What kind of Music?

Author(s): Franco Fabbri and Iain Chambers

Source: Popular Music, Vol. 2, Theory and Method (1982), pp. 131-143
Published by: Cambridge University Press
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Whatkindof music?

by FRANCO FABBRI

'What kindofmusic?' This question has been put to me byhundredsof

people, always fordifferent reasons: by fellowtrainpassengers who
want to know what I do; by hi-fidealers anxious to advise on the right
type of speakers forlisteningto my recordcollection;in recordshops
when I enquire about the latestreleases; by theatremanagers when I
have asked to hire theirpremises fora concert;by a young spectator
while I am tuningup my '63 Stratocaster;by othermusicians when I
have asked to join a group; by civilservantsrespondingto myapplica-
tionfora stategrant;by sound engineerswhen I have hireda recording
studio or amplificationsystem; by the RAI* when I have proposed
programmesor when I am engaged as a guitaristand they want to
determine how much I should be paid; by policemen and frontier
guards throughoutEurope when I go throughcustomswithmyinstru-
ments and identitycard on which is written:'Profession:Musician'.
Some years ago on the way to Reims, where the group Stormy
Six/MacchinaMaccheronicawas goingfora concert,a stern'flic'halted
our minibusand his firstquestion to me was: 'Quel genrede musique?'
The reader, ifhe or she has a professionalinterestin music, will have
been continuallyconfrontedwith the question of musical types or
genres and will understand the sense of nervousness one feels (1)
when one is involved in several types of activitythat all lead to this
question, (2) when one has to replyin a foreignlanguage, and, above
all, (3) when one does not know how to reply.
These three factorsconstitutethe psychologicalmotivationwhich
has encouraged me to research into musical genres. Here I want to
presenta surveyofthisresearchand, as we shall see, somethingmore.
Given thata systematicaccount of thiswork is already available else-
where (Fabbri1982), I shall not repeatthedeductiveframework elabor-
ated there. I propose instead to offera series of examples drawing
upon an inductivemodel which captures the same trainof thought,
but is more capable ofdealing withthe suspicious and inquisitivetone
of the question: 'Quel genre de musique?'

* Puttingit simply, the RAI (RadiotelevisioneItaliana) is the Italian equivalent of the

BBC. It controlsthe threenational televisionand the threeradio networks. (trans.)

131

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132 FrancoFabbri

The unintended comic element involved when a policeman asks a

musician what typeofmusic he or she plays can onlybe appreciated-
in order to avoid problemswith the law - somewhat later:when, for
instance, one can consider the violation of social norms which has
takenplace, normsprescribingthatsuch a question should be put to a
group by a journalistand not by a 'flic'.But at the timethe question is
extremelyserious, and we know well enough what it implies: if the
reply is 'classical music', there should be no problems, but we can
easily imaginethereactionofthegendarme to responses like'hard rock'
or 'reggae' - a breathalyserforthe driverand a general search of the
minibus.
Obviously a gendarmewho is reallywell prepared would not even
have to ask thequestion. He would alreadybe in a positionto decipher
the various indications: clothes, haircut,reading matter,behaviour,
etc.
Butthisis trueforwhoever asks thatquestion: frequentlythereplyis
expected onlyto confirmwhat has alreadybeen understoodfromother
evidence.
We must conclude thata musical genre has different meanings for
different people or at least that,even ifit can denote
the same thingfor
different people, itconnotes diverse things. But what is thisthing,what
are these things? What is the meaning, what are the denotative or
connotative meanings, that identifya musical genre? We must also
conclude, in turn,thata musicalgenreis denoted or connotedby other
signs. What role do these have in definingthe genre?
The firstof the three factorswhich initiallyraised the question of
musical genres forme is thereforerelatedto the problemof meaning.
Let us now move on to the second.
I take forgrantedthatthe readerhas a reasonablyclearidea ofwhat
is intended by the term'popular music'. I also think,however, thatto
use this term when replyingto an English policeman is not to be
particularlyinformative,but is certainlymorereassuringforhim than
the reply 'rock music'. I also believe that 'rock' and 'pop' are two
distincttypes of music, even though an English student of 'popular
music' would include 'rock' music withinthat category.But is 'pop'
then simplya synonym,the abbreviationof 'popular'? In Italyit most
certainlyis not: musicapopolarerefersonly to that music which in
Anglo-Saxon countries is called 'folk music'; while 'pop' was once
synonymouswith 'rock' and today is oftenused to indicate 'English
rock music of the seventies' (but I do not thinkthatthisis peculiar to
Italy). What in America is called 'mainstreamrock' would not be
recognised as 'rock' by everyonein Italy.The verytitleof thisjournal
would be untranslatablein Italian.

