CATENA
427-439 Cremlingen 1992
Evaluation of Land Use and River Water Quality
of the Tsukuba Mountains Ecosystem, Japan
T. Hakamata, T. Hirata & K. Muraoka
Summary
A short term study in late winter and
early spring on river water quality of
the Tsukuba mountain ecosystem in cen-
tral Japan was carried out at 130 sites.
The pH, electrical conductivity (EC) and
chemical composition were measured.
The data were processed statistically by
correspondence analysis using pH and
EC values and concentrations of ni-
trite nitrogen (NO2-N), nitrate nitrogen
(NO3-N), phosphorus (POa-P) and dis-
solved silica (SiO2) to make less scores
on samples, and by cluster analysis using
the scores to define the relationships be-
tween river water quality and land use.
The presence of chemical elements such
as NO2-N, NO3-N, PO4-P and SiO2 was
found to be associated with human in-
tervention and NO3-N was also formed
as a result of biological activity in up-
land fields or forests. Concentrations of
the chemicals were very low in the water
within forests. Building of roads, quar-
ries or recreation facilities, and use of
upland fields changed the quality of wa-
ter while the presence of a golf course
induced high EC value. Paddy fields
were found to maintain the water quality.
Since it was observed that the river water
quality can be maintained or improved
ISSN 0341-8162
@1992 by CATENA VERLAG,
W-3302 Cremlingen-Destedt, Germany
0341-8162/92/5011851/US$ 2.00 + 0.25
CATENA An Interdisciplinary Journal of SOIL SCIENCE
vol. 19, p.
by the presence of natural riverbeds,
paddy fields and forests, the protection
of these forms of land use should be en-
couraged.
1 Introduction
Two thirds of the land area of Japan
are covered with forests. Almost all of
the forests are located in mountains. Re-
cently, forests have often been developed
as resorts and for housing and indus-
trial uses, etc. Monitoring of environ-
mental quality should be emphasized to
avoid misuse of the environment. Mod-
ern principles of land use-control should
be established to ensure sustainable de-
velopment.
River water is a sink of chemical ele-
ments being cycled in an ecosystem, the
source of which is precipitation, from a
source-sink relation point of view. Since
the river water quality reflects biogeo-
chemical phenomena in the ecosystem,
the effects of land use may be assessed by
exploring the water quality which could
be a suitable indicator for monitoring.
On the other hand, nutrient cycles in
ecosystems with natural or artificial veg-
etation have been reported by numer-
ous authors (e.g. Ovington 1962, Rodin
& Bazilevich 1967, Likens et al. 1967,
Likens et al. 1970, Nishimura 1973, Gar-
rels et al. 1975, Vitousek et al. 1979,
Lewis et al. 1984). These studies were
HYDROLOGY~EOMORPHOLOGY
428 Hakamata, Hirata & Muraoka

IIIlllI!IIIiIIII
14Ce m !3

lzo ~

.%
o.
L

7C
t"
"'3
c~

Okra
I
2
t
4
I
6
I
K R.Amono

Fig. 1: Outline of the study area, sampling points and result of the classification of
each sample.
A sampling point surrounded by a rhombus shows the point with gauge for rainfall and discharge
monitoring. Streams without concern in sampling or discussion were omitted from the illustration.
1: town or village; 2: paddy field near R. Kawamata and R. Kozakura; 3: golf course.

CATENA A n I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y J o u r n a l of S O I L S C I E N C E HYDROLOGY ~(JEOMORPHOI.O(IY

