ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

UNIT-I : NATURAL R ESOURCES

Definition, scope and importance. Need for public awareness.

Forest recourses: Use and over-exploitation. Deforestation; timber extraction,

mining, dams. Effect of deforestation environment and tribal people

Water resources: Use and overutilization. Effects of over utilisation of surface and
ground water. Floods, drought.

Mineral resources: Use and exploitation, environmental effects of extracting and

using mineral resources.

Food resources: World food problems, Effects of modern agriculture;

fertilizerpesticide, salinity problems.

Energy resources: Growing energy needs, renewable and non-renewable energy

sources, use of alternate energy sources.

Land resources: Land as resources, land degradation, man induced landslides, soil
erosion and desertification

Unit-II : Ecosystems, Biodiversity and its conservation

Concept of an ecosystem

Structure and function of an ecosystem

Producers, consumers and decomposers

Food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids

Characteristic features of the following ecosystems:-

Forest ecosystem, Desert ecosystem, Aquatic ecosystem.

Value of biodiversity: Consumptive use, productive use. Biodiversity in India.

Threats to biodiversity: habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man wildlife conflicts.

Endangered and endemic species of India

Conservation of biodiversity

Unit-III : Environmental Pollution

Definition

Causes, effects and control measures of :-

a. Air pollution

b. Water pollution

c. Soil pollution

d. Noise pollution

Solid waste management; Measures for safe urban and industrial waste disposal

Role of individual in prevention of pollution

Disaster management: Drought, floods and cyclones

Unit-IV : Social Issues and the Environment

From Unsustainable to Sustainable development

Water conservation, rain water harvesting, watershed management.

Climate change, global warming, ozone layer depletion,

Environment protection Act

Wildlife Protection Act, Forest Conservation Act

Unit-V : Human Population and the Environment

Population explosion, impact on environment.

Family welfare Programme

Environment and human health

Women and Child Welfare

Value Education

Role of Information Technology in Environment and human health.

 UNIT-I - NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural resources
Natural resources are useful raw materials that we get from the Earth. They occur
naturally, which means that humans cannot make natural resources. Instead, we use
and modify natural resources in ways that are beneficial to us. The materials used in
human-made objects are natural resources. Some examples of natural resources and
the ways we can use them are:

Forests are one of the most important natural resources on this earth. Covering the
earth like a green blanket these forests not only produce innumerable material goods,
but also provide several environmental services which are essential for life.

In India, forests form 23 % of the total land area. The word forest is derived from
the Latin word foris means outside (may be the reference was to a village boundary
or fence separating the village and the forest land).

A forest is a natural, self-sustaining community characterized by vertical struc-ture

created by presence of trees. Trees are large, generally single-stemmed, woody
plants. Forest can exist in many different regions under a wide range of conditions,
but all true forests share these physical characteristics.

Use and Over Exploitation:

A forest is a biotic community predominantly of trees, shrubs and other woody
vegetation, usually with a closed canopy. This invaluable renewable natural resource
is beneficial to man in many ways.

The direct benefits from forests are:

a) Fuel Wood: Wood is used as a source of energy for cooking purpose and for
keeping warm.
b) Timber: Wood is used for making furniture, tool-handles, railway sleep-ers,
matches, ploughs, bridges, boats etc.
c) Bamboos: These are used for matting, flooring, baskets, ropes, rafts, cots etc.
d) Food: Fruits, leaves, roots and tubers of plants and meat of forest animals form
the food of forest tribes.
e) Shelter: Mosses, ferns, insects, birds, reptiles, mammals and micro-organ-isms
are provided shelter by forests.
f) Paper: Wood and Bamboo pulp are used for manufacturing paper (News-print,
stationery, packing paper, sanitary paper)
g) Rayon: Bamboo and wood are used in the manufacture of rayon (yarns, artificial
silk-fibres)
h) Forest Products: Tannins, gums, drugs, spices, insecticides, waxes, honey,
horns, musk, ivory, hides etc. are all provided by the flora and fauna of forests.
The indirect benefits from forests are
a) Conservation of Soil: Forests prevent soil erosion by binding the soil with the
network of roots of the different plants and reduce the velocity of wind and rain
which are the chief agents causing erosion.
b) Soil-improvement: The fertility of the soil increases due to the humus which is
formed by the decay of forest litter.
c) Reduction of Atmospheric Pollution: By using up carbon dioxide and giving off
oxygen during the process of photosynthesis, forests reduce pollu-tion and purify
the environment.
d) Control of Climate: Transpiration of plants increases the atmospheric humidity
which affects rainfall and cools the atmosphere.
e) Control of Water flow: In the forests, the thick layer of humus acts like a big
sponge and soaks rain water preventing run-off, thereby preventing flash-floods.
Humus prevents quick evaporation of water, thereby ensuring a perennial supply
of water to streams, springs and wells.

Over-exploitation of forests
Since time immemorial, humans have depended heavily on forests for food,
medicine, shelter, wood and fuel.

With growing civilization the demands for raw material like timber, pulp, minerals,
fuel wood etc. shooted up resulting in large scale logging, mining, road-building and
clearing of forests.

Excessive use of fuel wood and charcoal, expansion of urban, agricultural and
industrial areas and overgrazing have together led to over-exploitation of our forests
leading to their rapid degradation.

Deforestation
Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter
converted to a non-forest use. Examples of deforestation include conversion of
forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use.

Causes of Deforestation
Main causes responsible for deforestation are as under:

Felling of trees to meet the ever increasing demand of the cities.

Grazing by the local cattle, goats, sheep etc. They not only destroy the
vegetation but also pull out the roots of plants.
Meeting out the growing hunger for land. It has hit the ecology of the country
badly very soon India is likely to have more of wasteland than productive land.
The increase in shifting (jhum) cultivation in North east and Orissa has also
laid large forest tracts bare.
 Another major cause of deforestation has been the construction of hill roads.
Road construction damages the protective vegetation cover both above and
below roads.

Consequences of Deforestation
It threatens the existence of many wild life species due to destruction of their
natural habitat.
Biodiversity is lost and along with that genetic diversity is eroded.
Hydrological cycle gets affected, thereby influencing rainfall.
Problems of soil erosion and loss of soil fertility increase.
In hilly areas it often leads to landslides.
Expansion of desert areas.

Prevention of Deforestation
These steps can be adopted to prevent deforestation to a maximum extent :

Expansion of forest area can be achieved by implanting trees in forest with

peoples participation.
Strengthening the central and state forestry administration and institutions.
Celebrate Environment day to create awareness among people about how
forestation can help in improving environment.
Use of pesticides to reduce damages to forest from pests.
Encouraging reduce, recycle and reuse of forest products.
Encouraging afforestation and reforestation.
Using alternate sources of energy like cooking gas instead of wood.

Timber extraction and its effect on forest and tribal people

Timber is used as raw materials for various wood based industries like pulp and
paper, composite wood, furniture etc. Timber is also used for various developmental
activities like railways,boats, road construction etc.

However due to unsustainable extraction of timber, there are adverse effects on

forest and tribal people. Some of which are :

Loss of biodiversity.
Climate change such as lower precipitation.
Poor logging results in a degraded forest.
Floods may be intensified by cutting of trees or upstream watersheds.
Exploitation of tribal people by the contractors.
Soil erosion especially on the slopes occur extensively.
Mining and its effect on forest
Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the
earth, usually from an orebody, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposits.

The adverse effects of mining on forest are as follows :

Vast areas of forest are directly cleared to accommodate mining sites,

construction of roads, processing units and townships for workers.
Destruction is vast in case of open cast mines.
Forest land is also used to store the waste materials that remain after the
extraction of usable ores.
Mining also facilitates soil erosion, thereby decreasing the fertility of land
leading to land degradation.
Pollution of both air and water is a common effect of mining.

Dams and their effect on forest and tribal people

When a dam is constructed across any river a huge artificial lake is developed in the
catchment area of that dam. Covering a large surface area it creates a lot of ill effects
on the living environment. They are as follows :

It creates the loss of forest which are submerged under the back waters of the
dam.
It creates danger to the habitat of wildlife. The wildlife are forced to migrate.
It also affects the land under cultivation in the catchment area, as the crops
get submerged under water.
The road already under existence submerges under-water thus disrupting the
road network.
Water logging and salinisation affects the canal irrigated land, with varying
degrees of severity.
Diseases like malaria spread rapidly in the command areas of reservoirs which
severely affect the health condition of tribals living nearby forest areas.

Water resources
Water is the most abundant, inexhaustible renewable resource. It covers 70% of the
globe in the form of oceans, rivers, lakes, etc. Of this 70%, only 3% is available as
freshwater. From this 3%, roughly 2% is frozen in polar icecaps and only a fraction of
the remaining 1% is used as drinking water (potable). 90% of the water is utilized for
agricultural purposes in India.
Uses of surface and ground water
Consumptive use: In such uses, water is completely utilized and cannot be reused.

Ex: Domestic, industrial and irrigation

Non-consumptive use:In such uses,water is not completely utilized and is reused

Ex: Hydropower plant

Other uses:
Water is used for domestic purposes like drinking, bathing, cooking, washing.
etc.
Water is used in commercial establishments like hotels, theaters, educational
institutions, offices, etc.
Almost 60-70% of fresh water is used for irrigation
20-30% of water is used for industrial operations by refineries, iron & steel
industries, paper & pulp industries, etc.
Water plays a key role in sculpting the earths surface, moderating climate and
diluting pollutants.

Over-utilization of surface & ground water

The rapid increase in population and industrial growth led to severe demand on
water resources. After using all available surface water resources to the maximum,
human beings began using groundwater to meet their needs.

The increased extraction of groundwater far in excess of the natural recharge led to
decreased groundwater level. The erratic and inadequate rainfall caused reduction in
storage of water in reservoirs. This also led to decrease of groundwater.

Building construction activities seal permeable soil zone and reduce the area for
percolation of rainwater thereby increasing surface runoff.

If groundwater withdrawal rate is higher than recharge rate, sediments in aquifers

get compacted resulting in sinking of overlaying land surface. This is called land
subsidence which leads to structural damage in buildings, fracture in pipes and
reverses the flow of canals leading to tidal flooding.

Over-utilization of groundwater in arid and semi-arid regions for agriculture disturbs

equilibrium of reservoir in the region causing problems like lowering of water table
and decreased pressure in aquifers coupled with changes in speed and direction of
water flow.

Over utilization of groundwater in coastal areas leads to rapid intrusion of salt water
from the sea thereby rendering it unusable for drinking and agriculture.
Over-utilization of groundwater lads to decrease in water level thereby causing
earthquake, landslides and famine.

Over-utilization of groundwater leads to drying-up of dug wells as well as bore wells.

Due to excess use of groundwater near agricultural fields, agricultural water that
contains nitrogen as a fertilizer percolates rapidly and pollutes the groundwater
thereby rendering the water unfit for potable use by infants. (Nitrate concentration
exceeding 45 mg/L).

Floods
Floods have been a serious environmental hazard for centuries. However, the havoc
raised by rivers overflowing their banks has become progressively more damaging, as
people have deforested catchments and intensified use

of river flood plains that once acted as safety valves. Wetlands in flood plains are
natures flood control systems into which overfilled rivers could spill and act like a
temporary sponge holding the water, and preventing fast flowing water from
damaging surrounding land.

Deforestation in the Himalayas causes floods that year after year kill people, damage
crops and destroy homes in the Ganges and its tributaries and the Bramhaputra.
Rivers change their course during floods and tons of valuable soil is lost to the sea. As
the forests are degraded, rainwater

no longer percolates slowly into the subsoilbut runs off down the mountainside
bearing large amounts of topsoil. This blocks rivers temporarily but gives way as the
pressure mounts allowing enormous quantities of water to wash suddenly down into
the plains below. There, rivers swell, burst their banks and flood waters spread to
engulf peoples farms and homes.

Drought
In most arid regions of the world the rains are unpredictable. This leads to periods
when there is a serious scarcity of water to drink,

use in farms, or provide for urban and industrial use. Drought prone areas are thus
faced with irregular periods of famine. Agriculturists have no income in these bad
years, and as they have no steady income, they have a constant fear of droughts.
India has Drought Prone Areas Development Programs, which are used in such
areas to buffer the effects of droughts.