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 Whatkindofmusic? 133
Some years ago, in orderto overcometheproblemof distinguishing
these varied genres,themusicologistLuigi Pestalozza, in chargeofthe
musical activitiesof the Italian CommunistParty,proposed the term
musicaextracolta (literally'extra-cultivated music', by analogy withthe
use of the prefix'extra' in termslike 'extra-European')to indicate all
those musics not identifiablewithcultivated,or 'serious', or 'classical'
music. The termcontainsa series of clear motives. In the firstplace it
bringstogetherall the musical activitiesin Italywhich do not receive
state funding and are not the object of recognised academic study
(somebody proposed the variant 'extra-academicmusic'), but the
possible connotationof culturalinferiority, certainlynot intended by
Pestalozza, has created a perplexityaround the use ofthe term.There
also remains a doubt whether the areas of jazz and ethnic musics,
included in the concept 'extra-cultivated'despite their greateraca-
demic legitimacy,formpart of 'popular music'.
We mustconclude thatthetermsused to indicatemusical genresare
extremelydifficult to translate,and have different meanings in differ-
ent languages and cultures: here a term not only connotesdifferent
things for two differentpeople - according to the diversityof their
interestsin the denoted object and thereforeaccordingto the diverse
processes of understandinginvolved- but preciselydenotestwo differ-
ent things. What is the relationshipbetween these meanings within
the same culture? And in differentcultures? So, the second factor
mentioned above has also returnedus to the question of meaning.
And now we come to the thirdfactor.
What type of music is played by StormySix/MacchinaMaccher-
onica? I have already said that I am not sure how to reply. I cannot
thinkof a genre thatis able to include thisgroup's music withthetype
of certaintywith which I could say that Deep Purple is a 'hard rock'
group (but would thatbe the case in England?), or thatWolfBiermann
is a Liedermacher(would Germanfriendsagree?). This has always been
more of a problem forjournalistsand promoters- as well as frontier
guards - than forthe group. It has been said thatwe performpolitical
songs, atonal music, 'Musikspektakel gegen Cocacolonisierung der
Sinne', folkmusic, progressiverock,jazz rock,and more. For a certain
period, while we were involved in an organisationknown as 'Rock in
Opposition', which brought togetherEuropean groups, often very
differentfromone another, it was said that our genre was 'rock in
opposition'. Once thatlabel had been foundeveryonebreatheda great
sigh of relief.
Despite all this confusion, the reader will have already formeda
vague idea of the type of music played by StormySix, especially as I
thinkthatthe adjective maccheronico will recall not only a specialityof

