at Low Temperature

Band Occupation at High Temperature Band Occupation at High Temperature

Band Occupation at High Temperature Band Occupation at High Temperature

 Band Occupation at High Temperature Impurity Doping

The need for more control over carrier concentration

Without help the total number of carriers (electrons and
holes) is limited to 2ni.
For most materials, this is not that much, and leads to very
high resistance and few useful applications.
We need to add carriers by modifying the crystal.
This process is known as doping the crystal.

Regarding Doping, ...

Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons
 Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons

Band diagram equivalent view

Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons

V(x), PE (x)
V(x)
n-type Impurity Doping of Si Energy Band Diagram in an
x
Applied Field

Electron Energy
Electron Energy PE (x) = eV

E
CB
As+ Ec Ec
e ~0.05 eV E EF Energy band diagram of an n-type
d As+ As+ As+ As+
E c eV semiconductor connected to a
Ev
E F eV voltage supply of V volts.
E v eV
Ev x
Distance into
A
The whole energy diagram tilts
crystal because the electron now has an
6
As atom sites every 10 Si atoms
B
electrostatic potential energy as
The four valence electrons of As allow Energy band diagram for an n-type Si doped n-Type Semiconductor well.
it to bond just like Si but the 5th with 1 ppm As. There are donor energy levels
electron is left orbiting the As site. just below Ec around As+ sites.
The energy required to release to free
fifth- electron into the CB is very Current flowing
small. V
Concept of a Acceptor Adding extra Holes Hole Movement

All regions
of
material
are neutrally
charged

One less bond

One less bond means
means the neighboring
the acceptor is Silicon is left with
electrically an empty state.
satisfied. Empty state is located next to the Acceptor

Hole Movement Hole Movement

Another valence electron can fill the empty state located next to The positively charged hole can move throughout the crystal.
the Acceptor leaving behind a positively charged hole. (Really it is the valance electrons jumping from atom to atom that creates the hole motion)
 Hole Movement Hole Movement

The positively charged hole can move throughout the crystal. The positively charged hole can move throughout the crystal.
(Really it is the valance electrons jumping from atom to atom that creates the hole motion) (Really it is the valance electrons jumping from atom to atom that creates the hole motion)

Hole Movement Concept of a Acceptor Adding extra Holes

Band diagram equivalent view

Region
around the Region
acceptor around the
has hole has
one extra one less
electron electron
and thus is and thus is
negatively positively
charged. charged.

The positively charged hole can move throughout the crystal.

(Really it is the valance electrons jumping from atom to atom that creates the hole motion)
 Concept of a Acceptor Adding extra Holes Intrinsic, n-Type, p-Type Semiconductors

p-type Impurity Doping of Si Energy band diagrams

Electron energy
B atom sites every 106 Si atoms
CB
Ec x Distance
into crystal Ec
Ec Ec
EFn
h+ EFi
B EFp
B B B B
Ea Ev Ev Ev
h+
~0.05 eV
VB
Ev
VB

Intrinsic n-type p-type

Boron doped Si crystal. B has
only three valence electrons.
When it substitute for a Si atom
one of its bond has an electron
missing and therefore a hole.
Energy band diagram for a p-type Si crystal semiconductors semiconductors semiconductors
doped with 1 ppm B. There are acceptor
energy levels just above Ev around B- site. In all cases, np=ni2
These acceptor levels accept electrons
from the VB and therefore create holes in Note that donor and acceptor energy levels are not shown.
the VB.

Impurity Doping Impurity Doping

Valence Band

Valence Band
 Impurity Doping Energy Band

Position of energy levels within the bandgap of Si for Energy band diagrams.
common dopants.

Energy-band diagram for a semiconductor showing the lower edge of the

conduction band Ec, a donor level Ed within the forbidden band gap,
and Fermi level Ef, an acceptor level Ea, and the top edge of the valence
band Ev.

3.2B Semiconductor Statistics 3.2B Semiconductor Statistics

Density of States Concept Density of States Concept

Quantum Mechanics tells us that the number of available states in a
cm3 per unit of energy, the density of states, is given by:
The number of conduction band
gc ( E ) dE states/cm3 lying in the energy
range between E and E + dE
Density of States
(if E Ec).
in Conduction Band

Density of States
The number of valence band in Valence Band
gv ( E ) dE states/cm3 lying in the energy
range between E and E + dE
(if E Ev).

General energy dependence of

gc (E) and gv (E) near the band edges.
 3.2B Fermi- Dirac function How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

Probability of Occupation (Fermi Function) Concept Probability of Occupation (Fermi Function) Concept
Now that we know the number of available states at each energy, then
how do the electrons occupy these states?
We need to know how the electrons are distributed in energy.

Again, Quantum Mechanics tells us that the electrons follow the Fer
mi-distribution function. The Fermi function f (E) is a probability
distribution function that tells one the ratio of
1 Ef Fermi energy (average energy in the crystal)
f (E) = k Boltzmann constant (k=8.61710-5eV/K)
filled to total allowed states at a given energy
( EE f ) / kT
1+ e T Temperature in Kelvin (K) E
f(E) is the probability that a state at energy E is occupied.
1-f(E) is the probability that a state at energy E is unoccupied.

Fermi function applies only under equilibrium conditions, however, is

universal in the sense that it applies with all materials-insulators,
semiconductors, and metals.

3.2B Semiconductor Statistics

Fermi-Dirac Distribution
Fermi Function
Probability that an available state at energy E is occupied:
1
f ( E) =
1 + e( E EF ) / kT
EF is called the Fermi energy or the Fermi level

There is only one Fermi level in a system at equilibrium.