 Land use, ~ver water quality, Tsukuba mountains, Japan
carried out mainly from the nutrient
budget point of view.
Although these studies have brought
about valuable quantitative information
on nutrient cycles and management of
the ecosystem, they are tedious due to
the large scale of the spatio-temporal sys-
tem under consideration. We do not al-
ways need the entire information on the
budgets to fulfill the objective described
above. Moreover such studies cannot be
carried out by a small group of scien-
tists or technicians as a large area must
be covered during a restricted period of
time. We prefer the approach consisting
of measuring the chemical composition
of water samples from a comparatively
large area, while carrying out at the same
time through observations in a compara-
tively small experimental site in the area
for a longer period of time (e.g., two
years) as reported before (Muraoka &
Hirata 1988). Spatial variations of water
quality of rivers at a base flow level at
a short-time period in late winter and
early spring were analyzed in the current
study.
2 Area description
The study area (fig. 1) which covers
256 km 2 was located in the Tsukuba
mountains which are located in the east-
ern and central part of the Kanto dis-
trict of Japan. Maximum altitude of
the mountains is 876 m. The area is
surrounded by three large rivers: River
Sakura on the western and northern
edges of the area, River Koise on the
eastern edge and River Amano on the
southern edge.
The mean annual temperature is
13.1C, the average for February is 2.7C
(minimum) and for August 24.5C (max-
imum). The mean annual rainfall is
CATENA--An Interdisciplinary Journal of SOIL SCIENCE
429
1189 mm, with minimum values recorded
in the winter from December to March,
and maximum values in the summer
from June to September. Winds, mainly
north-westerlies, are strong in winter.
3 Methods
A total of 130 sampling points were se-
lected in rivers or streams in the Tsukuba
mountain ecosystem as shown in fig. 1.
The sample water was collected in late
winter (from 27 February to 1 March)
from the Mt. Tsukuba area, in early
spring (from 22 April to 28 April) from
the Mt. Oda area and (30 April) from
the Mt. Kaba area in 1986. Artificial
irrigation began after these periods for
rice planting in paddy fields in this year,
Rainfall was measured with a tipping
bucket rain gauge set in an experimental
forested basin (Muraoka & Hirata 1988)
located at 3.5 km south-and-southeast
of the peak of Mt. Tsukuba. The daily
rainfall is shown in fig. 2. A rainfall
event amounting to 70 mm (from 19 to
20 March) was omitted from all the sam-
piing schedules. Discharge measured in
the same basin was found to be at the
baseflow level prior to the rainfall event.
The hydrogram was not significantly dis-
turbed, although a slightly higher level
of discharge continued until the end of
the sampling after the event (Muraoka
& Hirata).
The land use and/or vegetation types
which were considered to affect the water
quality from the sampling points were
recorded on the same occasion.
Samples collected were placed in
polyethylene bottles which were trans-
ferred to a cool room (4C). All the sam-
ples were filtrated through glass filters
(Whatman, GF/C; 1.2#m). The concen-
tration of twelve chemical species and the
FIYDROLOGY~EOMORPHOLOGY
 430 Hakamata, Hirata & Muraok~

oo!V
J
Fig. 2: Daily rainfall in a
~_ 4o point with gauge before and
t--

during the sampling period.

T: Sampling period in Mt. Tsukuba
area, O: Mt. Oda area, K: Mr. Kaba
area.
The point with gauge is shown by a
rhombus mark in fig. 1.
Maximum hourly rainfall in ten days
0
before the sampling was 5 mm at
13:00 and 24:00 on April 15 and at
13:00 on April 28.
February March April

this study control:~

median shaper median

pH 7.0 B --
EC (#s/cm) 93.2 C --
NH4-N (ppb) 31.0 C 80
NO2-N (ppb) 4.0 C --
NO3-N (ppb) 996 C 290
PO4-P (ppb) 11 C 30
SiO2 (ppm) 20.9 A 23.1
CI (ppm) 6.8 C,D 6.1
SO4 (ppm) 4.2 C,D 15.9
Mg (ppm) 2.5 C 2.9
Ca (ppm) 5.8 C,D 12.7
Na (ppm) 6.0 C 7.3
K (ppm) 0.8 C 1.4

t Shape of histogram, A: symmetrical,

B: weakly positive-skewed with left peak,
C: strongly positive-skewed with left peak,
D: bimodal. Tab. 1: Characteristics of water qual-
:~ From the original data of Kobayashi (1960).
ity.