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134 FrancoFabbri

Italian gastronomybut also a literarymovementof the fifteenth and

sixteenthcenturies.*In orderto understandmore,the readerneeds to
know thatStormySix use a drumkit(witha largenumberoftom-toms
and cymbals), a bass and an electricguitar,organ, synthesiser,sax,
violin, trombone, mandolin and vibraphone; that the pieces last
around fiveminutesand are notated,are sung by a vocalistand have
poetic lyricsin blank verse, etc., etc. A ratherlong explanationto give
to a customsofficer,or to put on a poster.Buttheexplanationwould be
equally lengthyifa group played banal countryand westernmusic or
freejazz and had to entera countrywhere these musical genres were
unknown.
In factwe are dealing with 'frontier'problems:we meet with these
wheneverwe attemptto indicatesomethingwhichexistsat thebound-
ary of two or threezones of meaning. They are usually problemsthat
we tryto resolve in the threeways which I have just been using in the
presentcase: (a) by definingour area of meaning as an intersectionof
several diverse zones, each of which is already labelled, or (b) by
applying a label that is likely to be widely understood as a general
indication,or (c) by specifyinganother set of interpretantst (even the
most obviously straightforward indicationcan functionas an interpre-
tant), in other words, using other representationsthat referto the
same object; these can be definitions,equivalent meanings in other
semioticsystems,emotiveassociations (Eco 1974, p. 103). Once again
we find that it is a question of meaning.
By thispoint itis, I think,quite clear thatthe threefactorsI enumer-
ated at the beginning of this articleare not only the source of my
interestin musical genres, but have also broughtme to consider the
formof theirpossible scientificstudy. Genres have emerged in the
preceding discussion as units of meaningand therefore,employing
Eco's terms(ibid. p. 74), as culturalunits:'somethingwhich a culture
has defined as a distinctiveunit, differentfromothers'.
In the semanticfieldof a given culture,different musical genres are
reciprocally defined by the fact that theyoccupy borderingsemantic
zones. As I have emphasised, the reason why these respectivezones
have different extensionsin diverse culturesis connectedto problems
oftranslation.In addition to this,the semanticfieldcan be modifiedin
the course of timein the same degree as social conventionsand codes
are subject to change.

* This Italian
literarymovementinvolvedburlesque compositionsthatjumbled together
Latin and Italian. The term'macaronic'is 'applied looselyto any formofverse in which
two or threelanguages are jumbled together'(OxfordShorter (trans.)
EnglishDictionary).
t The term'interpretant'comes fromC. S. Peirce and denotes the suggestion or idea
that a sign generates. (trans.)

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 Figure1. The StormySix at theVolksbUihne,BerlinGDR, Februar
well-knownItalian sign): the author. From left:Tommaso Leddi
Rivolta, Umberto Fiori. Out of frame:Salvatore Garau (Photo: T

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136 FrancoFabbri

These seem to me to be decisive argumentsin favourof a study of

musical genres thathas two objectives:(i) to criticisethe widespread
influence of Aristotelianand positivisttraditionswhose recipients
tend to see in genres archetypesexistingoutside of timeand culture,
and (2) to overcome purely sociological positions thattreatgenres as
socialplaygrounds, therebyavoiding the artistic,or, ifyou prefer,semi-
otic, nature of genres which regulatesthe relationshipbetween levels
of expression and content. (For a summary historical treatment
of the question of artistic,literaryand musical genres, see Fabbri
1981.)
From the discussion so farI feelthatit is possible to begin to see an
outlineofthe definitionofmusical genreI have chosen. Now I want to
put it to the test and use it as criticalorganiserforthe analysis of a
particularsystemof Italian 'popular music': that of the song.

genreis a setofmusicalevents,
A musical realorpossible,
whosecourseis
regulated a
by definitearrangementofsocially rules.
accepted
In the lightof the semiological frameworkthat has been followed
until now, I would maintain that 'course' can be understood as a
dynamic relation between expression and content. But given the
complex networkof connotationswhich a musical event or genre can
engender, somethingon which I have spent quite some time,it is not
surprisingthat among the principlesdefininga genre we findmany
that have nothing to do with the formof the musical event. In
other words, formor style is not sufficientto define a genre, even
though formsand styles continue in theirdaily use to be confused
with the idea of genre. But the realisation that it is not only
formal structure,poorly defined as it is, which indicates genre is
precisely the reason I find myself in difficultyin introducingmy
observationson the Italiansong, on the collectionofgenres character-
ised by the song form.Moreover, some of the musical mattercan be
ascribed to other genres too; the romanza,for example, is formally
indistinguishablein thisrespectfromthe song. As I have emphasised,
can be overcome by using the idea of 'popular
this type of difficulty
music' as an interpretativekey, ratherthan giving a long series of
generalised definitionssuch as would be necessaryfornon-specialist
readers.
What I intend to do is to study the 'song' not in terms of its
opposition to other vocal forms,both past and present, but as an
existing framework,already separated fromthe rest of the musical
system,and in whose interiorwe can begin to distinguishthe opposi-
tions between more restrictedzones: in a nutshell,the genres of the
'song'.