If E >> EF :
If E << EF :
Ef If E = EF :
 3.2B Semiconductor Statistics Maxwell Boltzmann Distribution Function

Probability of Occupation (Fermi function) Concept

 Boltzmann Approximation TYU
( E EF ) / kT
If E EF > 3kT , f ( E) e
Assume the Fermi level is 0.30eV below the
conduction band energy (a) determine the pro
bability of a state being occupied by an electr
If EF E > 3kT , f ( E ) 1 e( E EF ) / kT on at E=Ec+KT at room temperature (300K).

Probability that a state is empty (occupied by a hole):

( E EF ) / kT ( EF E ) / kT
1 f ( E) e =e

TYU
Determine the probability that an allowed ene
rgy state is empty of electron if the state is be
low the fermi level by (i) kT (ii) 3KT (iii)
6 KT
 How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

Example 2.2
The probability that a state is filled at the conduction band edge (Ec) is
precisely equal to the probability that a state is empty at the valence band
edge (Ev).
Where is the Fermi energy locate?

Solution
The Fermi function, f(E), specifies the probability of electron occupying
states at a given energy E.
The probability that a state is empty (not filled) at a given energy E is equal
to 1- f(E).
f ( EC ) = 1 f ( EV )
1
f (EC ) = 1 f ( EV ) = 1
1
=
1
1 + e ( EC E F ) / kT 1 + e ( EV E F ) / kT 1 + e ( E F EV ) / kT
EC EF EV E F EC + EV
= EF =
kT kT 2

How do electrons and holes populate the bands? How do electrons and holes populate the bands?

Probability of Occupation Concept Probability of Occupation Concept

The density of electrons (or holes) occupying the states
in energy between E and E + dE is:

Electrons/cm3 in the conduction

gc ( E ) f ( E ) dE band between E and E + dE
(if E Ec).

Holes/cm3 in the conduction

gv ( E ) f ( E ) dE band between E and E + dE
(if E Ev).

0 Otherwise
 Developing the Mathematical Model
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?
for Electrons and Holes concentrations

Typical band structures of Semiconductor units of n and p are [ #/cm3]

The Density of Electrons is:
g (E) (EEc)1/2 E
E E
Ec+ [1f(E)] Probability the state is filled
CB
For Area = n E ( E ) dE = n
electrons
Ec nE(E)
Ec
number of number of electrons per unit
states per unit probability of energy per unit volume
EF energy per unit EF occupancy of The area under nE(E) vs. E is the Number of states per cm-3 in energy range dE
volume a state electron concentration.

Ev Ev pE(E)
The Density of Hole is:
Area = p
For holes
VB
Probability the state is empty

0
g(E) fE) nE(E) or pE(E)
Energy band Density of states Fermi-Dirac g(E) X f(E)
diagram probability Energy density of electrons in
function the CB
Number of states per cm-3 in energy range dE

Electron Concentration (no)

TYU
Calculate the thermal equilibrium electron concen
tration in Si at T=300K for the case when the F
ermi level is 0.25eV below the conduction band
.
EC
0.25eV
EF

EV
 Hole Concentration (no)

TYU
Calculate thermal equilibrium hole concentrati
on in Si at T=300k for the case when the Fermi
level is 0.20eV above the valance band energy
Ev.
EC

EF
0.20eV
EV
Degenerate and Nondegenerate Semiconductors Developing the Mathematical Model
for Electrons and Holes

Useful approximations to the Fermi-Dirac integral:

Nondegenerate Case

( E f EC ) kT
n = NCe

(EV E f ) kT
p = NV e

Semiconductor Statistics
The intrinsic carrier concentration

(E f EC ) kT (EV E f ) kT Other useful relationships: np product:

no = N C e po = NV e
ni = N C e ( E i EC ) kT and ni = N V e ( EV Ei ) kT

ni = N C NV e ( EC EV ) kT = N C NV e
2 E g kT
When n = ni, Ef = Ei (the intrinsic energy), then

ni = N C e ( E i EC ) kT or N C = ni e ( EC E i ) kT E g 2 kT
and ni = N C NV e
ni = NV e ( EV Ei ) kT or N = n e ( E i EV ) kT
V i
 TYU
Determine the intrinsic carrier concentration in
GaAs (a) at T=200k and (b) T=400K

Law of mass action

Law of mass Action

Example
(E E ) kT (Ei E f ) kT
Since no = ni e f i and po = pi e An intrinsic Silicon wafer has 1x1010 cm-3 holes. When 1x1018
cm-3 donors are added, what is the new hole concentration?

2
nopo = ni 2
nopo = ni
It is one of the fundamental principles of semiconductors
in thermal equilibrium
 TYU
if N D N A and N D ni
ni2
n ND and p
ND Find the hole concentration at 300K, if the
electron concentration is no=1 x 1015 cm-3,
which carrier is majority carrier and which
carrier is minority carrier?

TYU
: The concentration of majority carrier
electron is no=1 x 1015 cm-3 at 300K. D
etermine the concentration of phosphorus th
at are to be added and determine the concentr
ation minority carriers holes.
 Energy band diagram
Partial Ionization, showing negative
Energy band diagram
Intrinsic Energy showing positive
charges
charges
and Parameter Rel
ationships.

3.5 Developing the Mathematical Model

3.5 Carrier concentration-effects of doping
for Electrons and Holes

Charge Neutrality: Charge Neutrality: Total Ionization case

If excess charge existed within the semiconductor, random motion NA = Concentration of ionized acceptors = ~ NA
of charge would imply net (AC) current flow.
ND+ = Concentration of ionized Donors = ~ ND
Not possible!

( p N )+ (N )
Thus, all charges within the semiconductor must cancel.

