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Abstract
This section includes guidelines for sizing, selecting, and installing pressure relief
devices and introduces the primary industry references (API RP 520, RP 521, etc.).
It also provides a basis for designing pressure relief devices in coordination with the
design of new or pre-existing relief headers and disposal systems. Recommenda-
tions for both onshore and offshore installations are noted.
The sections listed below treat the portions of a relief system separately for conve-
nience of description. Keep in mind that these are components of an interrelated
system.
Contents Page
1210 Introduction
There are three main engineering considerations in designing (or designing a modi-
fication to) a relief system:
Determining the relief requirements of individual pieces of equipment, and
selecting appropriate devices to handle imposed loads
Designing a relief header system which will handle imposed loads or expan-
sion modifications
Defining reasonable total relief loads for the combined relief header/disposal
system and designing an appropriate disposal system with minimum adverse
impact on plant process system integrity, personnel safety, and public relations
These three considerations are interrelated in such a way as to make it impossible to
establish a procedural guideline which would be valid for most cases. The design
for one portion of a relief system must be considered in light of its effect on the total
relief system.
3. There are two main kinds of balanced PSVs, piston-type and bellows-type. API
RP 520, Part I, Section 2.4.4, explains the difference between the two. Experi-
ence has shown the bellows-type PSVs to be more reliable in most installations
because their back pressure compensation is more consistent.
4. Bellows-type PSVs allow the use of smaller relief headers. These smaller
headers require larger pressure drops under maximum relief flow conditions.
Consequently, the balanced PSVs and the relief header are designed as a system
to operate at a higher back pressure.
5. Bellows-type PSVs are considerably more expensive than conventional PSVs.
However, for a new relief system, the total cost of the bellows-type PSVs plus
the smaller header system may be lower.
6. Bellows-type PSVs can be used with header back pressures as high as 40% of
the set pressure; however, the capacity of the PSV is reduced at higher back
pressures. Bellows-type PSVs are not the solution for all back pressure prob-
lems. The bellows is really a flexible pressure vessel, and it has a maximum
back pressure limit which is lower in the larger valve sizes. Bellows are avail-
able in a limited number of materials, and may deteriorate rapidly under certain
exposure conditions.
7. When bellows-type PSVs are installed, it is necessary to periodically check that
the bellows is intact. A leaking bellows does not provide back pressure
compensation and it allows the relief header to leak to atmosphere.
8. Bellows-type PSVs are most often used to tie a new low-pressure relief load
into an existing heavily loaded relief header or to protect the PSV topworks
from corrosive gases in the relief header.
9. A special category of bellows-type PSV is available if corrosion protection is
all that is required. The bellows is smaller so that it does not provide complete
back-pressure compensation. The Company normally avoids the use of a PSV
for this purpose because the cost saving is small, and the PSV cannot be reused
in a different service.
Rupture Discs
In the past, the Company used rupture discs infrequently (except in chemical plants)
because of two major disadvantages: the inability to reclose following rupture and
the larger difference needed between operating and set pressure.
With current high product costs and stringent pollution requirements, rupture
discs look increasingly attractive for some applications. They have three major
advantages:
1. The disc provides complete sealing as long as it is intact.
2. Rupture discs are available in a variety of materials or with coatings for corro-
sive services.
3. Rupture discs are much less likely to plug than PSVs.
Currently available reverse-buckling rupture discs can operate at 90% of burst pres-
sure and are less subject to fatigue failure. Prescored rupture discs have recently
been advertised to operate at 95% of burst pressure.
Rupture discs should be mounted in the holder provided by the maker to avoid
premature rupture due to pipe stress. If back pressure or vacuum can cause pressure
reversal, a rupture disc with adequate vacuum strength is required.
Section VIII of the ASME Pressure Vessel Code, Paragraph UG-127, lists special
requirements for rupture discs. There is little guidance on selection of rupture discs
in API RP 520. The following are some key points about rupture disc applications
and specification:
1. Rupture discs must meet the same ASME Code sizing and set pressure require-
ments that are applied to any pressure relief device, such as a safety relief
valve.
2. Rupture discs must be selected and sized so that:
Their burst pressure does not exceed the maximum allowable working
pressure of the equipment they are protecting
The pressure in the equipment they are protecting does not rise more than
10% above maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP)
3. Rupture discs can be used as secondary devices to other rupture discs or to
other PSVs.
4. When ordering, specification data must include expected temperature at rupture
conditions (not normal operating temperature). Disc rupture pressure is greatly
affected by temperature; too many discs have ruptured prematurely because
they were not specified correctly.
The literature of the major makers (Fike, Continental, Crosby, and B S & B) is the
best source for detailed guidance on the application and selection of rupture discs.
One thing to keep in mind is that temperature affects the rupture pressure of a disc.
Both operating temperature ranges and pressures must be provided to a vendor for a
disc to be properly engineered.
Pilot-Operated PSVs
In the past, pilot-operated PSVs were widely used in marketing and in producing
applications and rarely used in refinery applications. Pilot-operated PSVs were not
specified for downstream services because of temperature limitations, and because
the old flowing pilots could plug in dirty services. Current models use nonflowing
pilots which overcome most of these objections.
Because of the excellent service record of pilot-operated PSVs in upstream applica-
tions, they should be seriously considered for all clean services within their temper-
ature limitations. They are particularly well suited for pressures below 15 psig.
Pilot-operated PSVs are available with the pilot pressure sensing line connected to
the valve inlet or with the sensing line connected to a different point. Many
producing installations use a remote sensing pilot to avoid chattering problems. A
field test kit is available for testing the setpoint of a pilot-operated PSV with the
PSV in service.
Section VIII of the ASME Pressure Vessel Code, Paragraph UG-126, covers the
design of pilot-operated PSVs. API RP 520, Part I, briefly discusses pilot-operated
PSVs in Section 2.4.5. The major makers (Anderson-Greenwood, GPE Controls,
and Crosby) can provide training materials, and their catalogs contain application
and selection information.
Pilot-operated PSVs have significant advantages for both upstream and down-
stream applications, including:
Tight shutoff with very narrow margins between operating pressure and set
pressure
Lower first cost, especially in larger sizes (larger than 4 inches)
Minimum blowdown
Ability to operate with relief headers with high back pressures
Ability to operate with the PSV installed at a distance from the protected
equipment
Resistance to chatter
Ability to test the set pressure with the PSV in service
There is also one distinct disadvantage to pilot-operated PSVs. If the sensing tubing
comes loose due to vibration or thermal cycling, the result can be an undesirable full
flow.
Liquid PSVs
High pressure liquid-filled systems require special design to avoid PSV chatter.
Preferably, the design pressure should be high enough to prevent discharges due to
normal surges in operating pressure.
The ASME Pressure Vessel Code formerly permitted 25% overpressure for liquid
PSVs to reach full capacity; therefore, the Company sized liquid PSVs using 25%
overpressure. The ASME Pressure Vessel Code was revised in 1985 to require that
liquid PSVs pass their full rated capacity with 10% overpressure. The latest designs
of liquid PSVs can meet this requirement. When re-using old liquid PSVs designed
for 25% overpressure, it is necessary to recalculate the PSV capacity using 10%
overpressure. Routine maintenance of old PSVs does not require recalculation with
10% overpressure unless the relieving case has changed.