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 Whatkindofmusic? 137

Today, the principalsong genres are: traditional,pop, rock, soph-

isticated,canzoned'autore,*politicaland children's song.
It is not necessary to spend much time on clarifyingthe factthat
these seven genresrepresentlittlemorethancompartments,in each of
which thereexistssome musical matterdefinableas 'song'. Bothfrom
the semiotic aspect and fromthe point of view of theirassemblage,
genres offeran extremelyusefulinstrumentfortheresearcher'sanaly-
sis - just as theydo forthe practiceof the singerand the songwriter-
precisely when they are tested along the boundaries and in the in-
tersectionsofa mistyno man's land thatexistsbetween one genreand
another.
Domenico Modugno, one of the few Italiansingerssince the war to
have achieved internationalfame(now some twentyyearsago), can be
takenas an example. Ifin certainaspects Modugno was an innovator-
and was considered such due to his establishmentof what was then
the new genre of canzoned'autore- his styleof singing,thoughhighly
personalised, remained withinthe confinesof the popular bel canto,
'Mr Volare' representingitsmostmodernexpression.The highlyindi-
vidual characteristics which would soon become thebasis fordefining
the genreofcanzoned'autorewould have been even further accentuated
if the firstcantautori(singer-songwriters)had used theiruntrained,
non-forced,'natural' voices.
Vocal styleis an example of a type of characteristic which is deter-
mined by technical-formal rules: thisis the onlytypeto be considered
by theold musicologicaltheoriesofgenre,whichnevertookaccountof
culturalrelativity.But I am proposing thatthese rules, like all others,
are codified in differentways by the differentparticipantsin the
musical community- songwriters,performers,the public, critics,
promoters,teachers,etc.: the potencyof the rules varies as does the
awareness of their codified nature. These multiple responses to
codification,along withthe correspondinglydiverseideologies which
are established in respect to the same genre (think,forexample, of a
cynicalrecordproduceras opposed to an exasperatedfan),need to be
borne in mind by those who mightfearan excessiverigidityin the use
ofthe conceptofgenre.I shall come back to thefundamentalsubjectof
ideology towards the end ofthisarticle.Let us stayfora momentwith
the technical-formal rules of vocal styles.
If the traditionalsong is distinctfromothertypesdue to its classical

* Aftersome
thoughtI decided to leave thetermcanzoned'autorein Italian.To translateit
as 'author's song' did not seem to be particularlyinformativebecause it involves a
strongset ofaestheticand culturalcriteriaclusteredaround the 'artistic'connotations
of the genre, and for this reason is not readily translatableinto a neat English
equivalent. (trans.)