[( p + N ) = (N + n )]
+
+ A d n =0
d a

q [( p N ) + (N n )]
A
+
d =0
Immobile + charge
Mobile + charge

Mobile - charge
Immobile - charge
 Electron concentration versus temperature for n-type
Semiconductor.

The intrinsic carrier concent

ration as a function of
temperature.

Carrier Concentration vs. Temper position of Fermi Energy level

ature ( )
[ Ec E f ] kT
no = N c e
Ec EF = kT ln( Nc / no)

Nd >> ni

Ec EF = kT ln( Nc / Nd )
Note: If we have a compensated semiconductor , then the Nd term
in the above equation is simply replaced by Nd-Na.
 position of Fermi Energy level
position of Fermi level as a function of carrier concentration
(EV E f ) kT
po = N V e
EF Ev = kT ln( Nv / po)

Na >> ni

EF Ev = kT ln( Nv / Na )
Note: If we have a compensated semiconductor , then the Na term
in the above equation is simply replaced by Na-Nd.

Where is Ei ?

TYU
Extrinsic Material:

Determine the position of the Fermi level with res

pect to the valence band energy in p-type GaAs at
T=300K. The doping concentration are Na=5 x 1
016 cm-3 and Na=4 x 1015 cm-3.

Note: The Fermi-level is pictured here for 2 separate cases: acceptor and donor doped.
 position of Fermi Energy level

Extrinsic Material:

(E f E fi ) kT (E fi E f ) kT
no = ni e po = ni e

Solving for (Ef - Efi)

n p
E f E fi = kT ln = kT ln
n
i ni

for N D N A and N D ni for N A N D and N A ni

N N
E f E fi = kT ln D E f E fi = kT ln A
ni ni

TYU 3.8
Calculate the position of the Fermi level in n-
type Si at T=300K with respect to the intrinsi
c Fermi energy level. The doping concentrati
on are Nd=2 x 1017 cm-3 and Na=3 x 1016 cm-3
.
 Mobile Charge Carriers in
Smiconductor devices

Three primary types of carrier action occur inside a

semiconductor:

Drift: charged particle motion under the influence of an

electric field.

Diffusion: particle motion due to concentration gradient

or temperature gradient.
EC
EF
Recombination-generation (R-G)
EFi

EV

Carrier Dynamics Carrier Drift

Direction of motion
Describe the mechanism of the carrier drift and drift current
due to an applied electric field.

Holes move in the direction of the electric field. (F\)

Electrons move in the opposite direction of the electric field. (\F)
Carrier Motion Motion is highly non-directional on a local scale, but has a net direction
on a macroscopic scale.
Average net motion is described by the drift velocity, vd [cm/sec].
Electron Drift Electron Diffusion Net motion of charged particles gives rise to a current.

Hole Drift Hole Diffusion

Instantaneous velocity is extremely fast


Drift of Carriers
Electric Field
Drift of electron in a solid
Random thermal motion.
Drift Drift
Schematic path of an electron in a semiconductor.
E
E
The ball rolling down the smooth hill speeds up
continuously, but the ball rolling down the
stairs moves with a constant average velocity.
Random thermal motion. Combined motion due to random thermal
motion and an applied electric field.
[cm2/Vsec] : mobility
Drift
Drift
Conduction process in an n-type semiconductor
Combined motion due to
random thermal motion and an
applied electric field.
Thermal equilibrium Under a biasing condition
 Drift Drift

Jdrf = vd
J p drf = q p vd

At Low Electric Field Values,

Jp = e pp E and Jn Drift
= e n n E
Drift
Given current density J ( I = J x Area ) flowing in a semiconductor block
with face area A under the influence of electric field E, is volume
density, the component of J due to drift of carriers is:
[cm2/Vsec] is the mobility of the semiconductor and measures the

J drf = vd
ease with which carriers can move through the crystal.
and J n drf = e n vd The drift velocity increases with increasing applied electric field.:
J p drf = e p vd
Hole Drift Current Density Electron Drift Current Density Jdrf = J p + Jn Drift
= q ( p p + n n) E
Drift

Electron and Hole Mobilities EX 4.1

cm/s cm2
has the dimensions of v/ : =
V/cm V s Consider a GaAs sample at 300K with dopin
g concentration of Na=0 and Nd=1016 cm-3.
Electron and hole mobilities of selected Assume electron and hole mobitities given in
intrinsic semiconductors (T=300K)
table 4.1. Calculate the drift current density if
Si Ge GaAs InAs the applied electric filed is E=10V/cm.
n (cm /Vs)
2
1350 3900 8500 30000
p (cm2/Vs) 480 1900 400 500
 Mobility

[cm2/Vsec] is the mobility of the semiconductor and measures the

ease with which carriers can move through the crystal.
n ~ 1360 cm2/Vsec for Silicon @ 300K
p ~ 460 cm2/Vsec for Silicon @ 300K
n ~ 8000 cm2/Vsec for GaAs @ 300K
p ~ 400 cm2/Vsec for GaAs @ 300K

q
n, p = [ cm 2
V sec]
m n* , p

< > is the average time between particle collisions in the

semiconductor.
Collisions can occur with lattice atoms, charged dopant atoms, or with
other carriers.

Saturation velocity Saturation velocity

Drift velocity vs. Electric field in Si. Drift velocity vs. Electric field
Designing devices to work at
the peak results in faster
operation

1/2mvth2=3/2kT=3/2(0.0259)
=0.03885eV

q
n, p = [ cm 2
V sec]
m n* , p

Ohms law is valid only in the low-field region where drift velocity is independent
of the applied electric field strength.
Saturation velocity is approximately equal to the thermal velocity (107 cm/s).
 Drift Negative differential mobility

Drift velocity vs. Electric field in Si and GaAs. Electron distributions under various conditions of electric
fields for a two-valley semiconductor.