specific conductivity at 25C were deter- trite nitrogen (NO2-N), nitrate nitrogen
mined as shown in tab. 1. The pH was (NOa-N), phosphorus (PO4-P), dissolved
measured using glass electrode, electrical silica (SiO2), were made scores by corre-
conductivity (EC) was determined by us- spondence analysis (Benzecri 1973) not
ing platinum electrode, total potassium to be affected by units of each variable.
(K) and sodium (Na) by flame photo- The reason for the choice of the vari-
metry and the ions with an auto-analyzer ables is as follows: pH is an important
(Technicon-SWA). criterion of water quality. EC which
The data of six variables, pH, EC, ni- is a general criterion of cation content

CATENA__An interdisciplinary Journal of SOl L SCIENCE.~.HYDROLOGY QEOMORPHOLOGY

 Land use, river water quality, Tsukuba mountains, Japan 431

in an electrolytic solution is highly cor-metropolitan area in the southern part

related with the content of CI, sulfate was strongly affected by human inter-
(SO4) and almost all the cations, indi- vention such as industry and urban de-
cating that EC is a parameter represen- velopment. The current study area, how-
tative of these variables. The other four ever, which is located in a rural region
variables showed comparatively low cor- has been less affected by human inter-
relations with these variables and were vention than industry and urban area.
considered to represent respective char- It is expected that the concentration of
acteristics. chemical elements from this area should
Ward's method (Ward 1963) of clus- be lower than or equal to that reported
ter analysis was applied to the data of by Kobayashi on the average.
five scores which represented significant The median of the concentration of
contribution in the correspondence anal- NO3-N obtained from this ecosystem
ysis. At each step in the analysis by were, however, higher than that of the
Ward's method, union of every possi- Kanto district. The concentration of
ble pair of clusters was considered and NO3-N is assumed to have increased
the two clusters whose fusion resulted due to biological processes occurring
in the minimum increase in the error in forests and agricultural lands which
sum of squares (E.S.S.) were combined. cover 84% (85%, in the Kanto district in
Ward's method is suitable for data sets 1950s, Takeuchi 1976) of the whole area.
which show a well defined group struc- The amount of nitrogen fertilizers has
ture (Everitt 1980). increased through this four decades in
agricultural lands of this area. The level
of median and the maximum concen-
4 Results tration (3.25 ppm) of NO3-N, however,
were lower than those recommended in
4.1 Chemical composition
WHO guideline for drinking water qual-
Tab. 1 shows the characteristics of the ity (10 ppm).
data set. The frequency distribution of The medians of the concentrations of
SiO2 was symmetrical, whereas those of other elements were similar or lower than
other elements, pH, and EC were asym- those of the control data.
metrical, the smaller classes showing a
much higher frequency. 4.2 Comparison of chemical
Weighted mean at discharge is often composition of water depending on
used to evaluate the general composi- land uses
tion of river water. However, it is very
difficult to obtain discharge data at the General comparison of water quality of
same time from a large number sampling rivers in forests, paddy fields, upland
points. In this study, medians which fields and other land uses is represented
are one of the robust summary statitics in fig. 3 by boxplots (Tukey 1977). The
were compared with those of the Kanto concentration of NO2-N and EC in the
district reported by Kobayashi (1960) case of forests was lower than that of wa-
who collected samples mainly during ter in the other land uses. The concentra-
the 1953-1955 period. Thereafter the tion of NO3-N was the highest in upland
Kanto district which includes the Tokyo fields and the lowest in forests. These

CATENA--An Interdisciplinary Journal of SOIL SCIENCE HYDROLOGY~EOMORPHOLOGY

432 Hakamata, Hirata & Muraoka

8.0 1}0
o
pH pb NO2-N o 3(1 Si02
8
< pm
o
7.5 o 25

i0 o I 20 1
O ti 0;t 15
8
I

6.5

~$ 200
cm pp
EC o PO~P
ppb
300~ ^

NO3-N

21 o

200 o$ 100!

100 ~ o

t o

F P U 0 F P U 0 F P U 0

Fig. 3:Parallel display of boxplots of river water quality in forests (F), paddy fields
(P), upland fields (U) and other land uses (0).
A crossbar in the box shows the median; both ends of the rectangular box are called upper hinge and
lower hinge, respectively, and show medians between the median and maximum or minimum values. The
maximum or minimum values within a distance 1.5 times that of the width of the two hinges (H-spread)
are called "adjacent" and shown by a bar joined to the box. Circles show outside values. Black dot
shows a "far-out" with a distance of more than 3 times that of H-spread.

