Dynamic range compression

This article is about a process that intentionally reduces the dynamic range of audio
signals.

A rack of compressors in a recording studio

Dynamic range compression, also called DRC (often seen in DVD and car CD player
settings) or simply compression, is a process that reduces the dynamic range of an
audio signal, that is, narrows the dierence between high and low audio levels or
volumes. Compression is commonly used during sound recording, live sound
reinforcement, and broadcasting.

Compression is applied by running an audio signal through a dedicated electronic

hardware unit or through software in audio applications. In the context of audio
production, the device is simply referred to as a "compressor".

Basics

The relationship between input level, output level, and gain reduction in a (downward) compressor
In simple terms, a compressor is an automatic volume control. Using downward
compression, loud sounds over a certain threshold are reduced in level while quiet
sounds remain untreated. Upward compression involves making sounds below the
threshold louder while the louder passages remain unchanged. Both reduce the dynamic
range of an audio signal. This may be done for aesthetic reasons or to deal with technical
limitations of audio equipment, which is seldom able to cope with the dynamic range the
human ear can tolerate.

Compression may improve audibility of audio in noisy environments, where background

noise can overpower quiet sounds so that a comfortable listening level for loud sounds
makes quiet sounds inaudible below the noise floor while an audible level for quiet
sounds makes loud sounds too loud. If compression reduces the level of the loud sounds
but not the quiet sounds the level can be raised to a point where quiet sounds are audible
without loud sounds being too loud.

A compressor reduces the level of an audio signal if its amplitude exceeds a certain
threshold. The amount of gain reduction is determined by ratio: a ratio of 4:1 means that
if input level is 4dB over the threshold, the output signal level will be 1dB over the
threshold. The gain (level) has been reduced by 3 dB:

Threshold = 10 dB

Input = 6 dB (4 dB above the threshold)

Output = 9 dB (1 dB above the threshold)

Compressors are, additionally, often supplied with attack and release controls that can
slow down the response speed of the circuit to smooth the eect.

An expander performs the opposite function, increasing the dynamic range of the audio
signal.

Design

A feed-forward compressor design (left) and feedback design (right)

The signal entering a compressor is split, one copy sent to a variable-gain amplifier and
the other to a side-chain where a circuit controlled by the signal level applies the required
gain to an amplifier stage. This design, known as a "feed-forward" type, is used today in
most compressors. Earlier designs were based on a "feedback" layout where the signal
feeding the control circuit was taken after the amplifier.

There are a number of technologies used for variable gain amplification, each having
dierent advantages and disadvantages. Vacuum tubes are used in configuration called
'variable-': the grid-to-cathode voltage changes to alter the gain.[2] Also used is a
voltage controlled amplifier which has its gain reduced as the power of the input signal
increases. Optical compressors use a light sensitive resistor (LDR) and a small lamp (LED
or electroluminescent panel[3]) to create changes in signal gain. This technique is
believed by some to add smoother characteristics to the signal because the response
times of the light and the resistor soften the attack and release. Other technologies used
include field eect transistors and a diode bridge.[4]

When working with digital audio, digital signal processing techniques are commonly used
to implement compression via digital audio editors, or dedicated workstations. Often the
algorithms used emulate the above analog technologies.

Compressor features

Dierent compression ratios

Threshold

Threshold is the level above which the signal is reduced. It is commonly set in dB, where
a lower threshold (e.g. -60 dB) means a larger portion of the signal will be treated
(compared to a higher threshold of -5 dB).

Ratio

The ratio determines the input/output ratio for signals above the threshold. For example, a
4:1 ratio means that a signal overshooting the threshold by 4 dB will leave the
compressor 1 dB above the threshold. The highest ratio of :1 is commonly achieved
using a ratio of 60:1, and eectively denotes that any signal above the threshold will be
brought down to the threshold level (except briefly after a sudden increase in input
loudness, known as an "attack").