Note that for n-type GaAs,

there is a region of negative
differential mobility.

q
n, p = [ cm 2
V se
m n* , p m*n=0.067mo
m*n=0.55mo

Negative differential mobility

Velocity-Field characteristic of a Two-valley semiconductor.
TYU
Silicon at T=300K is doped with impurity
concentration of Na=5 X 1016 cm-3 and Nd=2
x 1016 cm-3. (a) what are the electron and hole
mobilities? (b) Determine the resistivity and
conductivity of the material.

Figure 3.24.
 Mean Free Path
l = vth mp
Average distance traveled between collisions

EX 4.2
Using figure 4.3 determine electron and hole nobilities.

EX 4.2
Using figure 4.3 determine electron and hole mobilities in (a) Si for Nd=1017 cm-3,
Na=5 x 1016 cm-3 and (b) GaAs for Na=Nd=1017cm-3
Ex 4.2
 Mobility versus temperature
Mobility versus temperature

Effect of Temperature on Mobility

Effect of Temperature on Mobility
Electron mobility in silicon
Since the slowing moving carrier is
likely to be scattered more strongly by
versus temperature for
an interaction with charged ion. various donor concentrations.
Impurity scattering events cause a Insert shows the theoretical
decrease in mobility with decreasing temperature dependence of
temperature.
A carrier moving through the lattice electron mobility.
encounters atoms which are out of
their normal lattice positions due to
the thermal vibrations.
The frequency of such scattering
increases as temperature increases.

At low temperature, thermal

motion of the carriers is
slower, and ionized impurity
scattering becomes dominant. At low temp. lattice scattering is less important.

As doping concentration increase, impurity

scattering increase, then mobility decrease.

Temperature dependence of mobility with both lattice and impurity scattering.

Effect of Doping concentration on Mobility Resistivity and Conductivity

Ohms Law

E
300 K J = E =

[A cm ] 2 Ohms Law

[1 ohm cm ] Conductivity

[ohm cm ] Resistivity

Electron and hole mobilities in Silicon as functions of the total

dopant concentration.
 semiconductor conductivity and resistivity

Adding the Electron and Hole Drift Currents (at low electric fields)

Jdrf = J p + Jn Drift
= e( p p + n n ) E Drift Current
Drift

= e( p p + n n ) Conductivity

=

1
[
= 1 e( n n + p p ) ] Resistivity

But since n and p change very little and n and p change several
orders of magnitude:

e n n for n-type with n>>p

e p p for p-type with p>>n

 q
n, p = [ cm 2
V sec]
m n* , p

Diffusion
Particles diffuse from regions of higher concentration
to regions of lower concentration region, due to
random thermal motion.
Diffusion
Nature attempts to reduce concentration gradients to zero.
Example: a bad odor in a room, a drop of ink in a cup of water.
In semiconductors, this flow of carriers from one region of higher
concentration to lower concentration results in a Diffusion Current.

Jp Diffusion
Jn Diffusion

Diffuse Diffuse

Visualization of electron and hole diffusion on a macroscopic scale.

 Diffusion Current
dn dp
J N,diff = eDN J P,diff = eDP
dx dx

x x

D is the diffusion constant, or diffusivity.

Diffusion current density

Total Current
Ficks law
Diffusion as the flux, F, (of particles in our case) is proportional to
J = JN + JP
the gradient in concentration.

+ qD
: Concentration
F = D dn
D : Diffusion Coefficient JN = JN,drift + JN,diff = qnn N
dx
For electrons and holes, the diffusion current density

qD
( Flux of particles times q )
dp
JP = JP,drift + JP,diff = qpp P
Jp = q D pp dx
Diffusion

Jn Diffusion
= q Dnn

The opposite sign for electrons and holes

 Total Current

TYU
Total Current = Drift Current + Diffusion Current

Consider a sample of Si at T=300K. Assume that

electron concentration varies linearly with distance,
Jp = Jp Drift
+ Jp Diffusion
= q p p E q D pp as shown in figure.The diffusion current density is
Jn = Jn + Jn = q n n E + q Dnn found to be Jn=0.19 A/ cm2. If the electron diffusio
Drift Diffusion
n coefficient is Dn=25cm2/sec, determine the electr
on concentration at x=0.
J = J p + Jn
dn
J N,diff = eDN
dx

dp
Jp=0.270 A/cm2 J P,diff = eDP
Dp=12 cm2/sec
Find the hole concentration at x=50um dx
 Graded impurity distribution

Energy band diagram of a semiconductor in thermal equilibrium

with a nonuniform donor impurity concentration

Generation and Recombination Generation Mechanism

Carrier Generation Band-to-Band Generation

Thermal Energy
or Gno=Gpo
Light

Band-to-band generation
Band-to-Band or direct (directly across the band) generation.
Does not have to be a direct bandgap material.
Mechanism that results in ni.
Basis for light absorption devices such as semiconductor
photodetectors, solar cells, etc
 Recombination Mechanism Excess carrier Recombination and Generation

Band-to-Band Recombination
n = n + n0 and p = p + p0

Photon In Non-equilibrium, np does not equal ni2

(single particle of light)

or
Rno=Rpo Low-Level-Injection implies
multiple phonons
(single quantum of lattice
vibration - equivalent to
p << n0 , n n0 in a n-type material
saying thermal energy)
n << p0 , p p0 in a p-type material

Band to Band or direct (directly across the band) recombination.