Under these schemes, people are given wages in bad years to build roads, minor
irrigation works and plantation programs.

Drought has been a major problem in our country especially in arid regions. It is an
unpredictable climatic condition and occurs due to the failure of one or more
monsoons. It varies in frequency in different parts of our country. While it is not
feasible to prevent the failure of the monsoon, good environmental management can
reduce its ill effects.

The scarcity of water during drought years affects homes, agriculture and industry. It
also leads to food shortages and malnutrition which especially affects children.
Several measures can be taken to minimise the serious impacts of a drought.
However this must be done as a preventive measure so that if the monsoons fail its
impact on local peoples lives is minimised.

In years when the monsoon is adequate, we use up the good supply of water without
trying to conserve it and use the water judiciously. Thus during a year when the rains
are poor, there is no water even for drinking in the drought area.

One of the factors that worsens the effect of drought is deforestation. Once hill slopes
are denuded of forest cover the rainwater rushes down the rivers and is lost. Forest
cover permits water to be held in the area permitting it to seep into the ground. This
charges the underground stores of water in natural aquifers. This can be used in
drought years if the stores have been filled during a good monsoon. If water from the
underground stores is overused, the water table drops and vegetation suffers. This
soil and water management and afforestation are long-term measures that reduce the
impact of droughts.

Mineral resources
Mineral resources is defined as a occurrence of natural, solid, inorganic or fossilized
organic material in or on the earths crust in such form and quantity and of such a
grade or quality that it has reasonable prospects for economic extraction.

Use and exploitation of Mineral resources

Minerals find use in a large number of ways in everyday use in domestic, agricultural,
industrial and commercial sectors and thus form a very important part of any
nations economy.

The main uses of minerals are as follows:

Development of industrial plants and machinery.
Generation of energy e.g. coal, lignite, uranium.
Construction, housing, settlements.
Defence equipments-weapons, armaments.
Transportation means.
Communication- telephone wires, cables, electronic devices.
Medicinal uses- particularly in Ayurveda.
Formation of alloys for various purposes (e.g. phosphorite).
Agricultural fertilizers, seed dressings and fungicides (e.g. zineb containing
zinc, Maneb-containing manganese etc.).
Jewellery e.g. Gold, silver, platinum, diamond.
 Out of the various metals, the one used in maximum quantity is Iron and steel
followed by manganese, copper, chromium, aluminium and Nickel.

Environmental effects of extracting and using mineral resources

Mining is done to extract minerals (or fossil fuels) from deep deposits in soil by using
sub-surface mining or from shallow deposits by surface mining. The former method
is more destructive, dangerous and expensive including risks of occupational hazards
and accidents.

The environmental damage caused by mining activities are as follows:

1. Devegetation and defacing of landscape: The topsoil as well as the vegetation

are removed from the mining area to get access to the deposit, which badly affects
the landscape.
2. Subsidence of land: This is mainly associated with underground mining.
Subsidence of mining areas often results in tilting of buildings, cracks in houses,
buckling of roads, bending of rail tracks and leaking of gas from cracked pipelines
leading to serious disasters.
3. Groundwater contamination: Mining disturbs the natural hydrological
processes and also pollutes the groundwater. Some heavy metals also get leached
into the groundwater and contaminate it posing health hazards.
4. Surface water pollution: The acid mine drainage often contaminates the nearby
streams and lakes. The acidic water is detrimental to many forms of aquatic life.
5. Air pollution: In order to separate and purify the metal from other impurities in
the ore, smelting is done which emits enormous quantities of air pollutants
damaging the vegetation nearby and has serious environmental health impacts.
6. Occupational Health Hazards: Most of the miners suffer from various
respiratory and skin diseases due to constant exposure to the suspended
particulate matter and toxic substances.

World Food Problems

1) NATURAL DISASTERS : Climate change is having an increased impact on food
production as droughts and flooding become more frequent and more severe.
Shrinking access to fertile land and water may trigger refugee crises and conflicts.

2) POVERTY : Ultimately, the main reason why most people are unable to feed
themselves is not that food is unavailable but they cannot afford it. But poverty also
reduces food output. Many African farmers produce small harvests because they lack
irrigation and fertilisers. Example : Africa has the lowest fertiliser usage in the world
 a measure of how its farmers are simply unable to afford the inputs used by their
developed world counterparts.

4) GLOBAL FOOD PRICES : Rising global food prices affect people's ability to buy
enough to feed their families., especially the urban poor, who can spend as much as
80 percent of their income on food. In 2007 and 2008, the global price of basics like
rice, wheat and maize soared, triggering riots in many countries.

5) Uncontrolled Population : the balance of production and consumption of

foodstuffs is also a problem. On Oct 31st 2011, the world population grows up to 7
billion. So, if the world population grows up in current pace, the amount of
production of cereal crops is said to be unable to catch up with the population in the
future.

6) Example : Population growth demand for more varied diets in countries like China
and India, and a growing market for biofuels are putting pressure on limited
resources like land and water.

7) Foreign Companies : Foreign companies are taking over vast swathes of fertile
farmland in poor countries to grow food for export, potentially diminishing local
farmers' access to land and food.

8) Undernourishment : It is the lack of sufficient calories in food. According to FAO

estimate, the average minimum daily requirement over the whole world is about
2,500 calories per day. People who receive less than this calorie requirement are said
to be undernourished.

9) In the developing countries , one child in four dies of one disease or the due to
undernourishment and suffer from deafness, anaemia, thyroid etc.

10) Malnourishment : It relates to the deficiency of such nutrients in food as

proteins, vitamins or essential chemical elements. In poorer countries , people get
malnourished because they cannot afford a healthy diet like meat, fruit , milk and
milk products and such lead to a variety of health problem like goitre, anaemia etc.

11) Overnutrition : An intake of excessive calories and this problem afflicts the rich ,
developed countries of the world. Consumption of

12 ) Indian Scenario : Although India is the third largest producer of staple crops , an
estimated 300 million Indians are still undernourished.Our food problems are
directly related to population. Every year our food problem is killing as many people
as were killed by the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima during World War II

13) World Food Summit , 1996 set the target to reduce the number of
undernourished to just half by 2015, which still means 410 million undernourished
people on the earth.
Effects of Modern Agriculture
1.) Impacts related to high yielding varieties (HYVs) : 1.1) The uses of HYVs
encourages monoculture i.e. the same genotype is grown over vast areas. 1.2) Attack
of pathogens, leads to total devastation of crop by disease due to uniform condition
which results in rapid spread of disease.

2) Water-logging : In punjab and Haryana , extensive areas have become water-

logged where adequate canal water supply or tube well water encouraged the
farmers to use it over enthusiastically leading to water-logging problem.

3) Salinity problem : At present one third of the total cultivable land area of the world
is affected by salts. In India about 7 million hectares of land are estimated to be salt
affected which may be saline or sodic. Salinization of soil is caused by excessive
irrigation and sodic soil have carbonate and bicarbonate of sodium, the pH Exceeds
8.0.

4) Fertilizers related problems :

4.1) Micronutrient Imbalance : Most of the chemical fertilizers used in modern

agriculture have nitrogen(N) , phosphorus(P) and potassium (K) which are essential
macronutrients .Excessive use of fertilizers cause micronutrient imbalance. Example
:Excessive fertilizer use in Punjab and Haryana has caused deficiency of
micronutrient Zinc in soil which affecting productivity of the soil.

4.2) Nitrate pollution : Nitrogenous fertilizers applied in the field often leach deep
into soil and ultimately contaminate the ground water. If it excess 25 mg/L , cause
Blue Baby Syndrome methaemoglobinemia which even lead to death of infant.
Example : India, France, Germany and Netherlands

4.3) Eutrophication : A large proportion of N & P used in crop fields is washed off
and along with runoff water reach the water bodies causing over nourishment of
lakes a process known as eutrophication. Due to this, lakes get invaded by algal
blooms and often produce toxins and badly affect food chain. Thus excessive use of
fertilizer in agriculture field that lake ecosystem gets degraded.

5) Pesticide related problem : Although DDT and chemicals as sulphur, arsenic etc.
pesticides have gone a long way in protecting our crops from huge losses occurring
due to pest , yet they have number of side-effects :

5.1) Creating resistance in pests and producing new pests : About 20 species of pests
are now known which have become immune to all types of pesticides and are known
as Super pests.

5.2) Biological Magnification : Many of pesticides are non-biodegradable and keep on

accumulating in food chain, a process called biological magnification. As human
beings occupy a high trophic level in food chain get pesticides in bio-magnified form
which is very harmful.
5.3) Death of non-target organisms : Many insecticides are broad spectrum poisons
which not only kill the target species but also several non-target species that are
useful to us.

Energy Resources
Energy may be defined as "any property which can be converted into work"

Energy is defined as "the capacity to do work"

Energy is available on earth in a number of forms and some forms may be used
immediately while others might require some transformation. It is difficult to
imagine Life without energy. All the developmental activities in the world are directly
or indirectly dependent on energy. Both energy production and energy utilization
indicate a country's progress.

Growing Energy Needs

Energy is essential to the existence of mankind. All industrial processes like mining,
transport, lighting, heating and cooling in buildings need energy. With the growing
population, the world is facing an energy deficit. Lifestyle change from simple to a
complex and luxurious lifestyle adds to this energy deficit. Almost 95% of
commercial energy is available from fossil fuels like coal and natural gas. These fossil
fuels will not last for more than a few years.Hence, we must explore alternative
fuel/energy options.

Renewable And Non-Renewable Energy Energy Sources

Based on continual utility, natural resources can be classified into two types:

Renewable energy sources

These resources can be generated continuously and are inexhaustible.

Ex: Wood, Solar energy, Wind energy, Hydro power, tidal energy, Geo-thermal
energy, etc

Non-renewable energy sources

Non-renewable energy sources are natural resources, that cannot be regenerated

once they are exhausted. They cannot be used again.

Ex: Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas and Nuclear fuels

Alternative Energy Sources
Power plays a great role wherever man lives and works. The living standard and
prosperity of a nation vary directly with the increase in the use of power. The
electricity requirement of the world is increasing at an alarming rate due to industrial
growth, increased and extensive use of electrical gadgets.

We cant continue like this for long. According to world energy report, we get around
80% of our energy from conventional fossil fuels oil (36%), natural gas (21%) and
coal (23%).

Why cant we?

Limited fossil fuelsll soon going to get exhausted.
And even before that earth will die out of high levels of greenhouse gases these
fossil fuels emit.
This realisation prompted us to look for alternative energy sources.

Benefits Of Alternative Energy Options

Help the environment
Use of renewable energy helps save the environment from further degradation
and gives it an opportunity to regenerate.

Provide sustainable fuel systems

Afforestation and agro forestry, combined with the introduction of energy-
efficient devices, can help to create a sustainable fuel-use system within the
rural community and sustain the ecological balance of a region

Provide better lighting

Better lighting enables the poor to stretch their period of economic activity;
their children can help them in daily chores and then study in the evenings.
Benefit women
Lower dependency on fuel wood and other household fuel sources reduces the
drudgery of women by shortening or eliminating the distances they travel for
fuel collection .

Benefit human health

Use of improved cook stoves and biogas plants, for example, helps reduce or
eliminate health problems associated with using conventional cook stoves,
including respiratory diseases and eye problems.

Enhance income
Provide local employment opportunities through direct use of energy in small-
scale industry and agriculture
What options we have?
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear power stations use nuclear fission to generate energy by the reaction of
uranium-235 inside a nuclear reactor. The reactor uses uranium rods, the atoms of
which are split in the process of fission, releasing a large amount of energy. The
process continues as a chain reaction with other nuclei. The heat released, heats
water to create steam, which spins a turbine generator, producing electricity .

Pros
The energy content of a kilogram of uranium or thorium, if spent nuclear fuel
is reprocessed and fully utilized, is equivalent to about 3.5 million kilograms of
coal.
The cost of making nuclear power is about the same as making coal power,
which is considered very inexpensive.
Nuclear power plants are guarded with the nuclear reactor inside a reinforced
containment building, and thus are relatively impervious to terrorist attack or
adverse weather conditions.
Coal mining is the second most dangerous occupation in the United States.
Nuclear energy is much safer per capita than coal derived energy For the same
amount of electricity, the life cycle emissions of nuclear is about 4% of coal
power
Fast breeder reactors have the potential to power humans on earth for billions
of years, making it sustainable.