Vacuum PSVs
Vacuum PSVs should be provided on all tanks designed for operation from 0.5
ounces per square inch vacuum through 15 psig in accordance with API Standard
650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, and API Standard 2000, Venting Atmo-
spheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks. The Company prefers either weight-
loaded pallet or pilot-operated types. A more complete discussion of this subject can
be found in the Tank Manual.
Operating Pressures
Figure 2 of API RP 521 shows the relationship between the various pressures
involved in pressure relief, and it defines the terminology. Figure 2 shows a 10%
margin between the maximum operating pressure (Po) and MAWP. To avoid PSV
leakage and excessive maintenance, provide the following margins between P o and
MAWP:
25 psi for Po = 0 - 170 psi
15% of Po for Po = 170 - 300 psi
45 psi for Po = 300 - 450 psi
10% of Po for Po = above 450 psi
The above recommendations are for conventional and balanced PSVs. Pilot-oper-
ated PSVs allow the vessel to be operated closer to the MAWP.
Set Pressures
Normally, PSVs are set to pop at MAWP. The greater the margin between set pres-
sure and operating pressure, the less likelihood there is of leakage. Aside from
requirements to compensate for superimposed back pressure, there is no reason to
set a PSV at less than MAWP. It is a violation of the ASME Code to operate a boiler
or pressure vessel without a properly set PSV.
With a conventional PSV, the net spring setting must be reduced by the superim-
posed back pressure because the pressure in the relief header adds to the spring
pressure to keep the valve closed.
The minimum set pressure for conventional PSVs is 5 to 10 psig. The minimum set
pressure for bellows-type PSVs is approximately 25 psig. Both of these minimums
depend on the size of the PSV. Consult the manufacturers catalogs.
being serviced. The ASME Pressure Vessel Code, Appendix M, describes special
mandatory requirements for these maintenance block valves.
Multiple PSVs
Multiple PSVs are required when the relief load exceeds the capacity of the largest
available PSV. It is generally good practice to include multiple PSVs for varying
loads to minimize chattering on small discharges. The ASME Pressure Vessel Code
allows a 16% or 4-psi (whichever is greater) accumulation above MAWP for vessels
protected by multiple PSVs. It allows only a 10% or 3-psi accumulation for single
PSVs. The primary PSV must be set at or below MAWP. The other PSVs should
have staged set pressures. The highest may be set at 105% of the MAWP. If
different sized PSVs are used, the smallest PSV should be set to the lowest pressure.
Sentinel PSVs
Steam turbines require full-size PSVs where the inlet steam pressure is higher than
the rated pressure of the turbine casing. There is one exception to this rule. Provide
a small warning (sentinel) PSV for a steam turbine under the following conditions:
The inlet steam pressure is 150 psig or less, the turbine is connected to only one
inlet and exhaust system, and the turbine does not start under remote or auto-
matic control
The exhaust valve is locked open
Approval from local operating management should be obtained before specifying
sentinel PSVs.
all of the existing PSVs can withstand the increased relief header back pressure
developed by the new PSV(s).
First, it is necessary to determine the original relief header design basis. If the worst
case load for the existing relief header does not occur simultaneously with the new
load, it may not be necessary to combine the loads. If the old and new relief events
take place simultaneously (electrical power failure, and cooling water failure, for
example), then the loads must be combined. It may be that the size of the new PSV
is determined by one case and the back pressure requirements are determined by a
different case.
In many cases with heavily loaded or old relief headers, a bellows-type PSV will be
required. It may also be necessary to convert some of the existing conventional
PSVs to bellows-type construction to handle the increased relief header pressure.
(Eq. 1200-1)
where:
W = discharge rate in lb/hr
g = gas density in lb/ft3
Fig. 1200-1 Seal Drum with Double Seal for a Ground Flare and an Elevated Flare
the relief header pressure exceeds that head, the excess relief gas goes to the
elevated flare. Figure 1200-1 shows a double liquid seal.
Some facilities use a dual header design with dedicated high- and low-pressure
flares. The high-pressure ground flare is usually self-aspirating and requires no
water or steam injection.
Pulsations
API RP 521 states that surging in seal drums can be minimized by using V-notches
on the end of the dip leg. This does not conform to Company experience. If the
water sloshes in the seal drum, it will cause pulsations in the gas flow to the flare,
resulting in noise and light disturbances. The Company prefers either a displace-
ment seal as shown in Figure 1200-2 or a perforated anti-slosh baffle as shown in
Figure 1200-3.
Fig. 1200-2 Seal Drum with Displacement Seal Fig. 1200-3 Seal Drum with a Perforated Anti-Slosh
Baffle
Flare Height
Height determination for an elevated flare stack is not a precise science. The stack
height is selected to reduce the radiant heat intensity at ground level to desired safe
limits for personnel and equipment. The Company uses the method outlined in API
RP 521, Appendix A. Selecting an acceptable radiant intensity is the key design
decision.
The radiant intensity is calculated by assuming uniform spherical radiation from the
flame center. Calculation is inexact because of the following conditions.
1. Emissivity must be approximated. Emissivity is that fraction of the thermal
energy of the flared gas that is actually radiated as heat. Test emissivities range
from 60% to 15% and even lower when steam is introduced into the combus-
tion zone. While steam is used for smoke suppression in most modern flares,
steam may not be available during the major emergency that causes the
maximum flare release. Therefore, for purposes of calculation assume an emis-
sivity of 40%.
2. The flame center is unknown but is assumed to be located halfway up the
flame. This varies significantly for a vertical flame in windless conditions to a
nearly horizontal flame in a severe windstorm. Flames from major releases are
Purge Gas
Purge gas is injected into the relief header at the upstream end and at the major
branches to maintain a hydrocarbon-rich atmosphere in each branch, in the off-plot
relief system, and in the flare stack. The volume of gas is typically enough to main-
tain a velocity of about 0.1 foot per second in the relief header with no other gas
flow into the relief header. This injected purge gas is adequate to maintain the gas
seal. In older relief systems, the amount of purge gas is flow controlled. Today, to
conserve energy, the rate of purge gas injected is often controlled by using the relief
header operating pressure as the measured variable. When there is enough PSV
leakage or process venting to maintain the desired back pressure, no purge gas is
injected.
Gas Seals
The gas seal is located just below the flare tip and serves to prevent air entry into the
stack. It is supplied by the flare supplier. The gas seal is often called a molecular
seal because it depends on the density difference between air and hydrocarbon gas.
A continuous stream of purge gas is required for proper functioning of the gas seal,
but the amount of purge gas is much less than would be required without the seal.
Gas seals have major advantages over liquid seals: they do not slosh and they
produce much less oily water. However, the gas seal must be drained and the drain
loop has to be sealed. Figure 1200-4 shows a gas seal.
Since a gas seal is required with an elevated flare to keep air out of the flare stack,
the liquid seal is usually omitted from an elevated-only flare system. If a vapor
recovery compressor is used, a liquid seal is used to provide a minimum header
back pressure.