Example low level injection case
Does not have to be a direct bandgap material, but is typically Nd=1014/cm3 doped Si at 300K subject to a perturbation where p =n =109/cm3.
very slow in indirect bandgap materials.
n0 Nd =1014/cm3 and p0 ni2/Nd = 106/cm3
Basis for light emission devices such as semiconductor Lasers, n = n0 + n n0 and p = 109/cm3 << n0 1014/cm3
LEDs, etc Although the majority carrier concentration remains essentially
In thermal equilibrium: Gno=Gpo=Rno=Rpo
unperturbed under low-level injection, the minority carrier concentration
can, and routinely does, increase by many orders of magnitude.

Excess minority carrier lifetime

Carrier Lifetime

t po
p (t ) = p0 e n(t ) = n0 e t no

Schematic diagram of photoconductivity decay measurement.

Light Pulses

Rs
+
Semiconductor
VA I RL VL
_

Oscilloscope
 Material Response to Non-Equilibrium

Relaxation Concept
Consider a case when the hole concentration in an n-type sample is
not in equilibrium, i.e., np ni2

p p (t )
R' n = =
t po
po is the minority carrier lifetime

The minority carrier lifetime is the average time a minority carrier can
survive in a large ensemble of majority carriers.
If p is negative Generation or an increase in carriers with time.
If p is positive Recombination or a decrease in carriers with time.
Either way the system tries to reach equilibrium
The rate of relaxation depends on how far away from equilibrium we are.

Material Response to Non-Equilibrium Generation and Recombination process

Relaxation Concept Recombination-Generation center recombination

Likewise when the electron concentration in an p-type sample is not in
equilibrium, i.e., np does NOT equal ni2

n n
=
t Thermal R G
n
n is the minority carrier lifetime

Indirect recombination-
generation processes at
thermal equilibrium.
 Recombination Mechanism Generation and Recombination process

Recombination-Generation (R-G) Center Recombination

Energy loss can result in

a Photon
but is more often
multiple phonons

Also known as Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) recombination.

Two steps:
1 1st carrier is trapped (localized) at an defect/impurity (unintentional/intentional ).
2 2nd carrier (opposite type) is attracted and annihilates the 1st carrier.
Useful for creating fast switching devices by quickly killing off EHPs.

Effects of recombination
Generation Mechanism
centers on solar cell
performance
Recombination-Generation (R-G) Center Generation
b

The light-generated minority d

carrier can return to the ground
Thermal Energy state through recombination
center
EC
before being a
collected by the junction: c
i) through path (a)
ii) through path (c)
Two steps:
1 A bonding electron is trapped (localized) at an unintentional Without recombination
defect/impurity generating a hole in the valence band. EV
2 This trapped electron is then promoted to the conduction band centers paths (b) and (d) Light
resulting in a new EHP. are dominated

Almost always detrimental to electronic devices. AVOID IF POSSIBLE!

 Auger Recombination 3.3 p-n Junction Diode

Auger Recombination
Auger pronounced O-jay

p-Type Material n-Type Material

Requires 3 particles.
p-n Junction

Two steps:
1 1st carrier and 2nd carrier of same type collide instantly annihilating
the electron hole pair (1st and 3rd carrier). The energy lost in the
annihilation process is given to the 2nd carrier.
2 2nd carrier gives off a series of phonons until its energy returns to
equilibrium energy (E~=Ec) This process is known as thermalization.

p-n Junction principles

p-n Junction

p-Type Material n-Type Material

p-n Junction

p-Type Material n-Type Material

A p-n junction diode is made by forming a p-type region of

material directly next to a n-type region.
 p-n Junction Diode

But when the device has no external applied forces, no current can
flow. Thus, the Fermi-level must be flat!
We can then fill in the junction region of the band diagram as:

EC EC
EF
Ei Ei
EF
EV EV

p-Type Material n-Type Material

 p-n Junction Diode p-n Junction Diode

But when the device has no external applied forces, no current can Built-in-potential
flow. Thus, the Fermi-level must be flat!
We can then fill in the junction region of the band diagram as: p-Type Material n-Type Material
EC
- qVbi
EC Ei EC
EF EF
Ei EC EV Ei
EF EF
EV Ei EV

EV
Electrostatic Potential
p-Type Material 1
V= ( EC E ref )
q
n-Type Material
VBI Built-in-potential
x

p-n Junction Diode p-n Junction Diode

Built-in-potential Built-in-potential
Electric Field
Electrostatic Potential dV
1 E=
V= ( EC E ref ) dx
q
x
VBI Built-in-potential
x

Electric Field Charge Density

Electric Field dV Charge Density
E=
dx dE
= KS 0
dx
x
qND
+
+ +
x
-
- -
qNA
 Built-In Potential Vbi
qVbi = q(S pside + S n side ) = ( Ei EF ) pside + ( EF Ei ) n side
TYU 5.1
Calculate the built-in-potential barrier in a Si
pm junction at T=300K for (a) Na=5 x 1017c
m-3, Nd=1016cm-3 (b)Na=1015cm-3
For non-degenerately doped material:
p n
( Ei EF ) pside = kT ln ( EF Ei )nside = kT ln
ni ni
N N
= kT ln A = kT ln D
ni ni

p n

p-n Junction Diode B- As +

h+

Built-in-potential M M
Electric Field Metallurgical Junction
E (x )
dV Neutral p-region E0 Neutral n-region -Wp 0 -Wn
E= x
dx
Eo
x V (x )

M Vo
Space charge region
Wp Wn
lo g (n ), lo g (p )

p po
Charge Density nno
x

Charge Density P E (x )
ni
dE eV o

= KS 0 pno
dx n po Hole
o Potential Energy PE (x)
x
x = 0
net x
qND
+ M
+ + Electron Potential Energy PE (x)

x eN d
Wp eV o
- x
- -
qNA
Wn
p-n Junction Principles
-e N a
 Movement of Electrons and Holes when
p-n Junction
Forming the Junction

