Drilling is the cutting process of using a drill bit in a drill to cut or enlarge holes in solid

materials, such as wood or metal. Different tools and methods are used for drilling depending
on the type of material, the size of the hole, the number of holes, and the time to complete the
operation.

Drilling is a cutting process in which a hole is originated or enlarged by means of a

multipoint, fluted, end cutting tool. As the drill is rotated and advanced into the workpiece,
material is removed in the form of chips that move along the fluted shank of the drill. One
study[citation needed] showed that drilling accounts for nearly 90% of all chips produced[clarification
needed]
.

Contents
[hide]

1 Overview
o 1.1 Process Characteristics
o 1.2 Process Schematic
o 1.3 Workpiece Geometry
o 1.4 Machining operations for drilling
2 Setup and Equipment
3 Tool Style
4 Toolholding Methods
5 Workpieces
6 Common Geometry
7 Material
o 7.1 Drilling in metal
o 7.2 Drilling in wood
o 7.3 Drilling in stone
8 Microdrilling
9 Drilling as a Manufacturing Process
o 9.1 Operation definition
o 9.2 Hole making operations
o 9.3 Measuring drilling depth
o 9.4 Considerations for drilling
o 9.5 Center drilling
o 9.6 Deep hole drilling
o 9.7 Twist drill
o 9.8 Gun drilling
o 9.9 Trepanning
o 9.10 Power Requirements
10 Lubrication and Cooling
11 Time Calculations
12 Cost Elements
13 Safety
14 Workholding Methods
15 Tolerances and Surface Finish
16 Factors Affecting Process Results
o 16.1 Orbital drilling
 17 See also
18 References
19 External links

[edit] Overview
[edit] Process Characteristics

-Cutting tools or workpieces are rotated relative to each other.

-Creates or enlarges holes.

-Generates small burrs upon entry and more coarse burrs upon exit of the workpiece.

-Uses a multi-point rotating, fluted, end cutting tool (drill).[1]

-May produce coarse, helical feed marks, depending on machining parameters (feed, speed,
tool geometry, coolant, etc.)[1]

Drilling may affect the mechanical properties of the workpiece by creating low residual
stresses around the hole opening and a very thin layer of highly stressed and disturbed
material on the newly formed surface. This causes the workpiece to become more susceptible
to corrosion at the stressed surface.

[edit] Process Schematic

Drilling involves relative axial and rotations between the drill and the workpiece. Usually, the
drill rotates and proceeds into the workpiece, but sometimes the opposite is true. Chips are
removed by following along grooves of flutes in the drill. Although long spiral chips usually
result from drilling,adjustment of the feed rate can result in chips with a range of many
different shapes and sizes. Material of workpiece can also change the range of different chip
shapes and sizes. [1]

[edit] Workpiece Geometry

A drilled hole may be distinguished from one produced by piercing, casting, molding, torch
cutting, etc. by the presence of helical feed marks inside the hole and small burrs on the
workpiece as the drill enters and exits. Drilled holes are usually sharp around the edge where
the drill has entered the workpiece. [1]

[edit] Machining operations for drilling

Some of the basic drilling operations are:

a) Reaming - to provide better tolerance of its diameter and to improve the surface finish.

b) Tapping - to provide internal screw threads on an existing hole.

c) Counterboring - to provide a step hole in which a larger diameter follows a smaller
diameter partially into a hole.

d) Countersinking - similar to counterboring but the step in the hole is cone-shaped.

e) Centering - creating a hole to accurately establish its location for subsequent drilling.

f) Spotfacing - similar to milling where it is used to provide a flat machined surface on the
workpiece in the localized area.

[edit] Setup and Equipment

The drill press includes a drill head, Table, column, and base. A drill bit is gripped firmly in
the chuck, and the piece is positioned on the table. The drill head contains a drive motor, a
spindle, a feed mechanism, and a tool holding mechanism(chuck). The drill is advanced into
the workpiece by the feed mechanism. Regular shaped workpieces are held in a workholding
device. Irregular shaped workpieces are held in special fixtures. [1]

[edit] Tool Style

Different jobs require different types of drills, that is why there are so many different drill
types in many different shapes and sizes. Countersink or center drills are mainly used to
center holes very accurately. A more common drill is the twist drill, a drill that produces a
majority of drilled holes. Some specialty drills include subland, spade, and indexable drills.