Biomass
Biomass production involves using garbage or other renewable resources such as
corn or other vegetation to generate electricity.

Biomass is grown from several plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp,

corn, poplar, willow, sugarcane and palm oil.

Advantages
Biomass production can be used to burn organic waste products resulting
from agriculture.Biomass is abundant on Earth and is generally renewable.
When methods of biomass production other than direct combustion of plant
mass are used, such as fermentation and pyrolysis, there is little effect on the
environment. Alcohols and other fuels produced by these alternative methods
are clean burning and are feasible replacements to fossil fuels.
Since CO2 is first taken out of the atmosphere to make the vegetable oil and
then put back after it is burned in the engine, there is no net increase in CO2.
Vegetable oil has a higher flash point and therefore is safer than most fossil
fuels. Transitioning to vegetable oil could be relatively easy as biodiesel works
 where diesel works, and straight vegetable oil takes relatively minor
modifications.

Hydroelectric Energy
In hydro energy, the gravitational descent of a river is compressed from a long run to
a single location with a dam or a flume.

This creates a location where concentrated pressure and flow can be used to turn
turbines or water wheels, which drive a mechanical mill or an electric generator.

Advantages
Hydroelectric power stations can promptly increase to full capacity
Electricity can be generated constantly, so long as sufficient water is available.
Hydroelectric power produces no primary waste or pollution.
Hydropower is a renewable resource.

Wind Power
This type of energy harnesses the power of the wind to propel the blades of wind
turbines. These turbines cause the rotation of magnets, which creates electricity.
Wind towers are usually built together on wind farms.

Advantages
Wind power produces no water or air pollution that can contaminate the
environment, because there are no chemical processes involved in wind power
generation.
Power from the wind does not contribute to global warming because it does
not generate greenhouse gases.
Wind generation is a renewable source of energy, which means that we will
never run out of it.
Farming and grazing can still take place on land occupied by wind turbines.
Due to the ability of wind turbines to coexist within agricultural fields, siting
costs are frequently low

Solar Power
Solar power involves using solar cells to convert sunlight into electricity, using
sunlight hitting solar thermal panels to convert sunlight to heat water or air, using
sunlight hitting a parabolic mirror to heat water (producing steam), or using sunlight
entering windows for passive solar heating of a building.

Advantages
Solar power imparts no fuel costs.
Solar power is a renewable resource. As long as the Sun exists, its energy will
reach Earth.
 Solar power generation releases no water or air pollution, because there is no
combustion of fuels.
Solar energy can be used very efficiently for heating (solar ovens, solar water
and home heaters) and day lighting.

Tidal Energy
It is a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into electricity or other
useful forms of power.

Tidal power can be extracted from Moon-gravity-powered tides by locating a water

turbine in a tidal current, or by building impoundment pond dams that admit-or-
release water through a turbine.

Pros
It is clean, free, renewable, and sustainable energy.
Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power.

Geothermal Energy
Geothermal power (from the Greek words geo, meaning earth, and thermal, meaning
heat) is energy generated by heat stored beneath the Earth's surface.

Pros:

The energy harnessed is clean and safe for the surrounding environment.
It is also sustainable because the hot water used in the geothermal process can
be re injected into the ground to produce more steam geothermal power
plants are unaffected by changing weather conditions.
Geothermal power plants work continuously, day and night, making them
base load power plants.
From an economic view, geothermal energy is extremely price competitive in
some areas and reduces reliance on fossil fuels and their inherent price
unpredictability.
It also offers a degree of scalability: a large geothermal plant can power entire
cities while smaller power plants can supply more remote sites such as rural
villages.

Land Degradation
Land degradation is the process of deterioration of soil or loss of fertility of soil.

Effects Of Land Degradation

Soil texture and structure are deteriorated
Loss of soil fertility due to loss of valuable nutrients
Increase in water logging, salinity, alkalinity and acidity problems
Loss at a social, economic and biodiversity level
Causes Of Land Degradation
Population: With the increase in population, more land is needed for producing
food, fibre, and fuel wood leading to increasing pressure on the limited land
resources. Therefore the land gets degraded due to over exploitation
Urbanization: Increased urbanization due to population growth reduces the
agricultural land. To compensate for loss of agricultural land, new lands
comprising of natural ecosystems such as forests are cleared. Therefore,
urbanization leads to deforestation which in-turn affects millions of plant and
animal species.
Fertilizers and Pesticides: Increased application of fertilizers and pesticides are
needed to increase farm output in new lands thereby leading to pollution of land,
water and soil degradation.
Damage to top soil: Increase in food production generally leads to damage of
top soil through nutrient depletion.
Water-logging, soil erosion, salination and contamination of the soil with
industrial waste cause land degradation.

Landslides
Landslides are the downward movement of a slope composed of earth materials such
as rock, soil or artificial fills. Landslides are also called rock-slide, debris-slide,
slump, earth-flow or soil-creep.

During construction of roads and mining activities huge portions of mountainous

fragile areas are cut down and thrown into adjacent areas and streams. These land
masses weaken the already fragile mountain slopes leading to man-induced
landslides.

Effects Of Landslides:
Landslides increase the turbidity of nearby streams, thereby reducing their
productivity
Destruction of communicative links
Loss of habitat and biodiversity
Loss of infrastructure and economic loss

Causes Of Landslides
Removal of vegetation - Deforestation in slopes creates soil erosion leading to
landslides
Underground mining activities cause subsidence of the ground
Movement of heavy vehicles in areas with unstable slopes causes landslides.
Addition of weight by construction on slopes causes landslides.
Over exploitation of groundwater also leads to landslides.
Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is the process of removal of superficial layer of soil. Soil erosion removes
soil components and litter.

Harmful Effects Of Soil Erosion

Soil fertility is lost
Loss of soil ability to hold water and sediment
Sediment runoff can pollute water courses and kill aquatic life

Types Of Soil Erosion

Normal erosion: This is caused by the gradual removal of topsoil by natural
processes. The rate of erosion is slow.

Accelerated erosion: This is caused by man made activities. In this case, the rate of
erosion is much faster than the rate of formation of soil.

Causes Of Soil Erosion

Water: Water affects soil erosion in the form of rain, run-off, rapid flow or wave
action

Wind: Wind is an important climate agent that carries away the fine particles of soil
thereby contributing to soil erosion.

Biotic agents: Overgrazing, mining and deforestation are the major biotic agents
causing soil erosion. These processes disturb the top soil thereby exposing the soil to
various physical forces inducing erosion

Landslides cause soil erosion : Construction of dams, buildings and roads

removes the protective vegetal cover leading to soil erosion

Soil Conservation Practices

Conservational till farming or no-till farming: Traditionally, land is ploughed to
make a planting surface. This disturbs the soil and makes it susceptible to erosion.
The no-till farming method makes minimum disturbance to the top soil by making
slits in the unploughed soil. Seeds, fertilizers and water are injected in these slits.

Contour farming: In this method, crops are planted in rows along contours of gently
sloped land. Each row acts as a small dam to hold soil thereby slowing water runoff.

Terracing: In this method, steep slopes are converted into a series of broad terraces
that run across the contour.This retains water for crops and reduces soil erosion by
controlling runoff.

Alley cropping or Agro forestry: This method involves planting crops in strips or
alleys between rows of trees or shrubs that provide fruits and fuel wood. Hence,
when the crop is harvested, the soil will not be eroded as the trees and shrubs remain
on ground holding the soil particles.

Wind breaks or shelter belts: In this technique, trees are planted in long rows
along the boundary of cultivated land which block the wind and reduce soil erosion.
Wind breaks help in retaining soil moisture, supply wood for fuel and provide habitat
for birds.

Concept of an Ecosystem
The term ecosystem was coined in 1935 by the Oxford ecologist Arthur Tansley to
encompass the interactions among biotic and abiotic components of the environment
at a given site. The living and non-living components of an ecosystem are known as
biotic and abiotic components, respectively.

Ecosystem was defined in its presently accepted form by Eugene Odum as, an unit
that includes all the organisms, i.e., the community in a given area interacting with
the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic
structure, biotic diversity and material cycles, i.e., exchange of materials between
living and non-living, within the system.

Structure of Ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem is basically a description of the organisms and physical
features of environment including the amount and distribution of nutrients in a
particular habitat. It also provides information regarding the range of climatic
conditions prevailing in the area.

From the structure point of view, all ecosystems consist of the following basic
components:

1. Abiotic components

2. Biotic components

1. Abiotic Components
Ecological relationships are manifested in physicochemical environment. Abiotic
component of ecosystem includes basic inorganic elements and compounds, such as
soil, water, oxygen, calcium carbonates, phosphates and a variety of organic
compounds (by-products of organic activities or death).

It also includes such physical factors and ingredients as moisture, wind currents and
solar radiation. Radiant energy of sun is the only significant energy source for any
ecosystem. The amount of non-living components, such as carbon, phosphorus,
nitrogen, etc. that are present at any given time is known as standing state or
standing quantity.
2. Biotic Components
The biotic components include all living organisms present in the environmental
system.

From nutrition point of view, the biotic components can be grouped into two basic
components:

(i) Autotrophic components, and

(ii) Heterotrophic components

The autotrophic components include all green plants which fix the radiant energy of
sun and manufacture food from inorganic substances. The heterotrophic
components include non-green plants and all animals which take food from
autotrophs.

So biotic components of an ecosystem can be described under the following three

heads:

1. Producers (Autotrophic components),

2. Consumers, and
3. Decomposers or reducers and transformers
The amount of biomass at any time in an ecosystem is known as standing crop which
is usually expressed as fresh weight, dry weight or as free energy in terms of
calories/metre.

Producers (Autotrophic elements):

The producers are the autotrophic elementschiefly green plants. They use radiant
energy of sun in photosynthetic process whereby carbon dioxide is assimilated and
the light energy is converted into chemical energy. The chemical energy is actually
locked up in the energy rich carbon compounds. Oxygen is evolved as by-product in
the photosynthesis.

This is used in respiration by all living things. Algae and other hydrophytes of a pond,
grasses of the field, trees of the forests are examples of producers. Chemosynthetic
bacteria and carotenoid bearing purple bacteria that also assimilate CO2 with the
energy of sunlight but only in the presence of organic compounds also belong to this
category.

The term producer is misleading one because in an energy context, producers

produce carbohydrate and not energy. Since they convert or transduce the radiant
energy into chemical form, E.J. Kormondy suggests better alternative terms
converters or transducers. Because of wide use the term producer is still retained.
Consumers
Those living members of ecosystem which consume the food synthesized by
producers are called consumers. Under this category are included all kinds of
animals that are found in an ecosystem.

There are different classes or categories of consumers, such as:

a) Consumers of the first order or primary consumers,

b) Consumers of the second order or secondary consumers,
c) Consumers of the third order or tertiary consumers, and
d) Parasites, scavengers and saprobes.

(a) Primary consumers

These are purely herbivorous animals that are dependent for their food on producers
or green plants. Insects, rodents, rabbit, deer, cow, buffalo, goat are some of the
common herbivores in the terrestrial ecosystem, and small crustaceans, molluscs,
etc. in the aquatic habitat. Elton (1939) named herbivores of ecosystem as key
industry animals. The herbivores serve as the chief food source for carnivores.

(b) Secondary consumers

These are carnivores and omnivores. Carnivores are flesh eating animals and the
omnivores are the animals that are adapted to consume herbivores as well as plants
as their food. Examples of secondary consumers are sparrow, crow, fox, wolves, dogs,
cats, snakes, etc.

(c) Tertiary consumers

These are the top carnivores which prey upon other carnivores, omnivores and
herbivores. Lions, tigers, hawk, vulture, etc. are considered as tertiary or top
consumers.

(d) Besides different classes of consumers, the parasites, scavengers and saprobes are
also included in the consumers. The parasitic plants and animals utilize the living
tissues of different plants and animals. The scavengers and saprobes utilize dead
remains of animals and plants as their food.

