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Training and testing physical capacities for elite soccer

players
Jan Hoff
a
Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine, Norwegian University
of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
b
NTNU, DMF, NO-7489, Trondheim, Norway E-mail:
Version of record first published: 18 Feb 2007.

To cite this article: Jan Hoff (2005): Training and testing physical capacities for elite soccer players, Journal of Sports
Sciences, 23:6, 573-582

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 Journal of Sports Sciences, June 2005; 23(6): 573 582

Training and testing physical capacities for elite soccer players

JAN HOFF

Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
Trondheim, Norway

(Accepted 24 July 2004)

Abstract
Elite soccer players spend a substantial amount of time trying to improve physical capacities, including aerobic endurance
Downloaded by [University of Brighton] at 11:53 16 March 2013

and strength and the strength derivatives of speed and power. The average oxygen uptake for international soccer teams
ranges from 55 to 68 ml kg71 min71 and the half-squat maximal strength from 120 to 180 kg. These values are similar to
those found in other team sports. Recently, it has been shown that the hearts stroke volume is the element in the oxygen
chain that mainly limits aerobic endurance for athletes. These ndings have given rise to more intensive training
interventions to secure high stroke volumes, which, in turn, have proved positive in changing both maximal oxygen
consumption and soccer performance in terms of distance covered, contacts with the ball and number of sprints in a game.
The training employed has consisted of 4 6 4-min intervals running uphill at 90 95% of maximal heart rate interspersed
with 3 min jogging at 70% of maximal heart rate to facilitate removal of lactate. Research has revealed that a soccer-specic
training routine with the ball might be as effective as plain running. Strength training to produce neural adaptations has been
effective in changing not only strength in terms of one-repetition maximum, but also sprinting velocity and jumping
height, in elite soccer players without any change in body mass. The same training has also improved running economy and
thus aerobic endurance performance. The training regimen used for a European Champions League team was 4 6 4
repetitions of half-squats with the emphasis on maximal mobilization of force in the concentric action.

Keywords: Endurance, lactate threshold, maximal oxygen uptake, neural adaptations, one-repetition maximum, rate of force
development, running economy, strength

Introduction Endurance training

Football (soccer) players require technical, tactical
and physical skills to succeed. In part, professional
soccer emphasizes selection between players as
well as development of the players performance.
This review concentrates on the development of
players performance and primarily their physical
resources. The current review focuses on the
approaches used by our research group, as
extensive reviews exist with a broader perspective
(Shephard, 1999). Individual technique, tactics
and physical resources are all important when
evaluating performance differences in soccer. It is
difcult to discriminate between the relative
importance of each of these elements when
evaluating performance differences. Muscular
strength and power share importance with endur-
ance within the physical resources.
The average exercise intensity for a player in a 90-
min soccer match is close to that of the lactate
threshold, or 80 90% of maximal heart rate
(Bangsbo, 1994; Reilly, 1990). It would be physio-
logically impossible to maintain a higher average
intensity over a longer period of time due to the
resultant accumulation of blood lactate. Expressing
intensity as an average over 90 min could result in
substantial loss of specic information. In soccer
matches, the high-intensity periods usually constitute
the most interesting parts of the game, where
accumulation of lactate takes place. It is necessary
for the players to experience intervening periods of
low-intensity exercise to remove lactate from the
working muscles and from the blood.
There is a signicant correlation between maximal
oxygen uptake (V_ O2max) and distance covered

Correspondence: J. Hoff, NTNU, DMF, NO-7489 Trondheim, Norway. E-mail: jan.hoff@medisin.ntnu.no

ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online 2005 Taylor & Francis Group Ltd
DOI: 10.1080/02640410400021252
 574 J. Hoff
during a match (Bangsbo, 1994; Smaros, 1980).
Distance covered during a match was shown to differ
a lot in studies carried out in the early 1970s, partly
because of awed methods. Measurements have
become more reliable (Reilly, 1990) and differences
between top teams are now considered to be quite
small. For example, it has been reported that male
players cover 10,245 m (Van Gool, Van Gerven, &
Boutmans, 1988), 9845 m (Ohashi, Togari, Isoka-
wa, & Suzuki, 1988), 10,800 m (Danish elite players:
Bangsbo, 1992), 11,527 m (Australian elite players:
Withers, Maricic, Wasilewski, & Kelly, 1982) and
10,335 m (elite junior players: Helgerud, Engen,
Wislff, & Hoff, 2001). These values are considered
reliable, objective and valid.
Apor (1988) reported that the ranking of four
teams in the Hungarian top soccer division reected
the ranking between the average V_ O2max of the
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teams. This nding indicates that a relationship
exists between V_ O2max and team performance. The
results of Wislff, Helgerud and Hoff (1998)
supported this assumption by also demonstrating a
clear difference in V_ O2max between the top team and
a team placed lower in the Norwegian elite division.
The average V_ O2max for international level male
soccer players has been reported to range between 55
and 68 ml kg71 min71, with individual values of
more than 70 ml kg71 min71 having been re-
corded (Davis, Brewer, & Atkin, 1992; Reilly,
1994; Wislff et al., 1998). These values are similar
to those reported for other team sports, but
substantially lower than those for elite performers
in endurance sports, where values near to
90 ml kg71 min71 have commonly been record-
ed. Maximal oxygen uptake expressed in
ml kg71 min71 implies linearity between oxygen
cost and body mass, which is not the case (Bergh,
Sjdin, Forsberg, & Svedenhag, 1991). When
expressing V_ O2max in ml kg71 min71, work capa-
city is overestimated in light individuals (e.g.
endurance sport athletes) and underestimated in
heavy individuals. The opposite is true when
evaluating the oxygen cost of running at submaximal
workloads. Consequently, several studies (Bergh et
al., 1991; Helgerud, Ingjer, & Strmme, 1990; Hoff
& Helgerud, 2004; Wislff et al., 1998) have
concluded that comparisons between individuals of
different body mass of oxygen uptake determined
when running should be expressed in
ml kg70.75 min71. Allometric scaling is described
in greater detail elswhere (Astrand & Rodahl, 1986;
Bergh et al., 1991; Helgerud et al., 1990; Hoff &
Helgerud, 2004; Wislff et al., 1998).
The highest reliable average V_ O2max for a profes-
sional soccer team was reported by Wislff et al.
(1998) to be 67.6 ml kg71 min71 or
70.75 71
200.2 ml kg min for the Norwegian team
Rosenborg. The difference in terms of work capacity
to an average team with a mean V_ O2max about
6 ml kg71 min71 lower is, in terms of distance
covered and thus in playable positions, suggested to
be similar to having one extra player on the eld
(Wislff et al., 1998).
Soccer players should ideally be able to maintain a
high exercise intensity throughout a game. Studies,
however, have shown a reduction in distance
covered, more low-intensity than high-intensity
work, a reduced heart rate, reduced blood glucose
concentrations and reduced lactate concentrations in
the second compared with the rst half of games.
This observation indicates a reduced level of activity
(Ekblom, 1986; Tumilty, 1993). Players who have a
high V_ O2max have high glycogen stores necessary for
the release of energy, which is required to perform
the high-intensity sprints and physical challenges
throughout a competitive match. They also have an
elevated rate of recovery (Bangsbo & Mizuno, 1988;
Ekblom, 1986). Players with a higher V_ O2max also
perform the highest number of sprints and take part
more often in decisive plays during a match than
those with lower values (Smaros, 1980). As glycogen
stores are reduced during a match, an increasing
amount of energy has to be delivered from fat.
Players with a higher V_ O2max are better able to
mobilize and utilize fat at the same relative workload
and are thus able to save glycogen for use in the
most intensive and decisive plays during a match
(Reilly & Thomas, 1979). Players with a higher
V_ O2max are also able to run further and at a higher
intensity before a reduction in glycogen stores and
accumulation of lactate force them to reduce their
intensity. This fatigue will affect the quality of
technical and tactical elements in a match (Ekblom,
1986; Tumilty, 1993). That a high level of lactate
accumulation reduces technical ability was demon-
strated in a study in which players were able to
perform an average of 64 juggles with the ball that
is, keeping it off the ground before a block of hard
training leading to lactate accumulation. After the
training session, the average number of juggles was
only three (Ekblom, 1986).
When assessing aerobic performance, V_ O2max is
considered the most important determinant. Other
important factors include the lactate threshold and
running economy (Helgerud et al., 1990; Hoff, Gran,
& Helgerud, 2002a; Hoff, Helgerud, & Wislff,
2002b; Pate & Kriska, 1984). In some sports, the
lactate threshold might be a better indicator of
aerobic endurance performance than V_ O2max (Ja-
cobs, 1986). The lactate threshold determines the
highest workload, oxygen consumption or heart rate
in dynamic work using large muscle groups, where
production and elimination of lactate are balanced
(Helgerud et al., 1990). The lactate threshold might