Poissons Equation Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution

= q( p n + N D N A )
Charge Density ( x) = qNA
Electric Field (NOT Resistivity)
( x) = qND

dE qNA / D
E = = =
K S 0 dx KS 0 KS 0
in 1-dimension

Relative Permittivity Permittivity of free space

of Semiconductor
(r)

Number of negative charges per unit area in the p region is

equal to the number of positive charges per unit area in the n-region

Space charge width(depletion layer

Electric potential V(x) 0r (x)
width)

Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution

n-region space charge width p-region space charge width

 TYU5.2
A silicon pn junction at T=300k with zero ap
plied bias has doping concentration of Nd= 5
x 1016cm-3 and Na=5 x 1015 cm-3. Determine
xn, xp, W, and |Ex(max)|, Vbi 0.718V
 pn junction reverse/forward applied
pn junction reverse applied bias
bias

Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution Depletion Region

Schematic representation of
depletion layer width and
energy band diagrams of a
p-n junction under various Thermal-equilibrium
biasing conditions.

Forward-bias condition

Diode under Forward Bias.mov Diode under no Bias.mov Diode under Reverse Bias.mov Reverse-bias condition

pn junction forward bias applied bias pn junction reverse/forward applied

Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution Depletion Region Approximation:

Step Junction Solution with VA 0
Thus, only the boundary conditions change resulting in Consider a p+n junction (heavily doped p-side, lightly doped n side)
direct replacement of Vbi with (Vbi-VA) with VA 0.
 Movement of Electrons and Holes when
Forming the Junction

Forward bias condition

Movement of Electrons and Holes when

Space charge width and Electric field
Forming the Junction

1/ 2
Reverse bias condition 2s (Vbi + VR ) Nd 1
xp =
e Na N
a + N d

1/ 2
2s (Vbi + VR ) N a 1
xn =
e Nd Na + Nd
1/ 2
2s (Vbi + VR ) N A + Nd
W = xn + xp =
e NaNd
 p-n Junction I-V Characteristics

EX 5.3 In Equilibrium (no bias)

Total current balances due to the sum of the individual components
no net current!
A Si pn junction at 300K is reverse bias at V Electron Drift Electron Diffusion

R=8V, the doping concentration are Na=5 x Current Current

1015cm-3 and Nd= 5 x 1016 cm-3. Determin

e xn, xp and W, repeat for VR=12V.

Hole Drift
Hole Diffusion Current
Current

Diode under no Bias.mov

p-n Junction I-V Characteristics p-n Junction I-V Characteristics

In Equilibrium (no bias) Forward Bias (VA > 0)

IN
Electron Diffusion
Total current balances due to the sum of the individual components
Electron Drift Current Current flow is
n vs. E Current surmount potential barrier
proportional to
p-Type Material n-Type Material e(Va/Vref) due to
q VBI the exponential
EC Lowering of decay of carriers
E
++
+ + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + EC potential hill into the majority
EF i EF by VA carrier bands
VA
EV Ei

EV
Hole Drift
Hole Diffusion Current
p vs. E IP
Current
Jn = Jn + Jn = q n nE + q Dnn = 0
Drift Diffusion
Current flow is dominated I = IN + IP
Jp = Jp Drift
+ Jp Diffusion
= q p pE + q D p p = 0 by majority carriers flowing
I
across the junction and
no net current! becoming minority carriers

Diode under Forward Bias m

 p-n Junction I-V Characteristics p-n Junction I-V Characteristics

Reverse Bias (VA < 0) Where does the Reverse Bias Current come from?
Increase of
Electron Drift potential hill Generation near the depletion region edges replenishes the
current source.
Current by VA
Current flow is constant due
to thermally generated
Electron Diffusion Current negligible due
carriers swept out by E fields
to large energy barrier
in the depletion region

Hole Diffusion Current negligible

due to large energy barrier

Current flow is dominated by

minority carriers flowing across Hole Drift
the junction and becoming Current
majority carriers

Diode under Reverse Bias.m

p-n Junction I-V Characteristics

P-N Junction Diodes Putting it all together

Current Flowing through a Diode
I-V Characteristics
Quantitative Analysis
(Math, math and more math)

-I0

for Ideal diode

Vref = kT/q
 p-n Junction I-V Characteristics Quantitative p-n Diode Solution

Diode Equation Assumptions:

1) Steady state conditions
2) Non- degenerate doping
3) One- dimensional analysis
4) Low- level injection
qV 5) No light (GL = 0)
I = I 0 exp 1
kT
Current equations:

J p = J p ( x )+ J n ( x )
dn
J n = q n nE qD n
: Diode Ideality Factor dx
dp
J p = q p pE qD p
dx

Continuity Equations

Steady state : n(x) is time invariant.

Transient state : n(x) is time dependent.
x

J p ( x x )

J p ( x)

x + x
Area, A cm 2 x

n F 1 J Continuity Equation
= = F: Particle Flux
t x q x
J: Current Density
 Ways Carrier Concentrations can be Altered Ways Carrier Concentrations can be Altered

Continuity Equations Continuity Equations

n n 1 J Nx J Ny J Nz 1
= JN
+ = + +
t Drift
t Diffusion
q x y z q

p p 1 J J Py J Pz
= 1 JP
+ = Px + +
t Drift
t Diffusion
q x y z q

n n n n n
= + + +
t t t t Thermal R G t such
All other processes n 1 n n
Drift Diffusion as light ... = JN + +
t q t Thermal R G t such
All other processes
p p p p p as light ...
= + + +
t t t t Thermal R G t All other processes p 1 p p
Drift Diffusion such as light ... = JP + +
t q t Thermal R G t such
All other processes
as light ...

