Energy Conversion and Management 93 (2015) 349356

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Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Parametric study on off-design aerodynamic performance of a horizontal

axis wind turbine blade and proposed pitch control
Z. Najaan Ashra a,, M. Ghaderi a, A. Sedaghat b
a
School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran 14395-515, Iran
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-83111, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper, a 200 kW horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) blade is designed using an efcient iterative
Received 5 December 2014 algorithm based on the blade element momentum theory (BEM) on aerodynamic of wind turbines. The
Accepted 18 January 2015 effects of off-design variations of wind speed are investigated on the blade performance parameters
according to constant rotational speed of the rotor. The performance parameters considered are power
coefcient, axial and angular induction factors, lift and drag coefcients on the blade, angle of attack
Keywords: and angle of relative wind. At higher or lower wind speeds than the designed rated speed, the power coef-
HAWTs
cient is reduced due to considerable changes in the angle of attacks. Therefore, proper pitch control
BEM theory
Aerodynamic design
angles were calculated to extract maximum possible power at various off-design speeds. The results
Pitch control showed a considerable improvement in power coefcient for the pitch controlled blade as compared with
Constant rotor speed the baseline design in whole operating range. The present approach can be equally employed for deter-
mining pitch angles to design pitch control system of medium and large-scale wind turbines.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction effects. Dai et al. [10] performed a numerical aerodynamic load

The limited amount of fossil fuels as well as the increment of
energy expenditure, make fossil fuels a non-sustainable source of
energy. Large efforts have been made for exploration of new tech-
niques of replacing fossil resources by renewable ones. Wind
energy is one of the greatest energy sources that can be used to
meet our future demands. Nowadays, wind turbines have a key
role in the eld of energy production and it seems essential to
provide some guidelines for wind turbine designing process.
Investigation of wind turbine design parameters when subjected
to different wind speeds is critical for understanding of aerody-
namics characteristics at off-design conditions.
Recently, lots of research on aerodynamic design of wind
turbine blade have been done [14]. As an effective tool, the blade
element momentum (BEM) theory has been frequently used to
develop mathematical laws for design and optimization purposes
of horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) blades [59].
Vaz et al. [8] developed an improved BEM approach based on
Glauerts classic model for performance prediction of HWATs.
The employed mathematical model takes into consideration the
real phenomena such as tip loss, cascade and turbulent wake
Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 9355858587.
E-mail address: z_najaan@ut.ac.ir (Z. Najaan Ashra).
analysis for a large scale wind turbine based on combination of
modied BEM and dynamic stall model. These results showed a
great coincidence between the presented dynamic stall model
and 2D aerodynamic performance data. Lee et al. [11] have inves-
tigated the effects of design parameters such as the combination of
the pitch angles, rotating speeds and rotors radii on aerodynamic
performance of a counter-rotating wind turbine. They also pro-
posed a modied BEM method to analyze the interaction between
the rotors for such turbines. Sedaghat et al. [12] designed a 300 kW
horizontal axis wind turbine blade using the BEM theory. Design
parameters such as axial and angular induction factors, angle of
relative wind and lift coefcient were obtained to extract
maximum accessible power coefcient at rated wind speed and
optimum tip speed ratio. Shari et al. [13] proposed a new innova-
tive algorithm to predict the pitch angle distribution along a wind
turbine blade. The BEM theory was utilized to obtain maximum
power coefcient at a particular wind speed. Although, the cost
of blade manufacturing increases by utilizing new complex pitch
angle distribution, the output power of the wind turbine is
augmented signicantly. Using the BEM theory, Liu et al. [14] opti-
mized the chord and twist angle of a xed-pitch xed-speed HAWT
blade at the rated wind speed and particular tip speed ratio.
According to this method, the chord and twist angle distribution
along the blade were linearized on a heuristic basis with xed