change without any alteration in V_ O2max, but these
changes are minor. A higher lactate threshold means,
theoretically, that a player can maintain a higher
average intensity in an activity without accumulation
of lactate (Heck et al., 1985). Values for the lactate
threshold are normally expressed as a percentage of
maximal heart rate or a percentage of V_ O2max.
Running velocity at the lactate threshold or at
V_ O2max is also inuenced by running economy.
Costill, Thomas and Roberts (1973) and Helgerud
(1994), among others, have reported individual
variations in running economy. The causes of
variability are not well understood but it is likely
that anatomical traits, mechanical skill, neuromus-
cular skill and storage of elastic energy are relevant
factors (Pate & Kriska, 1984). The running econo-
mies of well-trained runners have been reported to
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be better than those of recreational runners (Helger-
ud, 1994; Helgerud et al., 1990; Pate, Sparling,
Wilson, Cureton, & Miller, 1987); this is probably
related to the greater running experience of the
former. Running economy is normally expressed as
oxygen consumption (V_ O2) at a standardized work-
load or V_ O2 per metre when running (Helgerud,
1994; Saltin, 1990). Hoff and Helgerud (2003) have
shown how aerobic performance changes with an
improvement in running economy due to a strength
training regimen, without any concomitant changes
in V_ O2max or the lactate threshold. When choosing a
training regimen to improve maximal aerobic per-
formance, V_ O2max, the lactate threshold and running
economy have to be taken into consideration.
Whether V_ O2max is limited by central or periph-
eral elements in the oxygen transport chain from the
lungs to the enzymes in the muscle cells must also be
considered. In activities involving large muscle
groups like running, conductance analyses (Saltin,
1990; Shephard, 1977) favour a central limitation
that is, the hearts maximal cardiac output. This is
supported by the premise that large muscles have a
capacity to receive 3 4 times more blood if the heart
is capable of delivering such an amount (Savard et
al., 1987).
Analysis of the elements in oxygen transport that
limit aerobic endurance have recently revealed
differences between trained and untrained indivi-
duals. Whereas untrained individuals are limited by
the muscles ability to utilize available oxygen,
trained individuals are primarily limited by the
hearts ability to pump blood (Richardson, 2000;
Wagner, 2000). The stroke volume of the heart has
been thought to be the most important factor,
especially since it can be twice as high in trained
athletes than sedentary individuals. Recent studies
have further shown the importance of a large stroke
volume. In textbooks, the relation between stroke
volume and heart rate is described as increasing
Training and testing physical capacities 575
linearly during higher workloads until about 60% of
V_ O2max, where stroke volume reaches a plateau or
shows only a modest increase in both trained and
sedentary individuals. Gledhill, Cox and Jamnik
(1994) and Zhou et al. (2001) have examined the
levelling off in stroke volume. They found that stroke
volume increased continuously with increasing work-
loads up to V_ O2max in well-trained participants. In
sedentary individuals and moderately trained parti-
cipants, the classical levelling off phenomenon was
seen. The increasing stroke volume up to the point of
V_ O2max in trained athletes has been the background
for using high-intensity training interventions in our
endurance training. A soccer player is able to
maintain repetitive bouts of this intensity for 3
8 min. At this workload, it normally takes 1 2 min
for cardiac output to reach its highest. As this
intensity far exceeds the lactate threshold, increased
lactate is observed and lactate concentration has to
be reduced between each exercise period. This
rationale lies behind using an approximately 3-min
break between intervals at an intensity of 60 70% of
maximal heart rate, which reduces blood lactate
concentration (Hermansen & Stensvold, 1972).
Helgerud et al. (2001) conducted an intervention
study using 4 6 4-min interval training at 90 95%
of maximal heart rate, training half the members of
an elite junior (under-18) soccer team three times
per week for 8 weeks; the other half of the players
acted as a control group by performing their normal
soccer training. The individual increase in V_ O2max
was 6 ml kg71 min71 greater in the experimental
than the control group; this was accompanied by a
1700-m greater distance covered during a game,
24% more contacts with the ball and a 100% increase
