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1200 Relief Systems

Abstract
This section includes guidelines for sizing, selecting, and installing pressure relief
devices and introduces the primary industry references (API RP 520, RP 521, etc.).
It also provides a basis for designing pressure relief devices in coordination with the
design of new or pre-existing relief headers and disposal systems. Recommenda-
tions for both onshore and offshore installations are noted.
The sections listed below treat the portions of a relief system separately for conve-
nience of description. Keep in mind that these are components of an interrelated
system.

Contents Page

1210 Introduction 1200-3


1220 Relief Device Selection 1200-3
1221 Determine Individual Relief Loads
1222 Select the Appropriate Relieving Device
1223 Specific Company Recommendations
1224 Ordering the Relief Device
1230 Relief Header Design 1200-11
1231 Atmospheric Relief Versus Closed Relief Systems
1232 Design of Relief Headers
1240 Flares and Disposal Systems 1200-13
1241 Disposal System Design
1242 Design of Knockout Drums
1243 Design of Seal Drums
1244 Design of Flare Stacks
1245 Flares at Producing Sites
1250 Relief Valve Testing 1200-29
1251 Test Equipment

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1252 Inspection and Test Procedure


1253 Records and Reports
1260 Relieving Thermal Expansion of Liquids in Piping 1200-48
1261 General
1262 When Relief Valves Are Needed
1263 Solar HeatEffects and Considerations
1264 Disposal of Effluent from Relief Valves
1265 Types of Relief Valves
1266 Calculation of Solar Heat Gains
1267 Calculation of Maximum Attainable Temperature of Pipe and Liquid
1268 Calculation of Temperature Rise per Hour
1269 Calculation of Pressure and Volume
1270 References 1200-65

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1210 Introduction
There are three main engineering considerations in designing (or designing a modi-
fication to) a relief system:
Determining the relief requirements of individual pieces of equipment, and
selecting appropriate devices to handle imposed loads
Designing a relief header system which will handle imposed loads or expan-
sion modifications
Defining reasonable total relief loads for the combined relief header/disposal
system and designing an appropriate disposal system with minimum adverse
impact on plant process system integrity, personnel safety, and public relations
These three considerations are interrelated in such a way as to make it impossible to
establish a procedural guideline which would be valid for most cases. The design
for one portion of a relief system must be considered in light of its effect on the total
relief system.

1220 Relief Device Selection


Discussion of the design and selection of pressure relieving devices is divided into
the following four sections:
Section 1221 introduces the primary industry references on pressure relief
design and describes essential engineering considerations
Section 1222 describes types of valves and other devices used for pressure
relief, and device selection criteria
Section 1223 contains Company design recommendations based on historical
experience and lessons learned
Section 1224 provides guidance for load and header pressure calculations and
for device selection and specification based on ISA Standard S20 data sheets

1221 Determine Individual Relief Loads


Anyone working on projects involving pressure relief loads should be familiar with
the appropriate sections of API RP 520, Part I, and API RP 521.
API RP 520, Part I, covers the two main classes of relief loads. Section 3 covers
operational relief requirements, and Sections 4, 5, and 6 cover fire relief require-
ments. API RP 521 discusses the causes of overpressure and provides methods for
calculating the relieving rates. Section 2 lists the main causes of overpressure.
Section 3 covers the methods of calculating the individual relieving rates for the
various relief events.
The API RP 521 bibliography lists useful references for unusual situations.

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Major Causes of Overpressure


It is usually necessary to calculate the relief loads caused by fire, power failure,
cooling water failure, and any process upset condition which might result in signifi-
cant overpressure. The case which gives the maximum discharge is used to size the
pressure relief device(s).
API RP 520, Part I, Sections 4 and 5, and Appendix A, cover the procedures and
calculations for determining the relief loads from fire exposure. The Company uses
API criteria.

Effect of Vessel Insulation


With the current high cost of energy, many vessels are now thoroughly insulated for
energy savings. This thermal insulation limits the heat absorption from fire expo-
sure as long as it remains intact. It is important to provide effective weather protec-
tion for the insulation so that it will not be removed by high-velocity fire hose
streams.

Control Valve Failure


When the worst-case relief load is caused by a control valve failing to open, the
relief device should be sized using full size trim in the control valve, even if the
actual control valve has reduced trim.

1222 Select the Appropriate Relieving Device


API RP 520, Part I, Section 2, discusses the various types of relieving devices but
gives little guidance in selecting the appropriate device. Section 2 defines the differ-
ences between relief valves, safety valves, safety-relief valves, and pressure-relief
valves. In these engineering guidelines, we use the generic abbreviation PSV (pres-
sure-safety valve) for all of the different types of relieving devices.

Conventional Versus Balanced PSVs


Whether to choose a conventional or a balanced PSV is a critical decision, because
the entire relief system must be considered before selecting the appropriate PSV.
API RP 520, Part I, Sections 2.4.3 and 2.4.4, explains and illustrates the differences
between conventional and balanced PSVs.
The following factors should be considered when designing systems requiring
relieving devices:
1. The Company prefers conventional PSVs with relief headers sized to minimize
pressure drop. This provides for future expansion and additional relief loads.
Relief headers designed for high pressure drops and balanced PSVs have little
capacity for future expansion.
2. Conventional PSVs require header back pressure (superimposed plus built-up),
which should normally not exceed 10% of the set pressure of the lowest-set
PSV.

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3. There are two main kinds of balanced PSVs, piston-type and bellows-type. API
RP 520, Part I, Section 2.4.4, explains the difference between the two. Experi-
ence has shown the bellows-type PSVs to be more reliable in most installations
because their back pressure compensation is more consistent.
4. Bellows-type PSVs allow the use of smaller relief headers. These smaller
headers require larger pressure drops under maximum relief flow conditions.
Consequently, the balanced PSVs and the relief header are designed as a system
to operate at a higher back pressure.
5. Bellows-type PSVs are considerably more expensive than conventional PSVs.
However, for a new relief system, the total cost of the bellows-type PSVs plus
the smaller header system may be lower.
6. Bellows-type PSVs can be used with header back pressures as high as 40% of
the set pressure; however, the capacity of the PSV is reduced at higher back
pressures. Bellows-type PSVs are not the solution for all back pressure prob-
lems. The bellows is really a flexible pressure vessel, and it has a maximum
back pressure limit which is lower in the larger valve sizes. Bellows are avail-
able in a limited number of materials, and may deteriorate rapidly under certain
exposure conditions.
7. When bellows-type PSVs are installed, it is necessary to periodically check that
the bellows is intact. A leaking bellows does not provide back pressure
compensation and it allows the relief header to leak to atmosphere.
8. Bellows-type PSVs are most often used to tie a new low-pressure relief load
into an existing heavily loaded relief header or to protect the PSV topworks
from corrosive gases in the relief header.
9. A special category of bellows-type PSV is available if corrosion protection is
all that is required. The bellows is smaller so that it does not provide complete
back-pressure compensation. The Company normally avoids the use of a PSV
for this purpose because the cost saving is small, and the PSV cannot be reused
in a different service.

Rupture Discs
In the past, the Company used rupture discs infrequently (except in chemical plants)
because of two major disadvantages: the inability to reclose following rupture and
the larger difference needed between operating and set pressure.
With current high product costs and stringent pollution requirements, rupture
discs look increasingly attractive for some applications. They have three major
advantages:
1. The disc provides complete sealing as long as it is intact.
2. Rupture discs are available in a variety of materials or with coatings for corro-
sive services.
3. Rupture discs are much less likely to plug than PSVs.

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Currently available reverse-buckling rupture discs can operate at 90% of burst pres-
sure and are less subject to fatigue failure. Prescored rupture discs have recently
been advertised to operate at 95% of burst pressure.
Rupture discs should be mounted in the holder provided by the maker to avoid
premature rupture due to pipe stress. If back pressure or vacuum can cause pressure
reversal, a rupture disc with adequate vacuum strength is required.
Section VIII of the ASME Pressure Vessel Code, Paragraph UG-127, lists special
requirements for rupture discs. There is little guidance on selection of rupture discs
in API RP 520. The following are some key points about rupture disc applications
and specification:
1. Rupture discs must meet the same ASME Code sizing and set pressure require-
ments that are applied to any pressure relief device, such as a safety relief
valve.
2. Rupture discs must be selected and sized so that:
Their burst pressure does not exceed the maximum allowable working
pressure of the equipment they are protecting
The pressure in the equipment they are protecting does not rise more than
10% above maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP)
3. Rupture discs can be used as secondary devices to other rupture discs or to
other PSVs.
4. When ordering, specification data must include expected temperature at rupture
conditions (not normal operating temperature). Disc rupture pressure is greatly
affected by temperature; too many discs have ruptured prematurely because
they were not specified correctly.
The literature of the major makers (Fike, Continental, Crosby, and B S & B) is the
best source for detailed guidance on the application and selection of rupture discs.
One thing to keep in mind is that temperature affects the rupture pressure of a disc.
Both operating temperature ranges and pressures must be provided to a vendor for a
disc to be properly engineered.

Rupture Discs Under PSVs


This combination overcomes the nonreclosing disadvantage. ASME UG-127
outlines special mandatory requirements for installing rupture discs under PSVs.
These requirements include:
A means (i.e., a tell-tale) to check that the rupture disc is intact and that there is
no liquid or pressurized gas in the cavity between the rupture disc and the PSV
Derating relief valve capacity to 80% of valve design, unless the specific
combination of rupture disc, disc holder, and PSV has been flow tested. This
topic is covered in ASME UG-132. Note that it is necessary to include the
rupture disc when calculating relief inlet pressure drop

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Reduction in operating pressure to match the larger bursting tolerance of the


rupture disc
The rupture disc vendors make special holders which mount under the PSV and
which include a tell-tale.

Pilot-Operated PSVs
In the past, pilot-operated PSVs were widely used in marketing and in producing
applications and rarely used in refinery applications. Pilot-operated PSVs were not
specified for downstream services because of temperature limitations, and because
the old flowing pilots could plug in dirty services. Current models use nonflowing
pilots which overcome most of these objections.
Because of the excellent service record of pilot-operated PSVs in upstream applica-
tions, they should be seriously considered for all clean services within their temper-
ature limitations. They are particularly well suited for pressures below 15 psig.
Pilot-operated PSVs are available with the pilot pressure sensing line connected to
the valve inlet or with the sensing line connected to a different point. Many
producing installations use a remote sensing pilot to avoid chattering problems. A
field test kit is available for testing the setpoint of a pilot-operated PSV with the
PSV in service.
Section VIII of the ASME Pressure Vessel Code, Paragraph UG-126, covers the
design of pilot-operated PSVs. API RP 520, Part I, briefly discusses pilot-operated
PSVs in Section 2.4.5. The major makers (Anderson-Greenwood, GPE Controls,
and Crosby) can provide training materials, and their catalogs contain application
and selection information.
Pilot-operated PSVs have significant advantages for both upstream and down-
stream applications, including:
Tight shutoff with very narrow margins between operating pressure and set
pressure
Lower first cost, especially in larger sizes (larger than 4 inches)
Minimum blowdown
Ability to operate with relief headers with high back pressures
Ability to operate with the PSV installed at a distance from the protected
equipment
Resistance to chatter
Ability to test the set pressure with the PSV in service
There is also one distinct disadvantage to pilot-operated PSVs. If the sensing tubing
comes loose due to vibration or thermal cycling, the result can be an undesirable full
flow.

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Liquid PSVs
High pressure liquid-filled systems require special design to avoid PSV chatter.
Preferably, the design pressure should be high enough to prevent discharges due to
normal surges in operating pressure.
The ASME Pressure Vessel Code formerly permitted 25% overpressure for liquid
PSVs to reach full capacity; therefore, the Company sized liquid PSVs using 25%
overpressure. The ASME Pressure Vessel Code was revised in 1985 to require that
liquid PSVs pass their full rated capacity with 10% overpressure. The latest designs
of liquid PSVs can meet this requirement. When re-using old liquid PSVs designed
for 25% overpressure, it is necessary to recalculate the PSV capacity using 10%
overpressure. Routine maintenance of old PSVs does not require recalculation with
10% overpressure unless the relieving case has changed.

Vacuum PSVs
Vacuum PSVs should be provided on all tanks designed for operation from 0.5
ounces per square inch vacuum through 15 psig in accordance with API Standard
650, Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage, and API Standard 2000, Venting Atmo-
spheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks. The Company prefers either weight-
loaded pallet or pilot-operated types. A more complete discussion of this subject can
be found in the Tank Manual.

1223 Specific Company Recommendations


Chattering and Inlet Piping Pressure Drop
Chattering is a serious PSV problem that deserves special emphasis. Chattering and
its causes are described in API RP 520, Part II, Section 2. Generally, chattering is a
result of oversized PSVs (sized for a higher relief case) or undersized inlet piping.
To avoid chattering, be sure that the pressure drop from the vessel nozzle to the PSV
does not exceed 3% of the set pressure. API RP 520, Part I, Section 5.4.1, covers the
design of PSV inlet piping.
Pilot-operated PSVs with remote-sensing pilots can operate with higher inlet piping
pressure drops.

