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The scientist seldom observe facts directly as they are but creates
circumstances that isolates only the details that the scientist wants
to observe. This is how the complexity of the world is handled.
The scientist may try to modify the world and then observe what
happens. This is an example of even further intervention in the world
3 Experiment
Its not just facts that are needed, but relevant facts.
It may be necessary to manipulate variables. Some variables are held
constant and some are manipulated and then it is easier to draw
conclusions
Scientific results come more from experiments than from observable
facts.
The acceptability of experimental results is theory driven.
The stock of available experimental results is constantly updated. Old
results are rejected and new are proposed because of: 1) new
measurements, 2)New knowledge and understanding of the problem
The relationship between theory and experiment may involve a
circular argument
4 Induction
5 Falsificationism
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offered as a replacement
Ad-Hoc modifications of theories are those with no testable
consequences
Both the inductivist and the falsificationist view of confirmation is
needed
Sophisticated falsificationism does not need credit from repetition as
does induction
7 Limitations of falsificationism
crisis
revolution
new normal science
new crisis
etc....
The paradigm distinguishes science from non-science. According to
Kuhn, Sociology lacks a paradigm
All paradigms will contain some anomalies but this does not mean
that the paradigm should be falsified. There will always be anomalies
Periods of normal science provide the opportunity for scientists to
develop the esoteric details of the science
The weakness of Kuhn is that it is not possible to find out whether
one paradigm is better than another. It depends on the values of the
group or of society.
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program should have been eliminated since Lakatos claims that all
programs that do not have a hard-core should be eliminated.
Lakatos based it all on physics and claimed that science must share
the basic characteristic of physics
History:
Science is special because it is derived from facts. This was
false since facts are theory dependent
Falsification failed since science it not able to locate the cause of
a faulty prediction
Kuhn and Lakatos tried to solve the problem by focusing on the
theoretical framework in which the scientist work, but Kuhns
theory failed since who knows which program is better than
another?, and Lakatos failed because it was so lax that no
intellectual pursuits could be ruled out
Feyerabend claimed that there exist nothing like a scientific
method that is useful for scientists
The principle was "anything goes"
Feyerabend shoed that all progress in science has not been the
results from following any type of scientific method. If the
method cannot even make sense of Galileo's innovations the
method is not applicable.
Some scientific programs cannot be compared since they are
based on entirely different perspectives and thus the scientists
cannot communicate with each other.
Feyerabend criticized Kuhns proposal about consensus as a
criteria since it did not rule out politicking or crime
Feyerabend claimed that holding the scientific method as a
morel is dangerous because this would inhibit more than it would
help
F. proposed a humanitarian attitude, the cultivation of
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