CATENA An Interdisciplinary Journal of SOIL SCIENCE HYDROLOGY GEOMORPHOLOGY

 Land use, river water quafity, Tsukuba mountains, Japan 433

Fig. 4: Dendrogram of river water quality

from the Tsukuba mountains ecosystem de-
~ 4
,,i 1 termined by Ward's method of cluster anal-
ysis.
E.S.S. : Error _Sum of _Squares.
Finer branches of dendrogram than the lowest level
under which six groups were obtained were omitted
from illustration.
Digits under each group show the n u m b e r s of sam-
25 14 32 22 30 ples which were included in the groups.

facts indicate that such human activi- ized by low concentration of SiO2 and
ties as agriculture and dwellings increase PO4-P and high concentration of NO3-
the concentration of NO2-N, NO3-N and N. EC and concentration of NO2-N of
EC. The high concentration of PO4-P ob- group 6 were lower than those of group
served in paddy fields, was presumably 5. The sampling points of group 6 were
due to the well-known high availability mainly located around the peak of ridge
of PO4-P under the reductive conditions of mountains and in remote parts of
prevailing in paddy fields. The values mountains. Most of them were located
of the pH and SiO2 concentration were on natural river beds even on the lower
not significantly differed among the land reaches of rivers. Most points of group
uses. 5 were located under those of group 6.
Group 1 showed low concentration of
4.3 Classification of sampling points POa-P and NO2-N and high pH. Low
concentration of POn-P and NO2-N are
The sampling points could be well clas- typical characteristics in forests. Most
sified by the Ward's method of cluster sampling points of group 1 were located
analysis as shown in fig. 4. Six groups on streams halfway up Mt. Tsukuba
were obtained on the dendrogram by or on the middle reaches of R. Sakura.
omitting finer levels of E.S.S. Two large R. Sakura is sometimes gathered streams
clusters were recognized in fig. 4: one with natural river bed and flows between
cluster consisting of groups 5 and 6, and natural banks on the middle reaches.
another of the other groups. This is the reason of which the latter
Fig. 5 gives parallel displays of box- showed low concentration of PO4-P (4-
plots of chemical composition for the 11 ppb) and NO2-N (0-6, and 21 ppb)
sampling points belonging to the six in spite of being surrounded by paddy
groups to indicate the general tendency fields.
of the chemical composition of each Group 2 showed a high EC values,
group. high concentration of NO2-N and NO3-
Fig. 5 shows that groups 5 and 6 de- N, comparatively high concentration of
viated from the average chemical com- PO4-P and comparatively low pH. The
position. These groups were character- points were located on the down-stream

CATENA--An Interdisciplinary Journal of SOIL S C I E N C E - - H Y D R O L O G Y ~ E O M O R P H O L O G Y

 -,,.,,,,i

. !
i i

II
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 Land use, river water quality, Tsukuba mountains, Japan 435