Operating Pressures
Figure 2 of API RP 521 shows the relationship between the various pressures
involved in pressure relief, and it defines the terminology. Figure 2 shows a 10%
margin between the maximum operating pressure (Po) and MAWP. To avoid PSV
leakage and excessive maintenance, provide the following margins between P o and
MAWP:
25 psi for Po = 0 - 170 psi
15% of Po for Po = 170 - 300 psi
45 psi for Po = 300 - 450 psi
10% of Po for Po = above 450 psi

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The above recommendations are for conventional and balanced PSVs. Pilot-oper-
ated PSVs allow the vessel to be operated closer to the MAWP.

Set Pressures
Normally, PSVs are set to pop at MAWP. The greater the margin between set pres-
sure and operating pressure, the less likelihood there is of leakage. Aside from
requirements to compensate for superimposed back pressure, there is no reason to
set a PSV at less than MAWP. It is a violation of the ASME Code to operate a boiler
or pressure vessel without a properly set PSV.
With a conventional PSV, the net spring setting must be reduced by the superim-
posed back pressure because the pressure in the relief header adds to the spring
pressure to keep the valve closed.
The minimum set pressure for conventional PSVs is 5 to 10 psig. The minimum set
pressure for bellows-type PSVs is approximately 25 psig. Both of these minimums
depend on the size of the PSV. Consult the manufacturers catalogs.

Bench Set Pressures


The bench set pressure may differ from the MAWP under the following
circumstances:
Set Pressure Tolerance. PSVs do not always pop at the same pressure. PSVs
may not pop on the test bench at the same pressure as they do in service. The
ASME Pressure Vessel Code allows a tolerance of plus or minus 2 psi for pres-
sures up to 70 psi, and plus or minus 3% for pressures over 70 psi
High Operating Temperatures. Since PSVs are set on a test bench at ambient
temperature, it is customary to adjust the cold set pressure to compensate for
the effect of high operating temperatures
One manufacturer recommends a 3% increase in cold set pressure for operating
temperatures between 251F and 1000F, and a 5% increase for operating tempera-
tures above 1000F.
Another manufacturer recommends 1% for temperatures between 151F and 600F,
2% for temperatures between 601F and 800F, and 3% for temperatures between
801F and 1000F.
A third manufacturer recommends 2% for temperatures between 201F and 450F,
3% for temperatures between 451F and 900F, and 4% for temperatures between
901F and 1200F.
These are manufacturers recommendations rather than API or ASME require-
ments. Use the above recommendations as they apply for each make of PSV.

Block or Stop Valves Under PSVs


Block valves should not be installed under PSVs without a very good reason. Plant
management approval is required in those unusual cases where block valves are
required. When a maintenance block valve is installed under a PSV inlet, a second
valve is usually installed on the outlet to block in the relief header while the PSV is

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being serviced. The ASME Pressure Vessel Code, Appendix M, describes special
mandatory requirements for these maintenance block valves.

Dual Relief Valves


In critical process applications where a shutdown cannot be tolerated, and in some
situations dictated by API, two full capacity relief valves may have to be installed
on the same vessel. The intent is that when the first relief valve lifts and fails to
reseat, a second relief valve can be switched into service before the first valve is
removed for maintenance, without shutting down or jeopardizing the process.
The conventional way to accomplish this is to pipe the relief valves in parallel,
putting car sealed full-port ball or gate block valves on the inlet and outlet of each
relief valve. One block valve is then sealed open and the other one sealed closed.
This requirement creates a considerable piping constraint because of the space
needed for the block valves and their operating devices.
Presently, ASME-approved selector valves have become commercially available.
These valves simplify the relief valve switching operation, providing interlock of
parallel inlet and outlet block valves, and ensuring that full protection is always
provided for the process equipment.

Multiple PSVs
Multiple PSVs are required when the relief load exceeds the capacity of the largest
available PSV. It is generally good practice to include multiple PSVs for varying
loads to minimize chattering on small discharges. The ASME Pressure Vessel Code
allows a 16% or 4-psi (whichever is greater) accumulation above MAWP for vessels
protected by multiple PSVs. It allows only a 10% or 3-psi accumulation for single
PSVs. The primary PSV must be set at or below MAWP. The other PSVs should
have staged set pressures. The highest may be set at 105% of the MAWP. If
different sized PSVs are used, the smallest PSV should be set to the lowest pressure.

Sentinel PSVs
Steam turbines require full-size PSVs where the inlet steam pressure is higher than
the rated pressure of the turbine casing. There is one exception to this rule. Provide
a small warning (sentinel) PSV for a steam turbine under the following conditions:
The inlet steam pressure is 150 psig or less, the turbine is connected to only one
inlet and exhaust system, and the turbine does not start under remote or auto-
matic control
The exhaust valve is locked open
Approval from local operating management should be obtained before specifying
sentinel PSVs.

Thermal Relief Valves


The Company prefers bolted bonnet rather than threaded bonnet relief valves in
hydrocarbon service. The PSV makers have developed a special bolted-bonnet
thermal relief valve for this requirement.

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Sizing the Relief Device


The most difficult factors for specifying PSVs are:
To determine the limiting cause of pressure relief
To determine the relief load and the properties of the discharge fluid
To select the proper relief device
When the loads are known, the sizing steps are straightforward. API RP 520
provides formulas for determining PSV orifice area for vapor, liquid, and steam
relief. These formulas include the capacity reduction for header back pressure. PSV
makers catalogs list the same formulas and often include examples.

Personal Computer Software


The Instrument Society of America (ISA) sells a PC program called SARVAL, for
use on an IBM PC or compatible, that helps to define and determine relief loads,
and that also sizes and prepares a specification sheet for relieving devices. CRTCs
M&CS Unit and several of the Operating Companies have copies of this program.
SARVAL was written by Kenonics (Canada) and is regularly updated to include the
latest code changes. The program is a little awkward to install and deinstall when
used on more than one PC, but it does give excellent results.
Another PC program, INSTRU-CALC, for performing instrumentation calcula-
tions, such as sizing control valves, orifice plates, and relief valves, is published by
Gulf Publishing Company (Houston). This software, however, does not help an
engineer define and determine relief loads.

1224 Ordering the Relief Device


Use ISA Specifications Form S20.53 for ordering PSVs. This form is based on the
Relief Valve Specification Sheet which is a part of API Standard 526, Flanged Steel
Safety-Relief Valves (included in this manual). A data sheet guide to ISA Form
S20.53 (data sheet) is included in this manual as ICM-DG-4777.
ISA Form S20.54 is the data sheet to use for ordering rupture discs. A separate data
sheet guide has not been prepared for this form because the engineering computa-
tions and application considerations are similar to those for the relief valve data
sheet (ISA Form S20.53).

1230 Relief Header Design

1231 Atmospheric Relief Versus Closed Relief Systems


Local air pollution regulations in many locations prohibit the use of PSVs that
discharge directly to atmosphere. API RP 520, Part I, Section 8, and API RP 521,
Section 4, describe conditions where atmospheric discharge is appropriate. Disposal
by venting to atmosphere is usually limited to relief of air, water, steam or other
nonhazardous materials. Disposal through a closed relief system to a flare is the
common method for disposal of hydrocarbon vapors.

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1232 Design of Relief Headers


API RP 520, Part I, Section 7, and API RP 521, Section 5.4, cover the design of
relief headers (or manifolds). Relief headers are multicase piping design problems
once the allowable pressure drop has been determined.

New and Existing Relief Systems


There are two kinds of relief header design problems: (1) designing a relief system
for a new grass roots plant, and (2) tying additional loads into an existing relief
system. In both cases it is necessary to determine the total discharge flow to the
flare for the worst case scenario for each segment of the relief header.

Determining the Worst Case Relief Discharge


For refinery and chemical plants, the worst case is usually caused by a power
failure, a cooling water failure, or a fire. For production facilities, the worst case
may be caused by a failed control valve. The worst cases should not be compounded
unless one failure causes the second failure, e.g., electrical failure causes loss of
cooling water.
If the header serves two distinct, geographically separated plant areas, only one area
should be used to determine the concurrent fire load.
If the operation of an upstream PSV removes so much material from the process
that in a short time the downstream PSVs will have less material to discharge, it
may be reasonable not to size the header for the combined instantaneous rates.

Grass Roots Relief System Design


In a grass roots design, the worst case relief load is used to size the relief header.
The header is normally sized for two alternative cases:
A low-pressure header using conventional PSVs
A high-pressure header using bellows-type PSVs
Low pressure headers should be sized so that the pressure at the various branches
does not exceed 10% of the setpoint of any of the conventional PSVs. The resulting
buildup of header pressure becomes the backpressure on other PSVs. This condi-
tion may require a large header, especially if there are low-pressure PSVs at an
upstream (higher pressure) end of the header.
High pressure headers are usually sized so that the pressure at the various branches
does not exceed 30% of the setpoint of any of the bellows-type PSVs.
A cost-effective solution may require a small number of bellows-type PSVs
combined with a majority of conventional PSVs.

Tying New PSVs into an Existing Relief Header


A special problem occurs when a new PSV (or PSVs) with a significant discharge is
tied into an existing relief header. It is necessary to calculate the total relief header
loading and the pressure profile including the new load(s). This will confirm that the
existing relief header and disposal system can handle the additional load(s) and that

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all of the existing PSVs can withstand the increased relief header back pressure
developed by the new PSV(s).
First, it is necessary to determine the original relief header design basis. If the worst
case load for the existing relief header does not occur simultaneously with the new
load, it may not be necessary to combine the loads. If the old and new relief events
take place simultaneously (electrical power failure, and cooling water failure, for
example), then the loads must be combined. It may be that the size of the new PSV
is determined by one case and the back pressure requirements are determined by a
different case.
In many cases with heavily loaded or old relief headers, a bellows-type PSV will be
required. It may also be necessary to convert some of the existing conventional
PSVs to bellows-type construction to handle the increased relief header pressure.

Conventional PSVs at High Back Pressures


It is possible to operate conventional PSVs with header back pressures higher than
10% of set pressure. This is rarely attractive because it requires a significant
lowering of the set pressure, which limits the maximum operating pressure of the
vessel. The flow capacity of a conventional PSV is significantly reduced at higher
back pressures. API RP 520, Part I, Section 2.4.3, discusses the effect of back pres-
sure on conventional PSVs.

1240 Flares and Disposal Systems

1241 Disposal System Design


API RP 520, Part I, Section 8, and API RP 521, Sections 4 and 5, cover the design
of disposal and depressuring systems. API RP 521, Appendix A, provides sample
calculations for sizing a flare stack. Appendix B shows figures of a flare stack seal
drum, a quench drum, and a typical flare installation.

1242 Design of Knockout Drums


API RP 521, included in Volume 2 of this manual, gives detailed guidance for the
design of knockout drums (also called relief drums or flare scrubbers).

Location of Knockout Drums


Relief streams from process plants should be assumed to contain liquids. Flares are
designed to burn hydrocarbon vapors only. The knockout drum is used to drop out
and collect the liquid before the vapor is sent to the flare.
The Company prefers to locate knockout drums near the plot limit of each process
plant where the plant relief headers enter the main interconnecting pipeway. Occa-
sionally it is economical to provide a single knockout drum for a group of plants.

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Diameter of Knockout Drums


Knockout drums are generally horizontal with a length- to-diameter ratio of between
2 and 4. A horizontal knockout drum must have a diameter sufficiently large to keep
the vapor velocity low enough to drop out entrained liquid. The equation used to
calculate diameter is:
12
D = ----------------------
4W
5170 g

(Eq. 1200-1)
where:
W = discharge rate in lb/hr
g = gas density in lb/ft3

Volume of Knockout Drums


A horizontal knockout drum must have sufficient volume to hold the specified
volume of liquid. Knockout drums should be sized so that a 10-minute blow at
maximum rate will fill the drum half-full. This conforms with API RP 521 recom-
mendations.
Knockout drums operated at atmospheric pressure should be sized to handle the
greatest liquid volume expected at the maximum rates of liquid buildup and
pumpout. Maximum liquid volume also depends on the operators reaction time to
the relief event. Operating management should concur on the selection of the
knockout drum size.
Producing facilities often operate knockout drums at 20 to 30 psig, and liquids are
forced by that pressure to temporary storage tanks or sumps from which they can be
pumped whenever it is convenient. Operating the scrubber under pressure allows
both the knockout drum and the associated pumping equipment to be smaller, since
the knockout drum should reasonably never reach one-half capacity.

1243 Design of Seal Drums


The seal drum is normally provided by the flare supplier, and there are a number of
proprietary designs involving the shape of the bottom of the dip leg. API RP 520,
Part I, Section 5.4.2.2, gives detailed guidance for the design of seal drums. API RP
521, Figure B-1, shows a typical seal drum (see Figure 1200-1).

Purpose of Seal Drums


The seal drum serves as a final knockout drum to separate liquid from the relief
gases. Elevated flares usually have a water seal at the base to prevent the entry of air
that might create an explosive mixture in the relief header. A gas seal (molecular
seal) can replace the liquid seal drum on an elevated flare, but not on a ground flare.
In a ground flare system, a double liquid seal provides a positive means of diverting
excess relief gas into the elevated flare. The maximum volume of relief gas that can
go to the ground flare is determined by the water seal depth in the upper seal. Once

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Fig. 1200-1 Seal Drum with Double Seal for a Ground Flare and an Elevated Flare

the relief header pressure exceeds that head, the excess relief gas goes to the
elevated flare. Figure 1200-1 shows a double liquid seal.
Some facilities use a dual header design with dedicated high- and low-pressure
flares. The high-pressure ground flare is usually self-aspirating and requires no
water or steam injection.