The fluidic seal is an alternative to the gas seal. It uses an open wall-less venturi that
permits flow out of the flare in one direction with very little resistance but strongly
resists counterflow of air back into the stack. This venturi consists of a series of
baffles, like open-ended cones in appearance, mounted with the flare tip. The fluidic
seal is smaller and less expensive than a molecular seal and, since it weighs less,
there is less structural load on the flare stack. However, fluidic seals require more
purge gas. The Company has used fluidic seals in offshore applications, but not in
refineries. Figure 1200-5 shows a fluidic seal.
Fig. 1200-4 Schematic Diagram of a Gas (Molecular) Fig. 1200-5 Schematic Diagram of a Fluidic Seal (Cour-
Seal test of NAO, Inc.)
Combustion Tips
Combustion tips are available from a number of makers. They are designed to
provide smokeless flaring up to some fraction of the maximum relief capacity of the
relief system. Steam injection, when available, is used to suppress smoke with
required steam pressures from 75 to 150 psig. Lower pressure steam can be used if
the steam piping and injectors are designed for it. High pressure (15 psig) relief gas
or air can be substituted for steam in some special designs. See Section 1245 below
for a discussion of flares at producing sites where steam is rarely available.
Combustion tips with smokeless capacities up to one million pounds per hour are
available. Few process plants, however, have sufficient excess steam to supply the
flare during a major release; and furthermore, during a major upset, extra steam is
often required by the process units.
Combustion tips are made of stainless steel in diameters up to 6 feet. The tips and
the piping are flanged so that they can be removed from the flare stack. The design
depends upon the supplier selected. The Company has had good experience with
two designs: Flaregas and John Zink.
The Flaregas design uses a large number of special Coanda nozzles which promote
thorough mixing of air and steam with the relief gas prior to burning. Steam is
distributed to the nozzles by a steam chest. As the steam flows through the nozzles
into the mixing chamber, it draws air along with it. Figure 1200-6 shows a flare tip
with Coanda nozzles. Figure 1200-7 shows the Coanda nozzle.
Fig. 1200-6 Flare Tip Using Coanda Nozzles (Courtesy Fig. 1200-7 Schematic of a Coanda Nozzle (Courtesy of
of Flaregas Corp.) Flaregas Corp.)
The other design, John Zink, uses a number of internal pipes to distribute the
steam-air mixture across the combustion zone. This design also utilizes a separate
central steam injector and an outer steam ring to give three stages of smokeless
combustion capacity. Each of the three injection systems has its own controls. The
outer ring is very noisy and is used only in a major release where additional smoke-
less capacity is required with the sacrifice of noise control. Figure 1200-8 shows a
flare tip with internal steam piping.
With the exception of the outer ring, both designs are equally noisy.
Steam Injection
Smoke is unburned carbon from incomplete hydrocarbon combustion. The oxygen
in the air first combines with hydrogen atoms in the hydrocarbon molecules, freeing
Fig. 1200-8 Flare Tip with Internal Steam Piping (Courtesy of the John Zink Company)
carbon atoms for secondary reactions. If the hydrocarbon molecules crack at the
high combustion temperature, then more free carbon is produced. Unsaturated
hydrocarbon molecules produce more free carbon. This unburned carbon appears as
smoke.
The free carbon will be converted to carbon dioxide (and not produce smoke) as
long as an excess of oxygen is present within the combustion zone. This requires
good air/gas mixing. Thick smoke will result if a hydrocarbon gas is flared without
prior mixing with air.
Injection of steam helps control the carbon-hydrogen ratio. Steam catalyzes the
combustion reactions and lowers the temperature in the combustion zone, thus
suppressing smoke. However the main reason for injecting a high velocity steam-air
mixture into the combustion zone is to increase turbulence, which improves
combustion and reduces the size of the flame. Unfortunately, steam injection
increases the combustion roar.
The usual injection rate is about 0.5 pounds of steam per pound of hydrocarbon.
Actual steam requirements for smokeless combustion are hard to predict because
they depend on the molecular weight of the relief gas, the percentage of unsatur-
ates, and the air/gas mixing ratio. Butadiene requires 0.8 to 1 pound of steam per
pound of gas; methane requires 0.1 to 0.2 pounds per pound, while hydrogen burns
smokelessly without steam.
effect on the steam requirement. Depending on the type of combustion tip, several
separate steam injection valves may be needed, requiring split-range control signals.
Currently the Company uses three methods to automatically control steam injection:
1. Flaregas FlarescanMeasuring the flame radiation with thermocouples set
around the flare tip. Steam is increased until smoke is suppressed, resulting in
lower infrared radiation.
2. John Zink ZoomMeasuring the infrared radiation with a television camera.
Steam is increased to reduce the amount of infrared radiation.
3. PanametricsMeasuring the volume and the density of the relief gas with an
ultrasonic flowmeter. The required amount of steam is calculated by a micro-
computer.
All three methods work for low-to-medium relief rates. Smoke is produced with
large rapid changes in the relief rate. Adjusting steam rate with manual controls is
not acceptable.
Fig. 1200-9 Expected Noise Levels for Elevated Flares with Multiport or Coanda Nozzle Steam Injection (Courtesy of
Flaregas Corp.)
Ground Flares
Small relief streams can be burned unobtrusively in a ground flare. The Company
now has ground flares at most of its refineries. The ground flare is basically a
refractory-lined, multi-burner process furnace without tubes. The stack may be as
high as 100 feet. This discussion assumes a low pressure ground flare, although high
pressure ground flares also exist.
The capacity of the ground flare is limited: 25,000 and 50,000 Btu/hour are common
sizes. Normally, the ground flare is sized for 5 to 10% of the total capacity of the
relief system. The ground flare is included to take care of the great majority of the
relief incidents, about 95%, that are relatively small.
Ground flares are used to reduce the noise and light of elevated flares. Enclosing the
turbulent burning zone eliminates the light, and employing multiple burners greatly
reduces the noise. A typical ground flare is at least 15 decibels quieter than an
elevated flare.
The elevated flare is reserved for emergencies. The ground flare is not an alterna-
tive to an elevated flare. It is an expensive added feature for good public relations.
The diversion water seal preferentially routes relief gas to the ground flare up to its
maximum capacity, where it is burned quietly, smokelessly, and without visible
flame. When the flow exceeds the capacity of the ground flare, the diversion seal
automatically diverts the excess relief gas to the elevated flare. See Figure 1200-1.
The relief system is designed so that the ground flare can be shut down for mainte-
nance. All relief streams are bypassed to the elevated flare, and there is no interrup-
tion in plant operation.
The ground flare is sized to minimize operation of the elevated flare. This requires a
review of the controllable venting activities of the plants and their flow rate and
frequency. This review is used to select the capacity of the ground flare from the
makers standard capacities. Generally, the Company selects either 25,000 or 50,000
Btu/hour capacities.
Most of the Companys experience has been with two main kinds of ground flares:
cylindrical (John Zink), and rectangular (Flaregas). Figure 1200-10 shows a cylin-
drical ground flare. Figure 1200-11 shows a rectangular ground flare.
Fig. 1200-10 Cylindrical Ground Flare Fig. 1200-11 Rectangular Ground Flare
Ground flares are not incinerators. They lack the residence time and mixing thor-
oughness to handle sour gas streams. Sour gas streams must be segregated and not
burned in ground flares or there will be odor problems.
Energy Conservation
The best way to recover relief gas is to not send it to the flare in the first place.
Run the plant to minimize venting and PSV operation. Source control is the first and
most important step.
Leaking PSVs, a common source of normal venting, can be detected by ultrasonic
probes (such as the UE Systems Inc., Trouble Shooter) or infrared imaging
devices (such as the Probe Eye).
Many refineries have installed flare gas recovery systems that have given good
paybacks. The systems are quite simple. A compressor takes suction on the relief
header and returns the compressed gas to the process or to the fuel system. A flow
history of the relief header is needed to properly size the compressors.
The relief gas recovery system includes a pressure controlled purge gas bleed line
working against the water seal to maintain a minimum pressure in the relief header
at all times to prevent oxygen entry. This avoids the need for upstream gas purges.
Steam Conservation
Steam is injected to the combustion tip to suppress smoke. Once the flame is smoke-
less, excess steam makes more noise, wastes energy, and may force the combustion
back down the tip. The amount of steam required depends on relief gas discharge
rate, gas composition, and wind speed; therefore excess steam is normal. The most
effective method of reducing steam consumption is to control the rate based on
flame quality or on relief gas flow and composition. Flares in producing areas often
use natural gas instead of steam for smoke suppression.
Smokeless Burning
Most offshore platforms do not have steam for flare operation. Therefore, they use
flares that do not require additional turbulence generation or that use an air blower
or a water spray from a pumping unit. Air blower flares have a greater turndown
than water spray flares.
Continuous Flaring
It may be necessary to continuously flare tail gas or excess produced gas which
cannot be economically utilized. It may also be necessary to flare gases vented
during process upsets until corrective action can be taken.
Smokeless air blower flares, which are used for continuously flaring paraf-
finic hydrocarbon vapors with molecular weights greater than 20. These also
incorporate a flame retention device and a windshield, but the configuration is
quite different from the nonsmokeless flare. Very little forced air is required for
smokeless burning. Secondary air is entrained by the flame itself. The flare has
a flow sensor to start the air blower when needed. See Figure 1200-13.
Multipoint flares, which are used where smokeless flaring, low radiation, and
a large turndown are required. The tip requires no seals and no assist gas or
blown air. These flares require high relief gas pressures5 to 75 psig.
Coanda-profile flares, which are used where smokeless flaring and low radia-
tion are required. These flares entrain high volumes of air and create a stiff
flame which resists wind effects. They require high relief gas pressures5 to
75 psig. See Figure 1200-14.
Ground flares, which are often used on tanker based production platforms to
reduce noise and to reduce the radiation levels on deck.
Floating flares, which are supported on a barge. These are mainly used in
emergency or short-term situations.
Definitions
Definitions used in this section are from the American National Standard Institute
B95.1, Terminology for Pressure Relief Devices.
Back Pressure. Static pressure existing at the outlet of a pressure relief device due
to pressure within the discharge system.
Blowdown. Difference between actual popping pressure of a pressure relief valve
and actual reseating pressure. This value is expressed as a percentage of set pres-
sure or in pressure units.
Blowdown Pressure. Value of decreasing inlet static pressure at which point no
further discharge is detected at the outlet of a resilient disk-type safety relief valve.
This pressure is measured after the valve has been subjected to a pressure equal to
or above the popping pressure.
Chatter. Abnormal, rapid reciprocating motion of the movable parts of a pressure
relief valve in which the disk contacts the seat.
Closing Pressure or Reseat Pressure. Value of decreasing inlet static pressure at
which the valve disk re-establishes contact with the seat or at which lift becomes
zero.
Cold Differential Test Pressure. Static pressure at which a pressure relief valve is
adjusted to open on the test stand. This test pressure includes corrections for service
conditions of back pressure and/or temperature.
Leak Test Pressure. Specified inlet static pressure at which a quantitative seat
leakage test is performed in accordance with standard procedure. (This manual will
use API Standard 527 as the procedure for identifying leaks.)
Lift. The travel of the disk away from closed position when a valve is relieving.
Opening Pressure. Value of increasing inlet static pressure of a relief valve at
which there is a measurable lift or, at which the discharge becomes continuous. This
state can be determined by seeing, feeling, or hearing.
Popping Pressure. Value of increasing inlet static pressure at which point disk
moves in the opening direction at a faster rate compared with a corresponding
movement at higher or lower pressures. This value applies to the safety relief valves
in compressible fluid service.
Set Pressure. Value of increasing inlet static pressure at which a pressure relief
valve displays one of the operational characteristics. These are defined under
opening pressure, popping pressure, or start-to-leak pressure.
Start-to-Leak Pressure. Value of increasing inlet static pressure at which the first
bubble occurs when a resilient disk-type safety relief valve is tested by means of air
under a specified water seal on the outlet.
Valve Mounting: The most frequent way to mount valves on the test stand is by
using adapter flanges to resolve differences between the valve and the test stands
flange size, type, and rating. Each time a new valve is tested, the appropriate adapter
flange must be used and the valve must be bolted to the flange. An alternative
offered by vendors is to use a hydraulic clamp to secure the valve to the test bench.
The only adapters required on these systems are for screwed valves. Bolt-up time is
eliminated. Systems using hydraulic clamping are usually more expensive than
those using adapter flanges. Hydraulic clamps save testing time, however, and may
be justified when there are many valves to test.
System Capacity: Most commercial systems (but not all) are designed to test only
the relief valves set pressure. They do not have sufficient capacity to achieve full
valve lift and to determine the blowdown pressure. Be sure that the bench you
purchase has sufficient capacity for the parameters to be tested.
Instrumentation: Test bench instrumentation ranges from standard test pressure
gages to digital gages with peak-hold features, as well as data logging computers.
Your needs will determine what is appropriate. For systems designed to test only set
pressure, standard test gages are adequate. For those systems designed to also
measure blowdown pressure, a digital peak-hold (max/min) gage is desirable. Data
logging systems provide a hard copy of the test measurements and can also be used
to archive test data.
One must also decide whether a hoist is needed; what size compressor is appro-
priate; if air drying equipment is needed; and what work space is required (i.e.,
space available vs. size of the accumulator pressure vessels). The cost range can be
from several thousand dollars to $50,000 or more, depending on the sophistication
of the test bench design.
stage compressor, or if the atmospheric air has high humidity, an aftercooler should
be used and an automatic drain trap installed on the accumulator. At compressor
discharge pressures below 1000 psi and with relatively dry air, this auxiliary equip-
ment is not justified. Any moisture in the accumulator can be blown down manually.
The accumulator must be of sufficient size and pressure rating to pressure up the
test vessel to the valve set pressure. It must also have sufficient capacity to assist the
test vessel in achieving full valve lift on larger orifice valves. One or two 10 cubic
feet vessels are typical. However, the vessel volumes are a function of the pressure
rating. The higher the pressure of the accumulator, the smaller the volume required.
For example, one valve testing company uses Scuba Bottles filled to several thou-
sand pounds as their accumulator. As a design starting point, a pressure 33% higher
than the maximum relief valve set pressure is sufficient.
The test vessel must be rated at least 25% over the maximum relief valve set pres-
sure and must not restrict flow to the relief valve. The vessel volume required is
related to the volume of the accumulator and its operating pressure. When used with
two 10 cubic feet accumulators operating at 33% over the maximum valve set pres-
sure, a test vessel of about 6 cubic feet is a good design starting point.
The test manifold is discussed in the next section.
To facilitate the handling of large valves, a davit or jib crane should be considered.
Pressure Gages
Precision (% of full scale graduations, of 1% accuracy) test gages should be
used on all test benches. When analog test gages are used, the set pressure being
tested should be in the middle one-third of the range. These gages should be tested
for accuracy once every 2 weeks using a dead weight tester.
Digital gages must also meet the precision requirements above. For digital gages
(similar to those manufactured by Heise), the calibration frequency may be relaxed
significantly compared with analog test gages. There are not many mechanical link-
ages to affect long term accuracy. One valve manufacturer requires the testing of
digital gages once every 90 days, although experience will determine the required
frequency of testing. In addition, digital gages also offer peak hold features that
make them cost effective.
Power boilers less than 400 psig: inspect relief valves each month by operating
the valve lifting lever. The valve shall be tested once a year.
Power boilers greater than 400 psig: test based on operating experience.
Other considerations for determining inspection and test frequencies are:
Valves with plugging problems or with a high failure rate on the as-received
relieving pressure test should have decreased periods between tests.
Conversely, valves without failures and/or in clean service may have the length
between tests increased.
After an extended plant shutdown, all valves should be tested before plant
startup.
Testing should be coordinated with scheduled plant shutdowns when possible.
Testing should conform to the information or recommendations of the relief
valve manufacturer.
When constructing new facilities, the relief valves should be tested and
installed before the plants are commissioned. Relief valves are precision instru-
ments. They should be stored in a clean location and carefully installed at the
last possible moment to avoid exposure to construction activities. To prevent
construction delays, it is recommended that spool pieces be specified and
installed in the piping during the construction and hydrotesting periods.
Recommended inspection and test frequencies are listed in Figure 1200-20. These
frequencies are for new facilities and should be adjusted according to historical test
records, regional requirements, and shutdown schedules.
Field Safety
Before removing a valve from the process, the following safety precautions shall be
observed:
1. Operators shall be notified when the relief valve needs to be removed or
isolated with its block (stop) valve or blinds. Operations will want to ensure
that the process is stable or shut down before the valve is removed.
2. When a relief valve is protecting an ASME Code stamped vessel and the relief
valves stop valve needs to be closed, the code (ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Appendix M, M-5) requires that the inlet
and outlet stop valve be closed only by an authorized person. This person
should remain stationed at the valve until the stop valve is opened, sealed or
locked.
3. If the relief valve discharges into a plant header, the valve outlet should be
isolated from the header with the stop valve and a blind.
4. Space between the relief valve and its stop valve or blind should be vented to a
safe location. The purpose of this arrangement is to release the trapped gases or
liquids and determine if the stop valve is providing a good seal.
5. If work is to be performed on a relief valve in place, blinds should be inserted
between the stop valve and relief valve.
6. Protective clothing and equipment shall be worn when removing valves from
hazardous service. Personnel shall be trained and certified for the protective
equipment (i.e., Scott air packs) before use. Plant and regional safety rules shall
be observed.
7. Valves shall be chemically neutralized before transporting. Valves with pyro-
phoric iron should be kept moist. For relief valves protecting vessels, wait until
vessel is steam cleaned before removing valve.
Protect the inlet and outlet openings with covers to keep valve internals clean.
Protective covers prevent the valve from being installed without removal of the
covers. Cover threaded parts to prevent damage. (See Figure 1200-21.)
Shop Inspection
Shop inspection includes visual inspection to determine the as-received relieving
set pressure, and valve cleaning and inspecting requirements.
Visual Inspection
The following items should be inspected and recorded before the valve is
disassembled:
Flanges should be free of pitts, smooth, flat, and the gasketed surface area
should not be reduced. Screwed ends should have clean unobstructed threads.
All bonnet vents should be clear of obstructions.
The blowdown ring setting should be noted and recorded.
Flame arrestors on breather valves should be cleared of all fouling and plug-
ging material.
this data test frequencies can be determined and information gained on how the
process is affecting the valve.
The as-received relieving pressure is determined on the test block. Slowly
increase the test pressure (and vacuum for tank breather valves) at the relief valve
inlet while monitoring the valve inlet pressure gage and noting the pressure at which
the valve opens or relieves.
If the valve opens at the set pressure, record the opening pressure.
If the valve opens at a pressure (vacuum) higher than the set pressure (vacuum),
repeat the test. It may be that the valve was stuck. After the opening pressure
(vacuum) is determined, record the information.
If the valve opens below the set pressure, the valve spring may be weak (the
weight may need adjusting), or the setting was changed. Record the opening
pressure.
After the opening or the relieving pressure (vacuum) is determined, remove the test
pressure at the valve inlet. Put 35 psig at the valve outlet and check the bonnet and
seats for leaks with a soap solution. A lower pressure (for example, 5 psig) should
be used on breather valves.
If there are leaks around seats, report this to the operating group. This information is
useful in identifying continuous emissions to common relief headers or sources of
product loss.
Cleaning and Checking Parts. After determining the as-received test pressure,
proceed to dismantle the valve. Valves should be cleaned, degreased, and chemi-
cally cleaned to remove all rust, grease, and deposits. Use the following as an
inspection guide.
Seats and Disks. Seats should be checked for flatness and compared against the
valve manufacturers tolerances. If lapping of the seats is required, the lapping
should be performed with precision machinery (such as a Lapmaster) in a tempera-
ture controlled room. The seating surfaces should be lapped to an optical flatness of
10-15 millionths of an inch (measured with a monochromatic light) and surfaces
finished to at least 8 micro inches. The seating surfaces should then be polished to a
high mirror finish.
The fit between the guide and the disk or disk holder should be inspected for
scoring. The seats, disks, and nozzles should also be inspected for roughness and
damage.
Spring. Inspect the spring for corrosion, cracking, or deformation. Spring cracks
can be revealed with a dye check.
If the valve has opened below the set pressure in the as-received test, a spring test
should be performed. The permanent set of the spring (defined as the difference
between the free height before compression and that height measured 10 minutes
after the spring has been compressed solid three times, after presetting at room
temperature) shall not exceed 0.5% of the uncompressed free height. This standard
3. Valve chatter. Chatter is caused by undersized inlet piping to the valve, an over-
sized valve, or set pressure too close to the operating pressure.
4. Excessive pipe strain on the valve.
5. Improper alignment of the spindle.
6. Improper fitting of the spring to spring washer, or improper bearing between
spring washers and their respective bearing contacts between the spindle and
disk or disk holder.
Solutions:
1. Install a rupture disk between the inlet piping and the valve. (This can be
expensive because piping alterations are often required.)
2. Check the valve seat and disk materials to see if they are compatible with the
process fluid.
3. Check the valve set pressure against the process operating pressure. Perhaps the
valve is set too close to the normal operating pressure of the process. Note that
the set pressure shall not exceed the maximum allowable working pressure of
the equipment or piping that the relief valve is protecting.
4. Check the valve size calculations and data sheet to verify that the valve is not
oversized.
5. Check the piping to verify that the piping loads are handled by the pipe
supports and not the relief valve.
6. Inform maintenance personnel of the importance of proper relief valve
handling.