[edit] Toolholding Methods

Drills are either straight shank or taper shank. Straight shank drills are often held in a keyless
chuck for quick load/unload time. Tapered shank drills are held in the female Morris taper in
the end of the machine tool spindle. Removal of the drill is accomplished by driving a tapered
drift through a hole in the spindle and against the end of the drill's tang.

[edit] Workpieces
A drilled hole can be distinguished from piercing, casting, molding, and torch cutting. Drilled
holes are usually sharp around where the drill entered the workpiece. The different pieces that
can be used are rods, plates, castings, extruded, and more.

[edit] Common Geometry

The diameter of most holes drilled are between 1/8 and 1 1/2 inches. Holes with diameters
greater or less than that may be obtained with special tooling. The diameter-to-length ratio is
usually between 1:1 and 1:10. Much higher ratios are possible (e.g., "aircraft-length" twist
drills, pressured-oil gun drills), but the higher the ratio, the greater the technical challenge of
producing good work.
The geometry of the drill bit used can vary from conventional twist drill bits, couterbores,
subland, or multidiameter drills, countersinks, spade drills, and many others. Each type has its
own purpose, it is possible to drill square and hexagon shaped holes using special equipment.

[edit] Material
[edit] Drilling in metal

High speed steel twist bit drilling into aluminium with methylated spirits lubricant

Under normal usage, swarf is carried up and away from the tip of the drill bit by the fluting of
the drill bit. The continued production of chips from the cutting edges produces more chips
which continue the movement of the chips outwards from the hole. This continues until the
chips pack too tightly, either because of deeper than normal holes or insufficient backing off
(removing the drill slightly or totally from the hole while drilling). Lubricants and coolants
(i.e. cutting fluid) are sometimes used to ease this problem and to prolong the tools life by
cooling and lubricating the tip and chip flow. Coolant is introduced via holes through the drill
shank (see gun drill). When cutting aluminum in particular, cutting fluid helps ensure a
smooth and accurate hole while preventing the metal from grabbing the drill bit in the process
of drilling the hole. Only a few drops are needed at a time.

Straight fluting is used for copper or brass, as this exhibits less tendency to "dig in" or grab
the material. If a helical drill (twist drill) is used then the same effect can be achieved by
stoning a small flat parallel with the axis of the drill bit.

For heavy feeds and comparatively deep holes oil-hole drills can be used, with a lubricant
pumped to the drill head through a small hole in the bit and flowing out along the fluting. A
conventional drill press arrangement can be used in oil-hole drilling, but it is more commonly
seen in automatic drilling machinery in which it is the workpiece that rotates rather than the
drill bit.

Peck Increments: If a peck cycle is needed while drilling a deep hole, the peck
increment should not exceed 1/2 the diameter of the drill.

Machinability Ratings

Aluminum - good to excellent

Brass - good to excellent

Cast Iron - fair to good

Mild Steel - fair to good

Stainless Steel - poor to fair

Plastics - good to excellent [1]

[edit] Drilling in wood

Wood being softer than most metals, drilling in wood is considerably easier and faster than
drilling in metal. Cutting fluids are not used or needed. The main issue in drilling wood is
assuring clean entry and exit holes and preventing burning. Avoiding burning is a question of
using sharp bits and the appropriate cutting speed. Drill bits can tear out chips of wood
around the top and bottom of the hole and this is undesirable in fine woodworking
applications.

The ubiquitous twist drill bits used in metalworking also work well in wood, but they tend to
chip wood out at the entry and exit of the hole. In some cases, as in rough holes for carpentry,
the quality of the hole does not matter, and a number of bits for fast cutting in wood exist,
including spade bits and self-feeding auger bits. Many types of specialised drill bits for
boring clean holes in wood have been developed, including brad-point bits, Forstner bits and
hole saws. Chipping on exit can be minimized by using a piece of wood as backing behind
the work piece, and the same technique is sometimes used to keep the hole entry neat.