Depth of the Water Seal


The depth of liquid in the seal drum determines the relief header back pressure. This
depth is set by the flare supplier, but it can usually be altered somewhat (with the
suppliers concurrence) to suit plant conditions. Typical seal depths are 2 feet for
elevated flares and 6 inches for ground flares.

Pulsations
API RP 521 states that surging in seal drums can be minimized by using V-notches
on the end of the dip leg. This does not conform to Company experience. If the
water sloshes in the seal drum, it will cause pulsations in the gas flow to the flare,
resulting in noise and light disturbances. The Company prefers either a displace-
ment seal as shown in Figure 1200-2 or a perforated anti-slosh baffle as shown in
Figure 1200-3.

1244 Design of Flare Stacks


API RP 521, Section 5.4.3, covers the design of elevated flares. The following
discussion supplements this standard with Company experience.

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Fig. 1200-2 Seal Drum with Displacement Seal Fig. 1200-3 Seal Drum with a Perforated Anti-Slosh
Baffle

Flare Diameter and Gas Velocity


Flare and stack diameter are generally determined by the flare supplier. The stack
diameter is usually determined by velocity, pressure drop, wind, and earthquake
loads. Smokeless flares are designed to burn smokelessly from a minimum tip
velocity of Mach 0.2 up to a maximum velocity of Mach 0.5. This range is accept-
able for emergency release where high combustion noise levels are inevitable.

Flare Height
Height determination for an elevated flare stack is not a precise science. The stack
height is selected to reduce the radiant heat intensity at ground level to desired safe
limits for personnel and equipment. The Company uses the method outlined in API
RP 521, Appendix A. Selecting an acceptable radiant intensity is the key design
decision.
The radiant intensity is calculated by assuming uniform spherical radiation from the
flame center. Calculation is inexact because of the following conditions.
1. Emissivity must be approximated. Emissivity is that fraction of the thermal
energy of the flared gas that is actually radiated as heat. Test emissivities range
from 60% to 15% and even lower when steam is introduced into the combus-
tion zone. While steam is used for smoke suppression in most modern flares,
steam may not be available during the major emergency that causes the
maximum flare release. Therefore, for purposes of calculation assume an emis-
sivity of 40%.
2. The flame center is unknown but is assumed to be located halfway up the
flame. This varies significantly for a vertical flame in windless conditions to a
nearly horizontal flame in a severe windstorm. Flames from major releases are

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typically several hundred feet long. Therefore, for purposes of calculation


assume a flame length of 100 tip diameters.
A ground level radiation intensity of 1500 Btu/hr/ft 2 is the maximum safe level
(OSHA Standard) for prolonged exposure. This level is approximately the threshold
of pain for bare unprotected skin. Below this level, exposure can be tolerated for
virtually unlimited periods. Above this level, skin will blister. This intensity,
however, is too low for a realistic flare height design onshore because personnel
in the vicinity of the flare will promptly escape to a safe distance as soon as a major
release begins. For offshore locations see Section 1245.
The API RP 521 sample calculations assume two different maximum allowable
radiation intensities at grade2000 and 3000 Btu/hr/ft2. Using maximum allow-
able radiation intensity of 2600 Btu/hr/ft2 at grade in the immediate vicinity of the
flare has worked well for the design of recent installations. By using these design
criteria, most Company flares are 150 to 175 feet high.

Atmospheric Dispersion of Pollutants


In some cases it may be desirable to check the stack height based on atmospheric
dispersion of pollutants. Where this is required, the air pollution enforcement
authorities will normally have a preferred calculation method. CRTCs Environ-
mental Engineering Group is normally consulted if dispersion modeling is required.

Distance Between Flares and Tankage


Sometimes flares must be constructed adjacent to tankage. Normally a distance of
200 feet from the flare to the nearest tank is enough to protect the tank from fire
hazard. Elevated flares sometimes spit burning liquid during a major release, and
the setback distance should accommodate this hazard.

Purge Gas
Purge gas is injected into the relief header at the upstream end and at the major
branches to maintain a hydrocarbon-rich atmosphere in each branch, in the off-plot
relief system, and in the flare stack. The volume of gas is typically enough to main-
tain a velocity of about 0.1 foot per second in the relief header with no other gas
flow into the relief header. This injected purge gas is adequate to maintain the gas
seal. In older relief systems, the amount of purge gas is flow controlled. Today, to
conserve energy, the rate of purge gas injected is often controlled by using the relief
header operating pressure as the measured variable. When there is enough PSV
leakage or process venting to maintain the desired back pressure, no purge gas is
injected.

Gas Seals
The gas seal is located just below the flare tip and serves to prevent air entry into the
stack. It is supplied by the flare supplier. The gas seal is often called a molecular
seal because it depends on the density difference between air and hydrocarbon gas.
A continuous stream of purge gas is required for proper functioning of the gas seal,
but the amount of purge gas is much less than would be required without the seal.

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Gas seals have major advantages over liquid seals: they do not slosh and they
produce much less oily water. However, the gas seal must be drained and the drain
loop has to be sealed. Figure 1200-4 shows a gas seal.
Since a gas seal is required with an elevated flare to keep air out of the flare stack,
the liquid seal is usually omitted from an elevated-only flare system. If a vapor
recovery compressor is used, a liquid seal is used to provide a minimum header
back pressure.
The fluidic seal is an alternative to the gas seal. It uses an open wall-less venturi that
permits flow out of the flare in one direction with very little resistance but strongly
resists counterflow of air back into the stack. This venturi consists of a series of
baffles, like open-ended cones in appearance, mounted with the flare tip. The fluidic
seal is smaller and less expensive than a molecular seal and, since it weighs less,
there is less structural load on the flare stack. However, fluidic seals require more
purge gas. The Company has used fluidic seals in offshore applications, but not in
refineries. Figure 1200-5 shows a fluidic seal.

Fig. 1200-4 Schematic Diagram of a Gas (Molecular) Fig. 1200-5 Schematic Diagram of a Fluidic Seal (Cour-
Seal test of NAO, Inc.)

Combustion Tips
Combustion tips are available from a number of makers. They are designed to
provide smokeless flaring up to some fraction of the maximum relief capacity of the
relief system. Steam injection, when available, is used to suppress smoke with
required steam pressures from 75 to 150 psig. Lower pressure steam can be used if
the steam piping and injectors are designed for it. High pressure (15 psig) relief gas
or air can be substituted for steam in some special designs. See Section 1245 below
for a discussion of flares at producing sites where steam is rarely available.

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Combustion tips with smokeless capacities up to one million pounds per hour are
available. Few process plants, however, have sufficient excess steam to supply the
flare during a major release; and furthermore, during a major upset, extra steam is
often required by the process units.
Combustion tips are made of stainless steel in diameters up to 6 feet. The tips and
the piping are flanged so that they can be removed from the flare stack. The design
depends upon the supplier selected. The Company has had good experience with
two designs: Flaregas and John Zink.
The Flaregas design uses a large number of special Coanda nozzles which promote
thorough mixing of air and steam with the relief gas prior to burning. Steam is
distributed to the nozzles by a steam chest. As the steam flows through the nozzles
into the mixing chamber, it draws air along with it. Figure 1200-6 shows a flare tip
with Coanda nozzles. Figure 1200-7 shows the Coanda nozzle.

Fig. 1200-6 Flare Tip Using Coanda Nozzles (Courtesy Fig. 1200-7 Schematic of a Coanda Nozzle (Courtesy of
of Flaregas Corp.) Flaregas Corp.)

The other design, John Zink, uses a number of internal pipes to distribute the
steam-air mixture across the combustion zone. This design also utilizes a separate
central steam injector and an outer steam ring to give three stages of smokeless
combustion capacity. Each of the three injection systems has its own controls. The
outer ring is very noisy and is used only in a major release where additional smoke-
less capacity is required with the sacrifice of noise control. Figure 1200-8 shows a
flare tip with internal steam piping.
With the exception of the outer ring, both designs are equally noisy.

Steam Injection
Smoke is unburned carbon from incomplete hydrocarbon combustion. The oxygen
in the air first combines with hydrogen atoms in the hydrocarbon molecules, freeing

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Fig. 1200-8 Flare Tip with Internal Steam Piping (Courtesy of the John Zink Company)

carbon atoms for secondary reactions. If the hydrocarbon molecules crack at the
high combustion temperature, then more free carbon is produced. Unsaturated
hydrocarbon molecules produce more free carbon. This unburned carbon appears as
smoke.
The free carbon will be converted to carbon dioxide (and not produce smoke) as
long as an excess of oxygen is present within the combustion zone. This requires
good air/gas mixing. Thick smoke will result if a hydrocarbon gas is flared without
prior mixing with air.
Injection of steam helps control the carbon-hydrogen ratio. Steam catalyzes the
combustion reactions and lowers the temperature in the combustion zone, thus
suppressing smoke. However the main reason for injecting a high velocity steam-air
mixture into the combustion zone is to increase turbulence, which improves
combustion and reduces the size of the flame. Unfortunately, steam injection
increases the combustion roar.
The usual injection rate is about 0.5 pounds of steam per pound of hydrocarbon.
Actual steam requirements for smokeless combustion are hard to predict because
they depend on the molecular weight of the relief gas, the percentage of unsatur-
ates, and the air/gas mixing ratio. Butadiene requires 0.8 to 1 pound of steam per
pound of gas; methane requires 0.1 to 0.2 pounds per pound, while hydrogen burns
smokelessly without steam.

Control of Steam Injection


Automatic control of steam injection is difficult because the volume of relief gas is
not easily measured because of the wide rangeability (more than 100 to 1). Even if
the volume of relief gas is known, molecular weight and composition have a major

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effect on the steam requirement. Depending on the type of combustion tip, several
separate steam injection valves may be needed, requiring split-range control signals.
Currently the Company uses three methods to automatically control steam injection:
1. Flaregas FlarescanMeasuring the flame radiation with thermocouples set
around the flare tip. Steam is increased until smoke is suppressed, resulting in
lower infrared radiation.
2. John Zink ZoomMeasuring the infrared radiation with a television camera.
Steam is increased to reduce the amount of infrared radiation.
3. PanametricsMeasuring the volume and the density of the relief gas with an
ultrasonic flowmeter. The required amount of steam is calculated by a micro-
computer.
All three methods work for low-to-medium relief rates. Smoke is produced with
large rapid changes in the relief rate. Adjusting steam rate with manual controls is
not acceptable.

Flare Combustion Noise and Light


Combustion noise is approximately proportional to the square of the mixing
velocity. Steam-air injection produces high frequency noise and also raises the
intensity of the low frequency combustion roar. Most current flare tips use multi-
port steam nozzles to reduce flare noise to some extent. While it is operationally
convenient to keep excess steam on the flare, it is undesirable for noise production
and energy conservation.
Without steam-air injection, buoyant forces aspirate air into the combustion zone
and the laminar flame tends to be noiseless, billowy, and smoky. With steam-air
injection, aspiration is thrust controlled, turbulence is greater, mixing is better, and
the flame is smaller, stiffer, less radiant, and smokeless. Unfortunately, these condi-
tions produce the combustion roar that is typical of thrust controlled flames.
The expected noise levels from modern flares with Coanda or multiport nozzles are
shown in Figure 1200-9. Combustion roar dominates, particularly at higher relief
rates. The expected sound level can be scaled by adding or subtracting 6 dB if the
distance is halved or doubled.
At high relief rates, high frequency noise is not what really disturbs the neighbors.
Rather, they are bothered by the inherent rumble, vibration, and illumination. There
is no technological remedy. In an emergency, an elevated flare may disturb the
surrounding neighborhood.
It is a poor idea to use an elevated flare to burn off small or frequently vented
streams. Alternate means of controlling the pressure of the process should be
considered. Any significant use of an elevated flare, particularly at night, may be
objectionable to nearby residents.

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Fig. 1200-9 Expected Noise Levels for Elevated Flares with Multiport or Coanda Nozzle Steam Injection (Courtesy of
Flaregas Corp.)

Ground Flares
Small relief streams can be burned unobtrusively in a ground flare. The Company
now has ground flares at most of its refineries. The ground flare is basically a
refractory-lined, multi-burner process furnace without tubes. The stack may be as
high as 100 feet. This discussion assumes a low pressure ground flare, although high
pressure ground flares also exist.
The capacity of the ground flare is limited: 25,000 and 50,000 Btu/hour are common
sizes. Normally, the ground flare is sized for 5 to 10% of the total capacity of the
relief system. The ground flare is included to take care of the great majority of the
relief incidents, about 95%, that are relatively small.
Ground flares are used to reduce the noise and light of elevated flares. Enclosing the
turbulent burning zone eliminates the light, and employing multiple burners greatly
reduces the noise. A typical ground flare is at least 15 decibels quieter than an
elevated flare.
The elevated flare is reserved for emergencies. The ground flare is not an alterna-
tive to an elevated flare. It is an expensive added feature for good public relations.
The diversion water seal preferentially routes relief gas to the ground flare up to its
maximum capacity, where it is burned quietly, smokelessly, and without visible
flame. When the flow exceeds the capacity of the ground flare, the diversion seal
automatically diverts the excess relief gas to the elevated flare. See Figure 1200-1.
The relief system is designed so that the ground flare can be shut down for mainte-
nance. All relief streams are bypassed to the elevated flare, and there is no interrup-
tion in plant operation.
The ground flare is sized to minimize operation of the elevated flare. This requires a
review of the controllable venting activities of the plants and their flow rate and
frequency. This review is used to select the capacity of the ground flare from the

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makers standard capacities. Generally, the Company selects either 25,000 or 50,000
Btu/hour capacities.
Most of the Companys experience has been with two main kinds of ground flares:
cylindrical (John Zink), and rectangular (Flaregas). Figure 1200-10 shows a cylin-
drical ground flare. Figure 1200-11 shows a rectangular ground flare.

Fig. 1200-10 Cylindrical Ground Flare Fig. 1200-11 Rectangular Ground Flare

Ground flares are not incinerators. They lack the residence time and mixing thor-
oughness to handle sour gas streams. Sour gas streams must be segregated and not
burned in ground flares or there will be odor problems.

Energy Conservation
The best way to recover relief gas is to not send it to the flare in the first place.
Run the plant to minimize venting and PSV operation. Source control is the first and
most important step.
Leaking PSVs, a common source of normal venting, can be detected by ultrasonic
probes (such as the UE Systems Inc., Trouble Shooter) or infrared imaging
devices (such as the Probe Eye).
Many refineries have installed flare gas recovery systems that have given good
paybacks. The systems are quite simple. A compressor takes suction on the relief
header and returns the compressed gas to the process or to the fuel system. A flow
history of the relief header is needed to properly size the compressors.
The relief gas recovery system includes a pressure controlled purge gas bleed line
working against the water seal to maintain a minimum pressure in the relief header
at all times to prevent oxygen entry. This avoids the need for upstream gas purges.

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Purge Gas Conservation


API RP 521 recommends a fuel gas purge stream at the upstream end of the relief
header and at each major branch. This purge gas maintains a hydrocarbon rich
atmosphere in the relief header, the knockout drums, and the flare stack. In a large
relief system with a ground flare, purge gas usage of 50 to 100 EFO/day is not
unusual (EFO stands for equivalent fuel oil units measured in barrels).
The purge injection station usually includes a rotameter with a globe valve bypass,
block valves, and a blind. The injection rate is usually controlled by a fixed orifice
to insure a constant supply, even with instrument malfunction.
Often the purge gas is simply injected in addition to a normal venting flow that is
sufficient to protect the relief system. Considering the value of the purge gas, it
makes economic sense to put purge injection on pressure control. Holding the relief
header on pressure control against the water seal permits shutting off the upstream
restriction-orifice injection points.
This pressure controlled purge does not replace the purge gas injection above the
water seal that protects the flare stack. A gas seal just below the combustion tip
reduces the purge requirement from 20,000 scfh to 2,000 scfh. Virtually all the
Company stacks have gas seals.

Steam Conservation
Steam is injected to the combustion tip to suppress smoke. Once the flame is smoke-
less, excess steam makes more noise, wastes energy, and may force the combustion
back down the tip. The amount of steam required depends on relief gas discharge
rate, gas composition, and wind speed; therefore excess steam is normal. The most
effective method of reducing steam consumption is to control the rate based on
flame quality or on relief gas flow and composition. Flares in producing areas often
use natural gas instead of steam for smoke suppression.

1245 Flares at Producing Sites


Producing site flares for offshore and onshore are also designed in accordance with
API RP 521. Sections 1241 through 1244 discuss design concepts for both loca-
tions. Additional factors must be considered in the design of offshore flares.

Offshore Flare Location


The offshore flare often must be located adjacent to a manned production platform.
API RP 521 recommends that the flare be located so that maximum radiation level
does not exceed 500 Btu/hr/ft2 (excluding solar radiation) for areas where personnel
are working continuously. This recommendation is consistent with experience.

Smokeless Burning
Most offshore platforms do not have steam for flare operation. Therefore, they use
flares that do not require additional turbulence generation or that use an air blower
or a water spray from a pumping unit. Air blower flares have a greater turndown
than water spray flares.

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Continuous Flaring
It may be necessary to continuously flare tail gas or excess produced gas which
cannot be economically utilized. It may also be necessary to flare gases vented
during process upsets until corrective action can be taken.

Offshore Flare Designs


Offshore platforms typically use the following kinds of flares:
Nonsmokeless utility flares, which are used for continuous flaring of natural
gas with a molecular weight of 20 or less, or for short-term emergency flaring
of paraffinic hydrocarbon vapors with a molecular weight greater than 20.
These flares incorporate a proprietary flame retention device to provide a more
stable flame which helps to prevent liftoff (lifting of the flame from the top of
the flare) or blowoff (complete extinguishment). They also include a flare
windshield which prevents the flame from licking down the outside of the
nozzle. See Figure 1200-12.

Fig. 1200-12 Nonsmokeless Utility Flare (Courtesy of NAO, Inc.)

Smokeless air blower flares, which are used for continuously flaring paraf-
finic hydrocarbon vapors with molecular weights greater than 20. These also
incorporate a flame retention device and a windshield, but the configuration is
quite different from the nonsmokeless flare. Very little forced air is required for
smokeless burning. Secondary air is entrained by the flame itself. The flare has
a flow sensor to start the air blower when needed. See Figure 1200-13.

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Fig. 1200-13 Smokeless Air Blower Flare (Courtesy of Kaldair, Inc.)

Multipoint flares, which are used where smokeless flaring, low radiation, and
a large turndown are required. The tip requires no seals and no assist gas or
blown air. These flares require high relief gas pressures5 to 75 psig.
Coanda-profile flares, which are used where smokeless flaring and low radia-
tion are required. These flares entrain high volumes of air and create a stiff
flame which resists wind effects. They require high relief gas pressures5 to
75 psig. See Figure 1200-14.

Offshore Flare Support Structures


Selection of the flare structure depends on the distance between the flare and the
production platform, which in turn depends on the relief gas quantity, heating value,
toxicity, and whether the flaring is intermittent or continuous. The main kinds of
support structures are:
Flare booms, which extend from the edge of the platform at an angle of 15 to
45 degrees. They are usually 100 to 200 feet long. Sometimes two booms
oriented 180 degrees from each other are used to take advantage of prevailing
winds. See Figure 1200-15.
Derrick-supported flares, which are located on a derrick above the produc-
tion platform. They are used when space is limited and relief quantities are
moderate. The disadvantages are: a possible crude oil spill onto the platform,
interference with helicopter landing, and higher radiation intensities. See
Figure 1200-16.

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Fig. 1200-14 Coanda-Profile Flare (Courtesy of Kaldair, Inc.)

Fig. 1200-15 Flare Boom

Bridge-supported flares, which are on a separate platform connected to the


main platform by a bridge as much as 600 feet long. Bridge supports are
usually spaced about every 350 feet. See Figure 1200-17.
Remote flares are on a separate platform connected to the main platform by a
subsea relief line. The main disadvantage to these flares is that any liquid
carryover or subsea condensation will collect in pockets in the connecting line,
so that the line acts like a liquid trap. See Figure 1200-18.

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Fig. 1200-16 Derrick-Supported Flares

Fig. 1200-17 Bridge-Supported Flare

Ground flares, which are often used on tanker based production platforms to
reduce noise and to reduce the radiation levels on deck.

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Fig. 1200-18 Remote Flare with Subsea Relief Line

Floating flares, which are supported on a barge. These are mainly used in
emergency or short-term situations.

1250 Relief Valve Testing


This section provides recommendations for relief valve inspection, test frequencies,
procedures, and documentation, and supplements the American Petroleum Insti-
tutes Guide for Inspection of Refinery Equipment, Chapter XVI, Pressure
Relieving Devices. In this section, the word should denotes a recommendation
and the word shall is mandatory.
This section is to be used for background information for testing relief valves.
Actual valve disassembly, shop inspection, repairs, settings, and reassembly shall be
performed by trained and qualified personnel. Before disassembling or testing a
valve, review manufacturers warranty requirements and state and local codes.
Some states require that certain valves be tested and repaired by qualified personnel
of professional organizations, such as ASME.

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Purpose for Testing


Routine inspection and testing ensures that valves will operate when pressure or
vacuum exceeds the design rating of equipment and/or piping. Properly maintained
and operating valves:
1. Protect personnel.
2. Prevent damage to capital investments.
3. Prevent plant downtime due to overpressure and/or excessive vacuum
accidents.
4. Conserve material losses from a leaking valve.
5. Reduce fugitive emissions from a leaking valve.

Definitions
Definitions used in this section are from the American National Standard Institute
B95.1, Terminology for Pressure Relief Devices.
Back Pressure. Static pressure existing at the outlet of a pressure relief device due
to pressure within the discharge system.
Blowdown. Difference between actual popping pressure of a pressure relief valve
and actual reseating pressure. This value is expressed as a percentage of set pres-
sure or in pressure units.
Blowdown Pressure. Value of decreasing inlet static pressure at which point no
further discharge is detected at the outlet of a resilient disk-type safety relief valve.
This pressure is measured after the valve has been subjected to a pressure equal to
or above the popping pressure.
Chatter. Abnormal, rapid reciprocating motion of the movable parts of a pressure
relief valve in which the disk contacts the seat.
Closing Pressure or Reseat Pressure. Value of decreasing inlet static pressure at
which the valve disk re-establishes contact with the seat or at which lift becomes
zero.
Cold Differential Test Pressure. Static pressure at which a pressure relief valve is
adjusted to open on the test stand. This test pressure includes corrections for service
conditions of back pressure and/or temperature.
Leak Test Pressure. Specified inlet static pressure at which a quantitative seat
leakage test is performed in accordance with standard procedure. (This manual will
use API Standard 527 as the procedure for identifying leaks.)
Lift. The travel of the disk away from closed position when a valve is relieving.
Opening Pressure. Value of increasing inlet static pressure of a relief valve at
which there is a measurable lift or, at which the discharge becomes continuous. This
state can be determined by seeing, feeling, or hearing.

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Popping Pressure. Value of increasing inlet static pressure at which point disk
moves in the opening direction at a faster rate compared with a corresponding
movement at higher or lower pressures. This value applies to the safety relief valves
in compressible fluid service.
Set Pressure. Value of increasing inlet static pressure at which a pressure relief
valve displays one of the operational characteristics. These are defined under
opening pressure, popping pressure, or start-to-leak pressure.
Start-to-Leak Pressure. Value of increasing inlet static pressure at which the first
bubble occurs when a resilient disk-type safety relief valve is tested by means of air
under a specified water seal on the outlet.

1251 Test Equipment


Relief Valve Testing
The equipment used for relief valve testing discussed in the subsection of
Section 1252 entitled Shop Testing, must be designed to meet each facilitys
specific needs. One typical design is shown in Figure 38 of the API Guide for
Inspection of Refinery Equipment, Chapter XVI, Pressure Relieving Devices. This
design, however, does not meet all needs. To make the best choice for a particular
facility one needs to answer several questions, including:
1. Are you going to test for full valve lift as well as blowdown pressure? (These
tests will increase the volume of compressed air required to do the testing.)
2. What valve orifices and set pressures will you want to test? (These factors will
also affect the test bench capacity requirement and the range of pressure
measurements required.)
3. How many valves do you have to test? (If there are many valves to be tested,
the bench design may require more than one station, or it may be cost effective
to purchase a hydraulic clamping bench.)
4. Do you have pilot operated valves to test?
5. Does the test stand need to be portable?
6. Will you need to test liquid relief valves? (Liquid relief valves must use liquid
as the test medium.)
These and other site-specific questions will help determine the requirements for the
test bench. Based on the answers to these questions, one can decide between
commercial or custom test benches.

Commercially Available Test Benches


Relief valve test benches with a variety of features are available through manufac-
turers and specialty test stand manufacturers. Some of the main features offered are
described below.

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Valve Mounting: The most frequent way to mount valves on the test stand is by
using adapter flanges to resolve differences between the valve and the test stands
flange size, type, and rating. Each time a new valve is tested, the appropriate adapter
flange must be used and the valve must be bolted to the flange. An alternative
offered by vendors is to use a hydraulic clamp to secure the valve to the test bench.
The only adapters required on these systems are for screwed valves. Bolt-up time is
eliminated. Systems using hydraulic clamping are usually more expensive than
those using adapter flanges. Hydraulic clamps save testing time, however, and may
be justified when there are many valves to test.
System Capacity: Most commercial systems (but not all) are designed to test only
the relief valves set pressure. They do not have sufficient capacity to achieve full
valve lift and to determine the blowdown pressure. Be sure that the bench you
purchase has sufficient capacity for the parameters to be tested.
Instrumentation: Test bench instrumentation ranges from standard test pressure
gages to digital gages with peak-hold features, as well as data logging computers.
Your needs will determine what is appropriate. For systems designed to test only set
pressure, standard test gages are adequate. For those systems designed to also
measure blowdown pressure, a digital peak-hold (max/min) gage is desirable. Data
logging systems provide a hard copy of the test measurements and can also be used
to archive test data.
One must also decide whether a hoist is needed; what size compressor is appro-
priate; if air drying equipment is needed; and what work space is required (i.e.,
space available vs. size of the accumulator pressure vessels). The cost range can be
from several thousand dollars to $50,000 or more, depending on the sophistication
of the test bench design.

