Dehydration: The Key to Desalting Heavy Crudes

William A. Heimbaugh, Manager, Business Development Henry B. Jones, Jr., Product Manager

Howe-Baker Engineers, Inc. Tyler, Texas

@ 1998 Howe-Baker Engineers, Inc.

Presented at
the AlChE 1998 Spring National Meeting
New Orleans, LA - March 8-12,1998
ABSTRACT

Refiners today are processing heavier, more viscous, conductive, solids-laden crudes at higher throughputs in order to improve
profitability. A large percentage of these lower-cost feedstocks are South American, Middle East, and Canadian crudes. Many of
these crudes are less than 20'API and often require dfluents for suitable processing with existing equipment The increased demand
placed on refinery desalting facilities when processing these heavy crude feedstocks has underscored the need for optimum desalting
performance. Although it is easy to focus on salt removal when evaluating desalting system requirements for heavy crude
applications, it is important to remember that effective dehydration of the crude feedstock is the key to successful desalting. Without
proper dehydration, desalting efficiency will be lower than desired, and the desalted product may not meet desired specifications. In
addition, the role of power consumption cannot be overlooked when analyzing system requirements.

CHANGING NEEDS OF TBE REFINER

In order to improve refinery profitability, a large percentage of oil companies are changing their crude slate to accommodate
lower-cost feedstocks. Most of these feedstocks originate from South America (particularly Mexico and Venezuela), the Middle East,
and Canada. These lower-cost feedstocks are usually much heavier than feedstocks historically processed by the refiner. Many of the
feedstocks under consideration are less thari 20' API gravity and often require diluents for suitable processing. These feedstocks are
also more viscous than previous refinery crude slates and usually require significantly higher operating temperatures (275 - 300*F)
for optimum desalting. These feedstocks often contain a significant quantity of solids that may adversely affect desalter operation and
interface level control due to formation of "rag7' layers. These troublesome layers may also decrease water phase residence time in
the desalter.

The heavy feedstocks under consideration by the refiner in today's marketplace are also more conductive than historical, crude
slates. For example, Venezuelan crudes such as Merey, Cerro Negro, and other crudes firom. the Orinoco belt may be twice as
conductive as existing crude slates. If a diluent is used for viscosity reduction of these heavy feedstocks, the conductivity of the
feedstock will increase even more. Blencling effects may also add to overall feedstock conductivity The elevated conductivity of the
heavy oil feedstock significantly increases the electrical demand on desalting facilities. Accordingly, larger warisactors (combination
transformer and current limiting reactor units) are usually required to process the new feedstock slate.

The significant difference in physical and electrical properties of these heavy feedstocks is not the only problem impacting future
refinery desalter operation. Refiners are also striving to achieve higher capacity levels. In addition, process specifications are
becoming more stringent and environmental pressures are calling for desalter wash water rates to be decreased. The net effect of all
of these changes is that refiners typically face a serious shortfall in existing desalter capacity in order to meet required process
specifications. Some refiners are able to meet the process requirements by upgrading their existing desalters to current technology;
however, in many instances, new desalter vessels are required. In any case, the "do more with less" philosophy that many refiners are
forced to adopt requires that desalter operation be optimized at a
capital investment The key to optimizing desalter operation is to maximize dehydration efficiency.
DESALTINGPRINCIIPLES

The basis of electrical desalting is the resolution of oil-water emulsions through application of a high-voltage electrical field. Salts
such as sodium~ calcium, and magnesium chlorides are generally contained in the residual water suspended in the oil phase. All
crudes also contain, as mechanical suspensions, impurities such as silt, iron oxides, and sand; heavy or reduced crudes may also
contain crystalline salt These undesirable components can be removed from crudes by dissolving them in wash water and/or causing
them to become water wetted. Emulsion formation is the best way to produce intimate contact between oil, its impurities, and the
wash water. In order to establish a stable emulsion, a defined amount of wash water is added to the crude oil and is thoroughly mixed
with the oil via a mixing system (mixing valve, static mixer or combination thereof). The degree of mixing (i.e. control of the
properties of the emulsion formed) is obtained by adjusting the pressure drop across the mixing system. Separation of the emulsion
via electrical coalescing (i.e. dehydration) ultimately removes the impurities.