in number of sprints, all more than in the control
group. Helgerud, Kemi and Hoff (2003) used the
same interval training regimen for a European
Champions League team, who showed the same
improvement in V_ O2max. While Helgerud et al.
(2001, 2003) used uphill running and inclined
treadmill running, Hoff, Wislff, Kemi and Helgerud
(2002c) have shown that a specially designed track
(Figure 1) substituting uphill running with accelera-
tions, changes of direction and using a ball may be as
effective as ordinary running. Similarly, it has been
shown that small-sided play might be organized to be
equally effective in training V_ O2max, but seems to
have an upper limit around 65 ml kg71 min71
(Figure 2). Using the training regimen for maximal
oxygen uptake as outlined in this review, the typical
training response for soccer players has been an
approximately 0.5% increase in V_ O2max per training
session (Helgerud et al., 2001, 2003). An increase in
V_ O2max is dependent upon a minimum of two
sessions per week, up to several sessions. One session
per week or every other week is considered to
 576 J. Hoff
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Figure 1. A soccer-specic track for training high-intensity aerobic
intervals and a test for maximal oxygen uptake (after Hoff et al.,
2002c). Players follow the route indicated by arrows while
dribbling a ball. Backward running occurs between point A and
B. Players undertake 4-min intervals or are instructed to increase
gradually the intensity so that maximal oxygen uptake is reached
within 6 min. D , cones; , hurdles 20 cm high.
Figure 2. Correlation between oxygen consumption (V_ O2) and
heart rate at different submaximal velocities during treadmill
testing, intensively coached ve-a-side play and track dribbling 4-
min interval training at 90 95% of maximal heart rate (HRmax)
(after Hoff et al., 2002c).
maintain aerobic capacity, which normally is reduced
during the competitive season. As the training regime
is guided by heart rate, there is an automatic
progression in the training load. In endurance
athletes, only a small reduction in training response
is observed compared with soccer players.
The current advice for improving V_ O2max in
soccer players based both on theory and evidence is
to use 4 6 4-min bouts at 90 95% of maximal heart
rate interspersed with 3 min jogging at 70% of
maximal heart rate to remove the lactate accumu-
lated, by running uphill, on a treadmill, or with a ball
on the specially designed track.
Strength training
Within the aerobic context of the 90-min game, a
sprint that lasts 2 4 s (Bangsbo, Nrregaard, &
Thorse, 1991; ODonoghue, 2001; Reilly & Tho-
mas, 1976) is performed every 90 s (Reilly &
Thomas, 1976). Sprinting comprises 1 11% of total
distance covered in a match (Bangsbo et al., 1991;
Reilly & Thomas, 1976), which constitutes 0.5
3.0% of effective time with the ball in play (Ali &
Farrally, 1991; Bangsbo, 1992; Bangsbo et al., 1991;
ODonoghue, 2001). Professional soccer players
perform approximately 50 turns during a game,
sustaining forceful contractions to maintain balance
and control of the ball against defensive pressure
(Withers et al., 1982). Strength and power together
with endurance are important in terms of basic
physiological capacities in soccer play. Maximal
strength is one basic quality that inuences power
output. An increase in maximal strength is usually
connected with an improvement in relative strength
and therefore with improvement of power abilities. A
signicant relationship has been observed between
one-repetition maximum and acceleration and
movement velocity (Buhrle & Schmidtbleicher,
1977). This relationship between maximal strength
and performance is supported by jump test results as
well as sprint times over 10 to 30 m (Hoff, Berdahl, ,
& Braten, 2001; Schmidtbleicher, 1992; Wislff,
Castagna, Helgerud, Jones, & Hoff, 2004) (Figure
3). By increasing the available force of muscular
contractions in the appropriate muscle groups,
acceleration and speed in skills critical to soccer,
such as turning, sprinting and changing pace, may be
improved (Bangsbo et al., 1991).
In most textbooks, the muscles ability to produce
force is described as a function of the muscles cross-
sectional area. The body-building training that
triggers protein synthesis and thus an increase in
cross-sectional area is characterized by several sets
(5 6) of 10 12 repetitions at moderate to slow
velocity until exhaustion (Tesch, 1992). However,
neural adaptations may play a major role in devel-
oping force (Sale, 1992), though it is suggested that
the neural adaptation is limited to a starting period of
6 8 weeks of strength training. Hoff et al. (2001),

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Figure 3. Correlation between one-repetition maximum and sprint and jumping performance for elite soccer players (Wislff et al., 2004).
however, reported similar improvements in a group
of World Cup ski jumpers with a squat and jump
training history of at least 10 years, indicating that
like most physiological processes the adaptation is
not limited to a starting period. Behm and Sale
(1993) suggested that it might be the intended rather
than actual movement velocity that determines the
velocity-specic training response. They suggested
two major principles for maximal neural adaptation.
First, to train the fastest motor units, which develop
the greatest force, one has to work against high loads
(85 95% of one-repetition maximum) that guaran-
tee maximal voluntary contraction. Second, the
maximal advantage is likely to be gained if the
movements are trained with a rapid action, in
addition to high resistance. Voigt and Klausen
(1990) showed that maximal strength training (high
force/low velocity) with an emphasis on intended
rather than actual movement velocity did enhance
maximal velocity (low force/high velocity) in the
same movement. Hoff and Almasbakk (1995) and
Almasbakk and Hoff (1996) have shown that high
loads emphasizing maximal mobilization of force in
concentric actions are extremely effective in enhan-
Training and testing physical capacities 577
cing high velocity/low force movements. This type of
training has been shown to have a great effect on
sprint and jump performances relevant to soccer
play, without changes in body mass, supporting the
neural adaptation theory (Hoff et al., 2001, 2003).
The training intervention used in these experiments
consisted of four series of few repetitions (4 5) of
half-squats, with the emphasis on mobilization of
force in the concentric phase of the movement. In
two intervention studies with soccer players, one
with a Champions League team, using four series of
4 5 repetitions with the emphasis on maximal
mobilization of force in the concentric action, the
one-repetition maximum in a half-squat (908 in the
knee joint) increased from 115 to176 kg and from
161 to 215 kg (Helgerud et al., 2003; Hoff &
Helgerud, 2003). Jump height increased by 30 mm
in both experimental groups and 10-m sprint time
was improved by approximately 0.6 m and 0.8 m,
respectively, compared with the control group who
performed a normal soccer training programme.
Using the training regimen for neural adaptation as
outlined in this review, the typical training response
for soccer players has been an approximately 2%
 578 J. Hoff
increase in one-repetition maximum per training
session for up to three sessions per week (Helgerud et
al., 2003; Hoff & Helgerud, 2003). One training
session per week or every other week seems to be
enough to maintain the level of strength. The
training regimen has an automatic load progression
and only a minor reduction in training response is
observed when reaching high levels of strength (Hoff
et al., 2001).
The current advice for training strength to
improve sprint performance and jumping height in
elite soccer players is four sets of four repetitions of
half-squats, with the emphasis on maximal mobiliza-
tion of force in the concentric phase and an increase
in load each time the training regimen is performed.
Strength training effects on aerobic endurance
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performance
Few studies have investigated the effects of strength
training on endurance performance. The training
regimen described above was effective based on
neural adaptation rather than muscle hypertrophy.
Thus, the argument that strength training increases
body weight and thereby might impair endurance
performance might not be a valid one. It was
hypothesized that maximal strength training based
on a few repetitions and high loads with the emphasis
on maximal mobilization of force improves aerobic
endurance performance. First, the maximal strength
training resulted in improved work economy that
is, reduced oxygen cost at a standardized aerobic
workload in double poling by cross-country skiers
(Hoff, Helgerud, & Wislff, 1999; Hoff et al.,
2002a). Later, it was shown that running economy
improved after maximal strength squat training by
4.7% in two experiments (Helgerud et al., 2003; Hoff
& Helgerud, 2003). Maximal strength training using
a few series of a few repetitions at high loads, with the
emphasis on fast mobilization of force in concentric
actions, has resulted in a good training response in
terms of aerobic endurance, due to improved
running economy (Figure 4), as well as improve-
ments in sprinting and jumping height.
The current advice for training strength to
improve running economy is to perform four sets
of four repetitions of half-squats, with the emphasis
on maximal mobilization of force in the concentric
action and an increase in load each time the training
regimen is performed. This recommendation is the
same as that described for improving sprint perfor-
mance and jumping height.
Testing endurance variables
Endurance performance for soccer players is
represented by the amount of work carried out
Figure 4. Improvements in running economy (ml kg70.75 m71)
at the lactate threshold from pre to post test for a group of junior
elite soccer players undertaking four sets of four repetitions of
squats three times a week for 8 weeks (after Hoff & Helgerud,
2003).
during a match. This output is not easily calcu-
lated. Distance covered during a match is a good
indicator, but also number of sprints and time
spent at different intensities inuence overall
endurance performance. Testing the endurance
performance of soccer players may be carried out
in several ways. Typical performance tests include
the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test (Bangsbo,
1994), the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle test
(Nicholas, Nuttall, & Williams, 2000), as well as
several others (Leger & Lambert, 1982; Ramsbot-
tom, Brewer, & Williams, 1988). Most of these
tests try to simulate the activity patterns during a
soccer match and to obtain the highest correlation
possible with endurance performance during a
match. This is a development that from a
physiological point of view might not be very
logical, as distance covered during a game corre-
lates highest with endurance performance in the
game itself. Physiologists would be more interested
in the training response by the different biological
mechanisms that affect endurance performance in
soccer, and the effect of these within the perfor-
mance context of the match itself.
Some authors have argued that anaerobic tness
differentiates between standards of play better than
aerobic endurance (Green, 1992; Tumilty, 1993).
However, a soccer match lasts 90 min, and
approximately 98% of the total energy is derived
from aerobic metabolism, with the remaining 2%
generated from anaerobic processes (Bangsbo,
1994).
Aerobic endurance performance in soccer is
determined by V_ O2max, the lactate threshold and
running economy (Pate & Kriska, 1984), of which
V_ O2max is the most important (Bangsbo, 1994;

Helgerud et al., 2001; Hoff and Helgerud, 2003;
Reilly, 1994). For running economy in soccer
players, both the oxygen cost at the lactate threshold
and the oxygen cost at 11 km h71 have been
measured (Helgerud et al., 1990, 2001; Hoff &
Helgerud, 2003). The most accurate method for
measuring V_ O2max, the lactate threshold and run-
ning economy in soccer players is treadmill testing,
which is straightforward if there is access to relatively
expensive equipment and trained staff.
Several sport-specic eld tests (Balsom, 1990;
Bangsbo, 1994; Bassett & Boulay, 2000; Brahler &
Blank, 1995; Ekblom, 1989; Ramsbottom et al.,
1988; Smith, Hopkins, & Taylor, 1994; Smekal et al.,
2000) are available for estimating V_ O2max, normally
within + 10 15% (Astrand & Rodahl, 1986). Tests
to exhaustion, such as the Cooper test (Cooper,
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1968), are more accurate than submaximal tests.
Since the 12-min performance test is carried out on
an athletic track where V_ O2max cannot normally be
reached because of running technique limitations
(Astrand & Rodahl, 1986), and contains an anaero-
bic element as well as differences in running
economy and lactate threshold, accuracy higher than
5 7% cannot be expected. As the precision in
training intervention increases in professional soccer,
it is necessary to be able to discriminate at least
between V_ O2max and running economy responses,
and possibly also the lactate threshold, even if the
lactate threshold appears primarily to follow changes
in V_ O2max (Helgerud et al., 2003). An accuracy
of + 10 15% is in that respect not acceptable, and
the eld test alone cannot discriminate between
improvements due to V_ O2max and those due to
running economy.
The development of small portable metabolic
measurement systems has made it possible to
measure oxygen uptake directly during soccer-
specic tests. It has previously been shown that an
inclined treadmill recruits a larger muscle mass at a
slower cadence, which allows the individual to reach
his or her true V_ O2max, compared with running on a
at surface (Astrand & Rodahl, 1986). However,
Reilly and Ball (1984) reported an additional oxygen
demand during ball dribbling in soccer-like move-
ments, which compensates for the extra load of the
inclined treadmill, as applied during standard
laboratory tests of V_ O2max (Hoff et al., 2002c).
Thus, the track shown in Figure 1 is reported to be
reliable for examining V_ O2max, using a portable
metabolic test system (Kemi, Hoff, Engen, Helger-
ud, & Wislff, 2003).
The current advice for testing the endurance of
elite soccer players is to measure V_ O2max directly on
a treadmill or in the eld. The test should be
supplemented by tests of running economy to
evaluate specic training intervention effects.
Training and testing physical capacities 579
Testing strength variables
Strength training has been adopted in almost all
sports that require high acceleration as part of
performance (Wilson, Newton, Murphy, & Humph-
ries, 1993). Strength is dened as the integrated
result of one or several muscles undergoing contrac-
tion, either isometric or dynamic, during a single
voluntary effort of a dened task. Typically, maximal
strength is dened in terms of one-repetition
maximum (1-RM) in a standardized movement, as
in the squat exercise. Power is dened as the product
of force and movement velocity that is, the ability
to perform as much work as possible in the shortest
possible time.
As there are correlations between strength and the