Decomposers and transformers:

Decomposers and transformers are the living components of the ecosystem and they
are fungi and bacteria. Decomposers attack the dead remains of producers and
consumers and degrade the complex organic substances into simpler compounds.
The simple organic matters are then attacked by another kind of bacteria, the
transformers which change these organic compounds into the inorganic forms that
are suitable for reuse by producers or green plants. The decomposers and
transformers play very important role in maintaining the dynamic nature of
ecosystems.

The food chains

The most obvious aspect of nature is that energy must pass from one living organism
to another. When herbivorous animals feed on plants,

energy is transferred from plants to animals. In an ecosystem, some of the animals

feed on other living organisms, while some feed on dead organic matter. The latter
form the detritus food chain. At each linkage in the chain, a major part of the energy
from the food is lost for daily activities. Each chain usually has only four to five such
links. However a single species may be linked to a large number of species.

The food webs

In an ecosystem there are a very large number of interlinked chains. This forms a
food web. If the linkages in the chains that make up the web of life are disrupted due
to human activities that lead to the loss or extinction of species, the web breaks
down.

The ecological pyramids

In an ecosystem, green plants the producers, utilize energy directly from sunlight
and convert it into matter. A large number of these organisms form the most basic,
or first trophic level of the food pyramid. The herbivorous animals that eat plants
are at the second trophic level and are called primary consumers.

The predators that feed on them form the third trophic level and are known as
secondary consumers. Only a few animals form the third trophic level consisting of
carnivores at the apex of the food pyramid.

This is how energy is used by living creatures and flows through the ecosystem from
its base to the apex. Much of the energy is used up in activities of each living
organism.

The Forest Ecosystems

They are the ecosystems in which an abundance of flora, or plants, is seen so they
have a big number of organisms which live in relatively small space. Therefore, in
forest ecosystems the density of living organisms is quite high. A small change in this
ecosystem could affect the whole balance, effectively bringing down the whole
ecosystem. You could see a fantastic diversity in the fauna of the ecosystems, too.
They are further divided into:

i. Tropical evergreen forest: These are tropical forests that receive a mean
rainfall of 80 for every 400 inches annually. The forests are characterised by
dense vegetation which comprises tall trees at different heights. Each level is
shelter to different types of animals.
 ii. Tropical deciduous forest: There, shrubs and dense bushes rule along with a
broad selection of trees. The type of forest is found in quite a few parts of the
world while a large variety of fauna and flora are found there.
iii. Temperate evergreen forest: Those have quite a few number of trees as
mosses and ferns make up for them. Trees have developed spiked leaves in
order to minimize transpiration.
iv. Temperate deciduous forest: The forest is located in the moist temperate
places that have sufficient rainfall. Summers and winters are clearly defined
and the trees shed the leaves during the winter months.
v. Taiga: Situated just before the arctic regions, the taiga is defined by evergreen
conifers. As the temperature is below zero for almost half a year, the
remainder of the months, it buzzes with migratory birds and insects.

The Desert Ecosystem

Desert ecosystems are located in regions that receive an annual rainfall less than 25.
They occupy about 17 percent of all the land on our planet. Due to the extremely high
temperature, low water availability and intense sunlight, fauna and flora are scarce
and poorly developed. The vegetation is mainly shrubs, bushes, few grasses and rare
trees. The stems and leaves of the plants are modified in order to conserve water as
much as possible. The best known desert ones are the succulents such as the spiny
leaved cacti. The animal organisms include insects, birds, camels, reptiles all of
which are adapted to the desert (xeric) conditions.

Aquatic Ecosystems
The aquatic ecosystem is the ecosystem found in a body of water. It encompasses
aquatic flora, fauna and water properties, as well. There are two main types of
aquatic ecosystem - Marine and Freshwater.

The Marine Ecosystem

Marine ecosystems are the biggest ecosystems, which cover around 71% of Earth's
surface and contain 97% of out planet's water. Water in Marine ecosystems features
in high amounts minerals and salts dissolved in them. The different divisions of the
marine ecosystem are:

Oceanic: A relatively shallow part of oceans which lies on the continental shelf.

Profundal: deep or Bottom water. Benthic Bottom substrates.

Inter-tidal: The place between low and high tides. Estuaries Coral reefs Salt marshes
Hydrothermal vents where chemosynthetic bacteria make up the food base.

Many kinds of organisms live in marine ecosystems: the brown algae, corals,
cephalopods, echinoderms, dinoflagellates and sharks.
The Freshwater Ecosystem
Contrary to the Marine ecosystems, the freshwater ecosystem covers only 0.8% of
Earth's surface and contains 0.009% of the total water. Three basic kinds of
freshwater ecosystems exist:

Lentic: Slow-moving or till water like pools, lakes or ponds.

Lotic: Fast-moving water such as streams and rivers.

Wetlands: Places in which the soil is inundated or saturated for some lenghty period
of time.

Ecosystems
The ecosystems are habitats to reptiles, amphibians and around 41% of the worlds
fish species. The faster moving turbulent waters typically contain a greater
concentrations of dissolved oxygen, supporting greater biodiversity than slow
moving waters in pools.

Biodiversity is the most precious gift of nature mankind is blessed with. As all the
organisms in an ecosystem are interlinked and interdependent, the value of
biodiversity in the life of all the organisms including humans is enormous.

1. Consumptive use Value

These are direct use values where the biodiversity products can be harvested and
consumed directly e.g. fuel, food, drugs, fibre etc.

(a) Food

A large number of wild plants are consumed by human beings as food. About 80,000
edible plant species have been reported from the wild. About 90% of present-day
food crops have been domesticated from wild tropical plants.

(b) Drugs and medicines

About 75% of the worlds population depends upon plants or plant extracts for
medicines. The wonder drug Penicillin used as an antibiotic is derived from a fungus
called Penicillium. Likewise, we get Tetracycline from a bacterium. Quinine, the cure
for malaria is obtained from the bark of Cinchona tree, while Digitalin is obtained
from foxglove (Digitalis) which is an effective cure for heart ailments.

Recently Vinblastine and Vincristine, two anticancer drugs, have been obtained from
Periwinkle (Catharanthus) plant, which possesses anticancer alkaloids. A large
number of marine animals are supposed to possess anti-cancer properties which are
yet to be explored systematically.

(c) Fuel
Our forests have been used since ages for fuel wood. The fossil fuels like coal,
petroleum and natural gas are also products of fossilized biodiversity. Firewood
collected by individuals is not normally marketed, but are directly consumed by
tribes and local villagers, hence falls under consumptive value.

2. Productive use Values:

These are the commercially usable values where the product is marketed and sold. It
may include number of wild gene resources that can be traded for use by scientists
for introducing desirable traits in the crops and domesticated animals.

These may include the animal products like tusks of elephants, musk from musk
deer, silk from silkworm, wool from sheep, fir of many animals, lac from lac insects
etc, all of which are traded in the market. Many industries are dependent upon the
productive use values of biodiversity e.g. the paper industry, plywood industry,
railway sleeper industry, silk industry, textile industry, ivory-works, leather industry,
pearl industry etc.

Biodiversity of India
India is one of the worlds most biologically and culturally diverse countries. It is also
one of the poorest in terms of per capita income.

The exist-ence of mass poverty on an enormous scale lies upon two important facts:
first that the country exports natural products that command high prices in overseas
markets, such as basmati rice and Darjeeling tea, as well as products like medicinal
and aromatic plants that are major inputs in rap-idly expanding industries; and
second that India has achieved significant capabilities in industrial chemistry and the
life sciences

India is a recognized as one of the mega-diverse countries, rich in biodiversity and

associated traditional knowledge.

India has 23.39% of its geographical area under forest and tree cover.

With just 2.4% of the land area, India accounts for nearly 7% of the recorded species
even while supporting almost 18% of human population.

In terms of species richness, India ranks seventh in mammals, ninth in birds and
fifth in reptiles.

In terms of endemism of vertebrate groups, Indias position is tenth in birds with 69

species, fifth in reptiles with 156 species and seventh in amphibians with 110 species.

Indias share of crops is 44% as compared to the world average of 11%.

Threats to biodiversity
The process of extinction has become particularly fast in the recent years of human
civilization. In this century, the human impact has been so severe that thousands of
species and varieties are becoming extinct annually. If the present trend continues
we would lose 1/3rd to 2/3rd of our current biodiversity by the middle of twenty first
century.

Some of the major causes and issues related to threats to biodiversity are :

Loss of Habitat
Poaching of Wildlife
Man-wildlife conflicts

Loss of habitat
Destruction and loss of natural habitat is the single largest cause of biodiversity
loss.
With the increase in human population and the growing need for resources,
forests are cleared for agricultural operations, for human habitation and for
grazing their livestock.
Natural processes like vulcanism, forest fires and climate change are also
responsible for habitat destruction.
Habitat destruction has an adverse impact on wildlife as it leads to the loss of an
environment, which provides them food and breeding grounds or nesting sites to
facilitate rearing of their young ones.
Wild animals are left with no alternative but to adapt, migrate or perish.
Widespread habitat loss all over the world has diminished the population of many
species, making them rare-and endangered.

Poaching of Wildlife :
Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited endangered animals i.e.
poaching is another threat to wildlife.
Despite international ban on trade in products from endangered species,
unscrupulous elements, traders and exporters often violate these laws.
Use of wild animals in biomedical research is another cause for their capture.

Man-wildlife Conflicts
What are the causes of Man-wildlife Conflicts, and what steps should be taken to
prevent them?

The root causes of the conflicts are :

Dwindling habitats of tigers, elephants, rhinos and bears due to shrinking forest
cover compels them to move outside the forest and attack the field or sometimes
even humans.
 If human-flesh is tasted once then the tiger does not eat any other animal. At the
same time, it is very difficult to trace and cull the man-eating tiger and in the
process many innocent tigers are also killed.
Earlier, forest departments used to cultivate paddy, sugarcane etc. within the
sanctuaries when the favourite staple food of elephants i.e. bamboo leaves were
not available. Now due to lack of such practices the animals move out of the forest
in search of food
Very often the villagers put electric wiring around their ripe crop fields. The
elephants get injured, suffer in pain and turn violent.
Earlier there used to be wild-life corridors through which the wild animals used
to migrate seasonally in groups to other areas. Due to development of human
settlements in these corridors, the path of wildlife has been disrupted and the
animals attack the settlements.
The cash compensation paid by the government in lieu of the damage caused to
the farmers crop is not enough. The agonized farmer therefore gets revengeful
and kills the wild animals.

Remedial Measures to Curb the Conflict

Tiger Conservation Project (TCP) has made provisions for making available
vehicles, tranquillizer guns, binoculars and radio sets etc. to tactfully deal with
any imminent danger.
Adequate crop compensation and cattle compensation scheme must be
started, along with substantial cash compensation for loss of human life.
Solar powered fencing should be provided along with electric current proof
trenches to prevent the animals from straying into fields.
Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders and adequate
fodder, fruit and water should be made available for the elephants within
forest zones.
Wild life corridors should be provided for mass migration of big animals
during unfavorable periods.
Training forest staff and police to tackle these situations and creating
awareness among the people about the DOs and DONTs to minimize
conflicts.

Endangered Species Of India

A plant, animal or microorganism that is in immediate risk of biological extinction is
called endangered species or threatened species.

In India, 450 plant species have been identified as endangered species. 100
mammals and 150 birds are estimated to be endangered.

India's biodiversity is threatened primarily due to:

Habitat destruction
 Degradation and
Over exploitation of resources

The RED-data book contains a list of endangered species of plants and animals. It
contains a list of species of that are endangered but might become extinct in the near
future if not protected.

Some of the rarest animals found in India are:

Asiatic cheetah
Asiatic Lion
Asiatic Wild Ass
Bengal Fox
Gaur
Indian Elephant
Indian Rhinocerous
Marbled Cat
Markhor

Extinct species is no longer found in the world.

Endangered or threatened species is one whose number has been reduced to a

critical number. Unless it is protected and conserved, it is in immediate danger of
extinction.

Vulnerable species is one whose population is facing continuous decline due to

habitat destruction or over exploitation. However, it is still abundant.

Rare species is localized within a restricted area or is thinly scattered over an

extensive area. Such species are not endangered or vulnerable.

A few endangered pecies in the world are listed below:

West Virginia Spring Salamander (U.S.A)

Giant Panda (China)
Golden Lion Tamarin (Brazil)
Siberian Tiger (Siberia)
Mountain Gorilla (Africa)
Pine Barrens Tree Frog (Male)
Arabian Oryx (Middle East)
African Elephant (Africa)
Other important endangered species are:
Tortoise, Green sea Turtle , Gharial, Python (Reptiles)
Peacock, Siberian White Crane, Pelican, Indian Bustard (Birds)
Hoolock gibbin, Lion-tailed Macaque, Capped mokey, Golden monkey
(Primates)
 Rauvol fia serpentina (medicinal plant), Sandal wood tree, etc

Factors Affecting Endangered Species

Human beings dispose wastes indiscriminately in nature thereby polluting the air,
land and water. These pollutants enter the food chain and accumulate in living
creatures resulting in death.

Over-exploitation of natural resources and poaching of wild animals also leads to

their extinction.

Climate change brought about by accumulation of green houses gases in the

atmosphere. Climate change threatens organisms and ecosystems and they cannot
adjust to the changing environmental conditions leading to their death and
extinction.

Endemic species of India

Species that are found only in a particular region are known as endemic species.
Almost 60% the endemic species in India are found in Himalayas and the Western
Ghats. Endemic species are mainly concentrated in:

North-East India
North-West Himalayas
Western Ghats and
Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Examples of endemic Flora species are
Sapria Himalayana
Ovaria Lurida
Nepenthis khasiana etc
Endemic fauna of significance in the western ghats are:
Lion tailed macaque
Nilgiri langur
Brown palm civet and
Nilgiri tahr

Factors affecting endemic species

Habitat loss and fragmentation due to draining and filling of inland wetlands.

Pollution also plays an important role.

Ex: Frog eggs, tadpoles and adults are extremely sensitive to pollutants especially
pesticides.

Over-hunting and
Populations can be adversely affected by introduction of non active predators and
competitors. Disease producing organisms also play an important adversary in
reducing populations of endemic species.

Conservation is the protection, preservation, management, or restoration of wildlife

and natural resources such as forests and water. Through the conservation of
biodiversity and the survival of many species and habitats which are threatened due
to human activities can be ensured. There is an urgent need, not only to manage and
conserve the biotic wealth, but also restore the degraded ecosystems.

Types of Conservation
Conservation can broadly be divided into two types:

1. In-situ conservation

2. Ex-situ conservation

Biodiversity Conservation

In-situ Conservation
In-situ conservation is on site conservation or the conservation of genetic resources
in natural populations of plant or animal species, such as forest genetic resources in
natural populations of tree species.

It is the process of protecting an endangered plant or animal species in its natural

habitat, either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the
species from predators.
It is applied to conservation of agricultural biodiversity in agro forestry by farmers,
especially those using unconventional farming practices. In-situ conservation is
being done by declaring area as protected area.

In India following types of natural habitats are being maintained:

1. National parks

2. Wildlife sanctuaries

3. Biosphere reserves

INDIA has over 600 protected areas, which includes over 90 national parks, over
500 animal sanctuaries and 15 biosphere reserves.

1. National Parks

A national park is an area which is strictly reserved for the betterment of the wildlife
and where activities like forestry, grazing on cultivation are not permitted. In these
parks, even private ownership rights are not allowed.

Their boundaries are well marked and circumscribed. They are usually small reserves
spreading in an area of 100 Sq. km. to 500 sq. km. In national parks, the emphasis is
on the preservation of a single plant or animal species.

2. Wildlife Sanctuaries:

A sanctuary is a protected area which is reserved for the conservation of only animals
and human activities like harvesting of timber, collecting minor forest products and
private ownership rights are allowed as long as they do not interfere with well-being
of animals. Boundaries of sanctuaries are not well defined and controlled biotic
interference is permitted, e.g., tourist activity.

3. Biosphere Reserves:

It is a special category of protected areas where human population also forms a part
of the system. They are large protected area of usually more than 5000 sq.km. A
biosphere reserves has 3 parts- core, buffer and transition zone.

1. Core zone is the inner zone; this is undisturbed and legally protected area.

2. Buffer zone lies between the core and transition zone. Some research and
educational activities are permitted here.

3. Transition zone is the outermost part of biosphere reserves. Here cropping,

forestry, recreation, fishery and other activities are allowed.

The main functions of biodiversity reserves are:

1. Conservation:
To ensure the conservation of ecosystem, species and genetic resources.

2. Development:

To promote economic development, while maintaining cultural, social and ecological

identity.

3. Scientific Research:

To provide support for research related to monitoring and education, local, national
and global issues.

Biosphere reserves serve in some ways as living laboratories for testing out and
demonstrating integrated management of land, water and biodiversity.

Advantages of in-situ conservation

1. The flora and fauna live in natural habitats without human interference.

2. The life cycles of the organisms and their evolution progresses in a natural way.

3. In-situ conservation provides the required green cover and its associated benefits
to our environment.

4. It is less expensive and easy to manage.

5. The interests of the indigenous people are also protected.

Ex-Situ Conservation
Ex-situ conservation is the preservation of components of biological diversity outside
their natural habitats. This involves conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild
and cultivated or species, and draws on a diverse body of techniques and facilities.
Such strategies include establishment of botanical gardens, zoos, conservation
strands and gene, pollen seed, seedling, tissue culture and DNA banks.

i. Seed gene bank

These are cold storages where seeds are kept under controlled temperature and
humidity for storage and this is easiest way to store the germ plasma of plants at low
temperature. Seeds preserved under controlled conditions (minus temperature)
remain viable for long durations of time.

ii. Gene bank

Genetic variability also is preserved by gene bank under normal growing conditions.
These are cold storages where germ plam are kept under controlled temperature and
humidity for storage; this is an important way of preserving the genetic resources
iii. Cryopreservation
This is the newest application of technology for preservation of biotic parts. This type
of conservation is done at very low temperature (196C) in liquid nitrogen. The
metabolic activities of the organisms are suspended under low temperature, which
are later used for research purposes.

iv. Tissue culture bank

Cryopreservation of disease free meristems is very helpful. Long term culture of
excised roots and shoots are maintained. Meristem culture is very popular in plant
propagation as its a virus and disease free method of multiplication.

v. Long term captive breeding

The method involves capture, maintenance and captive breeding on long term basis
of individuals of the endangered species which have lost their habitat permanently or
certain highly unfavorable conditions are present in their habitat.

vi. Botanical gardens

A botanical garden is a place where flowers, fruits and vegetables are grown. The
botanical gardens provide beauty and calm environment. Most of them have started
keeping exotic plants for educational and research purposes.

vii. Animal Translocation

Release of animals in a new locality which come from anywhere else.

Translocation is carried in following cases:

1. When a species on which an animal is dependent becomes rare.

2. When a species is endemic or restricted to a particular area.

3. Due to habit destruction and unfavorable environment conditions.

4. Increase in population in an area.

viii. Zoological Gardens:

In India, the 1st zoo came into existence at BARRACKPORE in 1800. In world there
are about 800 zoos. Such zoos have about 3000 species of vertebrates. Some zoos
have undertaken captive breeding programmes.

Advantages of ex-situ preservation

1. It is useful for declining population of species.

2. Endangered animals on the verge of extinction are successfully breeded.

3. Threatened species are breeded in captivity and then released in the natural
habitats.

4. Ex-situ centres offer the possibilities of observing wild animals, which is otherwise
not possible.

5. It is extremely useful for conducting research and scientific work on different

species.

The most appropriate definition of environmental pollution would be the

introduction of different harmful pollutants into certain environment that make this
environment unhealthy to live in. The most common pollutants are usually
chemicals, garbage, and waste water. Environmental pollution is happening in many
parts of the world, especially in form of air and water pollution. The best example for
air pollution are some of China's cities, including capital Beijing, and the best
example for water pollution is India with its Ganges river pollution problem.

Types of Pollutants
Air pollution - Air pollution may be defined as the presence of one or more
contaminants like dust, mist, smoke and colour in the atmosphere that are injurious
human beings, plants and animals.

In order to understand the causes of Air pollution, several divisions can be made.
Primarily air pollutants can be caused by primary sources or secondary sources. The
pollutants that are a direct result of the process can be called primary pollutants. A
classic example of a primary pollutant would be the sulfur-dioxide emitted from
factories.

Secondary pollutants are the ones that are caused by the inter mingling and reactions
of primary pollutants. Smog created by the interactions of several primary pollutants
is known to be as secondary pollutant.

Causes of Air pollution

1. Burning of Fossil Fuels: Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels
like coal, petroleum and other factory combustibles is one the major cause of air
pollution. Pollution emitting from vehicles including trucks, jeeps, cars, trains,
airplanes cause immense amount of pollution. We rely on them to fulfill our daily
basic needs of transportation. But, there overuse is killing our environment as
dangerous gases are polluting the environment. Carbon Monooxide caused by
improper or incomplete combustion and generally emitted from vehicles is another
major pollutant along with Nitrogen Oxides, that is produced from both natural and
man made processes.
2. Agricultural activities: Ammonia is a very common by product from agriculture
related activities and is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Use of
insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities has grown quite a lot.
They emit harmful chemicals into the air and can also cause water pollution.

3. Exhaust from factories and industries: Manufacturing industries release large

amount of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and chemicals into
the air thereby depleting the quality of air. Manufacturing industries can be found at
every corner of the earth and there is no area that has not been affected by it.
Petroleum refineries also release hydrocarbons and various other chemicals that
pollute the air and also cause land pollution.

4. Mining operations: Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are
extracted using large equipments. During the process dust and chemicals are
released in the air causing massive air pollution. This is one of the reason which is
responsible for the deteriorating health conditions of workers and nearby residents.

5. Indoor air pollution: Household cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic
chemicals in the air and cause air pollution. Have you ever noticed that once you
paint walls of your house, it creates some sort of smell which makes it literally
impossible for you to breathe.

Suspended particulate matter popular by its acronym SPM, is another cause of

pollution. Referring to the particles afloat in the air, SPM is usually caused by dust,
combustion etc.

Effects of Air pollution

1. Respiratory and heart problems: The effects of Air pollution are alarming. They are
known to create several respiratory and heart conditions along with Cancer, among
other threats to the body. Several millions are known to have died due to direct or
indirect effects of Air pollution. Children in areas exposed to air pollutants are said to
commonly suffer from pneumonia and asthma.

2. Global warming: Another direct effect is the immediate alterations that the world
is witnessing due to Global warming. With increased temperatures world wide,
increase in sea levels and melting of ice from colder regions and icebergs,
displacement and loss of habitat have already signaled an impending disaster if
actions for preservation and normalization arent undertaken soon.

3. Acid Rain: Harmful gases like nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides are released into
the atmosphere during the burning of fossil fuels. When it rains, the water droplets
combines with these air pollutants, becomes acidic and then falls on the ground in
the form of acid rain. Acid rain can cause great damage to human, animals and crops.

4. Eutrophication: Eutrophication is a condition where high amount of nitrogen

present in some pollutants gets developed on seas surface and turns itself into algae
and and adversely affect fish, plants and animal species. The green colored algae that
is present on lakes and ponds is due to presence of this chemical only.

5. Effect on Wildlife: Just like humans, animals also face some devastating affects of
air pollution. Toxic chemicals present in the air can force wildlife species to move to
new place and change their habitat. The toxic pollutants deposit over the surface of
the water and can also affect sea animals.

6. Depletion of Ozone layer: Ozone exists in earths stratosphere and is responsible

for protecting humans from harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. Earths ozone layer is
depleting due to the presence of chlorofluorocarbons, hydro chlorofluorocarbons in
the atmosphere. As ozone layer will go thin, it will emit harmful rays back on earth
and can cause skin and eye related problems. UV rays also have the capability to
affect crops.

Pollution from plane

When you try to study the sources of Air pollution, you enlist a series of activities and
interactions that create these pollutants. There are two types of sources that we will
take a look at: Natural sources and Man-made sources.

Natural sources of pollution include dust carried by the wind from locations with
very little or no green cover, gases released from the body processes of living beings
(Carbon dioxide from humans during respiration, Methane from cattle during
digestion, Oxygen from plants during Photosynthesis). Smoke from the combustion
of various inflammable objects, volcanic eruptions etc along with the emission of
polluted gases also make it to the list of Natural sources of Pollution.