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.01.048
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350 Z. Najaan Ashra et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 93 (2015) 349356
Nomenclature
A area of wind turbine rotor (m2)
a axial induction factor
a0 angular induction factor
B number of blades of a rotor
c airfoil chord (m)
Cl lift coefcient of an airfoil
Cd drag coefcient of an airfoil
Cp local power coefcient
C p;max maximum power coefcient
C p;t total power coefcient
Cn normal force coefcient
CT thrust coefcient
Ct tangential force coefcient
F local tip loss factor
N number of blades elements
P mechanical power (W)
R radius of wind turbine rotor (m)
values at the blade tip and the optimal solution was determined to
maximize annual energy production for the rated wind speed.
Because of the variability in the wind speed, the power coef-
cient deviates signicantly from its optimum value [15]. In recent
years, variable-speed wind turbines attracted many attentions due
to their ability to operate at off-design wind speeds. Variations in
wind speed causes signicant deviations in power coefcient from
design conditions [16,17]. To overcome this deciency, pitch con-
trol mechanism is implemented as an effective tool in variable-
speed wind turbines [18,19]. In this mechanism, blade pitch angle,
which is dened as the angle between the blade chord line and the
plane of rotor rotation, is varied in accordance with wind speed.
Thereby the maximum amount of energy that available in a spe-
cic wind speed is captured and the structural loads at high wind
speeds is minimized [20,21].
Measurements of wind speed at hub height are extremely
important in the pitch control variable speed wind turbines
[22]. As turbine towers go higher, the remote sensing (RS) devices
are considered as more accurate and reliable devices to measure
wind speeds at the hub heights. These devices are becoming eas-
ier, cheaper alternatives to meteorological masts installed cup
anemometers, and wind vanes particularly for pitch control
purposes.
Kishinami et al. [23] have investigated aerodynamics character-
istics of a HWAT experimentally and theoretically. A subscale
model was used to validate their numerical code for variable pitch
control based on a combination of momentum, energy and blade
element theory. They have also found that the design parameters
such as angular and induction factors and angle of attack play a
crucial role in the overall performance of the wind turbine. Lanza-
fame and Messina [24] investigated the performance of a wind tur-
bine which continuously operates at maximum power coefcient.
For this aim, a numerical code based on the BEM theory was devel-
oped at different wind speeds and the annual energy production of
wind turbine at constant rotational velocity was compared with
the same turbine at variable velocities. Sedaghat et al. [25] have
studied aerodynamics performance of continuously variable speed
horizontal axis wind turbine with optimal blades. In the case of
constant rotor speed, the results showed that the power coefcient
of the wind turbine considerably decreases as the wind speed
increases. Through an explicit correlation for angular induction
factor, a compact BEM analysis was introduced to design optimal
blades for continuously variable speed HAWTs.
Re Reynolds number
r blade radius at rotor plane (m)
U1 free stream velocity of wind (m/s)
U rel airfoil relative wind velocity (m/s)
Greek symbols
Dh Pitch control angle ()
X angular velocity (s1)
a angle of attack (degree)
g efciency
hp pitch angle ()
k tip speed ratio of rotor = RX/U
kr local speed ratio = rX/U
q air density (kg/m3)
r rotor solidity
u angle of relative wind ()
In the present work, a 200 kW wind turbine blade is designed
using two-dimensional airow model for a rigid blade based on
modied BEM theory. The behavior of its design parameters such
as axial and angular induction factors, angle of attack, angle of rel-
ative wind and power coefcient is studied at off-design wind
speeds. Furthermore, the proper angles that must be applied to
the pitch control mechanism to enhance the aerodynamic perfor-
mance of the HAWT is obtained. The present work provide a basis
for the design of pitch control mechanism of medium and large-
scale wind turbines.
2. Design methodology
The basis of wind turbine blade design was rstly developed by
Betz and Glauert in the 1930s. After that, a number of researchers
tried to develop new methods for predicting the aerodynamic per-
formance of wind turbine rotors. In all of these methods, the blade
element momentum theory, which is a combination of momentum
theory and blade element theory, was used to calculate wind turbine
performance. The blade element momentum (BEM) model, as the
most common wind turbine analysis method, is used in this study.
2.1. Mathematical modeling
The blade element momentum theory can be divided into two
parts. In the rst part, the turbine rotor is modeled as an actuator
disk in a one dimensional stream tube. In this model, the actuator
disk is responsible for wind speed reduction as the ow passed
over the disk. Using the momentum theory for an annular element,
the differential thrust force can be obtained as follows:
dT 4a1  aqU 21 prdr 1
where the axial induction factor, a, provides a means of wind retar-
dation in the axial direction, (see Fig. 1). By dening the angular
induction factor in the same way and applying the angular momen-
tum conservation on the rotor disk, the differential torque exerted
on the annulus element can be obtained as:
dQ 4a0 1  aqU 1 Xpr 3 dr 2
On the other hand, in the blade element theory, the turbine
blade is divided into several elements. It is also assumed that the
aerodynamic forces on each element can be approximated using
 Z. Najaan Ashra et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 93 (2015) 349356 351