power and acceleration needed for sprints and
jumps, strength testing for soccer players should
involve squat 1-RM for elite soccer players, if they
are familiar with the exercise and have no back
problems. The 1-RM test for soccer players should
be performed as half-squats that is, down to 908
between femur and tibia. When the body itself is
moved, scaled relative strength (kg 1-RM kg body
mass70.67) is of importance, which makes it im-
portant to follow any development in body mass.
Hoff et al. (2001) improved 1-RM in a group of
World Cup ski jumpers with no change in body
mass, with increased acceleration and jumping
height as a result.
The rate of force development typically changes to
an even greater extent than 1-RM using training for
neural adaptations (Hoff et al., 2002a,b; Hoff &
Helgerud, 2003). The rate of force development
represents the recruitment pattern in the muscle, and
increased recruitment of high threshold motor units
affects acceleration and improves performance. In-
creased rate of force development is closely related to
balance. Rate of force development is calculated
using a force platform measuring the vertical forces
during a squat jump.
Jumping height is a performance measure that
changes with alterations in 1-RM. This variable can
be measured using a force platform that calculates
centre of mass displacement, or a movement
registration system that can follow the displacement
of a xed point. Both Seargents test and a test mat,
using time for calculation of jumping height, have a
higher variation than desirable, but are useful for
estimates of leg power.
Acceleration and sprints are also performance
measures most often tested over 10 40 m, and
measured using photocells. For trained soccer
players, however, strong correlations are found
between strength and sprints/jumps (Figure 3).
The current advice for testing the strength para-
meters of elite soccer players is to use 1-RM in half-
 580 J. Hoff
squats, sprint times on 10 and 20 40 m and
jumping height. For closer analyses, the test battery
can be expanded to include tests for recording the
rate of force development, using the force platform.
Conclusions
The current recommendations for improving
V_ O2max in soccer players based both on theory and
evidence is to use 4 6 4-min bouts at 90 95% of
maximal heart rate interspersed with 3 min jogging
at 70% of maximal heart rate to remove lactate
accumulated, by running uphill, on a treadmill, or
with a ball on the specially designed track.
The current advice for training strength to
improve sprint and jumping height for elite soccer
players is four sets of four repetitions of half-squats,
Downloaded by [University of Brighton] at 11:53 16 March 2013
with the emphasis on maximal mobilization of force
in the concentric phase and an increase in load each
time the training regimen is carried out, which has
also been shown to be an effective way of improving
running economy.
For testing elite soccer teams in terms of endur-
ance parameters, it is recommended that V_ O2max is
tested directly on a treadmill or in the eld. The test
should be supplemented by an assessment of running
economy to evaluate specic training intervention
effects. Strength parameters include 1-RM in half-
squats, sprints over 10 and 20 40 m and jumping
height. For closer analyses, the test battery can be
expanded to tests for recording the rate of force
development, using a force platform.
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