Cracked spindles and springs are often a result of general corrosion due to
improper compatibility with the process as well as stress corrosion.
Possible solutions for these problems are: (1) use material that will resist the corro-
sive action of the process; (2) isolate the spindle and spring from the process by
using a bellows, an O-ring seal on the spindle guiding surfaces, or install a rupture
disk at the relief valve inlet connection; (3) repair leaking valves.
Cracked bellows are a result of general corrosion due to improper material compat-
ibility with the process or the back pressure exceeds the bellows design.
Solutions for cracked bellows are: (1) select a bellows material that is compatible
with the process; (2) when bonnets are vented to a closed system, examine the types
of gases in the closed system; (3) specify and install bellows that are designed to
withstand the normal and operating back pressures; and (4) compare the superim-
posed and the developed back pressure against the design pressure of the bellows.
Shop Testing
After the valve is cleaned, inspected, and reassembled, it is placed on a shop test
block and tested to verify the proper opening pressure, blowdown, seat and bonnet
tightness. If the relief valve will be installed in an orientation other than vertical, it
must be tested in the same position in which it will operate.
Test Media
The test media shall be as follows:
Media Service
Steam or air with temperature correction ASME power boilers
(ref. ASME Section 1, PG-73.4.2)
Water (ref. ASME Section Liquid service valves on
VIII-Div. 1, UG-136, (d)(4)) ASME pressure vessels
Air or nitrogen All other valves
When using air to test steam service valves operating at temperatures greater than
150F, make temperature corrections to the set pressure to achieve the cold differen-
tial test pressure. The cold differential test pressure for a conventional relief valve is
the set pressure plus the temperature correction minus the superimposed back pres-
sure. The cold differential test pressure for a balanced relief valve is the set pres-
sure plus the temperature correction minus the pressure in the relief valve bonnet.
The following are the temperature corrections for using air to test steam valves:
Operating Temperature Temperature Correction
Increase % of the difference between the set pressure
and the back pressure (or bonnet pressure for a balanced
valve)
0-150F none
151-600F 1%
601-800F 2%
801-1000F 3%
To allow the valve to stay open for a period after popping, the blowdown ring is
adjusted to a high blowdown percentage value. (Before making adjustments to the
blowdown ring, mark its position and the location of the adjustment notches.)
Consult the valve manufacturer for the test blowdown setting. Typically, the blow-
down ring is brought up to the disk holder, then lowered by two notches on the
blowdown ring. The blowdown ring locking screw shall be inserted so that it is
positioned between the adjustment notches on the ring.
Another method of preventing the valve from closing too quickly is to limit the
travel of the disk. This can be done by limiting the upward movement of the valve
stem. Often, the valve cap is removed and replaced with a cap that has a set-screw
positioned directly above the stem. When the valve is in the closed position, the set-
screw is lowered to touch the top of the stem and then raised by approximately
inch. This will restrict the valve lift and prevent the accumulation tank from
emptying too rapidly.
Opening Pressure
Valves in hot service should be preheated to allow the metal to expand to its oper-
ating size. After the valve has reached its service temperature, slowly increase the
test pressure until the valve starts to simmer and pop (preferably fully open). The
relief valve should start to open when the test pressure reaches the cold differential
test pressure. Note pressure on the test gage (relief valves are fully open when the
test pressure equals the cold differential test pressure plus the accumulation). After
the safety or relief valve fully opens, the test pressure gage should show decreasing
pressure. Note pressure at which the valve closes. See Figure 1200-22 for toler-
ances for opening pressure.
After the valve is adjusted so that the opening pressure is within the above toler-
ances, pop the valve three additional times to ensure that opening pressure is repeat-
able and within tolerance. When the operating pressure is set, replace the cap and
car-seal it to the valve bonnet.
Reseating Pressures
Reseating pressures should not be set for more than 10% below the valve opening
pressure. Valves set with a blowdown greater than 10% may not reseat. This can
happen when the reseating pressure is set below the normal operating pressure of
the process.
Typically the valve manufacturers set the blowdown between 7 and 10%. Following
are the resetting pressure requirements for power boilers:
Equipment Reset Pressure
Power Boiler 0.96 set pressure
Boilers < 100 psig (set pressure - 4 psi)
Boiler (200-300 psig) 0.99 set pressure
All (set pressure - 2 psi)
The test apparatus for measuring seat tightness is shown in Figure 1 of API Stan-
dard 527. After all openings in the valves secondary pressure zone (caps, drain
holes, vents, and outlets) are closed, the test pressure at the valve inlet shall be held
at 90% of the set pressure immediately after popping the valve. For valves set at or
below 50 psig, the test pressure shall be set at 5 psig below the set pressure immedi-
ately after opening the valve. Before the bubble count is started, the test pressure
shall be held for the following periods.
For nonsteam service valves with metal-to-metal seats, the following leakage rate
(in bubbles per minute) shall not be exceeded:
Valve Inlet Size Pre-Bubble Count Holding Period
2 inches and smaller 1 minute
2 inches, 3 inches 2 minutes
4 inches, 6 inches, 8 inches 5 minutes
1. For set pressures less than or equal to 1000 psig, the leakage rate shall not
exceed the values listed in API Standard 527, Figure 1.
2. For set pressures greater than 1000 psig, the leakage shall not exceed the values
from API Standard 527, Figure 2. For valves with resilient (elastomeric O-ring)
seat seals, there should be no leakage (0 bubbles per minute).
For valves in steam service, the test media should be steam using the test pressures
outlined in API Standard 527 (the test cover for the valve outlet flange may be
omitted). There should be no audible or visible leaks. Visible leaks can be detected
with the assistance of a mirror. Place the mirror by the side (not in front) of the
outlet flange. Steam leaks will fog the mirror.
For valve equipment in toxic, hazardous, corrosive, or cryogenic service, the
leakage should be 0 bubble per minute.
4. Apply a soap solution to all the bonnet connections and check for bubbles at the
bonnet-to-base joint, adjustment pin seal, cap-to-bonnet joint, and all plugged
openings. Tighten the necessary connection to eliminate bubbles. Adjustments
shall be made so as not to change any of the valve settings.
On-Line Testing
Testing relief valves that are connected to the process plant is not recommended
unless required by code. Testing the valve in-place can lead to seat damage or
leakage by allowing dirt, scale, or other solids to deposit between the valve disk and
the seating surface. Seat damage can also occur if the valve is opened suddenly and
then slammed shut.
If on-line testing cannot be avoided, it should be limited to valves operating in
clean, low temperature and pressure service, or if experience indicates that the test is
safe and practical. However, one must recognize that on-line testing will not always
verify blowdown, seat leakage, bonnet leaks, or the physical condition of the valve
internal components.
Steam and air valves on receivers shall have their opening levers lifted once a year.
This is an ASME code requirement. Before lifting the lever the following proce-
dures shall be followed:
1. Obtain the proper plant or regional operating permits.
2. Notify the operators and confirm that the process is stable and that the steam
drum or receiver has been recently blowndown (to minimize the amount of dirt
in the valve seating area).
Boiler safety valve levers are normally operated when there is at least 75% of the
valve set pressure in the boiler. This is to reduce the amount of force required to lift
the lever.
Section I of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code does not allow block valves
under boiler safety valves, thus testing on the equipment is done by raising the
steam pressure and observing when the valve opens and reseats.
Specification Record
A specification record should be developed for each relief valve. This record
provides the basic data to test and inspect the valve. A copy of this record should
accompany the test record whenever a valve is tested or inspected. A sample speci-
fication record is shown in Figure 1200-24. This document also provides:
Design information for ordering new parts (the valve data sheet should be used
to order a new valve)
Part identifications to allow assembly of an identical valve from spare parts
Historical Record
A historical record should be developed for each relief valve. This record tracks
when the valve was tested or inspected. API Guide for Inspection of Refinery Equip-
ment, Chapter XVI, Appendix B, gives an example of a historical record. The API
sample form should be amended to include information on whether the valve was
inspected, tested in-line, and/or shop tested.
A test/inspection history is valuable for:
Monitoring the performance and condition of the valve at the various
test/inspection intervals. These data can be used to adjust the test frequency of
the valve (the test/inspection frequency shall not exceed the periods set by the
codes).
Developing a test history for valves that are required to be tested at intervals
specified by codes.
Evaluating the valve performance data to see if the valve is suitable for the
service intended. These data will indicate problems in design, materials, or a
poor application for the valve.
Test Record
A test record contains the results of a test and/or inspection. A sample test record is
shown in Figure 1200-25. A copy of each test record should be retained in the valve
report folder.
Report
Monthly reports are recommended to identify which valves need testing and which
valves are past the scheduled test dates. The Chevron Plant Equipment Information
System (PEIS) computer program has a relief valve inspection/test reporting
function. Contact Chevron Information Technology Company, Computer Applica-
tion Department, Manufacturing, Chemical, and Engineering Division, for informa-
tion on setting up the test/inspection reporting program.
1261 General
Consideration of thermal relief is necessary in all sections of liquid piping, regard-
less of length, when it is reasonable to expect that the liquid will be blocked-in
while the line is subject to temperature rises from solar radiation, warm ambient air,
steam tracing, or other external sources of heat.
A temperature increase will cause both the liquid inside a pipe and the pipe itself to
expand in volume. Liquids have high thermal coefficients of expansion compared to
metals. For example, oil will expand approximately 25 times as much as the pipe.
Therefore, high pressures will build up when liquids are heated in a line sealed by
block valves or blinds. Neither thermal expansion of the pipe, expansion of the pipe
from internal pressure, nor compressibility of the liquid may be sufficient to relieve
the liquid thermal expansion before pressures exceeding the maximum safe pres-
sure of piping components are reached. Tests by the Manufacturing Department at
El Segundo Refinery and by Crane Company, and verified by calculations, show
that the pressure from thermal expansion of liquid hydrocarbons will increase about
70 to 100 psi for each F temperature increase.
The length of line has no effect on the pressure that will result from thermal expan-
sion of liquid in a blocked line. However, the volume of fluid that must be released
to prevent excess pressure build-up will be directly proportional to the line length.
Calculations show that temperatures of 150F can be reached in small lines (10
inches and less) containing liquid hydrocarbons before heat lost by convection
equals heat gained from solar radiation. Therefore, if oil is initially at 50F, a
temperature rise of 100F is possible during extreme exposure to the sun. Tests
performed at El Segundo verified that even on a normal day the temperature of oil
in a line can increase by 50F.
The possible temperature increase from solar radiation is sufficient to raise the pres-
sure in lines containing liquids by as much as 3,500 to 10,000 psi. See
Figures 1200-26 through 1200-29. Such pressures may be considerably above the
maximum allowable working pressure of valves and pipe, particularly if the pres-
sure of the liquid, at time of blocking, could be at or near the maximum working
pressure of the system. The principal reason more ruptures have not occurred in
lines without relief valves has been that sufficient relief is usually afforded by
inherent leakage of common valves. With the increasing use of positive shutoff
valves, such as plug cocks and ball valves, double-block valves, and some kinds of
line blinds, there is a greater likelihood of rupture.
Code Requirements
The ANSI/ASME B31.1 Power Piping Code states:
Fluid Expansion Effects. Where the expansion of a fluid may increase the pres-
sure, the piping system shall be designed to withstand the increased pressure or
provision shall be made to relieve the excess pressure.
The ANSI/ASME B31.4 Liquid Transportation Systems Piping Code and the
ANSI/ASME B31.3 Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping Code state:
Fluid Expansion Effects. Provision shall be made in the design either to withstand
or to relieve increased pressure caused by the heating of static fluid in a piping
component.
No further details are given; it is left to the piping designer to ensure that thermal
expansion effects are accommodated.
Fig. 1200-26 Pressure vs. Temperature Increase for Fig. 1200-27 Increase in Temperature of Pipe Containing
Confined Liquids Hydrocarbon Liquid by Solar Radiation
Fig. 1200-28 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion vs. API Fig. 1200-29 Approximate Maximum Rate of Tempera-
for Hydrocarbons ture Rise Due to Solar Heat for Pipe
Containing Hydrocarbon Liquid (F/hour)
The California Unfired Pressure Vessel Safety Orders require that every LPG or
NH3 pipe line or hose that can be isolated by two or more stop valves shall have a
safety relief valve installed in the pipe line or hose to prevent excessive pressure
buildup. The safety relief valve required by this standard shall start to discharge at
not less that 312 psi for LPG (300 psi for NH3), nor more than 400 psi, unless the
system is designed for higher pressures and provided with safety devices that will
adequately protect the system. See Article 5 L.P. Gas System, Order 480 (h) and
Article 6, Anhydrous NH3, Order 506 (g).
equipment, and it is assumed that all on-plot and rundown lines will be open to
equipment that is relieved.
2. Relief is not required in off-plot manifolds confined by valves of a type which
can be expected to leak, such as typical solid-wedge gate valves, if there is less
than 20 feet of pipe per valve. (If the amount of pipe per valve is between 20
and 200 feet, use the Doubtful Case approach given below).
3. Relief is not required in areas where no source of external heat energy is avail-
able, including most underground lines.
4. Relief would not be needed if a line is always hot and if it can be blocked only
when hot. The chances are slight that it can be heated further by solar radia-
tion. For this reason, relief valves need not be provided in liquid hydrocarbon
or water lines which can only be blocked at temperatures above 150F. A line
which is hot when blocked and then cooled will be subjected to an internal
vacuum. Since standard wall pipes up to NPS 30 can withstand vacuum of
14.7 psi, and since the possibility of pulling this much vacuum is slight, there is
no need for vacuum relief on standard wall pipe lines in the sun. (The
assumption that a line can be blocked only when hot is not completely
accurate.)
5. Relief is not needed on lines insulated for heat retention where the source of the
hot liquid has thermal relief provision.
packing or damage the valve. (Note: Some styles of double block valves have
spring loaded seats or other built-in provision for relieving such excess
pressures.)
necessary to take the relief valves into the shop for testing and setting. For this
reason, flanged ends are preferred (see Figure 1200-30)
Fig. 1200-30 Flanged Relief Valve (Series 900, Model 9511019A) (Courtesy of the Crosby Valve
& Gage Company)
Use the less expensive steel, screwed bonnet, screwed end, thermal relief
valves (Crosby Series 900 or equal) for all other liquid process services except
in corrosive liquid services or in piping subject to vibration. In these services,
use the bolted bonnet style above. The bolted bonnet style may also be prefer-
able in severely corrosive atmospheres where external corrosion could make
disassembly of the screwed bonnet difficult
Use screwed, bronze relief valves (or equal) for water services
of an exchanger with steam on the hot side, a much larger safety relief valve will be
required.
Qs Btu
------ = 300 ------------
A ft 2 hr
(Eq. 1200-2)
The convection heat loss coefficient is given in Perrys Chemical Engineers
Handbook (page 474). Qconv is calculated over the total outside area.
Q conv
-------------- = 0.5 -------
1 0.25 Btu
( T ) 1.25 ------------
A Do ft 2 hr
(Eq. 1200-3)
where:
Qs = radiation heat gain, Btu/hr
Qconv = convection heat loss, Btu/hr
= temperature above ambient, F
Do = outside diameter, in.
D = outside diameter, ft
A = DL
L = length, ft
The radiant heat loss coefficient is given on page 486. Qrad is calculated over one-
half the outside area.
Q rad
---------- T1 4 T 2 4 Btu
---- = 0.1724 --------- --------- -----------
A
-
2 100 100 ft 2 hr
(Eq. 1200-4)
where:
T1 = final pipe temperature, R
T2 = initial pipe temperature, R
Qin = Qout
(1 2)
Q in = 300 --------------
L
= 300 ( 0.5 )
= 150 But/ft-hr
Equation 1200-5 must be solved iteratively to find the maximum attainable tempera-
ture. For simplicity, we will make a first guess that is actually the answer:
Try T = 60F
Q out = Q conv A + Q rad A
(Eq. 1200-6)
1 0.25
= 0.5 --- ( 60 ) 1.25 ( 0.5L )
6
Since Qin = Qout = 150 Btu/ft-hr, the maximum T for the NPS 6 inch line is
60F at the 100F ambient temperature.
a. During the first 3 hours most of the incident solar heat is absorbed by the
pipe:
3 ( 150 )
T = ----------------- = 58.5F
7.68
(Eq. 1200-7)
T 3 = T o + 58.5 = 108.5F
b. During the fourth hour the becomes great enough to make the Qout
significant.
Assuming an average temperature of 118F:
T 4 = T 3 + T
T 4 = 108.5 + 16 = 124.5F
T 5 = T 4 + T
T 5 = 135.4F
d. Similarly, we can calculate the pipe and liquid temperature for each hour as
it approaches the maximum of 168F. See Figure 1200-31.
Fig. 1200-31 Sample Calculation: Pipe and Liquid Temperature for Each Hour, Approaching Maximum of 168F
Qout, Btu/ft-hr T, F T, F (at end of hour)
Sixth hour 90.1 7.8 143.2 (T6)
Seventh hour 109.4 5.3 148.5 (T7)
Eighth hour 122.5 3.6 152.1 (T8)
Ninth hour 129.5 2.7 154.8 (T9)
P D
c = -------------
2t
(Eq. 1200-10)
P D
1 = -------------
4t
(Eq. 1200-11)
c D 1 D
D = ---------- --------------
E E
c D 1
= ---------- 1 ------
E c
(Eq. 1200-12)
D 2
A = ----------
4
(Eq. 1200-13)
D
A = --- 2DD = -------D
4 2
(Eq. 1200-14)
1 L cL
L = ---------- ----------
E E
cL 1
= ---------- ------
E c
(Eq. 1200-15)
V = AL
(Eq. 1200-16)
V = AL + LA
(Eq. 1200-17)
LA L D 2 D
= ------------------ + 2L ---------- --------
L 4 D
L D
= V ------- + 2 --------
L D
(Eq. 1200-18)
V cL 1 2 c D 1
-------- = ---------- ------ + -------------- 1 ------
V EL c ED c
c
= ------ [ ( 0.5 0.3 ) + 2 ( 1 0.3 0.5 ) ]
E
c
= 1.90 ------
E
1.90 PD
= ----------------------
2tE
(Eq. 1200-19)
Thermal expansion of steel pipe:
V
-------- = 3T
V
(Eq. 1200-20)
Total expansion of steel pipe:
V 1.90PD
-------- = ---------------------- + 3T
V 2t E
(Eq. 1200-21)
Thermal expansion of liquid:
V
-------- = T
V
(Eq. 1200-22)
Compression of liquid due to pressure:
V P
-------- = -------
V K
(Eq. 1200-23)
Total expansion of liquid:
V P
-------- = T -------
V K
(Eq. 1200-24)
Total liquid pressure increase:
V
Equate -------- for liquid and pipe
V
1.90PD P
---------------------- + 3T = T -------
2t E K
(Eq. 1200-25)
1.90 ( D ) 1
P -------------------- + ---- = ( 3 )T
2t E K
(Eq. 1200-26)
( 3 )K T
P = ----------------------------------------
1.9DK 2t E + 1
(Eq. 1200-27)
Relief volume:
At a set pressure of PR the volume to be released must be
V P R
-------- = T ----------
V K
1.90 P R D
--------------------------- + 3T
2t E
1.90 DK P R
= ( 3 )T 1 + --------------------- ----------
2t E K
(Eq. 1200-28)
If we wish to be conservative and neglect the expansion of the pipe (small) and
compression of the liquid (moderate) then:
P = KT
(Eq. 1200-29)
V = VT
(Eq. 1200-30)
1270 References
1. American National Standards Institute, ANSI B95.1, Terminology for Pressure
Relief Devices.
2. API Guide for Inspection of Refinery Equipment, Chapter XVI, Pressure
Relieving Devices.1
3. API RP 14C. Analysis, Design, Installation, and Testing of Basic Surface Safety
Systems on Offshore Production Platforms.
4. API RP 520. Design and Installation of Pressure-Relieving Systems. 1
5. API RP 521. Guide for Pressure Relieving and Depressuring Systems.1
6. API Std 526. Flanged Steel Safety-Relief Valves.1
7. API Std 527. Commercial Seat Tightness of Safety Relief Valve with Metal-to-
Metal Seat.1
8. API Std 620. Recommended Rules for Design and Construction of Large,
Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks.
9. API Std 650. Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage.
10. API Std 2000. Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks.
11. ASME Pressure Vessel Code.
12. ASME Boiler Code.
13. Code of Federal Regulations, Part 192, Title 49, Transportation of Natural and
Other Gas By Pipelines: Minimum Federal Safety Standards Code of Federal
Regulations, Department of Transportation, Federal Gas Pipeline Safety
Standards.
14. Department of Interior, Federal Register, Vol. 53, No. 63, Appendix 1, Register
No. 250.124, Production Safety Systems Records.
15. ISA Std S20. Specification Forms for Process Measurement and Control
Instruments, Primary Elements and Control Valves.
16. ISA Std S20.53, Instructions for Ordering Pressure Relief Valves.
17. National Board Inspection Code, Boilers and Pressure Vessels.
18. NB-18, Pressure Relief Device Certifications (National Board of Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Inspectors), National Board Authorization to Repair ASME
and NB Safety and Safety Relief Valves for VR Certification.
19. Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook. [Robert H. Perry]. 6th edition. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1984.