the chord line and rotor plane direction. Changing the pitch angle
by rotating the airfoil seems a simple way to set the blade to the
desired angle of attack with respect to a particular wind direction.
In the Eq. (6), it can be seen that the angle of relative wind is a func-
tion of axial and angular induction factors and local speed ratio.
Due to the real ow features such as losses concentrated near
the tip of blades, the real ow around the rotor blade deviates from
the well-behaved ow calculated by the original BEM. In order to
overcome this shortcoming, the well-accepted Prandtl tip loss fac-
tor, F, is implemented to account for the performance reduction
associated with the tip vortices. This parameter is given by the
following equation [26]:
 B Rr 

F 2=p cos1 e 2r sin u 8

Fig. 1. Actuator disk model of a wind turbine in a stream tube. Using the original blade element theory, the thrust coefcient
relation by considering the tip loss effect can be determined [1]:
a two-dimensional airfoil model with no interaction between adja-
2
cent elements. The force on the blade of wind turbine can be C T r1  a2 C n =F sin u 9
expressed as a function of lift and drag coefcients and the angle On the other hand, the thrust coefcient can be obtained by
of attack. The relationships among the forces, angles and velocity momentum theory as follows:
components on an arbitrary section of the blade are shown in
Fig. 2. C T 4a1  a 10
Assuming known values for lift and drag coefcients, C l and C d , By substituting Eq. (9) into (10) and solving the equations for axial
the aerodynamic forces can be calculated as follows: and angular induction factors, the following expression is derived.
1 2
dF L C l qU 2rel cdr 3 a rC n =4F sin u rC n 11
2
Similarly, the angular induction factor is calculated as follows:
1
dF D C d qU 2rel cdr 4 0
a rC t =4F sin u cos u  rC t 12
2
where U rel is the relative wind velocity and dened as follows: where
q
C n C l cos u C d sin u 13
U rel U 21 1  a2 r 2 X2 1 a0 2 5

The following relationships can be obtained from Fig. 2. C t C l sin u  C d cos u 14

1a In these equations, r is the blade solidity and shows the fraction
tan u 6
1 a0 kr of the annular area occupied by the blades. The mathematical
expression for the solidity is obtained as follows:
u hp a 7
r Bc=2pr 15
where u is the angle of relative wind, a denotes to the angle of
In addition, the chord length can be determined as:
attack and hp is the pitch angle and represents the angle between
8pr
c 1  cos u 16
BC l
Classical momentum theory predicts a parabolic relationship
between the thrust coefcient and the axial induction factor.
However, experimental data show that this prediction is failed
as the axial induction factor exceeds 0.4. Glauret [27] was the
rst one who proposed a new empirical correlation to t the
experimental data. However, this empirical relationship does
not contain the tip loss correction, which leads to numerical
instability as the tip loss factor decreases from unity. Buhl [28]
proposed a new empirical relationship which is tangent to the
classical momentum parabola curve at a = 0.4 and intersects
CT = 2 at a 1. The new correlation eliminates the numerical
instability observed in previous works and is given by the follow-
ing relation.
   
8 40 50
CT 4F  a  4F a2 a > 0:4 17
9 9 9

In order to achieve most accurate results, the developed code

takes advantage of this method to calculate the aerodynamics of
the blades. Substituting Eq. (17) into Eq. (9), axial induction factor
Fig. 2. Velocities and forces on the airfoil. can be calculated by Eq. (18).
352 Z. Najaan Ashra et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 93 (2015) 349356


2 2 2
a 0:5 18rC n 36F 2 sin u  40F sin u  618F sin urC n

4 4 0:5 2 2
36F 4 sin u  48F 3 sin u =9rC n  50F sin u 36F 2 sin u
18

Using the aforementioned equations, the axial and angular

induction factors are obtained iteratively by setting the initial val-
ues of the axial and angular induction factors equal to zero. This
process will be continued until the convergence criterion (iteration
error <103) is fully met. After obtaining the induction factors of
the wind turbine blade, the power coefcient can be calculated
according to the Eq. (19) presented by the Wilson [29]. The design,
off-design and pitch control algorithms are summarized in Figs. 3
and 4 respectively.
Z k
C p;t 8=k2 Fk3r a0 1  a1  C d =C l cot udkr 19
kh

The power coefcient can be simplied using a sum approximation

of the integral in Eq. (19) that presented by Manwell [1] and is
obtained by Eq. (20).

8 X N
2
C p;t F i sin ui cos ui  kri sin ui sin ui
kN i1
   
Cd
kri cos ui 1  cot ui k2ri 20
Cl

2.2. Blade specication for HAWT

The process of wind turbine rotor design typically includes

selection of airfoil section, design of blade for optimum perfor-
mance, determination of pitch angle of the blade and number of
blades. In order to nd the maximum power, the rst derivative
of the power equation with respect to the axial induction factor
is set to zero. In an ideal situation according to the Betz limit, the
maximum power coefcient is found to be 16/27 at a = 1/3 [15].
Fig. 4. Calculation procedure for off-design conditions and pitch control
mechanism.

The maximum accessible power coefcient for wind turbine blade

has been obtained as follows [1]:

  "
2 #1
16 1:32 k8
20 0:57k2
C p;max k k 2=3
C
21
27 B C
l 1
k 2B
d

In order to specify the airfoil type, the maximum lift-to-drag

ratio and stall angle are considered as the criterion variables. The
baseline airfoil is assumed to have an NACA 2412 prole, which
is a well-established and commonly used airfoil for HAWT blades.
The airfoil performance affected by Reynolds number which is
dened as [1]:

Fig. 3. Calculation ow chart for design condition.
qcU rel
Re 22
l
The optimum value of the tip-speed ratio correspond to maxi-
mum accessible power coefcient can be obtained from Eq. (21)
and is shown in Fig. 5 for different Reynolds numbers. At the same
level of tip-speed ratio, by increasing Reynolds number the power
coefcient is increased.
Due to the constant rotor speed, the Reynolds number does not
vary signicantly. By estimation of the chord of the middle section
of the wind turbine blade so as to be 1.71 m and primary tip speed
ratio of, k 8; the Reynolds number can be determined from Eq.
(22) through a try and error process and its value approximately
 Z. Najaan Ashra et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 93 (2015) 349356
Fig. 5. Power coefcient versus tip-speed ratio at different Reynolds numbers for
NACA 2412 airfoil.
is Re = 107. By applying Eq. (21), the maximum power coefcient is
calculated, C p;max 0:4386, which corresponds to tip speed ratio of
k 8:4. The output power that can be extracted from the wind tur-
bine blade is given by the following equation.
1 12, U 1 5:6 m=s, the calculated axial induction factor has the
P qAU 31 gC p
2
Assuming a mechanical efciency of g 0:9 and adopting the
design wind speed of U 1 8 m=s, the rotor diameter is calculated
from Eq. (23) which equals to D 48 m. Eventually, the blade tip
speed and rotor speed have the values of kU 1 67:2 m=s and
26:74 rpm respectively.
3. Results and discussion
In the current study, the wind turbine blade was designed for
U 1 8 m=s, P 200 kW and k 8:4. The maximum accessible
power coefcient corresponding to the selected tip-speed ratio
was obtained. The chord length and pitch angle distribution along
the blade are shown in Fig. 6(a) and (b) respectively. According to
Fig. 6(a), the chord length reaches to its maximum value of 3.41 m
near 12.5% of the blade length and then decreases to 0.269 m at the
Fig. 6. (a) Chord and (b) pitch angle distribution along the blade length.
353
tip of blade. Since the chord length near the root is greater than
other sections of the blade, it has less contribution in energy trans-
mission. Chord length distribution can be modied and linearized
for material costs and weight reduction in order to improve man-
ufacturing procedure [30,31]. Fig. 6(b) shows the pitch angle distri-
bution, which varies from 33.9 to 0 along the blade length.
Appropriate pitch angle variation along the blade provides the
optimum sectional angle of attack corresponding to the maximum
lift to drag ratio at each section.
Once the design process of blade for optimum tip-speed ratio
and constant rotational speed was nished, the next step is to
determine the design parameters dependence upon wind speed.
For this purpose, the wind speed is changed while the chord and
pitch angle distribution held constant. Therefore, the inuences
of the tip-speed ratio changes on the design parameters such as
induction factors, angle of attack, angle of relative wind, lift and
power coefcients are studied.
Fig. 7 shows the variations of axial induction factor along the
blade length at different wind speeds. It is observed that there
are no signicant differences in axial induction factor at the opti-
mum tip-speed ratio, k 8:4, compared with the off-design condi-
tions. In fact, the axial induction factor remains constant (i.e.
a 0:33), along almost the entire length of the blade except from
the tip and root regions. For the larger tip speed ratios (lower wind
speed than the design speed), the variations of the axial induction
factor become more severe. As an example, at the tip speed ratio of
23 value of 0.26 for the blade root and the value of 0.64 for the blade
tip. As the tip-speed ratio decreases, the axial induction factor is
reduced. At the tip-speed ratio of k = 3, the axial induction factor
is nearly constant and its value is about 0.08 over the blade length.
As shown in Fig. 8, the angular induction factor shows down-
ward trend for all cases. By decreasing the tip-speed ratio (increas-
ing wind speed), the differences become more marked at the root
section. However, no signicant changes were observed in this
parameter near the blade tip. It should be noted that the maximum
changes in the angular induction factor were seen at k = 3, whereas
much smaller or no changes occurred in the axial induction factor
at this condition.
Fig. 9 shows the angle of attack distribution along the blade for
different wind speeds. For the design condition wind speed
(k = 8.4), as well as less than the design condition, the angle of
attack is approximately constant. It should be noted that the angle
of attack will gradually decrease with increasing the tip speed ratio
354 Z. Najaan Ashra et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 93 (2015) 349356