Test Bench Designs


The purpose of this section is to outline the principal features of relief valve testing
equipment. Drawings of relief valve test equipment from various locations are
available from the M&CS Unit Library of CRTC under technical file number
720-J-0323. (It should be noted that these existing designs are used only for
checking the relief valve set pressure and thus do not have the capacity to check
blowdown.) Relief valve testing discussed in the remainder of this section consists
of determining the popping and reseat pressures.
The testing equipment consists of an air compressor, accumulator vessel, test vessel,
and a suitable test manifold. (See Figure 1200-19.) Each test bench should be
designed for a particular application, taking into account the questions asked above.
The maximum valve orifice and set pressure to be tested are very important. If there
is a small number of large capacity valves, the test bench may be designed to test
only the set pressure for these valves. Once the maximum valve capacity to be
tested is determined, the size, capacity, and pressure rating of the various vessels
and the compressor can also be determined.
The compressor capacity is based on the time to pressure the accumulator up to its
operating pressure (probably from 5 to 15 cfm). If the installation requires a three-

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Instrumentation and Control Manual 1200 Relief Systems

Fig. 1200-19 Schematic of a Typical Relief Valve Test Stand

stage compressor, or if the atmospheric air has high humidity, an aftercooler should
be used and an automatic drain trap installed on the accumulator. At compressor
discharge pressures below 1000 psi and with relatively dry air, this auxiliary equip-
ment is not justified. Any moisture in the accumulator can be blown down manually.
The accumulator must be of sufficient size and pressure rating to pressure up the
test vessel to the valve set pressure. It must also have sufficient capacity to assist the
test vessel in achieving full valve lift on larger orifice valves. One or two 10 cubic
feet vessels are typical. However, the vessel volumes are a function of the pressure
rating. The higher the pressure of the accumulator, the smaller the volume required.
For example, one valve testing company uses Scuba Bottles filled to several thou-
sand pounds as their accumulator. As a design starting point, a pressure 33% higher
than the maximum relief valve set pressure is sufficient.
The test vessel must be rated at least 25% over the maximum relief valve set pres-
sure and must not restrict flow to the relief valve. The vessel volume required is
related to the volume of the accumulator and its operating pressure. When used with
two 10 cubic feet accumulators operating at 33% over the maximum valve set pres-
sure, a test vessel of about 6 cubic feet is a good design starting point.
The test manifold is discussed in the next section.
To facilitate the handling of large valves, a davit or jib crane should be considered.

Pressure Gages
Precision (% of full scale graduations, of 1% accuracy) test gages should be
used on all test benches. When analog test gages are used, the set pressure being

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tested should be in the middle one-third of the range. These gages should be tested
for accuracy once every 2 weeks using a dead weight tester.
Digital gages must also meet the precision requirements above. For digital gages
(similar to those manufactured by Heise), the calibration frequency may be relaxed
significantly compared with analog test gages. There are not many mechanical link-
ages to affect long term accuracy. One valve manufacturer requires the testing of
digital gages once every 90 days, although experience will determine the required
frequency of testing. In addition, digital gages also offer peak hold features that
make them cost effective.

Breather Valve Test Bench


See Tank Breather Valves discussed later in this section.

1252 Inspection and Test Procedure


Frequency
The frequency of relief valve testing and inspection is determined by operating
Company procedures as well as by national, state, or local codes. Many operating
companies have regional procedures that take into account national and local codes
as well as their experience in setting inspection and testing frequencies. The
regional engineering office or plant engineer should be consulted for questions
about frequency of testing. If guidelines are not set, the conservative inspection and
test frequency in this manual can be used.
As a minimum, federal, state, and local codes shall determine the frequency of relief
valve inspection and testing. It is not the intent of this manual to list all the codes
relating to relief valves. Common codes that apply to most of the Company oper-
ating facilities are listed below.
Pipelines and Pressure Limiting and Regulating Stations: Code of Federal Regu-
lations, Title 49-Transportation, Articles 192.729, 192.739, 192.745, and 192.749.
Compressor Stations: Inspect and test at least once each calendar year. At inter-
vals not to exceed 15 months.
Pressure Limiting and Regulating Stations: Test in place at least once each
calendar year at intervals not to exceed 15 months.
Installations in Federal Waters: Department of Interior, Federal Register, Vol. 53,
No. 63, Appendix 1, Register No. 250.124, Production Safety Systems Records,
requires that relief valves shall be tested every 12 months.
Boilers: National Board Inspection Code, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Testing,
requires the following:
Low pressure boilers (steam pressure or relief valve set less than 15 psig; water
temperature less than 250F, or boiler feed water pressure less than 165 psig):
relief valves are to be inspected once a month by operating the lifting lever.
Each valve shall be tested once a year.

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Power boilers less than 400 psig: inspect relief valves each month by operating
the valve lifting lever. The valve shall be tested once a year.
Power boilers greater than 400 psig: test based on operating experience.
Other considerations for determining inspection and test frequencies are:
Valves with plugging problems or with a high failure rate on the as-received
relieving pressure test should have decreased periods between tests.
Conversely, valves without failures and/or in clean service may have the length
between tests increased.
After an extended plant shutdown, all valves should be tested before plant
startup.
Testing should be coordinated with scheduled plant shutdowns when possible.
Testing should conform to the information or recommendations of the relief
valve manufacturer.
When constructing new facilities, the relief valves should be tested and
installed before the plants are commissioned. Relief valves are precision instru-
ments. They should be stored in a clean location and carefully installed at the
last possible moment to avoid exposure to construction activities. To prevent
construction delays, it is recommended that spool pieces be specified and
installed in the piping during the construction and hydrotesting periods.
Recommended inspection and test frequencies are listed in Figure 1200-20. These
frequencies are for new facilities and should be adjusted according to historical test
records, regional requirements, and shutdown schedules.

Fig. 1200-20 Recommended Test Frequencies


Service Field Inspection Test
Boilers Each year by lifting valve Each year
lever
Air & Water Service Each year by lifting valve Each year
lever
Pipeline and pressure Each year Each year
stations
Facilities in federal or state Each year Each year
water
Valves in vibrating service Each year Each year
(i.e., reciprocating
machinery)

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Fig. 1200-20 Recommended Test Frequencies


Service Field Inspection Test
Plugging service Each year Each year or after each
relief
All other services Each year Initially once every 2 years;
test frequency not to
exceed 5 years; 10 years
for clean LPG service

Visual Field InspectionBefore Valve Removal


The following are recommended items to check at the annual visual inspection:
1. The correct valve is installed and valve number agrees with the P&IDs.
2. Seals on all the valve external adjustments are in place. This is ASME Code
requirement.
3. All valve vents are clear.
4. All block and bypass valves are in the correct position, either fully open or fully
closed. Block valves and bypass valves are car sealed or locked open.
5. Gags and blinds are removed or flagged with operator and maintenance tags.
Before untagged blinds are removed, the operations and maintenance groups
should be contacted.
6. The external surfaces are free of cracks, corrosion, and mechanical damage.
7. Tank breather valves are free of ice. If ice is present, there is a good chance that
the valve is frozen shut.
8. Drain holes in the discharge piping elbows are clear, to prevent liquids from
settling.
9. Valve discharge piping that vents to the atmosphere is clear of obstructions.
Remove all bird and insect nests.
10. There are no flange or relief valve leaks. A tight seal can be checked by
applying a soap solution on the valve flange and screwed connections. For
valves that relieve to the atmosphere, the discharge piping opening should be
monitored with an infrared gun. In hydrocarbon service (i.e., a pipeline), a
hydrocarbon detector can be placed at the discharge piping outlet to monitor a
leaking valve. Checking for hydrocarbon emissions is a requirement of Federal
Regulation 40 CFR, Part 60. The frequency of inspection is set by local
agencies.

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Field Safety
Before removing a valve from the process, the following safety precautions shall be
observed:
1. Operators shall be notified when the relief valve needs to be removed or
isolated with its block (stop) valve or blinds. Operations will want to ensure
that the process is stable or shut down before the valve is removed.
2. When a relief valve is protecting an ASME Code stamped vessel and the relief
valves stop valve needs to be closed, the code (ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Appendix M, M-5) requires that the inlet
and outlet stop valve be closed only by an authorized person. This person
should remain stationed at the valve until the stop valve is opened, sealed or
locked.
3. If the relief valve discharges into a plant header, the valve outlet should be
isolated from the header with the stop valve and a blind.
4. Space between the relief valve and its stop valve or blind should be vented to a
safe location. The purpose of this arrangement is to release the trapped gases or
liquids and determine if the stop valve is providing a good seal.
5. If work is to be performed on a relief valve in place, blinds should be inserted
between the stop valve and relief valve.
6. Protective clothing and equipment shall be worn when removing valves from
hazardous service. Personnel shall be trained and certified for the protective
equipment (i.e., Scott air packs) before use. Plant and regional safety rules shall
be observed.
7. Valves shall be chemically neutralized before transporting. Valves with pyro-
phoric iron should be kept moist. For relief valves protecting vessels, wait until
vessel is steam cleaned before removing valve.

Visual Field Inspection After Valve Is Removed


Inlet and outlet relief valve piping and valve nozzles should be inspected for thin-
ning, corrosion, and deposits that could cause plugging and/or seat damage. All
deposits should be removed from the piping before the valve is returned to service.

Transporting Relief Valves


Relief valves, despite their size, are fragile. Careful handling when transporting is
important. Rough handling can change the pressure setting and/or deform valve
parts and thereby prevent proper setting of the valve set pressure. Damage can also
occur to the seats, preventing a good seal. Operating company experience has
revealed that a valve recently serviced, set, and tested can leak or not operate prop-
erly because of rough handling from the shop to the field. Relief valves are used for
protecting personnel and equipment; it is important that they function properly.
The following are guidelines for transporting valves. Secure and transport valves in
the upright position to prevent abrasion between the disk and the inlet nozzle.

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Protect the inlet and outlet openings with covers to keep valve internals clean.
Protective covers prevent the valve from being installed without removal of the
covers. Cover threaded parts to prevent damage. (See Figure 1200-21.)

Fig. 1200-21 Recommended Method of Transporting Relief Valves

Shop Inspection
Shop inspection includes visual inspection to determine the as-received relieving
set pressure, and valve cleaning and inspecting requirements.

Visual Inspection
The following items should be inspected and recorded before the valve is
disassembled:
Flanges should be free of pitts, smooth, flat, and the gasketed surface area
should not be reduced. Screwed ends should have clean unobstructed threads.
All bonnet vents should be clear of obstructions.
The blowdown ring setting should be noted and recorded.
Flame arrestors on breather valves should be cleared of all fouling and plug-
ging material.

Determining the As-Received Relieving Pressure


After the initial shop inspection, the as-received relieving pressure should be
determined. This information is used to build a historical record for the valve. From

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this data test frequencies can be determined and information gained on how the
process is affecting the valve.
The as-received relieving pressure is determined on the test block. Slowly
increase the test pressure (and vacuum for tank breather valves) at the relief valve
inlet while monitoring the valve inlet pressure gage and noting the pressure at which
the valve opens or relieves.
If the valve opens at the set pressure, record the opening pressure.
If the valve opens at a pressure (vacuum) higher than the set pressure (vacuum),
repeat the test. It may be that the valve was stuck. After the opening pressure
(vacuum) is determined, record the information.
If the valve opens below the set pressure, the valve spring may be weak (the
weight may need adjusting), or the setting was changed. Record the opening
pressure.
After the opening or the relieving pressure (vacuum) is determined, remove the test
pressure at the valve inlet. Put 35 psig at the valve outlet and check the bonnet and
seats for leaks with a soap solution. A lower pressure (for example, 5 psig) should
be used on breather valves.
If there are leaks around seats, report this to the operating group. This information is
useful in identifying continuous emissions to common relief headers or sources of
product loss.
Cleaning and Checking Parts. After determining the as-received test pressure,
proceed to dismantle the valve. Valves should be cleaned, degreased, and chemi-
cally cleaned to remove all rust, grease, and deposits. Use the following as an
inspection guide.
Seats and Disks. Seats should be checked for flatness and compared against the
valve manufacturers tolerances. If lapping of the seats is required, the lapping
should be performed with precision machinery (such as a Lapmaster) in a tempera-
ture controlled room. The seating surfaces should be lapped to an optical flatness of
10-15 millionths of an inch (measured with a monochromatic light) and surfaces
finished to at least 8 micro inches. The seating surfaces should then be polished to a
high mirror finish.
The fit between the guide and the disk or disk holder should be inspected for
scoring. The seats, disks, and nozzles should also be inspected for roughness and
damage.
Spring. Inspect the spring for corrosion, cracking, or deformation. Spring cracks
can be revealed with a dye check.
If the valve has opened below the set pressure in the as-received test, a spring test
should be performed. The permanent set of the spring (defined as the difference
between the free height before compression and that height measured 10 minutes
after the spring has been compressed solid three times, after presetting at room
temperature) shall not exceed 0.5% of the uncompressed free height. This standard

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is defined by ASME Section I, PG-73, 73.1.2 and ASME Section VIII-Division 1,


UG-136, (a)(2).
If there is a need to change the valve set pressure, the valve manufacturer should be
consulted to determine if the new setting is within the range of the existing spring.
In general, for set pressures less than or equal to 250 psig, the existing spring shall
not be used for any pressure greater than 10% above or 10% below that for which
the valve is marked. For set pressures greater than 250 psig, the existing spring shall
not be used for any pressure 5% above or 5% below that for which the valve is
marked (see ASME Section I, 72.3).
Check the relief valve test records or valve data sheet to verify that the correct
spring is installed. If there is a discrepancy between the number on the spring and
the number in the relief valve data sheet, the plant/area engineer should be notified
for a resolution.
Bellows. Check for cracks with dye. Examine bellows for thin spots.
Body. Measure and record body thickness. The objective is to track the valve wear.
Check for body cracks by magnetic particle, magna-glow or magna-flux. Examine
all internal gasketed surfaces to determine if they are smooth.
Stem. Check the stem to confirm that it is straight per manufacturer tolerances.
Visually inspect the stem guides to verify that they are free of cracks, pits, corro-
sion, and galling.
Threads. Inspect all threaded parts and repair as needed to provide full thread
engagement.
Check Valves. Inspect check valves to verify that they will allow flow in only one
direction. Check valves are commonly found in the pilot tubing on pilot-operated
relief valves.
Replacement parts should be purchased from valve manufacturers. There have been
reports of high failure rates for valve replacement parts. This has prompted the
manufacturers assemblers to test all incoming parts. With the testing and new
quality control programs developed by valve manufacturers and their suppliers,
there has been a significant improvement in reducing new part failures. If your
current suppliers are providing good parts, continue using their services. New oper-
ating company test/repair facilities should replace the worn valve parts with orig-
inal factory parts from the valve manufacturer.
Improper Valve Performance. The following are common valve problems:
Leaking Valve
Causes:
1. Dirt (scale, weld slag, corrosive deposits, coke) trapped under seats. This is
often caused by testing a relief valve in place.
2. Corrosion due to improper material compatibility with the process.