parts of villages along rivers. Hutagami were assigned to group 5 or

Group 3 showed low EC, low con- 3, whereas three samples (4, 5 and 6)
centration of NO2-N, NO3-N and PO4- from the upper reaches of R. Kabaho-
P. Most sampling points of group 3 hudo were assigned to group 6. Tab. 2
were located on streams surrounded by shows the chemical composition of each
forests halfway up the mountains. A sample from these rivers. In the case
part of them was located under golf of R. Kabaho-hudo NO3-N concentra-
course which represented high EC value tion of water was higher and POa-P and
(105/~s/cm). Three points which showed SiO2 concentrations lower than those in
relatively high concentration of PO4-P R. Hutagami. The difference between
(52, 56 and 104 ppb) were located on the two rivers is ascribed to the fact
paddy fields (2 points) or under village that R. Kabaho-hudo runs through nat-
(1 point). ural riverbeds below quarries, while R.
Group 4 was characterized by high Hutagami runs down mainly through ar-
concentration of PO4-P and compar- tificial riverbeds made by concrete near
atively low concentration of NOa-N. stoneworks.
These points were located on peculiar Samples (8-10) from the lower reaches
parts, i.e., recreation facilities, some vil- of the river were assigned to the groups
lages or towns. 2 or 5. Though sample 7 was assigned
to the group 6, NO3-N and EC of this
point were extreme values of the group
4.4 Case-study of River Kabaho
which were showed by a circle and a
A typical case was observed along River black dot, respectively, in fig. 5. The
Kabaho (fig. 6). R. Kabaho flows on the value of EC and concentrations of other
western slope of Mr. Kaba to R. Sakura. chemical species from these samples (7-
A tributary named Kabaho-hudo flows 10) were higher than those in the up-
from a ravine near the top of Mt. Kaba per reaches, indicating the effect of such
and another tributary named Hutagami human activity in the villages and agri-
runs down through a southern ravine. At cultural lands around them as draining
the foot of Mr. Kaba, the former flows sewage, excess fertilization, etc.
through a village and the latter flows
on an edge of agricultural land and an- 5 Discussion
other village. After that, they join to-
gether in villages and flow through arti- The groups obtained by Ward's method
ficial riverbeds made of concrete between were reflecting land use and/or the de-
paddy field areas to R. Sakura. grees and patterns of human activities as
Many quarries are operated on the above mentioned.
slope of Mr. Kaba. Along R. Kabaho Water sampling points in deep forests
several quarries are found in deep forests which were located at a higher elevation
on the slope at elevations ranging from were often assigned to group 6, i.e., the
100 m to 500 m above sea level. quality of stream water is characterized
Stoneworks include cutting and polishing by low concentrations of NO2-N, PO4-P
of stones using water along the reaches. and SiO2 and low EC value. Even sam-
Three samples (sample number: 1, 2 piing points from streams around vil-
and 3) from the upper reaches of R. lages were often assigned to group 6, if

CATENA--An Interdisciplinary Journal of SOIL S C I E N C E - - H Y D R O L O G Y ~ E O M O R P H O L O G Y

436 Hakamata, Hirata & Muraoka

Iml

".vz,v:.'.'.':.
'"'"" PADDY FIELD
:-:.:.:.:
- ' - .
t VILLAGE !ii!iiii!iii!!!!iii!: QUARRY

F i g . 6: Outline of the basin of R. Kabaho and results of classification of the sampling

points by cluster analysis.
Digits show the numbers of samples and digits in circle show the groups (see fig. 5).

Sample group pH EC NO2-N NOa-N PO4-P SiO2

-- ps/cm ppb ppb ppb ppm

1 5 7.1 72.9 3 919 4 19.9

2 3 7.1 53.4 3 709 10 19.6
3 3 7.2 58.9 3 753 12 20.8
4 6 7.1 49.8 1 1282 6 12.6
5 6 7.0 51.8 2 1127 5 14.9
6 6 7.0 58.8 3 1135 5 16.7
7 6 6.9 160.0 15 2690 21 23.2
8 2 6.9 23&0 21 1473 19 26.0
9 5 7.2 202.0 32 3255 99 21.8
10 2 6.8 250.0 40 1758 27 19.1

Tab. 2: Group classification and chemical composition of sample water from River
Kabaho.

CATENA--An Interdisciplinary Journal of SOIL SCIENCE HYDROLOGY OEOMORPHOLOGY

 Land use, river water quality, Tsukuba mountains, Japan 437

there were natural riverbeds on upper pie was obtained in the area where R.
reaches of them. It is well known that a Kawamata joins several brooks through
sudden flush of water and mineral flow which effluents from paddy fields are be-
through run-off can be prevented by the ing drained over a distance of about 4 km
high water retention capacity of the for- of natural riverbeds below the junction.
est ecosystem even after heavy rainfall. The sample was assigned to group 5. It
However, the pattern of mineral efflu- is assumed from these facts that paddy
ence into a river changed depending on fields release few chemicals to the river
the alteration of conditions of the area of and/or that the natural riverbeds play an
the sampling point. Likens et al. (1970) important role in maintenance of water
reported large increases in the concen- quality.
tration of all major ions, except NH4- The water characteristics from the
N, SO4 and bicoarbonate in the stream lower reaches flowing through villages or
water, approximately five months after towns, which were located at the foot of
deforestation due to the alteration of the mountains, around small plateaus, or on
nitrogen cycle within the ecosystem. natural levees, were assigned to group 2
When a road, a quarry, a golf course or 4.
and/or recreation facilities were estab- In a stream with natural riverbeds in
lished after forest cutting, the water char- a mountainous area, the water follows a
acteristics around the structure were as- zigzag course along rocks to take a long
signed to the other groups. A point from path and to skim a large amount of sed-
a stream in the vicinity of a road in a iments and organisms. In lowlands, wa-
forest was often assigned to groups 1 ter runs slowly on such finer sediments
and 3 and seldom to group 5. The water as sand, silt, clay and organic compo-
characteristics from the lower reaches of nents, and sometimes through aquatic
a golf course built in the southern part plants including reed (Phragmites com-
of Mt. Tsukuba was assigned to group munis Trinius), tape-grass (Vallisneria gi-
3 while those from the lower reaches gantea Graebner), etc. Hosomi et al.
of quarries were sometimes assigned to (1988) reported that 58% of nitrogen and
group 3 or 5, but to group 6 only if 76% of phosphorous were removed in
these reaches did not run through ar- March by denitrification, plant uptake,
tificial riverbeds made of concrete but and microbial assimilation in a wetland
through natural riverbeds in the forest. in central Japan. Good natural purifi-
Water from streams in upland fields cation of the natural riverbeds was typi-
showed higher concentrations of NO3- cally observed in this area.
N, NO2-N than forest or paddy field. Natural purification function of paddy
The quality of water circulating fields, especially of soil, is important.
through a paddy field area changed only Ogawa & Sakai (1984) investigated the
if the river ran on artificial riverbeds as in movement of NO3-N from an upland
the case of a lower reach of R. Kabaho. field to a paddy field and stated that
The other typical cases are also observed NO3-N from the upland field remained
in the paddy field area around R. Kawa- in the soil layers and little NO3-N flowed
mata (see fig. 1). First, sampling points to a river. In addition, Ogawa & Sakai
on middle reaches of R. Kozakura were (1989) who emphasized that the natu-
assigned to group 6. Second, a sam- ral purification function of paddy fields

CATENA An Interdisciplinary Journal of SOIL S C I E N C E - - H Y D R O L O G Y ~ E O M O R P H O L O G Y

438
may account for the high capacity of ni-
trogen removal from flooded water, pro-
posed the concept of "environmental ir-
rigation". We did not observe a remark-
able increase of the concentration of the
chemical components in water flowing
through R. Kawamata in the lowland
area where villages were facing the river
across the paddy fields. Chemical species
like NO3-N from upland fields may be
removed by the natural purifying capac-
ity of soil or "environmental irrigation"
in paddy field area.
6 Conclusion
The presence of chemical species such as
N O 2 - N , N O 3 - N , P O 4 - P a n d SiO2 w a s as-
s o c i a t e d with human intervention. NO3-
N was also formed as a result of biolog-
ical activity in upland fields and forests.
The concentrations of the chemicals were
very low in the water running in forests.
Building of roads, quarries or recreation
facilities, as well as the use of upland
fields changed the quality of water. The
presence of a golf course induced high
EC value. Paddy fields were found to
maintain the water quality. Since the
water quality is maintained or improved
in natural riverbeds, or streams running
through paddy fields and forests, the pro-
tection of these forms of land use should
be encouraged.
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Addresses of authors:
Dr. T o m o ~ , i Hakamata
National Institute of Agro-Environmental Sciences
Tsukuba, 305
Japan
Dr. Tatemasa Hi~ta
The National Institute for Environmental Studies
Tsukuba, 305
Japan
Dr. Kohji M m o k a
Faculty of Engineering
Osaka University
Suita, Osaka, 565
Japan

CATENA--An Interdisciplinary Journal of SOIL SCIENCE H Y D R O L O G Y ~ E O M O R P H O L O G Y