There must be spatial and time continuity in the carrier concentrations.

Continuity Equations: Special Case known as Continuity Equations: Special Case known as
Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation

Simplifying Assumptions: Because of (3) no electric field E = 0

0 0
Jn = Jn + Jn = q n nE + q D n n
1) One dimensional case. We will use x. Drift Diffusion

2) We will only consider minority carriers.

= Jn Diffusion
= q D n n
3) Electric field is approximately zero in regions subject to analysis.
4) The minority carrier concentrations IN EQUILIBRIUM are not a
function of position. 1 1 J N 2n 2 ( n0 + n) 2 ( n )
JN = = Dn 2 = Dn = Dn
5) Low-level injection conditions apply. q q x x x 2
x 2
6) SRH recombination-generation is the main recombination-generation
mechanism. Because of (5) - low level injection Because of (7) - Photogeneration
7) The only other mechanism is photogeneration.
n n n
= = GL
t Reombination Generation
n t All other processes
such as light ...
Continuity Equations
Finally
Minority Carrier
n ( n0 + n) ( n)
Diffusion Equation = =
t t t
 Continuity Equations: Special Case known as Continuity Equations: Special Case known as
Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation

Continuity Equations Further simplifications (as needed):

0
n n n n n Steady State
= + + + ( n p ) ( pn )
t t Drift
t Diffusion
t Reombination Generation
t All other processes 0 and 0
such as light ... t t

No minority carrier diffusion gradient

2 ( n p ) 2 ( pn )
DN 0 and DP 0
x 2
x 2
( n p ) 2 ( n p ) ( n p )
= DN + GL
t x 2 n No SRH recombination-generation
n p
=0 and =0
n p
( pn ) ( pn ) ( pn )
2
= DP + GL
t x 2 p No light
GL 0
Minority Carrier Diffusion Equations

Solutions to the Solutions to the

Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation

Consider a semi-infinite p-type silicon sample with NA=1015 cm-3 constantly Steady-state carrier injection from one side.
illuminated by light absorbed in a very thin region of the material creating a
steady state excess of 1013 cm-3 minority carriers (x=0).
What is the minority carrier distribution in the region x> 0 ?

Light Semiconductor
x
Semi-infinite sample
Light absorbed in a thin skin.

Steady state No excess carrier

0 0generation
( n p ) 2 ( n p ) ( n p )
= DN + GL
t x 2 n
2 ( n p ) ( n p )
DN =
x 2
n Sample with thickness W
 Direct generation and recombination of electron-hole pairs:

at thermal equilibrium Surface recombination at x = 0. The minority carrier distribution near the surface i
under illumination.
s affected by the surface recombination velocity.

Solutions to the Solutions to the

Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation
Continue
General Solution Consider a p-type silicon sample with NA=1015 cm-3 and minority carrier lifetime
=10 sec constantly illuminated by light absorbed uniformly throughout the
0
material creating an excess 1013 cm-3 minority carriers per second. The light
n p ( x ) = A e ( x LN )
+ B e ( + x LN ) where LN DN N has been on for a very long time. At time t=0, the light is shut off.
What is the minority carrier distribution in for t < 0 ?
LN is the Diffusion length the average distance a minority carrier can
move before recombining with a majority carrier.
Semiconductor
Boundary Condition Semiconductor
Light absorbed uniformly Light
n p ( x = 0) = 1013 cm 3 = A + B x

n p ( x = ) = 0 = A( 0) + Be (+ LN ) 0 Uniform
0 distribution
( n p ) 2 ( n p ) ( n p )
B=0 = DN + GL
t x 2
n

n p ( x ) = 1013 e ( x LN )cm 3 n p (all x , t < 0) = G L n = 10 7 cm 3

 Solutions to the
Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Continue
Application of the Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation
In the previous example: What is the minority carrier distribution in for t > 0 ?
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region

Semiconductor
Light absorbed uniformly Light
x
minority carrier diffusion eq. minority carrier diffusion eq.
Since electric fields
0 0
exist in the depletion
( n p ) 2 ( n p ) ( n p ) region, the minority 0
= DN + GL 0 0 carrier diffusion 0
t x 2
n equation does not
apply here.

n p ( t ) = [n p ( t = 0)] e ( t n )
n p ( t ) = 10 7 e ( t 1e 5 )

Quasi - Fermi Levels Quantitative p-n Diode Solution

(At the depletion regions edge)

Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region

Equilibrium Non-Equilibrium
( E f E i ) kT
n0 = ni e n = ni e ( FN E i ) kT
( E i E f ) kT
p0 = ni e p = ni e ( E i FP ) kT
The Fermi level is meaningful only when the system is in thermal equilibrium.
quasi-Fermi levels formalism
The non-equilibrium carrier concentration can be expressed by defining Quasi- np = n i e ( F N F P
2 ) kT

Fermi levels Fn and Fp .

Equilibrium Non-Equilibrium
 Quantitative p-n Diode Solution Quantitative p-n Diode Solution

Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region

Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region

x=0 x=0

dn dp
Approach:
J n = q n nE + D n J p = q p pE + D p
0 dx

?
0 dx Solve minority carrier diffusion equation in quasineutral regions.
(
d n 0 + n p ) = qD p
d ( p 0 + p n ) Determine minority carrier currents from continuity equation.
= qD n
dx dx Evaluate currents at the depletion region edges.
dn p dp n Add these together and multiply by area to determine the total current
= qD n = qD p
dx dx through the device.
Use translated axes, x t x and -x t x in our solution.