Attack and release

The attack and release phases in a compressor

A compressor might provide a degree of control over how quickly it acts. The 'attack
phase' is the period when the compressor is decreasing gain to reach the level that is
determined by the ratio. The 'release phase' is the period when the compressor is
increasing gain to the level determined by the ratio, or, to zero dB, once the level has
fallen below the threshold. The length of each period is determined by the rate of change
and the required change in gain. For more intuitive operation, a compressor's attack and
release controls are labeled as a unit of time (often milliseconds). This is the amount of
time it will take for the gain to change a set amount of dB, decided by the manufacturer,
very often 10 dB. For example, if the compressor's time constants are referenced to 10
dB, and the attack time is set to 1 ms, it will take 1 ms for the gain to decrease by 10 dB,
and 2 ms to decrease by 20 dB.[5]

In many compressors the attack and release times are adjustable by the user. Some
compressors, however, have the attack and release times determined by the circuit
design and these cannot be adjusted by the user. Sometimes the attack and release
times are 'automatic' or 'program dependent', meaning that the times change depending
on the input signal. Because the loudness pattern of the source material is modified by
the compressor it may change the character of the signal in subtle to quite noticeable
ways depending on the settings used.

Soft and hard knees

Hard Knee and Soft Knee compression

Another control a compressor might oer is hard/soft knee. This controls whether the
bend in the response curve is a sharp angle or has a rounded edge. A soft knee slowly
increases the compression ratio as the level increases and eventually reaches the
compression ratio set by the user. A soft knee reduces the audible change from
uncompressed to compressed, especially for higher ratios where the changeover is more
noticeable.

Peak vs RMS sensing

A peak sensing compressor responds to the instantaneous level of the input signal. While
providing tighter peak control, peak sensing might yield very quick changes in gain
reduction, more evident compression or sometimes even distortion. Some compressors
will apply an averaging function (commonly RMS) on the input signal before its level is
compared to the threshold. This allows a more relaxed compression that also more
closely relates to our perception of loudness.

Stereo Linking
A compressor in stereo linking mode applies the same amount of gain reduction to both
the left and right channels. This is done to prevent image shifting that could occur if each
channel is compressed individually and content on one channel is louder than that on the
other (an example would be a tom hit in a drum-mix for a tom panned extreme left).

Stereo linking can be achieved in two ways: Either the compressor sums to mono the left
and right channel at the input, then only the left channel controls are functional; or, the
compressor still calculates the required amount of gain reduction independently for each
channel and then apply the highest amount of gain reduction to both (in such case it
could still make sense to dial dierent setting on the left and right channel as one might
wish to have less compression for left-side events[7]).

Makeup gain
Because the compressor is reducing the gain (or level) of the signal, the ability to add a
fixed amount of make-up gain at the output is usually provided so that an optimum level
can be used.

Look-ahead
The look-ahead function is designed to overcome the problem of being forced to
compromise between slow attack rates that produce smooth-sounding gain changes,
and fast attack rates capable of catching transients. Look-ahead is a misnomer in that the
future is not actually observed. Instead, the input signal is split, and one side is delayed.
The non-delayed signal is used to drive the compression of the delayed signal, which
then appears at the output. This way a smooth-sounding slower attack rate can be used
to catch transients. The cost of this solution is that the signal is delayed.

Use

An audio engineer might use a compressor to reduce the dynamic range of source
material in order to allow it to be recorded optimally on a medium with a more limited
dynamic range than the source signal or else in order to change the character of an
instrument being processed.

Engineers wishing to achieve dynamic range reduction with few obvious eects might
choose a relatively low threshold and low compression ratio so that the source material is
being compressed very slightly most of the time. To deliberately soften the attack of a
snare drum, they might choose a fast attack time and a moderately fast release time
combined with a higher threshold. To accentuate the attack of the snare, they might
choose a slower attack time to avoid aecting the initial transient. It is easier to apply
these controls with a basic knowledge of acoustics.[citation needed]

Limiting

Limiting and clipping compared. Note that clipping introduces a large amount of distortion
whereas limiting only introduces a small amount while keeping the signal within the threshold.