While looking at the man-made contributions towards air pollution, smoke again
features as a prominent component. The smoke emitted from various forms of
combustion like in bio mass, factories, vehicles, furnaces etc. Waste used to create
landfills generate methane, that is harmful in several ways. The reactions of certain
gases and chemicals also form harmful fumes that can be dangerous to the well being
of living creatures.

Solutions for Air Pollution

1. Use public mode of transportation: Encourage people to use more and more public
modes of transportation to reduce pollution. Also, try to make use of car pooling. If
you and your colleagues come from the same locality and have same timings you can
explore this option to save energy and money.

2. Conserve energy: Switch off fans and lights when you are going out. Large amount
of fossil fuels are burnt to produce electricity. You can save the environment from
degradation by reducing the amount of fossil fuels to be burned.
3. Understand the concept of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle: Do not throw away items
that are of no use to you. In-fact reuse them for some other purpose. For e.g. you can
use old jars to store cereals or pulses.

4. Emphasis on clean energy resources: Clean energy technologies like solar, wind
and geothermal are on high these days. Governments of various countries have been
providing grants to consumers who are interested in installing solar panels for their
home. This will go a long way to curb air pollution.

5. Use energy efficient devices: CFL lights consume less electricity as against their
counterparts. They live longer, consume less electricity, lower electricity bills and
also help you to reduce pollution by consuming less energy.

Some measures that can be adopted in this direction are:

Using unleaded petrol

Using fuels with low sulphur and ash content

Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle as opposed to private
vehicles

Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and playgrounds are not located on busy
streets

Plant trees along busy streets as they remove particulates, carbon dioxide and absorb
noise

Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outsdide the city preferably on
the downwind of the city.

Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon monoxide

and hydrocarbons.

Water pollution - types, effects, sources and control of water pollution

Water pollution

Water pollution may be defined as the alteration in physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of water which may cause harmful effects on humans and aquatic
life.

Pollutants include:

Sewage

Industrial effluents and chemicals

Oil and other wastes

Chemicals in air dissolve in rain water, fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides leached
from land pollute water.

TYPES, EFFECTS AND SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION Water pollution is any

chemical, biological or physical change in water quality that has a harmful effect on
living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.

Infectious agents

Ex: Bacteria, Viruses, Protozoa, and parasitic worms.

Human sources

Human and animal wastes

Effects: Variety of diseases.

Oxygen demanding wastes (Dissolved oxygen): This degradation consumes dissolved

oxygen in water. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a given
quantity of water at a particular pressure and temperature.

The saturated point of DO varies from 8 to 15 mg/L Ex: Organic wastes such as
animal manure and plant debris that can be decomposed by aerobic (oxygen-
requiring) bacteria.

Human sources: Sewage, Animal feedlots, paper mills and food processing facilities.

Effects: Large populations of bacteria decomposing these wastes can degrade water
quality by depleting water of dissolved oxygen. This causes fish and other forms of
oxygen-consuming aquatic life to die.

Inorganic chemicals

Ex: Water soluble inorganic chemicals:

Acids

Compounds of toxic metals such as lead (Pb), arsenic (As) and selenium (Se)

Salts such as NaCl in oceans and fluoride (F-) found in some soils

Human sources: Surface runoff, industrial effluents and household cleansers Effects:
Inorganic chemicals can:

Make freshwater unusable for drinking and irrigation

Cause skin cancer and neck damage

Damage nervous system, liver and kidneys

Harm fish and other aquatic life

Lower crop yields

Accelerate corrosion of metals exposed to such water

Organic chemicals

Ex: Oil, Gasoline, Plastics, Pesticides, Cleaning solvents and Detergents.

Human Sources: Industrial effluents, household cleansers and surface runoff from
farms.

Effects:

Can threaten human health by causing nervous system damage and some cancers.

Harm fish and wildlife.

Plant nutrients

Ex: Water soluble compounds containing nitrate, Phosphate and Ammonium ions.

Human sources: Sewage, manure and runoff of agricultural and urban fertilizers.

Effects:
Can cause excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants, which die, decay,
deplete dissolved oxygen in water thereby killing fish

Drinking water with excessive levels of nitrates lower the oxygen carrying capacity of
the blood and can kill urban children and infants.

Sediment

Ex: Soil, silt, etc.

Human Sources: Land erosion

Effects:

Causes cloudy water thereby reducing photosynthetic activity

Disruption of aquatic food chain

Carries pesticides, bacteria and other harmful substances

Settles and destroys feeding and spawning grounds of fish

Clogs and fills lakes, artificial reservoirs, stream channels and harbours.

Radioactive materials:
Ex: Radioactive isotopes of:

Iodine

Radon

Uranium

Cesium and

Thorium

Human sources: Nuclear power plants, mining and processing of uranium and other
ores, nuclear weapon production and natural sources.

Effects: Genetic mutations, birth defects and certain cancers.

Heat (Thermal pollution)

Ex: Excessive heat

Human sources: Water cooling of electric power plants and some types of industrial
plants. Almost half of whole water withdrawn in United States each year is for
cooling electric power plants.

Effects
Low dissolved oxygen levels thereby making aquatic organisms more vulnerable to
disease, parasites and toxic chemicals.

When a power plant starts or shuts down for repair, fish and other organisms
adapted to a particular temperature range, can be killed by an abrupt temperature
change known as thermal shock.

Point and non-point sources of water pollution:

Point sources These are pollutants that are discharged at specific locations through
pipes, ditches or sewers into bodies of surface waters.

Ex: Factories, sewage treatment plants, abandoned underground mines and oil
tankers.

Non point sources These pollutants cannot be traced to a single point of discharge.
They are large land areas or air-sheds that pollute water by runoff, subsurface flow or
deposition from the atmosphere.

Ex: Acid deposition, runoff of chemicals into surface water from croplands, livestock
feedlots, logged forests, urban streets, lawns, golf courses and parking lots.
Control measures of water pollution
Administration of water pollution control should be in the hands of state or central
government

Scientific techniques should be adopted for environmental control of catchment

areas of rivers, ponds or streams

Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as it helps prevent disposal

of wastes into natural waters but also extraction of products from waste.

Plants, trees and forests control pollution as they act as natural air conditioners.

Trees are capable of reducing sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide pollutants and hence
more trees should be planted.

No type of waste (treated, partially treated or untreated) should be discharged into

any natural water body. Industries should develop closed loop water supply schemes
and domestic sewage must be used for irrigation.

Qualified and experienced people must be consulted from time to time for effective
control of water pollution.

Public awareness must be initiated regarding adverse effects of water pollution using
the media.

Laws, standards and practices should be established to prevent water pollution and
these laws should be modified from time to time based on current requirements and
technological advancements.

Basic and applied research in public health engineering should be encouraged.

Soil pollution

Soil pollution is defined as, contamination of soil by human and natural activities
which may cause harmful effect on living organisms. Composition of soil is listed
below:

COMPONENT %

Organic mineral matter 45

Organic matter 05

Soil water 25

Soil air 25

TYPES, EFFECTS AND SOURCES OF SOIL POLLUTION

Soil pollution mainly occurs due to the following:

Industrial wastes

Urban wastes

Agricultural practices

Radioactive pollutants

Biological agents

Industrial wastes Disposal of Industrial wastes is the major problem for soil
pollution

Sources: Industrial pollutants are mainly discharged from various origins such as
pulp and paper mills, chemical fertilizers, oil refineries, sugar factories, tanneries,
textiles, steel, distilleries, fertilizers, pesticides, coal and mineral mining industries,
drugs, glass, cement, petroleum and engineering industries etc.

Effect: These pollutants affect and alter the chemical and biological properties of soil.
As a result, hazardous chemicals can enter into human food chain from the soil or
water, disturb the biochemical process and finally lead to serious effects on living
organisms.

Urban wastes Urban wastes comprise of both commercial and domestic wastes
consisting of dried sludge and sewage. All the urban solid wastes are commonly
referred to as refuse.

Constituents of urban refuse: This refuse consists of garbage and rubbish materials
like plastics, glasses, metallic cans, fibres, paper, rubbers, street sweepings, fuel
residues, leaves, containers, abandoned vehicles and other discarded manufactured
products. Urban domestic wastes though disposed off separately from industrial
wastes, can still be dangerous. This happens because they are not easily degraded

Agricultural practices Modern agricultural practices pollute the soil to a large

extent. With the advancing agro-technology, huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides,
herbicides and weedicides are added to increase the crop yield. Apart from these
farm wastes, manure, slurry, debris, soil erosion containing mostly inorganic
chemicals are reported to cause soil pollution

Radioactive pollutants/ - Radioactive substances resulting from explosions of nuclear

testing laboratories and industries giving rise to nuclear dust radioactive wastes,
penetrate the soil and accumulate giving rise to land/soil pollution.

Ex:

Radio nuclides of Radium, Thorium, Uranium, isotopes of Potassium (K-40) and

Carbon (C-14) are commonly found in soil, rock, water and air.
Explosion of hydrogen weapons and cosmic radiations include neutron, proton
reactions by which Nitrogen (N-15) produces C-14. This C-14 participates in Carbon
metabolism of plants which is then into animals and human beings.

Radioactive waste contains several radio nuclides such as Strontium90, Iodine-129,

Cesium-137 and isotopes of Iron which are most injurious. Strontium get deposited
in bones and tissues instead of calcium.

Nuclear reactors produce waste containing Ruthenium-106, Iodine-131, Barium-140,

Cesium-144 and Lanthanum-140 along with primary nuclides Sr-90 with a half life
28 years and Cs-137 with a half life 30 years. Rain water carries Sr-90 and Cs-137 to
be deposited on the soil where they are held firmly with the soil particles by
electrostatic forces. All the radio nuclides deposited on the soil emit gamma
radiations.

Biological agents Soil gets a large amount of human, animal and bird excreta which
constitute a major source of land pollution by biological agents.

Ex: 1. Heavy application of manures and digested sludge can cause serious
damage to plants within a few years

Control measures of soil pollution:

Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices.

Ex: Planting trees on barren slopes

Contour cultivation and strip cropping may be practiced instead of shifting

cultivation

Terracing and building diversion channels may be undertaken.

Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical manures by animal wastes also

helps arrest soil erosion in the long term.

Proper dumping of unwanted materials: Excess wastes by man and animals pose a
disposal problem. Open dumping is the most commonly practiced technique.
Nowadays, controlled tipping is followed for solid waste disposal. The surface so
obtained is used for housing or sports field.

Production of natural fertilizers: Bio-pesticides should be used in place of toxic

chemical pesticides. Organic fertilizers should be used in place of synthesized
chemical fertilizers. Ex: Organic wastes in animal dung may be used to prepare
compost manure instead of throwing them wastefully and polluting the soil.

Proper hygienic condition: People should be trained regarding sanitary habits.

Ex: Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective disposal methods.
Public awareness: Informal and formal public awareness programs should be
imparted to educate people on health hazards by environmental education.

Ex: Mass media, Educational institutions and voluntary agencies can achieve this.

Recycling and Reuse of wastes: To minimize soil pollution, the wastes such as paper,
plastics, metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and industrial effluents etc
should be recycled and reused.

Ex: Industrial wastes should be properly treated at source. Integrated waste

treatment methods should be adopted.

Ban on Toxic chemicals: Ban should be imposed on chemicals and pesticides like
DDT, BHC, etc which are fatal to plants and animals. Nuclear explosions and
improper disposal of radioactive wastes should be banned.

Noise pollution or noise disturbance is the disturbing or excessive noise that may
harm the activity or balance of human or animal life. A decibel value greater than 80
decibels causes noise pollution. Noise becomes troublesome above 140 decibels.

Sources of noise pollution

The major sources of noise are :

various modes of transportation (like air, road, rail-transportation)

industrial operations
construction activities
celebrations (social/religious functions, elections etc)
electric home appliances.
Effects of noise pollution

Noise causes the following effects :

Interferes with mans communication: In a noisy area communication is severely

affected.

Hearing damage: Noise can cause temporary or permanent hearing loss. It depends
on intensity and duration of sound level. Auditory sensitivity is reduced with noise
level of over 90 dB in the mid high frequency for more than a few minutes.

Physiological and Psychological changes: Continuous exposure to noise affects the

functioning of various systems of the body. It may result in hypertension, insomnia
(sleeplessness), gastro-intestinal and digestive disorders, blood pressure changes,
behavioural changes, emotional changes etc.

Control of Noise pollution

Following methods can control noise pollution:

Limited use of loudspeakers and amplifiers.

Excursing control over noise producing vehicles.
Industrial workers should be provided with ear plugs.
Delocalisation of noisy industries far away from dwelling units
Plants and trees having broad leaves should be planted all around the
hospitals, libraries and schools and colleges.
Through Law: Legislation can ensure that sound production is minimized at
various social functions. Unnecessary horn blowing should be restricted
especially in vehicle-congested areas.

Solid Waste Management

Solid waste management is a term that is used to refer to the process of collecting
and treating solid wastes. It also offers solutions for recycling items that do not
belong to garbage or trash.

Need for Solid Waste Management

Rapid population growth and urbanization in developing countries has led to people
generating enormous quantities of solid waste and consequent environmental
degradation. The waste is normally disposed in open dumps creating nuisance and
environmental degradation. Solid wastes cause a major risk to public health and the
environment. Management of solid wastes is important in order to minimize the
adverse effects posed by their indiscriminate disposal.

Sources of Solid Waste

There are two major sources of solid waste Urban wastes and Industrial wastes

Urban wastes include the following wastes:

Domestic wastes containing a variety of materials thrown out from homes Ex: Food
waste, Cloth, Waste paper, Glass bottles, Polythene bags, Waste metals, etc.

Commercial wastes: It includes wastes coming out from shops, markets, hotels,
offices, institutions, etc. Ex: Waste paper, packaging material, cans, bottle, polythene
bags, etc.

Construction wastes: It includes wastes of construction materials. Ex: Wood,

Concrete, Debris, etc.

Biomedical wastes: It includes mostly waste organic materials Ex: Anatomical

wastes, Infectious wastes, etc.

Sources of Industrial wastes :

The main source of industrial wastes are chemical industries, metal and mineral
processing industries. Ex:

Nuclear plants: It generates radioactive wastes

Thermal power plants: It produces fly ash in large quantities

Chemical Industries: It produces large quantities of hazardous and toxic materials.

Other industries: Other industries produce packing materials, rubbish, organic

wastes, acid, alkali, scrap metals, rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood, oils, paints,
dyes, etc.

Effects of Poor Solid Waste Management

Due to improper disposal of municipal solid waste on the roads and immediate
surroundings, biodegradable materials undergo decomposition producing foul smell
and become a breeding ground for disease vectors.

Industrial solid wastes are the source for toxic metals and hazardous wastes that
affect soil characteristics and productivity of soils when they are dumped on the soil

Toxic substances may percolate into the ground and contaminate the groundwater.

Burning of industrial or domestic wastes (cans, pesticides, plastics, radioactive

materials and batteries) produce furans, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls that
are harmful to human beings.

During the process of collecting solid waste, the hazardous wastes usually mix with
ordinary garbage and other flammable wastes making the disposal process even
harder and risky.

Steps involved in Solid Waste Management

Two important steps involved in solid waste management are:

Three Rs Reduce, Reuse and Recycle of Raw Materials

Proper Discarding of wastes

=> 3 Rs

Reduction in use of raw materials: Reduction in the use of raw materials will
correspondingly decrease the production of waste. Reduced demand for any metallic
prduct will decrease the mining of their metal and cause less production of waste.

Reuse of waste materials : The refillable containers which are discarded after use can
be reused. For ex: Making rubber rings from the discarded cycle tubes which are
used by the newspaper vendors, instead of rubber bands, reduces the waste
generation during manufacturing of rubber bands.
Recycling of materials: Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new
useful products.

Ex: Old aluminium cans and glass bottles are melted and recast into new cans and
bottles

This method (Reduce, Reuse & Recycle), i.e, 3Rs help save money, energy, raw
materials and reduces pollution.

=> Discarding of wastes

The following methods are adopted for discarding wastes:

Sanitary Landfill

Incineration and

Composting

SANITARY LANDFILL : This is the most popular solid waste disposal method used
today. Garbage is basically spread out in thin layers, compressed and covered with
soil or plastic foam. Modern landfills are designed in such a way that the bottom of
the landfill is covered with an impervious liner which is usually made of several
layers of thick plastic and sand. This liner protects the ground water from being
contaminated because of leaching or percolation. When the landfill is full, it is
covered with layers of sand, clay, top soil and gravel to prevent seepage of water.

Advantages:

It is simple and economical

Segregation of wastes is not required

Landfilled areas can be reclaimed and used for other purposes

Converts low-lying, marshy waste-land into useful areas.

Natural resources are returned to soil and recycled.

Disadvantages:

Large area is required

Land availability is away from the town, tansportation costs are high

Leads to bad odour if landfill is not properly managed.

Land filled areas will be sources of mosquitoes and flies requiring application of
insecticides and pesticides at regular intervals.
Causes fire hazard due to formation of methane in wet weather.

INCINERATION:

In this method municipal solid wastes are burnt in a furnace called incinerator.
Combustible substances such as rubbish, garbage, dead organisms and non-
combustible matter such as glass, porcelain and metals are separated before feeding
to incinerators. The non-combustible materials can be left out for recycling and
reuse. The leftover ashes and clinkers may account for about 10 to 20% which need
further disposal by sanitary landfill or some other means.

The heat produced in the incinerator during burning of refuse is used in the form of
steam power for generation of electricity through turbines.

Advantages

Residue is only 20-25% of the original and can be used as clinker after treatment

Requires very little space

Cost of transportation is not high if the incinerator is located within city limits

Safest from hygienic point of view

An incinerator plant of 3000 tonnes per day capacity can generate 3MW of power.

Disadvantages:

Its capital and operating cost is high

Operation needs skilled personnel

Formation of smoke, dust and ashes needs further disposal and that may cause air
pollution.

COMPOSTING

Due to lack of adequate space for landfills, biodegradable yard waste is allowed to
decompose in a medium designed for the purpose. Only biodegradable waste
materials are used in composting. Good quality environmentally friendly manure is
formed from the compost and can be used for agricultural purposes.

Advantages:

Manure added to soil increases water retention and ion-exchange capacity of soil.

This method can be used to treat several industrial solid wastes.

Manure can be sold thereby reducing cost of disposing wastes

Recycling can be done

Disadvantages:

Non-consumables have to be disposed separately

The technology has not caught-up with the farmers and hence does not have an
assured market.

Role of an individual in prevention of pollution

The role of every individual in preventing pollution is of paramount importance
because if every individual contributes substantially the effect will be visible not only
at the community, city, state or national level but also at the global level as
environment has no boundaries.

Man could achieve this by identifying his own role at individual level in prevention of
pollution. This is possible through environmental awareness, education and
enlightenment.

Ways and means by which pollution problems can be greatly reduced at

individual level are
Promote reuse and recycling wherever possible and reduce the production of
wastes.
Waste disposal at personal level should be optimally reduced as waste destruction
by any means causes pollution.
Industrialists should check for proper disposal of treated water from factory units
as to avoid thermal pollution of water bodies. They should also deploy a water
treatment plant to prevent the flow of hazardous material.
Save electricity by not wasting it when not required because electricity saved is
electricity generated without polluting the environment.
Use of mass transport system. For short-visits use bicycle or go on foot. Decrease
the use of automobiles.
Maintenance of vehicles should remain proper as to avoid introduction of
harmful gases and other pollutants in to the atmosphere.
Service centres of vehicles should minimize the disposal of organic solvents into
the main drains.
Generators and other household gadgets that add to pollution of environment
should be kept well maintained.
Planting of more trees, as trees can absorb many toxic gases and can purify the air
by releasing oxygen.
Floods
It is a natural event or occurrence where a piece of land (or area) that is usually
dry land, suddenly gets submerged under water.
Some floods can occur suddenly and recede quickly. Others take days or even
months to build and discharge.
Floods occur at irregular intervals and vary in size, duration and the affected area.

Causes of flooding
Rains
Each time there are more rains than the drainage system can take, there can be
floods. Sometimes, there is heavy rain for a very short period that result in floods.
In other times, there may be light rain for many days and weeks and can also
result in floods.

River overflow
Rivers can overflow their banks to cause flooding. This happens when there is
more water upstream than usual, and as it flows downstream to the adjacent low-
lying areas, there is a burst and water gets into the land.

Strong winds in coastal areas

Sea water can be carried by massive winds and hurricanes onto dry coastal lands
and cause flooding.

Breaking of dam
Sometimes too much water held up in the dam can cause it to break and overflow
the area. Excess water can also be intentionally released from the dam to prevent
it from breaking and that can also cause floods.

Ice and snow-melts

In many cold regions, heavy snow over the winter usually stays un-melted for
sometime. Sometimes the ice suddenly melts when the temperature rises,
resulting in massive movement of water into places that are usually dry.

Consequences of Floods
Floods impact on both individuals and communities, and have social, economic, and
environmental consequences. The consequences of floods, both negative and
positive, vary greatly depending on the location and extent of flooding, and the
vulnerability and value of the natural and constructed environments they affect.
Consequences of flood on individuals and communities:
The immediate impacts of flooding include loss of human life, damage to
property, destruction of crops, loss of livestock, and deterioration of health
conditions owing to waterborne diseases.
As communication links and infrastructure such as power plants, roads and
bridges are damaged and disrupted, some economic activities may come to a
standstill.
People are forced to leave their homes and normal life is disrupted.
Damage to infrastructure also causes long-term impacts, such as disruptions
to supplies of clean water, wastewater treatment, electricity, transport,
communication, education and health care.

Consequences of flood on environment:

In many natural systems, floods play an important role in maintaining key ecosystem
functions and biodiversity.

Positive effects include

They link the river with the land surrounding it
Recharge groundwater systems
Fill wetlands
Increase the connectivity between aquatic habitats
Move both sediment and nutrients around the landscape, and into the marine
environment.

Negative effects include:

Loss of habitat
Too much sediment and nutrient entering a waterway
Dispersal of weed species
The release of pollutants
Lower fish production
Loss of wetlands function
Loss of recreational areas

Control Measures
The mitigation measures for floods include both structural and non-structural
measures.

The structural measures include:

Reservoir for impounding monsoon flows to be released in a regulated
manner after the peak flood flow passes.
Prevention of over-bank spilling by the construction of embankments and
flood walls.
 Improvement of flow conditions in the channel and anti-corrosion measures.
Improved drainage.

The non-structural measures include:

Flood-plain management such as flood plain zoning and flood proofing,
include preparedness.
Maintaining wet lands.
Flood forecasting and warning services.
Disaster relief, flood fighting and public health measures.

Sustainable development
Sustainable development is defined as meeting the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Sustainable Development aims to address all the environmental, economic, and

socio-political problems, without compromising one another and without
jeopardizing human capability and development.

The key aspects of a sustainable development are :

(a) Inter-generational equity: This emphasizes that we should minimize any adverse
impacts on resources and environment for future generations. This can be possible
only if we stop over-exploitation of resources, reduce waste discharge and emissions
and maintain ecological balance.

(b) Intra-generational equity: This emphasizes that the development processes

should seek to minimize the wealth gaps within and between nations. The technology
should address to the problems of the developing countries, producing drought
tolerant varieties for uncertain climates, vaccines for infectious diseases, clean fuels
for domestic and industrial use. This type of technological development will support
the economic growth of the poor countries and help in narrowing the wealth gap and
lead to sustainability.

Measures for Sustainable Development

Some of the important measures for sustainable development are as follows:

Using appropriate technology is one which is locally adaptable, eco-friendly,

resource-efficient and culturally suitable. It mostly involves local resources and local
labour. The Technology should use less of resources and should produce minimum
waste.

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle approach: The 3-R approach advocating minimization of

resource use, using them again and again instead of passing it on to the waste stream
and recycling the materials goes a long way in achieving the goals of sustainability. It
reduces pressure on our resources as well as reduces waste generation and pollution.

Prompting environmental education and awareness: Making environmental

education the centre of all learning process will greatly help in changing the thinking
and attitude of people towards our earth and the environment.

Resource utilization as per carrying capacity: Sustainability of a system depends

largely upon the carrying capacity of the system. If the carrying capacity of a system
is crossed (say, by over exploitation of a resource), environmental degradation starts
and continues till it reaches a point of no return.

Water Conservation
Water being one of the most precious and indispensable resources needs to be
conserved. Water conservation refers to any beneficial reduction of water usage, loss
or waste. It also includes the strategies and activities to manage and protect water
resources to meet the demand for human consumption.

The key activities that benefit water conservation are as follows :

Any beneficial reduction in water loss, use and waste of resources.

Avoiding any damage to water quality.
Improving water management practices that reduce the use or enhance the
beneficial use of water. (like rain water harvesting)

Goals of water conservation efforts include :

Sustainability : Ensuring availability of water for future generations where the
withdrawal of freshwater from an ecosystem does not exceed its natural
replacement rate.
Energy Conservation : Water pumping, delivery and wastewater treatment
facilities consume a significant amount of energy.
Habitat Conservation : Minimizing human water use helps to preserve
freshwater habitats for local wildlife and migrating waterfowl.
Water conservation also helps in reducing the need to build new dams and
other water diversion infrastructure.

Steps for water conservation

The following strategies can be adopted for conservation of water :

Decreasing run-off losses: Huge water-loss occurs due to runoff on most of the soils,
which can be reduced by allowing most of the water to infiltrate into the soil. This
can be achieved by using contour cultivation, terrace farming, water spreading,
chemical treatment or improved water-storage system.
Reducing evaporation losses: This is more relevant in humid regions. Horizontal
barriers of asphalt placed below the soil surface increase water availability and
increase crop yield by 35-40%.

Storing water in soil: Storage of water takes place in the soil root zone in humid
regions when the soil is wetted to field capacity. By leaving the soil fallow for one
season water can be made available for the crop grown in next season.

Reducing irrigation losses

Use of lined or covered canals to reduce seepage.

Irrigation in early morning or late evening to reduce evaporation losses.

Sprinkling irrigation and drip irrigation to conserve water by 30-50%.

Growing hybrid crop varieties with less water requirements and tolerance to saline
water help conserve water

Re-use of water

Treated wastewater can be used for ferti-irrigation.

Using grey water from washings, bath-tubs etc. for watering gardens, washing cars
or paths help in saving fresh water.

Preventing wastage of water: This can be done in households, commercial buildings

and public places.

Closing taps when not in use

Repairing any leakage from pipes

Using small capacity flush in toilets.

Increasing block pricing: The consumer has to pay a proportionately higher bill with
higher use of water. This helps in economic use of water by the consumers.

Rain Water Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is a technique of increasing the recharge of groundwater by
capturing and storing rainwater. This is done by constructing special water-
harvesting structures like dug wells, percolation pits, lagoons, check dams etc.

Objectives of rain water harvesting

To reduce run off loss
To avoid flooding of roads
To meet the increasing demands of water
To raise the water table by recharging ground water
To reduce groundwater contamination
 To supplement groundwater supplies during lean season.

Methods of rain water harvesting

Rainwater can be mainly harvested by any one of the following methods.

By storing in tanks or reservoirs above or below ground.

By constructing pits, dug-wells, lagoons, trench or check-dams on small
rivulets.
By recharging the groundwater.

Roof top rain water harvesting

Roof top rain water harvesting is a low cost and effective technique for urban houses
and buildings. The rain-water from the top of the roofs is diverted to some surface
tank or pit through a delivery system which can be later used for several purposes.
Also, it can be used to recharge underground aquifers by diverting the stored water to
some abandoned dug-well or by using a hand pump.

Environment Protection Act 1986

ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT (passed in March 1986 and came into force on
19 Nov. 1986)

The Constitution of India clearly states that it is the duty of the state to protect and
improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.
The Department of Environment was established in India in 1980.This later became
the Ministry of Environment and Forests in 1985

The EPA (Environment Protection Act), 1986 came into force soon after the Bhopal
Gas Tragedy and is considered an umbrella legislation as it fills many gaps in the
existing laws.

The Act extends to whole of India.

Some terms related to environment have been described as follows in the Act:

(i) Environment includes water, air and land and the inter-relationships that exists
among and between them and human beings, all other living organisms and
property.

(ii) Environmental pollution means the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous
substance present in such concentration, as may be, or tend to be, injurious to
environment.

(iii) Hazardous Substance means any substance or preparation which by its physico-
chemical properties or handling is liable to cause harm to human beings, other living
organisms, property or environment.

Objectives of Environment Protection Act

Providing for the protection and improvement of the environment

Preventing environmental pollution in all its forms

To tackle specific environmental problems that are peculiar to different parts of the
country.

To co-ordinate the activities of the various regulatory agencies already in existence.

To appoint environment officers to check environmental pollution.

To improve the quality of life by protection of environment.

Establishing environmental laboratories.

To protect the forests and wildlife in the country

Salient features of this Act

The Act has given powers to the Central Government to take measures to protect and
improve environment while the state governments coordinate the actions. The most
important functions of Central Govt. under this Act include setting up of:

The standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes.

The maximum permissible limits of concentration of various environmental

pollutants (including noise) for different areas.

The procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances.

The prohibition and restrictions on the handling of hazardous substances in different

areas.

The prohibition and restriction on the location of industries and to carry on process
and operations in different areas.

The procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents which may cause
environmental pollution and providing for remedial measures for such accidents.

Under the Environmental (Protection) Rules, 1986 the State Pollution Control
Boards have to follow the guidelines provided under Schedule VI, some of which are
as follows:

They have to advise the Industries for treating the waste water and gases with the
best available technology to achieve the prescribed standards.

The industries have to be encouraged for recycling and reusing the wastes.

They have to encourage the industries for recovery of biogas, energy and reusable
materials.

While permitting the discharge of effluents and emissions into the environment, the
State Boards have to take into account the assimilative capacity of the receiving water
body.

The Central and State Boards have to emphasize on the implementation of clean
technologies by the industries in order to increase fuel efficiency and reduce the
generation of environmental pollutants.
Population Growth

The population growth or population change refers to the change in number of

inhabitants of a territory during a specific period of time. This change may be
positive as well as negative. It can be expressed either in terms of absolute numbers
or in terms of percentage.

Factors responsible for Population growth

Rise in the birth rate

Decline in the death rate

Food Production : High production of food and better technologies for storage,
processing and distribution.

Illiteracy : Illiteracy is another important cause of overpopulation. Those lacking

education fail to understand the need to prevent excessive growth of population.
They are unable to understand the harmful effects that overpopulation has.

Better medical facilities : With scientific and technological advancement, life

expectancy of humans have improved.

Migration : Immigration is a problem in some parts of the world. If the inhabitants of

various countries migrate to a particular part of the world and settle over there, the
area is bound to suffer from the ill effects of overpopulation.

Factors controlling Population growth

Famines in a country or state lead to destruction.

Natural calamities like floods, droughts, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions,

hurricanes etc. lead to death of thousands of people.

Epidemic diseases, endemic diseases wipe a big number of populations.

Wars cause heavy casualties.

Unnatural accidents caused during transportation, fires etc.

Variation of Population among nation

Different regions of the world find themselves at different stages of demographic
transition from high to low mortality and fertility.

Their growth path also differs considerably, resulting in significant shifts in the
geographical distribution of the worlds population.

At present the worlds population has crossed 7 billions. This existing population is
also not evenly distributed.

Less developed countries have 80% population while the developed countries have
only 20%.

Africa High population growth rate due to increased birth rate and decreasing
death rate.

Asia Densely populated. India and China together have 40% of the worlds
population.

America Thinly populated. Population may increase only due to migration.

Europe Population growth rate steady or declining.

Australia thinly populated.

Population Explosion

The unprecedented growth of human population at an alarming rate is referred to as

population explosion.

There has been a dramatic reduction in the doubling time of the global human
population. In the year 2000, the world population was 6.3 billion and it is predicted
to grow four times in the next 100 years, which is a cause of concern.

Effects of over population

Depletion of natural resources : The Earth can only produce a limited amount of
water and food, which is falling short of the current needs. Most of the
environmental damage being seen in the last fifty odd years is because of the growing
number of people on the planet.

Degradation of environment : With the overuse of coal, oil and natural gas, it has
started producing some serious effects on our environment. Rise in amount of CO2
emissions leads to global warming. Melting of polar ice caps, changing climate
patterns, rise in sea level are few of the consequences that we might we have to face
due to environment pollution.

Conflicts and Wars: Overpopulation in developing countries puts a major strain on

the resources it should be utilizing for development. Conflicts over water are
becoming a source of tension between countries, which could result in wars.

Rise in Unemployment: When a country becomes overpopulated, it gives rise to

unemployment as there fewer jobs to support large number of people. Rise in
unemployment gives rise to crime as people will steal various items to feed their
family and provide them basic amenities of life.

High Cost of Living : As difference between demand and supply continues to expand
due to overpopulation, it raises the prices of various commodities including food,
shelter and healthcare.

Measures to control over population

Various methods for discouraging population growth in shortest period are:

To educate the people about the abuses of overpopulation (Population education),

food production, self-employment.

To provide free family planning aids (Family planning methods).

Motivating people to undergo sterilization process (Birth control) .

More incentives to families observing family planning norms.

By imposing legal restrictions (by laws).

Family Welfare Programme

The United Nations projections about population stabilization of developed and

developing nations shows that developed nations have already achieved a
stabilization ratio* of 1 around the year 2000, which is more or less stabilized
indicating zero population growth.

[* = Stabilization ratio is derived by dividing crude birth rate by crude death rate]

Developing nations, on the other hand, is yet having a high stabilization ratio nearing
3. However, it is on a decline and is expected to lower down substantially by 2025.
Stabilization in developing nations is possible only through various family welfare
programmes.

National Family Welfare Programme

India launched the National Family Welfare Programme in 1951 and became the first
country in the world to implement the family welfare programme at government
level.

The Family Welfare Programme in India is recognised as a priority area, and is being
implemented as a 100% centrally sponsored programme.

It is aimed at achieving a higher end, i.e. to improve the quality of life of the people.
It includes education, nutrition, health, employment, womens welfare and right,
shelter, safe drinking water, and all other factors associated with the concept of
welfare.

Objectives of Family Welfare Programme

To promote the adoption of small family size norm, on the basis of voluntary
acceptance.

To promote the use of spacing methods.

To ensure adequate supply of contraceptives to all eligible couples within easy reach.

To arrange for clinical and surgical services so as to achieve the set targets.

Participation of voluntary organizations/local leaders/local self government in family

welfare programme at various levels.

Using the means of mass communication and interpersonal communication to

overcome the social and cultural hindrances in adopting the programme or extensive
use of public health education for family planning.

Strategies of Family Welfare Programme (FWP)

The following strategies have been adopted for the successful implementation of the
family welfare programme :
Integration with health services : Family Welfare Programme has been integrated
with other health services instead of being a separate service.

Integration with maternity and child health : FWP has been integrated with
maternity and child health (MCH). Public are motivated for post delivery
sterilization, abortion and use of contraceptives.

Concentration in rural areas : FWP are concentrated more in rural areas at the level
of sub entries and Primary Health Centres. This is in addition to hospitals at district,
state and central levels.

Literacy : There is a direct correlation between illiteracy and fertility. So stress and
priority is given for girls education. Fertility rate among educated females is low.

Breast feeding : Breast feeding is encouraged. It is estimated that about 5 million

births per annum can be prevented through breast feeding.

Raising the age for marriage : Under the Child marriage restraint bill (1978), the age
of marriage has been raised to 21 years for males and 18 years for females. This has
some impact on fertility.

Minimum needs Programme : It was launched in the Fifth Year Plan with an aim to
raise the economic standards. Fertility is low in higher income groups. So fertility
rate can be lowered by increasing economic standards.

Incentives : Monetary incentives have been given in family planning programmes,

especially for poor classes. But these incentives have not been very effective. So the
programme must be on voluntary basis.

Mass Media : Motivation through radio, television, cinemas, news papers, puppet
shows and folk dances is an important aspect of this programme.