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138 FrancoFabbri

vocal style(one could say due to its directdescent fromoperettaand

'coffeehouse' concerts),theothergenresdemonstratean equal degree
of differentiation. The singerofthe sophisticatedsong draws upon the
Americanmodel the musical, a genrethatis almost non-existentin
of
Italy.However, theinterestingfactis thatwhile a 'good' male singeris
inevitablyassociated withtraditionalsong (leading thefieldis Claudio
Villa), in the sophisticated song femininequalities are now more
appreciated. The pop or rocksong obviouslylooks to Anglo-American
models. In bothtypes,but moreespeciallyin rocksongs, these models
existin the frictioncreatedbetween thedifferent language characteris-
ticsof Italianand English. This tensionis also activatedin the pronun-
ciationand styleof the lyrics.As an example of the firstcase thereare
Italian singerswho pronounce Italian as thoughitwere English (Alan
Sorrenti,forinstance,in his recentrecordings,pronounces tu,second
person singular,as though it were the Engish 'too'); as to the second
case, thegeneralstyleis oflyricsfullofwords whichhave theaccenton
the last syllable, so the statisticalfrequencyof such words is much
nearerto thatcharacteristic ofEnglishthanthatcharacteristicofItalian.
Children's songs are interpretedby adults employing a voice gener-
ally reservedforcommunicatingwith childrenor pets, or by children
educated by thattypeofadult,while even thepoliticalsong, withall its
'realistic'intentions,accepts ideologicalconventionstoo (thatis to say,
presentsits rules as thoughtheywere naturalfacts).This is shown by
the use ofthetenoror baritonevoice thatis derigueurforprotestsongs.
A sustained aplomb - drawing on nineteenth-century and Soviet
models - is used, despite the genre's declared wish to assimilatethe
vocal formsof the popular, especially the peasant, tradition.It is also
necessary to mention, however, that there are some excellent ex-
amples of combined researchand inventivenessin thisgenre- by the
internationallyknown Giovanna Marini, forinstance - which stand
out from the current style of 'bureaucratic' cliche typical of most
political songs (see Fabbri and Fiori 1980).
The same applies to compositional styles: despite affirmationsof
principle,the political song has inheritednothingfromthe peasant
world, not even one of the many archaicstyleswhich ethnomusicolo-
gical research has uncovered in several parts of Italy. Rather,it has
acquired the working-classtasteforparody,in the etymologicalsense
of the substitutionofthe originaltextby another,or itsadaptationto a
piece of instrumentalmusic.
But it has been observed thatall popular song is based, more or less
consciously,on parody:thatis, parodyintendedas thereproposal,in a
different context,and in a simplifiedformtogetherwitha sung text,of
material and musical styles elaborated elsewhere (Fiori 1980). What

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 Whatkindofmusic? 139

changes fromone genre to anotheris the model. This can vary from
Puccini for traditionalsong to jazz referencesfor the sophisticated
song. It clearlyinvolves not only the compositionalstylebut also the
technical-formalrules of the genre, togetherwith the relative com-
petence of the composer, singersand instrumentalists. Ifforpop and
rock songs the referenceis to a foreignmodel - in this case not to
anothermusical genre,but to a homologous genrein anothersystem-
the canzoned'autoreis freer.Its aestheticstructureand the importance
of the text permitthe writerto make frequentreferencesto varied
styles, often deliberatelybizarre, to the point of illustrating,in a
typicallyself-reflexive manner, the mode of parody.
This is the case, to cite only one of many possible examples, with
Paolo Conte, who, entitlinga song and an entirealbum Parismilonga,
recalls the exotic and fashionableformof the Argentinianmilonga (a
South Americandance). An entirelydifferent connectionwas made by
Rudy Assuntino in 1968 when he 'stole' the styleof Bob Dylan and
used it in a politicalballad against the Americanbases in Italy. Or, to
give a furtherillustration,there is the case of the singer Al Bano
(pseudonym of Albano Carrisi), interpreterof Leoncavallo's 'Matti-
nata' in the styleof a traditionalsong.
Naturallythese referencesto models and parody do not reduce the
need for a minute stylisticanalysis of the various song genres: an
analysis that would clarifythe transformation of the models and the
originalelements provided by each genre and author. If this type of
analysis is not performedhere,itis because I am intenton focusingon
those aspects involved in the study of genre that are usually consi-
dered marginal,without,however, wishingto overthrowor discredit
the more traditionalmethods of analysis.
Still in the area of formand style,a furthervaluable consideration
would be the graphics and design of recordsleeves. For ten years or
more these have taken on functionsfar more complex than simply
indicatingtheircontents.It is well known thattherecordsleeve contri-
butes to determiningthemeaningnotonlyoftherecord-objectbutalso
of the very music that is found inside. The golden yellow scroll of
Deutsche Grammophonnot onlygives a luxuriousaspect to thethirty-
one by thirty-one centimetresquare ofthesleeve butprovidesa keyfor
appreciating the richness of technicalmeans employed in the record-
ing, the prestigeof the performers,the culturalstatusof the recorded
music, and so on. The recordsleeves of the canzoned'autoregenre are
identifiableby theirattentionto the face of the singer-songwriter and
the accompanyingintellectualand aestheticconnotations.That thisis
a rule of the genre was demonstratedby the polemics which sur-
rounded therelease ofthepreviouslymentionedalbum ofPaolo Conte.