Compression and limiting are not dierent in process but in degree and perceived eect.
A limiter is a compressor with a high ratio and, generally, a fast attack time. Most
engineers consider compression with ratio of 10:1 or more as limiting.[8] Engineers
sometimes refer to soft and hard limiting which are dierences of degree. The "harder" a
limiter, the higher its ratio and the faster its attack and release times.

Brick wall limiting has a very high ratio and a very fast attack time. Ideally, this ensures
that an audio signal never exceeds the amplitude of the threshold. Ratios of 20:1 all the
way up to :1 are considered to be 'brick wall'.[8] The sonic results of more than
momentary and infrequent hard/brick-wall limiting are harsh and unpleasant, thus it is
more common as a safety device in live sound and broadcast applications.

Some modern consumer electronics devices incorporate limiters. Sony uses the
Automatic Volume Limiter System (AVLS), on some audio products and the PlayStation
Portable.

Side-chaining

The sidechain of a feed-forward compressor

Side-chaining may use the level of another signal so that when the external signal is
stronger the compressor acts more strongly to reduce output gain. This is used by disc
jockeys for ducking - lowering the music volume automatically when speaking. The DJ's
microphone signal is routed to the compressor's sidechain so that whenever the DJ
speaks the compressor reduces the volume of the music. A sidechain with equalization
controls can be used to reduce the volume of signals that have a strong spectral content
within a certain frequency range: it can act as a de-esser, reducing the level of vocal
sibilance in the range of 69kHz. A de-esser helps reduce high frequencies that tend to
overdrive preemphasized media (such as phonograph records and FM radio). Another use
of the side-chain in music production serves to maintain a loud bass track without the
bass drum causing undue peaks that result in loss of overall headroom.

A linked stereo compressor without a sidechain input can be used as a mono compressor
with a sidechain input. The "key", "trigger" or sidechain signal is sent to the left input of
the stereo compressor while the signal that is to be compressed is routed through the
right channel.

This technique is not to be confused with Parallel compression, which was referred to as
"side chain" compression in a 1977 Studio Sound article by Mike Bevelle.

Parallel compression

One technique is to insert the compressor in a parallel signal path. This is known as
parallel compression and can give a measure of dynamic control without significant
audible side eects, if the ratio is relatively low and the compressor's sound is relatively
neutral. On the other hand, a high compression ratio with significant audible artifacts can
be chosen in one of the two parallel signal pathsthis is used by some concert mixers
and recording engineers as an artistic eect called New York compression or Motown
compression. Combining a linear signal with a compressor and then reducing the output
gain of the compression chain results in low-level detail enhancement without any peak
reduction (since the compressor will significantly add to the combined gain at low levels
only). This will often be beneficial when compressing transient content, since high-level
dynamic liveliness is still maintained, despite the overall dynamic range reduction.

Multiband compression

Multiband (also spelled multi-band) compressors can act dierently on dierent frequency
bands. The advantage of multiband compression over full-bandwidth (full-band, or single-
band) compression is that unneeded audible gain changes or "pumping" in other
frequency bands is not caused by changing signal levels in a single frequency band.

Multiband compressors work by first splitting the signal through some number of
bandpass filters or crossover filters. The frequency ranges or crossover frequencies may
be adjustable. Each split signal then passes through its own compressor and is
independently adjustable for threshold, ratio, attack, and release. The signals are then
recombined and an additional limiting circuit may be employed to ensure that the
combined eects do not create unwanted peak levels.

Software plug-ins or DSP emulations of multiband compressors can be complex, with

many bands, and require corresponding computing power.

Multiband compressors are primarily an audio mastering tool, but their inclusion in digital
audio workstation plug-in sets is increasing their use among mix engineers. Hardware
multiband compressors are also commonly used in the on-air signal chain of a radio
station, either AM or FM, in order to increase the station's apparent loudness without fear
of overmodulation. Having a louder sound is often considered an advantage in
commercial competition. However, adjusting a multiband output compressor of a radio
station also requires some artistic sense of style, plenty of time and a good pair of ears.
This is because the constantly changing spectral balance between audio bands may have
an equalizing eect on the output, by dynamically modifying the on-air frequency
response. A further development of this approach is programmable radio output
processing, where the parameters of the multiband compressor automatically change
between dierent settings according to the current programme block style or the time of
day.

Serial compression

Serial compression is a technique used in sound recording and mixing. Serial

compression is achieved by using two fairly dierent compressors in a signal chain. One
compressor will generally stabilize the dynamic range while the other will more
aggressively compress stronger peaks. This is the normal internal signal routing in
common combination devices marketed as "compressor-limiters", where an RMS
compressor (for general gain control) would be directly followed by a fast peak sensing
limiter (for overload protection). Done properly, even heavy serial compression can sound
very natural in a way not possible with a single compressor. It is most often used to even
out erratic vocals and guitars.

Common uses

Public spaces

Compression is often used to make music sound louder without increasing its peak
amplitude. By compressing the peak (or loudest) signals, it becomes possible to increase
the overall gain (or volume) of a signal without exceeding the dynamic limits of a
reproduction device or medium. The net eect, when compression is applied along with a
gain boost, is that relatively quiet sounds become louder, while louder sounds remain
unchanged.

Compression is often applied in this manner in audio systems for restaurants, retail, and
similar public environments, where background music is played at a relatively low volume
and needs to be compressed not just to keep the volume fairly constant, but also in order
for relatively quiet parts of the music to be audible over ambient noise, or audible at all.

Compression can be used to increase the average output gain of a power amplifier by 50
to 100% with a reduced dynamic range. For paging and evacuation systems, this adds
clarity under noisy circumstances and saves on the number of amplifiers required.

Music production

Compression is often used in music production to make performances more consistent in

dynamic range so that they "sit" in the mix of other instruments better and maintain
consistent attention from the listener. Vocal performances in rock music or pop music are
usually compressed in order to make them stand out from the surrounding instruments
and to add to the clarity of the vocal performance.

Compression can also be used on instrument sounds to create eects not primarily
focused on boosting loudness. For instance, drum and cymbal sounds tend to decay
quickly, but a compressor can make the sound appear to have a more sustained tail.
Guitar sounds are often compressed in order to obtain a fuller, more sustained sound.

Most devices capable of compressing audio dynamics can also be used to reduce the
volume of one audio source when another audio source reaches a certain level; see Side-
Chaining above.

Voice

A compressor can be used to reduce sibilance ('ess' sounds) in vocals by feeding the
compressor with an EQ set to the relevant frequencies, so that only those frequencies
activate the compressor. If unchecked, sibilance could cause distortion even if sound
levels are not very high. This usage is called 'de-essing'. [2]

Compression is used in voice communications in amateur radio that employ SSB

modulation. Often it is used to make a particular station's signal more readable to a
distant station, or to make one's station's transmitted signal stand out against others.
This occurs especially in pileups where amateur radio stations are competing for the
opportunity to talk to a DX station. Since an SSB signal's amplitude depends on the level
of modulation, the net result is that the average amplitude of the signal and hence
average transmitted power would be stronger than it would be had compression not been
used.[9] Most modern amateur radio SSB transceivers have speech compressors built in.

Compression is also used in land mobile radio, especially in transmit audio of professional
walkie-talkies and in remote control dispatch consoles.

Broadcasting

Compression is used extensively in broadcasting to boost the perceived volume of sound

while reducing the dynamic range of source audio (typically CDs) to a range that can be
accommodated by the narrower-range broadcast signal. Broadcasters in most countries
have legal limits on instantaneous peak volume they may broadcast. Normally these limits
are met by permanently inserted hardware in the on-air chain (see multiband compression
above).

As was alluded to above, the use of compressors to boost perceived volume is a favorite
trick of broadcasters who want their station to sound "louder" at the same volume than
comparable stations on the dial. The eect is to make the more heavily compressed
station "jump out" at the listener at a given volume setting.

But loudness jumps are not limited to inter-channel dierences; they also exist between
programme material within the same channel. Loudness dierences are a frequent source
of audience complaints, especially TV Commercials and Promos which are known to be
'too loud'. One complicating factor is that many broadcasters use (quasi-)peak meters
and peak-levelling. Unfortunately the peak level reading does not correlate very well with
the perceived loudness. It basically should only be used to prevent overmodulation.

The European Broadcasting Union has been addressing this issue in the EBU PLOUD
Group, which consist of over 240 audio professionals, many from broadcasters and
equipment manufacturers. In 2010, the EBU published EBU Recommendation R 128,
which introduces a new way of metering and normalising audio. The Recommendation is
based on ITU-R BS.1770 and could be called a real 'audio revolution'. Several European
TV stations have already announced to support the new norm and over 20 manufacturers
have announced products supporting the new 'EBU Mode' Loudness meters (EBU Tech
3341).

To help audio engineers understand what Loudness Range their material consists of (e.g.
to check if some compression may be needed to fit it into the channel of a specific
delivery platform), the EBU also introduced the Loudness Range Descriptor (EBU Tech
3342).

Rock stations

The use of compressors began with competitive AM rock stations of the 1960s. AM
broadcasters had no qualms about heavy compression since AM radio had such poor
dynamic range anyway. The Gates Sta-level was an often used compressor that would
reduce "highs" and boost "lows" to yield a very "punchy" sound with the perceived
increased volume energy mentioned above.

Heavy compression also complemented the style of 60s DJs who talked/shouted over the
music. With the proper setting, a DJ could be "mixed" into the music, rather than being
heard over it. This demanded that DJs deliver their patter with a very loud voice to be
heard over the music, which added to the energy of the broadcast sound. This allowed
DJs to talk "in" rather than over the music without being as intrusive.

As rock became prevalent on FM in the mid-60s, the CBS Volumax/Audimax was one
legendary compression rig used, favored because it only "expanded" (lifting soft volume)
if any existed. Consequently, it would not expand an unmodulated signal, avoiding the
boosting of the noise floor (hiss) as many previous units did. However, it could create an
annoying "sucking and pumping" eect (compression and expansion) if driven too
severely.

In its eort to deliver a constant modulation (volume level) to the listener, compression
works against the wider dynamic range of FM (as compared to AM) which was
traditionally one of FM's obvious strong points. Consequently, the so-called "album rock"
stations of the 70s and classical music and "easy listening" stations of that era in
particular, avoided heavy compression. Classical stations hardly use any, which explains
why a classical listener, particularly in the car, must keep turning the volume up and
down, constantly fighting the ambient noise prevalent in car listening.

The same recording can have very dierent dynamics when heard via AM, FM, CD, or
other media (although frequency response and noise are large factors as well).

Marketing
See also: Loudness war

The trend of increasing loudness as shown by waveform images of the same song
mastered on CD four times since 1983

Record companies, mixing engineers and mastering engineers have been gradually
increasing the overall volume of commercial albums. The greater loudness is achieved by
using higher degrees of compression and limiting during mixing and mastering;
compression algorithms have been engineered specifically to accomplish the task of
maximizing audio level in the digital stream. Hard limiting or clipping can result, aecting
the tone and timbre of the music in a way that recording engineer Rip Rowan described
as "sounds like dogshit".[10] The eort to increase loudness has been referred to as the
"Loudness wars".

Most television commercials are compressed heavily (typically to a dynamic range of no

more than 3dB) in order to achieve near-maximum perceived loudness while staying
within permissible limits. This is the explanation for the problem that TV viewers and
listeners have noticed for years.[11][12] While commercials receive heavy compression for
the same reason that radio broadcasters have traditionally used it (to achieve a "loud"
audio image), TV program material, particularly old movies with soft dialogue, is
comparatively uncompressed by TV stations. This results in commercials much louder
than the television programs, since users turn up the volume to hear soft program audio.
This problem is a dicult one to solve because much TV program audio contains very
little audio energy to be electronically "expanded" with a compressor in an attempt to
even out the volume. Even across the cable TV dial with myriad audio program volume
sources, there is a wide disparity of audio volume levels.