The separation rate of the oil-water emulsion, which results in the precipitation of the heavier discontinuous water phase, depends on
the velocity at which water droplets fall from the crude under the influence of gravity. Tins is described by Stoke's Law as follows:

kD2-(p w - p 0) (1)
V
where: V relative
velocity of water droplet falling through
the oil phase
D diameter of water droplet
PW density of water
PO density of off
9' viscosity of oil
k constant

Stoke's Law indicates that the water droplet settling rate can be greatly accelerated by increasing the water droplet size. Use of an
electrostatic field expedites the coalescence of small water droplets into larger drops. Although viscosity and density differential also
affect settling rate, these factors will remain constant for a given crude feedstock and operating temperature.

PARANIETERS AFFECTING DESALTER OPERATION

Tempe

As Stoke's Law suggests, the water droplet settling rate is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the crude oil. Accordingly, an
increase in temperature will accelerate the water droplet settling rate via crude viscosity reduction, and dehydration/desalting
efficiency will be improved. This is why higher temperatures are generally required when desalting heavy crudes. Desalter
temperature for heavy feedstocks is usually capped at 300IF (or slightly above). This is due to two reasons: (1) the conductivity of the
crude feedstock becomes excessive at higher temperature, and (2) mechanical limitations of the desalter insulator and bushing
components.

Crude Oil QMv~i~ and Viscos

Crude oil gravity and viscosity are the primary parameters that determine the allowable desalting capacity for a given feedstock at
the desired operating conditions. For revamp or retrofit applications, these factors determine if the feedstock(s) under consideration
can be processed in the existing vessels and meet desired product specifications. For new applications, they determine the vessel
size(s) required for the project. For heavy crude desalting applications, the viscosity of the feedstock usually has to be decreased via
higher operating temperatures. In some cases, the use of a diluent is also required to increase crude oil API gravity and further
reduce crude oil viscosity.
Residence

Residence time inside the desalter vessel is a function of the size of the vessel and the design of the distribution system. Dehydration
efficiency is increased as vessel size and/or residence tune inside the vessel increases. If vessel sizes are equal, the crude oil residence
time for a Howe-Baker desalter is greater fim that for competitive desalters, due to the Howe-Baker inlettoutlet distribution header
design.

N~ Gradient -The "Driving Force" For Coalescence

The voltage gradient between the electrode grids inside the desalter provides the "driving force" for coalescence of the
oillwater emulsion. Electrical cuff ent (am s) does not pMmote coalesc ; it only increases operating costs. The voltage
gradient is determined by a combination of factors including electrode grid configuration, secondary voltage level, and
transactor KVA capacity. The type of inlet distribution header also affects the voltage gradient: this will be discussed later in
this paper. Since the voltage produces coalescence, the dehydration efficiency of an electrical desalter is highly dependent
upon optimizing the voltage gradient between the electrode grids.

Wash Water Addition

The amount of wash water added to the crude plays a significant role in determining salt removal efficiency. Most desalter vessels
are designed to "dehydrate' the crude to a given insoluble water content (typically less than 0.5 vol.% for crudes below 20* API
gravity). Therefore, as the amount of wash water is increased, the dehydration efficiency (and salt removal efficiency) is
proportionally increased.

Mixing System Pressure Dro

The pressure drop across the mixing system should be adequate to thoroughly distribute the crude oil impurities in the wash water.
Optimum pressure drops will generally be in the range of 5 to 20 psi. If the pressure drop is too low, salt removal efficiency will be
significantly less than dehydration efficiency. If pressure drop is too high, desalter outlet water contents will increase and
dehydration and salt removal efficiency will decrease (due to the fonnation of emulsions that are more difficult to coalesce).

Chemical Treatment

Demulsifier chemicals are commonly used in desalter operation to assist in oil -water separation, especially where extremely low oil
levels are required in the effluent water (brine). Wetting agents may also be added to assist in breaking solids out of the oil phase and
"rag" layers. The local chemical supplier should determine the type and amount of these chemicals.

Others

Other factors that, to a lesser degree, affect desalter performance include feedstock salt content, feedstock water content and quality
(chloride content) of wash water. Operating pressure does not affect desalter performance, provided that it is above the vapor
pressure of the crude water mixture at the operating temperature.

DEHYDRATION VERSUS DESALTING

Efficient dehydration of the crude oil is essential in achieving good desalting performance. Without effective dehydration, salt
removal percentages will be lower than desired, and the desalted crude may not meet the required specifications. Dehydration
efficiency can also be utilized to gauge the performance of the electrical desalter when salt removal efficiency is less than expected.
The relationships defined below can be useful in troubleshooting desalter operation.

In a single-stage desalter, the dehydration efficiency can be determined as follows:

Dehyd. Eff (%) (Wi - WO) (100) (2)

(Wi)
 where: Wi Water In (Wash Water + Inlet BS&W)
Wo Water Out (Desalted Crude BS&W)

Dehydration efficencies for a given desalter stage are usually in. the 95-99% range. Assuming perfect mixing1contact, theoretical
(maximum) salt removal efficiency is equivalent to (but cannot be greater than) dehydration efficiency:

Max Salt Rem. Eff. Dehyd. Eff. (3)

The actual salt removal efficiency will generally be less than the dehydration efficiency because perfect mixing/contact is not
normally achieved. The actual salt removal can be determined as follows:

Actual Salt Rein. Eff. (Si - So) (100) (4)

(Si)

where: Si Salt In.

So Salt Out

Typical desalting efficiency for a single stage unit is 90-95% and for a two-stage unit is 99%. However, as inlet salt content
decreases, the difference between actual salt removal efficiency and theoretical salt removal (i.e. dehydration efficiency) becomes
greater.

It is often difficult to calculate the desalting efficiency from Equation (4) due to uncertainty regarding the accuracy of the salt out
data. This is especially true for desalting applications involving very low salt levels (< I PTB). An extraction/titration procedure
should always be used for measurement of low salt levels. The conductivity method that is widely used in the field should not be used
for low level salt measurement.

When the accuracy of the test data is questionable, the theoretical outlet salt content can be determined as follows:

So (WO) (Si) (5)

(Wi)

When refiners experience less than desired salt removal efficiencies, they quite often question the mechanical operation of the
electrical desalter without first determining the dehydration efficiency of the unit Dehydration efficiency should always be compared
with desalting efficiency when troubleshooting a desafter. If the dehydration efficiency is satisfactory, then the desalter vessel, its
internals, electrical equipment etc. are doing their i . The inefficient salt removal is, thus, resulting from process parameters outside
the vessel. If the dehydration efficiency is lower than. expected, the problem may be found either inside or outside the desalter vessel.

Inefficient Salt Removal -- Efficient Deh

adrati
Lon

In some cases, dehydration of the feedstock will be excellent, while salt removal will be lower than expected. This situation is usually
caused by factors external to the desalter vessel. These factors include the following: (a) the mixing system (mix valve) pressure drop
may not be optimized and needs to be increased, (b) the wash water addition rate may be too low, (c) the salt analysis data may be
inaccurate, and (d) the wash water chloride content may be too high.

Inefficient Dghydration and Salt Removal

If the dehydration efficiency of an electrical desalter is poor, then the salt removal efficiency will likewise be unsatisfactory. An
existing desalter may exhibit poor dehydration because the vessel is simply too small for current operating conditions and crude
feedstocks. This scenario is very common when existing desalters (designed for lighter, less-conductive crudes) are being utilized to
process heavy crudes. Existing transactors may also be undersized, considering the higher feedstock conductivity and operating
temperature. In this event, the amperage increases and the voltage decreases. Thus, the voltage gradient across the electrode grids is
insufficient to promote satisfactory coalescing. The pressure drop across the mixing valve may also be too high, causing a higher
than normal water content in the desalted crude.
The location of the desalter inlet distribution header will also influence dehydration efficiency in desalters processing heavy
feedstocks. Header designs that distribute the entire oil-water emulsion directly between the electrode grids will have a reduced
voltage gradient and/or will consume more power during normal operation than header designs that distribute the emulsion below
the electrode grids. Furthermore, they are susceptible to additional voltage gradient decreases caused by upsets such as water slugs,
tight emulsions, feedstock changes (tank bottoms), etc. Thus, injecting the entire emulsion directly between the electrode grids can
lead to reduced dehydration efficiency Conversely, header designs like HoweBaker's, that distribute the oil-water emulsion below the
electrode grids, provide a "buffer zone" to help neutralize the negative effects of upset conditions. This design approach also results
in less water in the high-intensity electrical fields (between the electrodes) during normal operation.