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3. Valve chatter. Chatter is caused by undersized inlet piping to the valve, an over-
sized valve, or set pressure too close to the operating pressure.
4. Excessive pipe strain on the valve.
5. Improper alignment of the spindle.
6. Improper fitting of the spring to spring washer, or improper bearing between
spring washers and their respective bearing contacts between the spindle and
disk or disk holder.
Solutions:
1. Install a rupture disk between the inlet piping and the valve. (This can be
expensive because piping alterations are often required.)
2. Check the valve seat and disk materials to see if they are compatible with the
process fluid.
3. Check the valve set pressure against the process operating pressure. Perhaps the
valve is set too close to the normal operating pressure of the process. Note that
the set pressure shall not exceed the maximum allowable working pressure of
the equipment or piping that the relief valve is protecting.
4. Check the valve size calculations and data sheet to verify that the valve is not
oversized.
5. Check the piping to verify that the piping loads are handled by the pipe
supports and not the relief valve.
6. Inform maintenance personnel of the importance of proper relief valve
handling.
Cracked spindles and springs are often a result of general corrosion due to
improper compatibility with the process as well as stress corrosion.
Possible solutions for these problems are: (1) use material that will resist the corro-
sive action of the process; (2) isolate the spindle and spring from the process by
using a bellows, an O-ring seal on the spindle guiding surfaces, or install a rupture
disk at the relief valve inlet connection; (3) repair leaking valves.
Cracked bellows are a result of general corrosion due to improper material compat-
ibility with the process or the back pressure exceeds the bellows design.
Solutions for cracked bellows are: (1) select a bellows material that is compatible
with the process; (2) when bonnets are vented to a closed system, examine the types
of gases in the closed system; (3) specify and install bellows that are designed to
withstand the normal and operating back pressures; and (4) compare the superim-
posed and the developed back pressure against the design pressure of the bellows.

Shop Testing
After the valve is cleaned, inspected, and reassembled, it is placed on a shop test
block and tested to verify the proper opening pressure, blowdown, seat and bonnet

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tightness. If the relief valve will be installed in an orientation other than vertical, it
must be tested in the same position in which it will operate.

Test Media
The test media shall be as follows:
Media Service
Steam or air with temperature correction ASME power boilers
(ref. ASME Section 1, PG-73.4.2)
Water (ref. ASME Section Liquid service valves on
VIII-Div. 1, UG-136, (d)(4)) ASME pressure vessels
Air or nitrogen All other valves

When using air to test steam service valves operating at temperatures greater than
150F, make temperature corrections to the set pressure to achieve the cold differen-
tial test pressure. The cold differential test pressure for a conventional relief valve is
the set pressure plus the temperature correction minus the superimposed back pres-
sure. The cold differential test pressure for a balanced relief valve is the set pres-
sure plus the temperature correction minus the pressure in the relief valve bonnet.
The following are the temperature corrections for using air to test steam valves:
Operating Temperature Temperature Correction
Increase % of the difference between the set pressure
and the back pressure (or bonnet pressure for a balanced
valve)
0-150F none
151-600F 1%
601-800F 2%
801-1000F 3%

For example: a temperature correction of approximately 2 psig is required for a


conventional valve operating at 250F, with a set pressure of 200 psig and a super-
imposed back pressure of 5 psig [(200-5)0.01=1.95]. Therefore, the cold differen-
tial test pressure is 197 psig [200+2-5].

Blowdown Ring Adjustment for the Valve Test


When possible, the valve should be tested by relieving the rated capacity to obtain
the full relief lift on the valve stem. This procedure tests the spring and ensures that
the stem is not binding. However, there are instances where the capacity of the test
stand is considerably less than the valve being tested. When this condition exists,
the valve may pop and open; but since the capacity of the test stand accumulator
tank is below the valve relieving capacity, the valve will quickly slam shut. This
slamming action will damage the valve seat. To allow the valve to stay open after
popping, the blowdown ring can be set at a high blowdown percentage or a stop can
be applied to limit the movement of the valve disk.

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To allow the valve to stay open for a period after popping, the blowdown ring is
adjusted to a high blowdown percentage value. (Before making adjustments to the
blowdown ring, mark its position and the location of the adjustment notches.)
Consult the valve manufacturer for the test blowdown setting. Typically, the blow-
down ring is brought up to the disk holder, then lowered by two notches on the
blowdown ring. The blowdown ring locking screw shall be inserted so that it is
positioned between the adjustment notches on the ring.
Another method of preventing the valve from closing too quickly is to limit the
travel of the disk. This can be done by limiting the upward movement of the valve
stem. Often, the valve cap is removed and replaced with a cap that has a set-screw
positioned directly above the stem. When the valve is in the closed position, the set-
screw is lowered to touch the top of the stem and then raised by approximately
inch. This will restrict the valve lift and prevent the accumulation tank from
emptying too rapidly.

Opening Pressure
Valves in hot service should be preheated to allow the metal to expand to its oper-
ating size. After the valve has reached its service temperature, slowly increase the
test pressure until the valve starts to simmer and pop (preferably fully open). The
relief valve should start to open when the test pressure reaches the cold differential
test pressure. Note pressure on the test gage (relief valves are fully open when the
test pressure equals the cold differential test pressure plus the accumulation). After
the safety or relief valve fully opens, the test pressure gage should show decreasing
pressure. Note pressure at which the valve closes. See Figure 1200-22 for toler-
ances for opening pressure.

Fig. 1200-22 Tolerances for Opening Pressure


Equipment Set Pressure (psig) Tolerance ( psi or %)
Power Boiler (ref. ASME p 70 2 psi
Section I, PG 72.2) 70 < p 300 3%
300 < p 1000 10 psi
p > 1000 1%
ASME Pressure Vessel (ref. p 70 2 psi
ASME Section VIII-Div. 1 p > 70 3%
UG-134 (d) (1))

After the valve is adjusted so that the opening pressure is within the above toler-
ances, pop the valve three additional times to ensure that opening pressure is repeat-
able and within tolerance. When the operating pressure is set, replace the cap and
car-seal it to the valve bonnet.

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Reseat Pressure Adjustments


When the reseating pressure is not fixed (determined by the style of valve), it is
adjusted by varying the position of the blowdown ring. Adjust the reseating pres-
sure as follows.
1. Review the reseating pressures recorded on the three final valve tests used to
determine the valve opening pressure. The reseating pressures should be
compared against the desired blowdown.
2. Move the blowdown ring the required amount of notches to obtain the desired
setting. Consult the valve manufacturer for the ring notch position and blow-
down percentage correlation.
If the blowdown ring was adjusted to accommodate testing a large capacity valve,
return the blowdown ring to its original position. Also check the position of the ring
against the valve manufacturers recommended settings. If there is a discrepancy
between the two settings, consult the valve manufacturer to discuss the proper
setting required for the desired blowdown. Record the blowdown ring setting in the
valve maintenance record for future reference.
After the blowdown ring is adjusted, insert the ring locking screw. Visually verify
that the screw is positioned between the blowdown ring notches before tightening
the screw. Tighten and car-seal the locking screw.

Reseating Pressures
Reseating pressures should not be set for more than 10% below the valve opening
pressure. Valves set with a blowdown greater than 10% may not reseat. This can
happen when the reseating pressure is set below the normal operating pressure of
the process.
Typically the valve manufacturers set the blowdown between 7 and 10%. Following
are the resetting pressure requirements for power boilers:
Equipment Reset Pressure
Power Boiler 0.96 set pressure
Boilers < 100 psig (set pressure - 4 psi)
Boiler (200-300 psig) 0.99 set pressure
All (set pressure - 2 psi)

Seat Leakage Test


Leaking valves pose a hazard to personnel and equipment. They also lead to fouled
and/or inoperable valves, and loss of product. To help identify seat leakage, the
American Petroleum Institute (API) has developed, Standard 527, Commercial Seat
Tightness of Safety Relief Valves With Metal to Metal Seats. Use API Standard 527
as a guide for testing seat leakage (a copy of this standard is included in this
manual). This test should be performed after the valves pop and reseating pres-
sures are set.

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The test apparatus for measuring seat tightness is shown in Figure 1 of API Stan-
dard 527. After all openings in the valves secondary pressure zone (caps, drain
holes, vents, and outlets) are closed, the test pressure at the valve inlet shall be held
at 90% of the set pressure immediately after popping the valve. For valves set at or
below 50 psig, the test pressure shall be set at 5 psig below the set pressure immedi-
ately after opening the valve. Before the bubble count is started, the test pressure
shall be held for the following periods.
For nonsteam service valves with metal-to-metal seats, the following leakage rate
(in bubbles per minute) shall not be exceeded:
Valve Inlet Size Pre-Bubble Count Holding Period
2 inches and smaller 1 minute
2 inches, 3 inches 2 minutes
4 inches, 6 inches, 8 inches 5 minutes

1. For set pressures less than or equal to 1000 psig, the leakage rate shall not
exceed the values listed in API Standard 527, Figure 1.
2. For set pressures greater than 1000 psig, the leakage shall not exceed the values
from API Standard 527, Figure 2. For valves with resilient (elastomeric O-ring)
seat seals, there should be no leakage (0 bubbles per minute).
For valves in steam service, the test media should be steam using the test pressures
outlined in API Standard 527 (the test cover for the valve outlet flange may be
omitted). There should be no audible or visible leaks. Visible leaks can be detected
with the assistance of a mirror. Place the mirror by the side (not in front) of the
outlet flange. Steam leaks will fog the mirror.
For valve equipment in toxic, hazardous, corrosive, or cryogenic service, the
leakage should be 0 bubble per minute.

Bonnet Leak Test


After the seat tightness test is complete and the valve is depressurized, the bonnet
shall be tested for leaks.
This test checks for leaks in the secondary pressure zone of the valve. The test is
conducted as follows:
1. Plug all openings on the bonnet.
2. Place a blind test flange on the valve outlet flange. The test flange has a bulk-
head fitting to allow it to connect to an air source. Or, adapt the test flange (in
Figure 1 of API Standard 527) that is used for testing the seat leakage.
3. Apply approximately 35 psig air to the test flange. Caution should be used in
pressurizing valves equipped with bellows. Excessive pressure can damage
(collapse) the bellows. Consult the valve manufacturer for the pressure ratings
of the bellows. The bonnet leak test pressure shall not exceed the pressure
rating of the bellows.

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4. Apply a soap solution to all the bonnet connections and check for bubbles at the
bonnet-to-base joint, adjustment pin seal, cap-to-bonnet joint, and all plugged
openings. Tighten the necessary connection to eliminate bubbles. Adjustments
shall be made so as not to change any of the valve settings.

Pilot Operated Valves


Pilot operated valves shall be tested in the same manner as described above for
spring-loaded relief valves. The exception is that the blowdown is adjusted in the
pilot valve instead of the main valve.
The pilot operated valve shall be tested on the shop test bench as a complete
assembly (pilot connected to the main valve). Testing and setting the pilot will not
assure that the valve assembly will open and reseat at the desired pressures. It is not
uncommon to have different pressure settings for the pilot and the main valve. For
example, the reseat pressure of the full valve assembly and pilot may differ by as
much as 3%. For some styles of valves, the main valve dome pressure may be at
70% of the supply pressure while the pilot will be at 100% of the supply pressure.
The valve manufacturer should be consulted for the proper pressure differential
setting (if any) between the pilot and the main valve.

Tank Breather Valves


Tank breather valves can be tested by installing a blind test flange at the valves
inlet flange. The test flange has a bulkhead fitting connected to a tubing tee fitting.
The tee fitting allows a vacuum or pressure source, a manometer, and a pressure
gage to be connected to the test flange. By varying the pressure or vacuum and
observing the gages, the opening pressure or vacuum can be observed and adjusted.
(See Figure 1200-23.)