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140 Franco Fabbri

I)L~WWI
SWA*

w eill

1ML
La

Figure 2. An inappropriatealbum cover: sexistexploitationin the recordingindustry

This had a sleeve done in 'bad taste', which, furthermore, was not
approved by Conte himself (a manifest
breaking of the principlethat
the artisticsinger-songwriteris responsible forthe entireproduct).
This will certainlynot be the last incidentin which it is possible
formusical research to seize the definitionof musical genres in the
moment that theirrules are disrupted: observingthe indignationor
hilarity(or also surpriseand incomprehension)thatresults,according
to how the rules have been codified.In these cases, to the extentthat
the researcherparticipates,he or she should have no scruples in dis-
rupting the system question in order to verifyand monitorthe
in
attendanteffects.
With the example of the record sleeves of singer-songwriters we
have reached the frontierof style categories and pass over into

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 Whatkindofmusic? 141

a territorymore narrowly defined by behaviour, psychology and

semiology.
When we speak of the aestheticsof the canzoned'autoregenre, it is
not withthe intentionofpassing value judgements- thatcan be leftto
a more specificstudy - but ratherof demonstratinghow the musical
communityhave codifieda genre's principalcommunicativefunction.
Using terms from Jakobson's work on communicative functions
(Jakobson1978), we can say thatthe politicalsong's main functionis
referentialand emotional,while the othergenreshold in common an
emotionalfunction,ifnot simplya phaticone (thesong as company,as
simply a contactwith somethingexistingapart fromthe listener).In
the case of rock music there is in addition the imperativefunction.
With the canzoned'autorethere is also evidence of the functionsof
metalanguage, both in termsof the textswhich confrontthe problem
of writing or singing songs and in terms of the use of musical
quotations.
The narrativestructuresand the mechanismofthe relationbetween
listenerand author(or singer)- what Eco calls 'interpretativecoopera-
tion' (Eco 1979)- are also subjectto therulesofgenre.The drama ofthe
refused or abandoned lover in the traditionalsong and the make-
believe based on more franklyeroticsituationsin the pop song imply
the identificationof the listenerwiththe standardisedcharacterof the
song. It is not by chance thatthese songs are usedby a vast public as
messages addressed to anotherperson, by makinga giftof the record
or incorporatingit in a radio dedication. Withthe canzoned'autoreit is
the speaking subject who dominates the situation,and the listener,
against this context,confrontshim-or herself(see Carrera1980): the
eventual level of identificationoccurs at a higherlevel and connotes
allegiance to a certainvision of the world.
The same can be said forthe politicalsong, exceptthathere,at least
in its moment of greatestexpansion, the speaking subject assumed
itself to be collective. Events since 1977 have put in question the
presumptionof the politicalsingerto sing in the name of a collective,
and thishas also had notable effectson otherdistinguishingaspects of
the genre. Recently,however,therehas been a revivalin thecredibility
of the politicalsinger-songwriters: theyhave in any case always refer-
red criticallyand problematicallyto the more schematicbanalities of
the genre. Itis possible to say thatthese singershave now occupied the
individual-personal dimension typicalof the canzoned'autore.This is
interestingas it indicates somethingdifferentfromthe genre's more
obvious functions:it points to the role of genre in workingout and
furtherinterpretinggiven musical material (we might call this the
referentialfunctionof genre). When a specificmusical action fully