Dehydration Efficiency CmRan

:son -- Case

Direct comparisons of competitive desalters operating on equivalent bases are rare. However, operating data from a West Coast
refinery desalter application (where siinilar conditions e2dst) indicates that the dcbydration cfficiency of a Howe-Baker desalter is
greater compared to that of a competitor's unit. In this particular case, a Howe-Baker and a Bilectric(D desalter were operated in
series on the same crude unit. Both desalters are the'same size and process the same crude feedstock at the same charge rate.
Performance data collected in 1995 during normal operation indicates better dehydration efficiency for the Howe-Baker unit The
results are summarized in Table 1:

Table 1: PERFORMANCE DATA - WEST COAST REFINERY

Howe-Baker

Vessel Size 12' I.D. x 80' T/T 12' I.D. x 80' T/T
Transactors 3 x 100 KVA 3 x 100 KVA
Wash Water Rate, Vol. % 5.0 5.0
Outlet BS&W, Vol. % 0.21 0.34
Dehydration Efficiency, % 95.9 93.5

THE ROLE OF POWER CONSUWTION IN BEAVY CRUDE DESALTNG

As previously discussed, voltage (not electrical current) provides the driving force for coalescence. However, increased power
consumption (amps) is an unfortunate result of desalting heavy crudes. This is because the heavy oil feedstocks currently under
consideration by most refiners are much more conductive than traditional lighter crudes. 'fhe electrical impact of these feedstocks on
desalters and related plant equipment (tansactors, feeder cables, switchgear, etc.) can be significant

The primary factors affecting power consumption in an electrical desalter are as follows:

Conductivity of dry crude at the operating temperature

Water content of crudetemulsion in electrical fields

Electrode grid area

Electrical field intensity

The conductivity of the crude oil is the primary factor influencing power consumption in a desalter. Unfortunately, conductivity data
on most feedstocks is not readily available. In order to assess the conductivity of a given feedstock, the desalter suppliers will
typically run a resistivity test (inverse of conductivity) on the subject feedstock. If the refiner's projected crude slate is a crude blend
or contains a diluent, the sample to be analyzed in the laboratory must reflect these components in the appropriate proportion. Figure
I depicts resistivity curves versus temperature for three potential feedstocks. Note that the feedstock blend is less resistive (i.e. more
conductive) than either of the individual components.
 Figure 1: RESISTIVITY CURVES

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CO ------------
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: : :::::
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4 --------
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3 -------------------------------- - - -- ---- ----

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2 -------------- ...............---- ------ ----
0 ...................................... -- ----- ------
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------
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0 -, , ----- ----- * ------

100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320

Tamp (F)

Power consumed due to water in the -h_L-h M*ensity electrical fields is basically a f iniction of how the oil-water mixture is
injected into the desalter vessel. In a Howe-Baker desalter, the crude-water emulsion is distributed above the water interface
level but below the bottom electrical grid. By the time the emulsion reaches the high intensi electrical fields between the
ity electrode grids, a large majority of
the water has been coalesced and removed from the oil. Therefore, the amount of water that actually enters the high intensity
electrical fields is relatively low. Conversely, there is several times as much water in the high intensity fields of desalters that inject
the oil-water emulsion directly between or above the grids. This means that
power consumption is significantly higher for these desalters ff all other conditions are equal. Conversely, ff relative power
consumption is equal, then the driving force for coalescence (voltage gradient) is significantly lower in the desalters that inject all of
the emulsion directly between or above the grids.

Power consumption will obviously increase as the grid area increases and the intensity increases. Grid area is a function of vessel
size, location of grids in the vessel and the number of grids. Intensity is a function of the secondary voltage level applied to the
electrode grids, the electrode grid configuration (hot-hot, hot-ground, etc.) and the spacing between the electrode grids.

CONCLUSION

When comparing the performance of competitive desalter designs, the desalter that provides the best dehydration efficiency will
provide the best desalting performance. Dehydration efficiency is maxiinized in Howe-Baker, electrical desalters due to
the combination of Howe-Baker's crude oil distribution system, the EDGM (Enhanced Deqp-Gfid Electrode) design, and transactor
design. Although direct comparisons on equivalent bases are rare, operating data from one "apples-to-apples" comparison between a
Howe-Baker and a competitive desalter design clearly shows that the dehydration efficiency of the Howe-Baker desalter is greater.