Fig. 1200-23 Test Setup for Testing Tank Breather Valves

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On-Line Testing
Testing relief valves that are connected to the process plant is not recommended
unless required by code. Testing the valve in-place can lead to seat damage or
leakage by allowing dirt, scale, or other solids to deposit between the valve disk and
the seating surface. Seat damage can also occur if the valve is opened suddenly and
then slammed shut.
If on-line testing cannot be avoided, it should be limited to valves operating in
clean, low temperature and pressure service, or if experience indicates that the test is
safe and practical. However, one must recognize that on-line testing will not always
verify blowdown, seat leakage, bonnet leaks, or the physical condition of the valve
internal components.
Steam and air valves on receivers shall have their opening levers lifted once a year.
This is an ASME code requirement. Before lifting the lever the following proce-
dures shall be followed:
1. Obtain the proper plant or regional operating permits.
2. Notify the operators and confirm that the process is stable and that the steam
drum or receiver has been recently blowndown (to minimize the amount of dirt
in the valve seating area).
Boiler safety valve levers are normally operated when there is at least 75% of the
valve set pressure in the boiler. This is to reduce the amount of force required to lift
the lever.
Section I of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code does not allow block valves
under boiler safety valves, thus testing on the equipment is done by raising the
steam pressure and observing when the valve opens and reseats.

1253 Records and Reports


Records
This manual recommends that specification records, historical records, and test
records be maintained for all relief valves. A record folder should be maintained for
each valve to track the valve maintenance history and to determine if the inspection
and testing interval is adequate for the valve. Other documents that can be placed in
the records folder are: the valve data sheet and the valve drawing with the parts
identified.
If there is a need to change valve settings and/or parts, the changes shall be noted on
all documents in the records folder. Proposed revisions in the valve materials, spring
size, set pressure, and blowdown shall be reviewed with the plant and/or area engi-
neer before these modifications are attempted.

Specification Record
A specification record should be developed for each relief valve. This record
provides the basic data to test and inspect the valve. A copy of this record should

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1200 Relief Systems Instrumentation and Control Manual

accompany the test record whenever a valve is tested or inspected. A sample speci-
fication record is shown in Figure 1200-24. This document also provides:
Design information for ordering new parts (the valve data sheet should be used
to order a new valve)
Part identifications to allow assembly of an identical valve from spare parts

Historical Record
A historical record should be developed for each relief valve. This record tracks
when the valve was tested or inspected. API Guide for Inspection of Refinery Equip-
ment, Chapter XVI, Appendix B, gives an example of a historical record. The API
sample form should be amended to include information on whether the valve was
inspected, tested in-line, and/or shop tested.
A test/inspection history is valuable for:
Monitoring the performance and condition of the valve at the various
test/inspection intervals. These data can be used to adjust the test frequency of
the valve (the test/inspection frequency shall not exceed the periods set by the
codes).
Developing a test history for valves that are required to be tested at intervals
specified by codes.
Evaluating the valve performance data to see if the valve is suitable for the
service intended. These data will indicate problems in design, materials, or a
poor application for the valve.

Test Record
A test record contains the results of a test and/or inspection. A sample test record is
shown in Figure 1200-25. A copy of each test record should be retained in the valve
report folder.

Report
Monthly reports are recommended to identify which valves need testing and which
valves are past the scheduled test dates. The Chevron Plant Equipment Information
System (PEIS) computer program has a relief valve inspection/test reporting
function. Contact Chevron Information Technology Company, Computer Applica-
tion Department, Manufacturing, Chemical, and Engineering Division, for informa-
tion on setting up the test/inspection reporting program.

1260 Relieving Thermal Expansion of Liquids in Piping


This section helps you determine when it is necessary to provide relief of pressure
due to thermal expansion of liquids in piping as a result of temperature rises from
external sources of heat not including fire. Some recommendations for means of
providing such relief are included. A detailed analysis of some thermal relief appli-
cations, including charts and sample calculations is also given.

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Fig. 1200-24 Specification Record


Specification Record
Valve Number: Serial Number:
Plant: Protecting:
Service:
Protecting a Code Vessel: yes no
Valve Inlet Size: Rating: Connection Type:
Valve Outlet Size: Rating: Connection Type:
Manufacturer: Model Number:
Type: Conventional Balanced Pilot Breather
Orifice Size:
Body and Bonnet Material: NACE: yes no
Nozzle and Disk Material: NACE: yes no
Trim Material: NACE: yes no
Spring Material: Number: NACE: yes no
Bellows Material:
Gasket Material:
Cold Differential Test Pressure: Set Pressure:
Superimposed Backpressure:
Blowdown %: Blowdown Ring Setting:
Accumulation:
Normal Operating Temperature:
Test Interval:
Remarks:
Rev. Date Description Approval

1261 General
Consideration of thermal relief is necessary in all sections of liquid piping, regard-
less of length, when it is reasonable to expect that the liquid will be blocked-in
while the line is subject to temperature rises from solar radiation, warm ambient air,
steam tracing, or other external sources of heat.

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Fig. 1200-25 Test Record


Test Record
Test Date: Date Last Tested:
Valve Number: Valve Protecting a Code Vessel: yes no
Cold Differential Test Pressure: Normal Operating Temperature:
Initial As-Received Test
Blowdown Ring Setting: Opening Pressure:
Valve Inlet Leakage at: (pressure or vacuum value)
Valve Outlet Leaks: yes no Bonnet Leaks: yes
Inspection
Inlet Outlet Nozzle/Seat Disk & Seats Disk Holder
Good Good Good Good Good
Dirty Dirty Dirty Dirty Dirty
Corroded Corroded Eroded Eroded Corroded
Plugged Plugged Machined Corroded Machined
Flange dam. Flange dam. Lapped Cut Galled
Threads dam. Threads dam. Replaced w/ Machined Replaced w/
# Lapped #
Replaced w/
#
Spring Guide Stem Bellows Body
Good Good Good Good Good
Dirty Dirty Dirty Corroded Corroded
Corroded Corroded Corroded Broke Eroded
Crack/broke Machined Bent Cracked/leaks Cracks
Replaced w/ Galled Replaced w/ Replaced w/
# Replaced w/ # #
#
Vents Threads Seals Check Valves
Open Good Good Tight
Plugged Fouled Replaced Leaking
Machined Replaced
Valve Body Minimum Thickness:
Shop Test
Test Media: air water steam other____________
Opening Pressure: Cold Differential Test Pressure:
Acceptable Opening Pressure Tolerance:
Reseat Pressure:
Blowdown = [1-(Reseat Press.Cold Diff. Test Press.)]:
Seat Leakage: bubbles/minute

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A temperature increase will cause both the liquid inside a pipe and the pipe itself to
expand in volume. Liquids have high thermal coefficients of expansion compared to
metals. For example, oil will expand approximately 25 times as much as the pipe.
Therefore, high pressures will build up when liquids are heated in a line sealed by
block valves or blinds. Neither thermal expansion of the pipe, expansion of the pipe
from internal pressure, nor compressibility of the liquid may be sufficient to relieve
the liquid thermal expansion before pressures exceeding the maximum safe pres-
sure of piping components are reached. Tests by the Manufacturing Department at
El Segundo Refinery and by Crane Company, and verified by calculations, show
that the pressure from thermal expansion of liquid hydrocarbons will increase about
70 to 100 psi for each F temperature increase.
The length of line has no effect on the pressure that will result from thermal expan-
sion of liquid in a blocked line. However, the volume of fluid that must be released
to prevent excess pressure build-up will be directly proportional to the line length.
Calculations show that temperatures of 150F can be reached in small lines (10
inches and less) containing liquid hydrocarbons before heat lost by convection
equals heat gained from solar radiation. Therefore, if oil is initially at 50F, a
temperature rise of 100F is possible during extreme exposure to the sun. Tests
performed at El Segundo verified that even on a normal day the temperature of oil
in a line can increase by 50F.
The possible temperature increase from solar radiation is sufficient to raise the pres-
sure in lines containing liquids by as much as 3,500 to 10,000 psi. See
Figures 1200-26 through 1200-29. Such pressures may be considerably above the
maximum allowable working pressure of valves and pipe, particularly if the pres-
sure of the liquid, at time of blocking, could be at or near the maximum working
pressure of the system. The principal reason more ruptures have not occurred in
lines without relief valves has been that sufficient relief is usually afforded by
inherent leakage of common valves. With the increasing use of positive shutoff
valves, such as plug cocks and ball valves, double-block valves, and some kinds of
line blinds, there is a greater likelihood of rupture.

Code Requirements
The ANSI/ASME B31.1 Power Piping Code states:
Fluid Expansion Effects. Where the expansion of a fluid may increase the pres-
sure, the piping system shall be designed to withstand the increased pressure or
provision shall be made to relieve the excess pressure.
The ANSI/ASME B31.4 Liquid Transportation Systems Piping Code and the
ANSI/ASME B31.3 Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping Code state:
Fluid Expansion Effects. Provision shall be made in the design either to withstand
or to relieve increased pressure caused by the heating of static fluid in a piping
component.
No further details are given; it is left to the piping designer to ensure that thermal
expansion effects are accommodated.

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Fig. 1200-26 Pressure vs. Temperature Increase for Fig. 1200-27 Increase in Temperature of Pipe Containing
Confined Liquids Hydrocarbon Liquid by Solar Radiation

Fig. 1200-28 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion vs. API Fig. 1200-29 Approximate Maximum Rate of Tempera-
for Hydrocarbons ture Rise Due to Solar Heat for Pipe
Containing Hydrocarbon Liquid (F/hour)

The California Unfired Pressure Vessel Safety Orders require that every LPG or
NH3 pipe line or hose that can be isolated by two or more stop valves shall have a
safety relief valve installed in the pipe line or hose to prevent excessive pressure

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buildup. The safety relief valve required by this standard shall start to discharge at
not less that 312 psi for LPG (300 psi for NH3), nor more than 400 psi, unless the
system is designed for higher pressures and provided with safety devices that will
adequately protect the system. See Article 5 L.P. Gas System, Order 480 (h) and
Article 6, Anhydrous NH3, Order 506 (g).

Methods of Preventing Pressure Build-up


Relief Valves. Relief valves are the generally preferred method of preventing pres-
sure buildup. Relief valves are discussed below in Section 1262.
Insulation of Lines. Several inches of insulation are needed to sufficiently reduce
the heat flow to prevent significant temperature rise. The cost of insulation is the
disadvantage of this method.
Gas or Vapor Pressure Chambers. The disadvantages of gas or vapor pressure
chambers are: (1) higher cost than relief valves, (2) possible contamination if fluid
in line is changed before the pressure chamber is flushed out, and (3) gum forma-
tion in some gasolines upon contact with air. However, where maintenance of relief
valves is a problem, as in some acid or chemical lines, properly designed chambers
may offer advantages.
Partial Draining of Lines Before Blocking. This method is subject to human error.
Drilled Holes in Valves. This method is not acceptable because of uncontrolled
flow through the hole at times other than when relief is necessary.
Slight Cracking of Valves. This method is subject to human error and allows
contamination if fluids separated by the valve are different.

1262 When Relief Valves Are Needed


Overpressure can occur with only a small rise in temperature. Thus all sections of
lines that can be blocked off theoretically require provision for thermal relief.
However, experience has shown that the probability of failure does not always
justify installing a relief valve. As pressure is built up in a line, some types of valves
may leak. Or conditions may be such that there is no possibility that the tempera-
ture of liquid in a blocked-off line can rise. Accordingly, there are services where
provisions for relief never need be made, such as for cold water lines inside
buildings.
Because of environmental and safety concerns, it is no longer acceptable to assume
that flanges will leak to relieve thermal expansion pressures. Any relief design must
assume that relief effluent is contained within the piping.

Conditions Where Relief Is Never Needed


1. Relief is not required for on-plot lines or for lines to plant rundown tankage
where line length does not exceed 400 feet. Relief valves are provided on plant

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equipment, and it is assumed that all on-plot and rundown lines will be open to
equipment that is relieved.
2. Relief is not required in off-plot manifolds confined by valves of a type which
can be expected to leak, such as typical solid-wedge gate valves, if there is less
than 20 feet of pipe per valve. (If the amount of pipe per valve is between 20
and 200 feet, use the Doubtful Case approach given below).
3. Relief is not required in areas where no source of external heat energy is avail-
able, including most underground lines.
4. Relief would not be needed if a line is always hot and if it can be blocked only
when hot. The chances are slight that it can be heated further by solar radia-
tion. For this reason, relief valves need not be provided in liquid hydrocarbon
or water lines which can only be blocked at temperatures above 150F. A line
which is hot when blocked and then cooled will be subjected to an internal
vacuum. Since standard wall pipes up to NPS 30 can withstand vacuum of
14.7 psi, and since the possibility of pulling this much vacuum is slight, there is
no need for vacuum relief on standard wall pipe lines in the sun. (The
assumption that a line can be blocked only when hot is not completely
accurate.)
5. Relief is not needed on lines insulated for heat retention where the source of the
hot liquid has thermal relief provision.