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142 FrancoFabbri

conformsto the rules of the genre, when the differencebetween a

message and a code is zero (see Corti1976, pp. 151-81), its interestis
reduced to a minimum:hence the usefulness ofreshuffling the cards.
As a public figure,a noted politicalsingeror singer-songwriter repre-
sents a sortof incarnationof his genre. And ifhe passes, or declares
thathe is passing, to anothergenre- thisis thecase withsome political
singersin the group Nuovo Canzoniere Italiano,and withthe singer-
songwriterEdoardo Bennato who proclaims that he sings only can-
zonette(now synonymofthe pop song) - a shortcircuitis created,with
the evident possibilitythat new decodificationswill put the musical
event in a freshlight.We mightcall thisthemetalanguagefunctionofa
genre. All the revivalsproposed by the critics,or by the industry,are
based on the acceptance, by a part of the public, of this type of
mechanism. This is an operation which, as we know, the musical
industrywelcomes, not only forthe obvious saving in cost involved in
presentingmaterialalreadyelaborated,but also forthebackgroundof
pre-existingcodes and labels which permitan even greatersaving on
promotionalcosts.
Genres, therefore,can help us to understand musical events, but,
above all, theypermitus to speak ofthem.Itis notbychance that,most
typically,a new music or genremanages to be spoken about when itis
considered to be unclassifiableat that moment: it does not explain
what it is, but says what it is notwith respectto otherknown genres.
Whetherit is the relaunchingof known genres thathave long since
been abandoned, or the proposal of new examples withinan already
widely diffusedgenre,noteveryundertakingis crownedwithsuccess:
in factit is common knowledge thata good ninetyper cent of record
productionfailsto meet itscommercialobjectives.The codes by which
the public judge and interpretmusical events are in continualchange.
They involve hierarchiesof orderedvalues thatremainopaque to the
record industry:in otherwords, both the genres and theirideologies
change. When a record producer obsessively asks what determined
the success of a record(in orderto repeat it), what escapes him is not
the arrangementof recognisableelementsin thatproduct- the codes
to which the average listenercan referin orderto appropriateit - so
much as the 'dosage': whichelements,whichcodes prevailed?(On the
question of diverse codes, see Stefani1978.)
In thissense the ideology ofa genreis notto be definedas a vision of
the world connoted by the genre,but as a systemofvalues thatforma
hierarchyinside the principlesofthegenre. This is a definitionwhichI
feel offersmore subtle analytical instrumentsfor dealing with the
problemofthe overallrelationshipbetween musicand ideology. From
our own scientificpoint of view, thatis, fromthe position of a value

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 Whatkindofmusic? 143

system that is willing to submititselfto the evidence of facts,these

ideologies presentthemselvesas false consciousness: falseconscious-
ness in the sense thattheytend to treatas naturalwhat in actual factis
codified and conventional,or to deny the veryexistenceof rules and
principles which the externalobserver so easily verifies.This is the
case, forexample, with the ritualistic,behavioural and psychological
principleswhich have an objectively fundamentalrole in maintaining
the collectivemusical unityofa genre(or a partofit),and in directingit
in its choice of othercodes. In what sense can I say objectively?In the
sense that in spite of the 'naturalness' and apparent 'negligibility'of
certainbehavioural norms,the violationofthe rules- and hence their
exposure - produces hilarity,indignationand surpriseto a completely
unexpected degree. This all goes to prove the enormous scientific
value of exchanges between researchersin differentcountries (ex-
changes in whichthe 'naturalness'ofsome ofour respectiveassertions
have been sorelytried),and theundoubted importanceofpolice forces
throughoutthe world.
(translatedby Iain Chambers)

References
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Fabbri,F. 1981.'I generimusicali:una questioneda riaprire',
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions