A Pole Star A First Look on Kroemers Nobel Lecture

On the occasion of receiving the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics, along with Zhores I. Alferov,
for the contributions in developing semiconductor heterostructures, Dr. Herbert
Kroemer addresses his original generalization of the design principle of heterostructure
devices, and his following work on heterostructures [1].

Heterostructures (HSs), as defined by Kroemer, are heterogeneous semiconductor

structures built from two or more different semiconductors, in such a way that the
transition region or interface between the different materials plays an essential role in
any device action. Common materials used in HSs are compound semiconductors or
their alloys composed of elements spreading from column II to VI, satisfying the closed-
shell configuration when atoms are covalently bonded in the crystals formed, e.g., GaAs
and AlxGa1-xAs.

When heterogeneous materials with different band structures are grown together, a
quasielectric field, as coined by Kroemer, develops at the interface between the two
materials. These quasielectric fields provide more degrees of control of electron and
hole carriers inside semiconductors than external electric fields can do. On the other
hand, the whole band structure is by somehow aligning the individual band structures
involved, with transition region, which can be smooth or quite abrupt. In terms of band
alignment or band offsets, HSs can be divided into three categories shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Straddling, staggered, and broken-gap lineups [1]

With different HSs, we can manipulate the behavior of electrons and holes differently in
different applications. One outstanding example of the power of HSs is its success in
room-temperature lasers, which are impossible to make with other technologies, at
least by now. To obtain laser action, population inversion must be realized. In a well
structure which is formed by two straddling HSs, both electrons and holes are injected
into and confined within the narrow gap region, enabling population inversion with
continuous carrier injection.

In order to make a working HS, lattice matching is required ( 0.01 or 0.2 %). But in
HSs made in very thin layers, lattice mismatch may not be a serious issue. Another issue
one should be concerned about when making HS is valence matching, that is, each
covalent bonds formed by atoms from heterogeneous materials should be provided
exactly two electrons. Successful growth of HSs was not so easy until the emergence of
Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) and Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD).
Different effort was made to determining band offsets. A quite satisfying example is
Capacitance-Voltage (C-V) profiling.

Besides the scientific development of heterostructures, without which modern

optoelectronic devices might never be possible, Kroemer tried to make a point, perhaps
more importantly, that we should not judge any new technologies, which can easily
prohibit the progress of a wonderful technology.

In another word, a pole star, when it was born, didnt know what it could do for human
beings on earth, nor might it even know it could be seen by any human being from
somewhere in the universe, but a person who is looking for direction in the dark and
knows its existence may look for it.

[1] Kroemer, Herbet. Reviews of Modern Physics, Vol. 73, July 2001