Holes are easier to start in wood as the drill bit can be accurately positioned by pushing it into
the wood and creating a dimple. The bit will thus have little tendency to wander. In metal
working, an accurate position needs to be marked with a punch to avoid the bit wandering
from the desired position of the hole.

[edit] Drilling in stone

When drilling in stone, one must pay particular attention to the type of stone one drills into.
There are three different classifications of drill bits used for drilling into stone: soft, medium,
and hard. Soft formation rock bits are used in unconsolidated sands, clays, and soft
limestones, and red beds, etc. Medium formation bits are used in calcites, dolomites,
limestones, and hard shale, while hard formation bits are used in hard shale, calcites,
mudstones, cherty lime stones and hard and abrasive formations.

[edit] Microdrilling
Microdrilling refers to the drilling of holes less than 0.5 mm. Drilling of holes at this small
diameter presents greater problems since coolant fed drills cannot be used and high spindle
speeds are required. High spindle speeds that exceed 10,000 RPM also require the use of
balanced tool holders.

[edit] Drilling as a Manufacturing Process

[edit] Operation definition
Hole making is one of the most important machining operations in the manufacturing
process. Drilling is a multi-point cutting process. Holes serve a variety of functions including
but not limited to: fasteners for assembly, weight reduction, ventilation, access to other parts,
or simply for aesthetics. Reducing the weight of the object results in chips and burrs (at the
entrance and exit of the hole). The process of drilling requires either the drill piece or the
object being drilled to be rotated. Drilling can either create a new hole or enlarge an existing
one. Hole making or drilling is used in the production of almost any part conceivable and
those that aren't drilled are made with machines that have been drilled.[1]

[edit] Hole making operations

On most workpieces it is vitally important that the hole be drilled precisely in reference to the
x, y, z-axes. When possible drilled holes should be located perpendicular to the workpiece
surface. This is due to the large length-to-diameter ratio which causes the drill bit to be easily
deflected which can cause the hole to be misplaced, or the drill bit to break or fatigue.
Because there are so many types of production operations that involve making a variety of
holes in countless different materials, there are many methods for hole making.

[edit] Measuring drilling depth

Unless you are working with a very short workpiece, you will want to measure the depth of
the hole you are going to drill in order to stop at the desired depth. A depth gauge, a cylinder
of brass with a locking screw which slides on a piece of 1/16" drill rod about 3" long, is a
simple depth gauge. It is important to measure the depth of the hole you are going to make in
order to not damage or alter the final product.

[edit] Considerations for drilling

Because drilling can often be such a critical process there are a number of considerations that
should be taken in order to ensure the most accurate drill hole possible.

As mentioned before the hole and drill motion should be perpendicular to the surface of the
workpiece to reduce the tendency to fatigue or break the drill bit. This also helps to reduce
'walking' of the drill bit over the workpiece surface.

'Walk' is common when drilling small diameter holes. It is advantageous to create a

centering mark or feature during the casting or forging process. Creating a centering dimple
with a centering punch will also reduce the tendency to 'walk'.

The bottoms of the hole should match the standard drill point angles. Avoid flat bottom hole
or odd shapes.

Create through holes instead of blind holes when possible.

If a blind hole must be drilled and tapped, it should be drilled deeper than the tapped depth.

Holes that need to be reamed must also be initially drilled deeper than the reamed hole
depth.
 A part should be designed such that it won't need to be repositioned or manually moved
during the drilling process. This also reduces production time and overall cost.

Drill speed should be another consideration. Some materials like plastics as well as other
non-metals and some metals have a tendency to heat up enough to expand making the hole
smaller than desired.

Consideration of the effects on the work material properties. A mechanical effect of drilling
is a very thin layer of highly stressed and disturbed material created on new surface.
Increased probability of corrosion at stressed surface.

In considering the speed of the entire operation there are multiple factors needing to be
considered. Speed is of more concern when multiple cuts need to be made by machine. The
speed of a cut can be derived by Length of cut Feed rate. How quickly the drill can be
retracted from a cut is obtained by Length of cut Retract rate of the drill. How long it
takes to get a drill into position for all planned cuts is found by Number of holes Distance
between holes the drill's speed of Rapid travel. The drill's rpm is a approximated by 4
Cutting speed Diameter of the drill. The feed rate is a result of Feed per teeth
Number of teeth Rotations per minute.

In deciding which drill(s) to use it is important to consider the task at hand and evaluate
which drill would best accomplish the task. There are a variety of drill styles that each serve a
different purpose. The countersink (center drill) is used to ensure accurate positioning of a
hole. The subland drill is capable of drilling more than one diameter. The spade drill is used
to drill larger hole sizes. The indexable drill is useful in managing chips.[1]

[edit] Center drilling

The purpose of center drilling is to drill a hole smaller than the desired hole that will act as a
guide for drilling the final hole. While drilling the center hole one must remember to only
drill 3/4th of the way into the workpiece. Since the center hole is only a guide hole, there will
be no need to drill any further.

[edit] Deep hole drilling

Deep hole drilling makes reaching extreme depths possible. A high tech monitoring system is
used to control force, torque, vibration, and acoustic emission. The vibration is considered a
major defect in deep hole drilling which can often cause the drill to break. The monitoring
system is essential in this process for this reason. the coolant is used for this operation is more
than that of simple drilling process.

[edit] Twist drill

The most common type of drill is a standard-point twist drill. This type of drill is versatile
and can be used on a variety of materials such as wood, plastic, masonry, ceramic, and metal.
These drill bits have two spiral grooves running the length of the drill. These grooves aid in
transporting cutting fluid to the drill tip and in removing the chips from the hole. These types
of drill bits are held in chucks or collets on machines that are either hand-held or automated.
This type of drilling can often cause burrs at both the entrance and the exit of the hole and
parts will often need a subsequent deburring operation to smooth out the holes.
[edit] Gun drilling

Another type of drilling operation is called gun drilling. This method was originally
developed to drill out gun barrels and is used commonly for drilling smaller diameter deep
holes. This depth-to-diameter ratio can be even more than 300:1. The key feature of gun
drilling is that the bits are self-centering; this is what allows for such deep accurate holes. The
bits use a rotary motion similar to a twist drill however; the bits are designed with bearing
pads that slide along the surface of the hole keeping the drill bit on center. Gun drilling is
usually done at high speeds and low feed rates.

[edit] Trepanning

Trepanning is commonly used for creating larger diameter holes (up to 915 mm or 36 in)
where a standard drill bit is not feasible or economical. Trepanning removes the desired
diameter by cutting out a solid disk similar to the workings of a drafting compass. Trepanning
is performed on flat products such as sheet metal, granite(curling stone), plates, or structural
members like I-beams. Trepanning can also be useful to make grooves for inserting seals like
O-rings.

[edit] Power Requirements

To determine the Horsepower (hp) needed for doing the drilling, simply multiply the unit
power by the removal rate (in.^3/min)

General recommendations for speeds and feeds in drilling[2]

Workpiece Surface speed Feed, mm/rev Feed, mm/rev
rpm rpm
material (m/min, ft/min) (in/rev) (in/rev)
1.5 mm (0.060 12.5 mm (0.5 1.5 mm 12.5 mm
in) in) (0.060 in) (0.5 in)
Aluminium 6,400-
30-120, 100-400 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 800-3,000
alloys 25,000
Magnesium 9,600-
45-120, 150-400 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 1,100-3,000
alloys 25,000
3,200-
Copper alloys 15-60, 50-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.25 (0.010) 400-1,500
12,000
Steels 20-30, 60-100 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 4,300-6,400 500-800
Stainless steels 10-20, 60-100 0.025 (0.001) 0.18 (0.007) 2,100-4,300 250-500
Titanium alloys 6-20, 20-60 0.010 (0.0004) 0.15 (0.006) 1,300-4,300 150-500
4,300-
Cast irons 20-60, 60-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 500-1,500
12,000
6,400-
Thermoplastics 30-60, 100-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.13 (0.005) 800-1,500
12,000
4300-
Thermosets 20-60, 60-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.10 (0.004) 500-1,500
1,2000

Tool Geometry
MATERIAL Point Angle Helix Angle Lip Relief Angle
Aluminum 90 to 135 32 to 48 12 to 26
Brass 90 to 118 0 to 20 12 to 26
Cast Iron 90 to 118 24 to 32 7 to 20
Mild Steel 118 to 135 24 to 32 7 to 24
Stainless Steel 118 to 135 24 to 32 7 to 24
Plastics 60 to 90 0 to 20 12 to 26

[1]

[edit] Lubrication and Cooling

Cutting fluids for drilling include mineral, synthetic, and water-solube oils. Application of
these fluids is usually done by flooding the workpiece or by applying a spray mist. The main
function of cutting fluids is to cool the tool, which increases tool life and makes higher
cutting feeds and speeds possible. Some secondary benefits are chip removal and lubrication,
which contribute to better workpiece surface finish.[1]

[edit] Time Calculations

When calculating the time needed to drill. use these formulas.

Cutting Time: L/F

Retract Time: L/T

Positioning TIme: H(S/R)

rpm: 4xv/D

Feed Rate: FxNxrpm

D = Diameter of tool

A = Approach time

O = Over-travel

F = Feed rate

V = Cutting Speed

r = Retract rate

H = Number of Holes
S = Distance to next Hole

R = Rapid travel

f = Feed per tooth

N = Number of teeth

L = Length of cut

d = Depth of Hole
[1]

[edit] Cost Elements

Cost elements include the following:

setup time.
load/unload time.
Idle time.
Cutting time.
Tool costs.
Direct labor rate.
Overhead rate.
Amortization of equipment and tooling.[1]

[edit] Safety
Risks should be taken into consideration when drilling. Quickly rotating tools, hot sharp
chips expelled from the workpiece, and skin irritation from cutting fluids all create situations
that could pose a problem for the operator.

[edit] Workholding Methods

General purpose vises such as those shown may be used to hold the workpiece during.
Frequently, jigs and fixtures are designed for a specific workpiece and operation. Some
factors to consider when designing jigs and fixtures are number of parts to be drilled, rigidity,
strength, accuracy of location, workpiece clamping method, chip control, and ease of
operation.

[edit] Tolerances and Surface Finish

Shown are the tolerances that may be obtained with a twist drill with and without the use of a
bushing and/or center drilling. For greater accuracy, center drilling should be performed prior
to drilling, or a drill bushing should be used. Surface finishing may range from 32 to 500
microinches, with the range usually between 63 and 50 microinches. Finish cuts will generate
surfaces near 32 microinches, and roughing will be near 500 microinches.
[edit] Factors Affecting Process Results
Tolerance and surface finish depend upon the following: Tool geometry Cutting speed and
feed rate Rigidity of tool, workpiece, and machine Alignment of machine components and
fixtures Cutting Fluid Composition and hardness of the workpiece Accuracy of point angle,
lip clearance, and lip length[1]

[edit] Orbital drilling

A drilling procedure developed for use in composite materials, orbital drilling removes
material both axially and radially by rotating the cutting tool about its axis while also moving
it eccentrically about the desired axis of the hole being machined. This procedure differs from
a milling machine, because the cutting tool is advanced through the material similar to a
regular drill press, producing a smooth hole that is larger than the diameter of the cutting tool
(the difference between tool size and hole size is a function of the eccentric offset).[3] This
procedure produces smaller chips, requires smaller axial force, removes chips better and
reduces heat buildup during the cutting process.

[edit] See also

Boring

[edit] References
1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Todd, Robert H and Allen, Dell K. Manufacturing Processes
Reference Guide. 1994. pg. 4348. Industrial Press Inc.
2. ^ Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Kalpakjian, Schmid, 2006
3. ^ Orbital Drilling Goes Mainstream for the Dreamliner, Aerospace Engineering &
Manufacturing, SAE International Publications, March 2009, p. 32

[edit] External links

Boring (manufacturing)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

In machining, boring is the process of enlarging a hole that has already been drilled (or cast),
by means of a single-point cutting tool (or of a boring head containing several such tools), for
example as in boring a cannon barrel. Boring is used to achieve greater accuracy of the
diameter of a hole, and can be used to cut a tapered hole.

Contents
[hide]

1 Machine boring
2 Lathe boring2
o 2.1 Tolerances and surface finish
o 2.2 Workholding methods
o 2.3 Effects on work material properties
o 2.4 Time calculations
3 See also
4 References

[edit] Machine boring

The boring process can be carried out on a lathe for smaller operations, but for larger
production pieces a special boring mill (work piece rotation around a vertical axis) or a
horizontal boring machine (rotation around horizontal axis) are used. The dimensions
between the piece and the tool bit can be changed about two axes to cut both vertically and
horizontally into the internal surface. The cutting tool is usually single point, made of M2 and
M3 high-speed steel or P10 and P01 carbide. A tapered hole can also be made by swiveling
the head.

The boring machines (similar to the milling machines such as the classic Van Norman) come
in a large variety of sizes and styles. Boring operations on small workpieces can be carried
out on a lathe while larger workpieces are machined on boring mills. Work piece diameters
are commonly 1-4m (3-12 ft) but can be as large as 20m (60ft). Power requirements can be as
much as 200 hp. Cooling of the bores is done through a hollow passageway through the
boring bar where coolant can flow freely. Tungsten-alloy disks are sealed in the bar to
counteract vibration and chatter during boring. The control systems can be computer-based,
allowing for automation and increased consistency.

Because boring is meant to decrease the product tolerances on pre-existing holes, several
design considerations must be made. First, large length-to-bore-diameters are not preferred
due to cutting tool deflection. Next, through holes are preferred over blind holes (holes that
do not traverse the thickness of the work piece). Interrupted internal working surfaces
where the cutting tool and surface have discontinuous contactshould be avoided. The
boring bar is the protruding arm of the machine that holds cutting tool(s), and must be very
rigid.1

[edit] Lathe boring2

Lathe boring is a cutting operation that uses a single-point cutting tool to produce conical and
cylindrical surfaces by enlarging an existing opening in a workpiece. The cutting tool moves
parallel to the axis of rotation and will internal helical feed marks. To produce a taper, the
cutting tool moves at an angle to the axis of rotation. Mechanical boring operations
performed on a lathe are used to manufacture components for a number of industries ranging
from automotive and aerospace to recreational equipment and medical suppliers. Geometries
ranging from simple to extremely complex in a variety of diameters can be produced using
boring applications. Boring is one of the most basic lathe operations next to turning and
drilling.

Lathe boring usually requires that the workpiece be held in the chuck and rotated. As the
workpiece is rotated, a boring bar with an insert attached to the tip of the bar is fed into an
existing hole. When the cutting tool engages the workpiece, a chip is formed. Depending on
the type of tool used, the material, and the feed rate, the chip may be continuous or
segmented. The surface produced is called a bore.

The geometry produced by lathe boring is usually of two types: straight holes and tapered
holes. Several diameters can also be added to each shape hole if required. To produce a taper,
the tool may be fed at an angle to the axis of rotation or both feed and axial motions may be
concurrent. Straight holes and counterbores are produced by moving the tool parallel to the
axis of workpiece rotation.

A woman machinist operating a gun turning lathe during World War II.

[edit] Tolerances and surface finish

For most lathe boring applications, tolerances are held within +/-0.002in. for deep holes. For
precision applications, tolerances can be held within +/-0.0005in. only for shallow holes.
Surface finish may range from 8 to 250 microinches, with a typical range between 32 and 125
microinches.

[edit] Workholding methods

The three most commonly used workholding devices are the three-jaw chuck, the four-jaw
chuck, and the face plate. The three-jaw chuck is used to hold round workpieces because the
work is automatically centered. The four-jaw chuck is used to hold irregular shapes because
of its independent action on each jaw. The face plate is also used for irregular shapes that
need to be through-bored.

[edit] Effects on work material properties

Residual surface stresses may create microcracking. Dull tools may cause workhardening of
some materials, and high temperatures may cause tempering of hardened materials. Lathe
boring has little effect on either the physical or chemical properties.

[edit] Time calculations

Speed, feed rate, retract rate, and length of cut are major variables for economic machining.
Feed Rate(ipr) = F. Retract Rate(ipm) = R. Length of Cut(in.) = L. Boring Time=L/F. Retract
Time=L/R.

[edit] See also

Lathe

[edit] References
1
Kalpakjian, Schmid. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall, 2001.
2
Todd, Robert H.; Allen, Dell K. (1994). Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide.. New York:
Industrial Press.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boring_(manufacturing)"

Categories: Drilling and threading