Quantitative p-n Diode Solution Quantitative p-n Diode Solution

Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region

x=0 x=0
Holes on the n-side x=0 x=0 Holes on the n-side
 Quantitative p-n Diode Solution Quantitative p-n Diode Solution

Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region

Thus, evaluating the current components at the depletion region edges,
we have

x=0 x=0
J = Jn (x=0) +Jp (x=0) = Jn (x=0) +Jn (x=0) = Jn (x=0) +Jp (x=0)

Similarly for electrons on the p-side

Ideal Diode Equation Shockley Equation

Note: Vref from our previous qualitative analysis equation is the thermal voltage, kT/q

Quantitative p-n Diode Solution Example

A silicon pn junction at T=305K has the following parameters:
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region NA = 5x1016 cm-3, ND = 1x1016 cm-3 , Dn = 25 cm2/sec, Dp = 10 cm2/sec, n0 = 5x10-7 sec,
and p0 = 1x10-7 sec, ni305K = 1.5x1010 cm-3,.
The cross-sectional area is A=10-3 cm2, and the forward-bias voltage is Va = 0.625 V.
Calculate the
(a) minority electron diffusion current at the space charge region.
x=0 x=0 (b) minority hole diffusion current at the space charge edge.
Total on current is constant throughout the device. (c) total current in the pn junction diode.
Thus, we can characterize the current flow components as
Solution Ln = Dn n
J Minority electron diffusion current density

-xp xn
Example Example
A silicon pn junction at T=305K has the following parameters: Given figure is a dimensioned plot of the steady state carrier concentrations inside a
NA = 5x1016 cm-3, ND = 1x1016 cm-3 , Dn = 25 cm2/sec, Dp = 10 cm2/sec, n0 = 5x10-7 sec, pn junction diode maintained at room temperature.
and p0 = 1x10-7 sec, ni305K = 1.5x1010 cm-3,. (a) Is the diode forward or reverse biased? Explain how you arrived at your answer.
The cross-sectional area is A=10-3 cm2, and the forward-bias voltage is Va = 0.625 V. (b) Do low-level injection conditions prevail in the quasineutral regions of diode?
Calculate the Explain how you arrived at your answer.
(a) minority electron diffusion current at the space charge region. (c) Determine the applied voltage, VA.
(b) minority hole diffusion current at the space charge edge.
(c) total current in the pn junction diode. n or p The diode is forward biased.
(log scale) There is pile-up or minority carrier
pp
Solution Ln = Dn n nn excess (np>0 and pn>0 ) at the
Minority electron diffusion current density 1017
edges of the depletion region.
2 2 1015
qDn n p 0 qVa Dn ni qVa
Jn = exp 1 = q exp 1
Ln kT n 0 N A kT
1010 pn
25 (1.5 1010 ) 0.625
2 np 108
= (1.6 10 19 ) exp 1 = 0.154 mA / cm
2

5 10 7 5 1016 0.0259 105

Minority hole diffusion current density 103
x
2
qD p nn 0 qVa D p ni 2 qVa -xp xn
Jp = exp 1 = q exp 1
L p kT p 0 N D kT 2.1x10-2cm 1.6x10-2cm
10 (1.5 1010 ) 0.625
2
19
= (1.6 10 ) exp 1 = 1.09 mA / cm
2

1 10 7 1 1016 0.0259
Total current density= 1.24 mA/cm2 Total current = AxJ=10-3x1.24 =1.24 A

pn-junction diode structure used in the discussion of currents. The sketch

shows the dimensions and the bias convention. The cross-sectional area
A is assumed to be uniform.
Hole current (solid line) and recombining electron current (dashed line) in the quasi-neutr
al n-region of the long-base diode of Figure 5.5. The sum of the two currents J (dot-dash l
ine) is constant.
 Hole density in the quasi-neutral n-region of an ideal short-base The current components in the quasi-neutral regions of a long-base diode
diode under forward bias of Va volts. under moderate forward bias: J(1) injected minority-carrier current, J(2)
majority-carrier current recombining with J(1), J(3) majority-carrier current
injected across the junction. J(4) space-charge-region recombination current.

Quantitative p-n Diode Solution

p-region SCL n-region

J = J elec + J h ole

T otal current
M ajority carrier diffusion
and drift current
J h ole
J elec M inority carrier diffusion
current

x
W p Wn
(a) Transient increase of excess stored holes in a long-base ideal diode for a
constant current drive applied at time zero with the diode initially unbiased. Note
the constant gradient at x = xn as time increases from (1) through (5), which The total current anywhere in the device is constant.
indicates a constant injected hole current. (Circuit shown in inset.) (b) Diode Just outside the depletion region it is due to the diffusion of minority
voltage VD versus time.
carriers.
 Current-Voltage Characteristics
of a Typical Silicon p-n Junction Quantitative p-n Diode Solution

Examples
Diode in a circuit

Quantitative p-n Diode Solution Summary

Current flow in a pn junction diode

E = Poissons Equation
KS 0

Built-in-Potential

(a) under equilibrium, both diffusion currents are (b) under reverse bias, only a small number of carriers are available to
cancelled by opposing drift currents. diffuse across the junction (once within the junction they drift to the
other side). With increasing reverse bias the reverse current increases
2 K s 0 ( N A + N D )
due to tunneling and carrier multiplication. W = x p + xn = (Vbi (V A ))
q N AND
Width of Depletion Region

qVa qDn n p 0 qD p pn 0 Diode

J = J 0 exp 1 J0 = +
kT Ln L p Equation
(c) under forward bias, the drift current is slightly reduced (d) current-voltage characteristic
but the diffusion current is greatly increased.
 EX 5.7
A silicon pn junction dide at T=300K is forw
ard biased. The reverse saturation current is
IS=4x 10-14A. Determine the required dide v
oltage to induce a diode current of ID=4.25m
A.