(i.e. low wind speeds). For k = 8.4, a small decrease is observed in

angle of attack at the blade tip which is attributed to tip loss effect.
For small values of tip-speed ratio, the angle of attack exceeds the
stall limit in some locations. In the case with k = 3, the entire blade
would be stalled. Furthermore, the angle of attack has an extreme
rising near the blade root, which increases the trust loads and
mechanical stresses locally.
Breton et al. [32] implemented ve different stall delay models
namely those of Bak et al., Snel et al., Corrigan and Schillings, Du
and Selig, and Chaviaropoulos and Hansen. Their study indicated
that the proposed stall delay models have never been made with
a lifting line, prescribed wake model. However, the blade element
momentum method is lacking compared with their vortex wake
scheme models which provided more detailed information on the
stall delay phenomenon. The results also show that their stall delay
models generally leads to an over-prediction of the thrust and
power for wind speeds above 8 m/s, and of the loads, mostly near
the root. The stall delay models studied all lead to inaccuracies in
some situations in their prediction of three-dimensional ow
effects. In this study, no stall model is implemented.
Fig. 7. Axial induction factor for a range of tip-speed ratios.
Fig. 10 shows the calculated relative wind angle under different
operating conditions. It can be seen that the variations of relative
wind angle have a similar trend in all tip-speed ratios. The gure
also point out that the descending slop of relative wind angle along
the blade is larger for higher wind speeds.
The effects of the wind speed on the lift coefcient are pre-
sented in Fig. 11. For small tip-speed ratios, lift coefcient is almost
constant along the blade, which is due to the negligible changes in
angle of attack. However, at high wind speeds, because of the large
changes in angle of attack, the lift coefcient varies drastically
along the blade. When the angle of attack reaches to the stall angle,
the lift coefcient is decreased. As shown in Fig. 11 at tip-speed
ratios of, k = 4 and 6 and corresponding r/R = 0.625 and 0.225 the
blade is stalled and for k = 3 the blade is completely stalled.
Fig. 12 shows the local power coefcient distribution along the
blade at different tip-speed ratios. When the turbine operates
under rated condition, the power coefcient shows a linear trend
across the blade length excluding the tip region of the blade. Unlike
the higher tip-speed ratios, the local power coefcient does not
represent a general trend for lower tip-speed ratio values.
In order to avoid undesirable effects of off-design operation,
such as output power drop and large mechanical stresses, a pitch
Fig. 8. Angular induction factor for a range of tip-speed ratios.
control mechanism should be designed to adjust the pitch angle

Fig. 9. Angle of attack along the blade length at different tip-speed ratios. Fig. 10. Angle of relative wind along the blade length at different tip-speed ratios.
 Z. Najaan Ashra et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 93 (2015) 349356 355

Fig. 11. Lift coefcient along the blade length at different tip-speed ratios. Fig. 14. Total power coefcient at different tip speed ratios with and without pitch
control mechanism.

value with respect to the wind speed. Such modication leads to

better performance at off-design wind speeds. The calculated
angles that should be applied to the blade at different velocities
to improve the performance of the considered blade are shown
in Fig. 13 which indicates a non-linear relationship between the
pitch angle correction and wind speed.
The performance curve of the blade in terms of the total power
coefcient, Cp,t against the tip-speed ratio with and without pitch
control mechanism is shown in Fig. 14. It was observed that the
total power coefcient of the baseline design reaches to its maxi-
mum value, Cp,t = 0.43, at k = 6, which corresponds to the partially
stalled operation mode. It is worth noting that with increasing
wind speed the power coefcient steeply decreases. By applying
Dhp to the blade pitch angles at off-design wind speeds the total
power coefcient and the efciency of wind turbine at off-design
wind speeds would be augmented.

4. Conclusion
Fig. 12. Local power coefcient along the blade length at different tip-speed ratios.

In this paper, the effects of varying wind speed on design

parameters of a HAWT were investigated. To this end, a numeri-
cal iterative algorithm based on the blade element momentum
theory is developed for designing a constant rotational speed
blade. The numerical model was extended to improve the blade
off-design performance through nding the optimal pitch angle
corrections for different operating conditions. It was found that
the wind speed variations have a major impact on design param-
eters and reduces power coefcient signicantly. In order to
improve the wind turbine performance at off-design conditions,
a non-linear function that must be applied to the pitch angle
was determined. By applying this function, the power coefcient
reaches to its maximum accessible value at each wind speed.
Some of the critical issues of this paper are summarized and
represented as follows:

 An extended BEM method was developed to obtain design

parameters corresponding to both design and off-design
conditions.
 In low wind speeds, the axial induction factor increases and
reaches nearly 1 while in high wind speeds it approaches to
zero. In addition, angular induction factor has no major change
Fig. 13. Pitch control angle at different tip speed ratios. with wind speed variations.
356 Z. Najaan Ashra et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 93 (2015) 349356
 In high wind speeds, most of the blade is stalled and power
coefcient is reduced. When approximately half of the blade
sections are stalled, the maximum power coefcient is
achieved.
 Using recursive calculations for the designed blade, new pitch
angle that can maximize the power coefcient at various wind
speeds was obtained.
 The comparison between the baseline design and the blade with
modied pitch control mechanism shows a remarkable
enhancement in total power coefcients.
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