Conditions Where Relief Is Always Needed


1. Relief should always be provided if there is more than 200 feet of pipe per
valve even though the valves are of a type that may be expected to leak, such as
typical solid-wedge gate valves. If the amount of pipe per valve is between 20
and 200 feet, use the Doubtful Case approach.
2. Relief should always be provided for lines confined by plug cocks, ball valves,
double-block valves, or other valves which are not expected to leak, or by some
kinds of line-blinds.
Note In blinding a line with a spectacle blind or with some styles of line-blinds,
the line may be at least partially drained during the blinding operation. In such
cases, thermal expansion of the liquid within the pipe will not cause any substantial
pressure rise and no other provision for relief need be made.
3. Relief should always be provided for lines which are steam or electrically
traced, except those that fit in the category described in item 4 above.
4. Relief should always be provided for cold side piping of heat exchange equip-
ment (and for warm side if it normally operates below ambient temperatures)
unless pressure relief has otherwise been provided to satisfy requirements of the
Pressure Vessel Code. These relief valves must be located between the heat
exchanger and the block valve, preferably at the outlet.
5. Relief should be provided for double seated valves of a type in which pressures
exceeding the safe pressure of the valve can build-up in the cavity and blow the

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packing or damage the valve. (Note: Some styles of double block valves have
spring loaded seats or other built-in provision for relieving such excess
pressures.)

Considerations for Determining Need in Doubtful Cases


Between the above extremes, there are many services where the need for pressure
relief is not certain. In such cases, the problem should be approached by calculating
the amount of liquid that must be relieved and then deciding if that much leakage
can be accommodated.
The effect of some variables can be calculated; others cannot. The approximate
quantity of liquid to be relieved can be calculated using the calculable variables
derived at the end of this section. Generally one should begin with the simple equa-
tions that do not consider expansion of the pipe nor the compressibility of the liquid,
thereby giving a conservative answer. More refined calculations can be carried out
later. Having determined the quantity of liquid that must be relieved, consideration
must then be given to the number and type of valves, and the amount of leakage
through each (the incalculable variables), and other sources of possible relief.
Personal judgment must also be used when determining whether or not a relief valve
is needed.
It is difficult and perhaps dangerous to estimate and rely on leakage through valves.
More and more valves in use today are high quality, tight shutoff valves that will not
allow enough leakage to relieve thermal pressures (such as ball valves, Orbit valves,
General twin-seal type valves and expanding-gate valves).

1263 Solar HeatEffects and Considerations


The amount of solar energy a pipe line may absorb and the effect on the pressure
build-up from expansion will be essentially the same at all geographic locations
between 60N and 60S latitudes.
Directional orientation between latitudes 60N and 60S does have an effect on the
total amount of heat that can be absorbed by a pipe line. A North-South line will
absorb more heat than an East-West line, but the maximum rate of heat absorption
(at noon) is the same for both.
Wind affects the heat lost by a pipe from convection currents. Wind of 10 mph will
double the convection heat losses from bare pipe in still air. Since still air is a possi-
bility at all locations, the theoretical maximum temperatures attainable from solar
heating have been calculated assuming natural-convection heat losses without any
wind. (See Section 900 of the Fluid Flow Manual for wind heat transfer coeffi-
cients.)
Paint and pipe coating will affect the amount of heat a pipe line can absorb from
solar radiations. Most light colored paints will reflect 20 to 30% of the solar energy,
but only on freshly painted surfaces. Since a line could be painted any color after its
initial installation, the theoretical maximum temperatures attainable have been
calculated assuming flat-black painted lines with an absorptivity of 1.0.

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1264 Disposal of Effluent from Relief Valves


You must anticipate that all relief valves may leak and consider this possibility
when choosing a method for disposing of effluent. For example, it is highly undesir-
able to connect discharges from relief valves on finished product piping to a
common closed header connected to a tank or other location which could result in a
back pressure on the system. Under such circumstances, discharge from, or leakage
past, a relief valve on one line could leak backward through a relief valve on
another line at lower pressure than the intended disposal location and contaminate
product in the other line. The quantity of effluent expected during thermal relief, as
well as the possibility of continual leakage, must also be considered when choosing
a disposal method. Methods that have been used for disposal include the following.
Around Block Valve. The relief valve releases pressure around the block valve.
This is feasible only if the fluid is the same on each side of the block valve so no
contamination results, or if contamination is permissible. This is a common disposal
practice for pressure relief at tank block valves. In other piping, valve
back-pressure problems will probably rule out this method. An internally vented
relief valve set for high back-pressure (low spring setting) could open on a low
back-pressure condition, tending to nullify the intent of the block valve.
To a Sump or Sewer. This is a method to use when discharge around the block
valve is impractical and where discharge to ground would create a hazard or be
uneconomical. Collection in a sump with a pump to return accumulated effluent to
the plant will be preferable to disposal into a sewer if lines are long and large quan-
tities of effluent can be expected. If a common line is used to carry effluent from
several relief valves to a sump or sewer, the system should be designed to prevent
back-flow and possible contamination of the contents of different lines. Use of an
open funnel at the point of discharge from each relief valve into an open gravity
drain line has been found to be advantageous.
To Atmosphere or to Ground. This method should only be used when the quantity
of effluent or leakage is small and when the release does not create a hazard or an
undesirable condition. Relieved liquid should be directed away from piping or other
equipment.
In Cascade. Cascaded relief valves are not recommended. If used, cascaded valves
require careful consideration both from a safety and operating viewpoint, making
due allowance for back-pressure effects.

1265 Types of Relief Valves


The construction of relief valves must meet local area requirements. Valves are
commonly selected on the following basis:
Use steel, bolted bonnet, thermal relief valves (Crosby Series 900, Teledyne
Farris 2740 or 2741, or equal) with flanged or seal welded screwed inlet and
outlet connections for all LPG liquid services. It should be noted that seal
welding of screwed inlet and outlet connections presents a problem when it is

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necessary to take the relief valves into the shop for testing and setting. For this
reason, flanged ends are preferred (see Figure 1200-30)

Fig. 1200-30 Flanged Relief Valve (Series 900, Model 9511019A) (Courtesy of the Crosby Valve
& Gage Company)

Use the less expensive steel, screwed bonnet, screwed end, thermal relief
valves (Crosby Series 900 or equal) for all other liquid process services except
in corrosive liquid services or in piping subject to vibration. In these services,
use the bolted bonnet style above. The bolted bonnet style may also be prefer-
able in severely corrosive atmospheres where external corrosion could make
disassembly of the screwed bonnet difficult
Use screwed, bronze relief valves (or equal) for water services

Size of Relief Valves


The smallest practical size relief valves available have adequate capacity for the
majority of piping applications; however, valves having a -inch inlet are consid-
ered the minimum for adequate mechanical strength. When relieving capacities are
in doubt, relief valve size can be most conveniently selected by using slide rules or
sizing charts published by valve manufacturers. Use an accumulation of 10% for
determining the capacity of these relief valves when fully open.
The -inch inlet, 0.74 in2 orifice Crosby relief valves referred to above will provide
liquid relief for several miles of large pipe. They are the smallest, reasonably
inexpensive relief valves generally acceptable for Company use. They will relieve
29 GPM when the relief pressure is 175 psig, and 38 GPM when the relief pressure
is 300 psig (assumed 10% accumulation and specific gravity of stock as 0.80).
When vapor can be generated in substantial quantities as would be the case if a high
vapor pressure liquid, such as LPG or NH3, were to be blocked in on the cold side

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of an exchanger with steam on the hot side, a much larger safety relief valve will be
required.

Setting of Relief Valves


Relief valves should be set at the maximum allowable working pressure of the
weakest component of the blocked-off line with allowance for static head.

1266 Calculation of Solar Heat Gains


The solar radiation coefficient is dependent on the projected area of the pipe,
which varies with latitude and orientation. See Section 200 of the Evaporation
Prevention Manual for solar heat tables. We assume an absorptivity of 1.0 Q s is
calculated over the projected area.

Qs Btu
------ = 300 ------------
A ft 2 hr
(Eq. 1200-2)
The convection heat loss coefficient is given in Perrys Chemical Engineers
Handbook (page 474). Qconv is calculated over the total outside area.

Q conv
-------------- = 0.5 -------
1 0.25 Btu
( T ) 1.25 ------------
A Do ft 2 hr
(Eq. 1200-3)
where:
Qs = radiation heat gain, Btu/hr
Qconv = convection heat loss, Btu/hr
= temperature above ambient, F
Do = outside diameter, in.
D = outside diameter, ft
A = DL
L = length, ft
The radiant heat loss coefficient is given on page 486. Qrad is calculated over one-
half the outside area.

Q rad
---------- T1 4 T 2 4 Btu
---- = 0.1724 --------- --------- -----------
A
-
2 100 100 ft 2 hr

(Eq. 1200-4)

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where:
T1 = final pipe temperature, R
T2 = initial pipe temperature, R

1267 Calculation of Maximum Attainable Temperature of Pipe and Liquid


The maximum temperature the pipe and liquid can be raised to by incident sunlight
is set by the equilibrium of solar heat gain with convection and radiant heat loss.

Qin = Qout

Qsolar = Qconv + Qrad


(Eq. 1200-5)
For 1 foot (L) of NPS 6 inch pipe at an ambient temperature of 100F, the solar heat
gain given by Equation 1200-2 is:

(1 2)
Q in = 300 --------------
L
= 300 ( 0.5 )
= 150 But/ft-hr

Equation 1200-5 must be solved iteratively to find the maximum attainable tempera-
ture. For simplicity, we will make a first guess that is actually the answer:

Try T = 60F
Q out = Q conv A + Q rad A
(Eq. 1200-6)

1 0.25
= 0.5 --- ( 60 ) 1.25 ( 0.5L )
6

+ 0.1724 ( 6.2 4 5.6 4 ) ---------------


0.5L
2
= 84 + 66
= 150 Btu/ft-hr

Since Qin = Qout = 150 Btu/ft-hr, the maximum T for the NPS 6 inch line is
60F at the 100F ambient temperature.

1268 Calculation of Temperature Rise per Hour


We can calculate the temperature rise per hour by repeated use of Equation 1200-6.
Note that we estimate the average T for each iteration.

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Assume the following:


Pipe and liquid are at same temperature (this is conservative).
Maximum, ambient temperature = 100F
Pipe: NPS 6 inch, Schedule 40
To = 50F
Weight of pipe = 18.97 lb/ft
Liquid Gasoline, Sp. Gr. = 0.86
Weight of liquid = 10.8 lb/ft
Specific Heat Steel = 0.12 Btu/lb F
Specific Heat Liquid = 0.50 Btu/lb F
Total specific heat = 0.12(18.97) + 0.50(10.8)
= 7.68 Btu/ftF

QinSolar = 150 Btu/ft-hr

a. During the first 3 hours most of the incident solar heat is absorbed by the
pipe:

3 ( 150 )
T = ----------------- = 58.5F
7.68
(Eq. 1200-7)

T 3 = T o + 58.5 = 108.5F

b. During the fourth hour the becomes great enough to make the Qout
significant.
Assuming an average temperature of 118F:

Q out = 0.501 ( 18 ) 1.25 + 0.1353 ( 5.78 4 5.6 4 )


= 18.5 + 19.1
= 27.6 Btu/ft-hr
150 27.6
T = ------------------------- = 16F
7.68
(Eq. 1200-8)

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T 4 = T 3 + T
T 4 = 108.5 + 16 = 124.5F

c. During the fifth hour:


Assume average temperature is 130F:

Q out = 0.501 ( 30 ) 1.25 + 0.1353 ( 5.9 4 5.6 4 )


= 35 + 31
= 67 Btu/ft-hr
150 67
T = --------------------- = 10.9F
7.68
(Eq. 1200-9)

T 5 = T 4 + T
T 5 = 135.4F

d. Similarly, we can calculate the pipe and liquid temperature for each hour as
it approaches the maximum of 168F. See Figure 1200-31.

Fig. 1200-31 Sample Calculation: Pipe and Liquid Temperature for Each Hour, Approaching Maximum of 168F
Qout, Btu/ft-hr T, F T, F (at end of hour)
Sixth hour 90.1 7.8 143.2 (T6)
Seventh hour 109.4 5.3 148.5 (T7)
Eighth hour 122.5 3.6 152.1 (T8)
Ninth hour 129.5 2.7 154.8 (T9)

1269 Calculation of Pressure and Volume


We can calculate the pressure that will be attained in the pipe and the amount of
liquid volume necessary to be released.
We define:
c = circumferential stress in pipe, psi
l = longitudinal stress in pipe, psi
l/c = use 0.5
D = mean diameter, in.
L = pipe length, in.
V = volume inside pipe, in3

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= bulk thermal coefficient of expansion of liquid, 1/F (see


Figure 1200-28)
= linear coefficient of expansion of steel, 1/F (use 6.5 10-6)
K = bulk modulus of elasticity of liquid, psi (use 2.1 105 for crudes
and 1.5 105 for refined products)
E = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (use 30 106)
T = temperature rise of pipe and liquid, F
t = pipe wall thickness, in.
= Poissons ratio for steel (use 0.3)
P = pressure rise of liquid, psi
Expansion of steel pipe due to pressure:

P D
c = -------------
2t
(Eq. 1200-10)

P D
1 = -------------
4t
(Eq. 1200-11)

c D 1 D
D = ---------- --------------
E E
c D 1
= ---------- 1 ------
E c
(Eq. 1200-12)

D 2
A = ----------
4
(Eq. 1200-13)

D
A = --- 2DD = -------D
4 2
(Eq. 1200-14)

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1 L cL
L = ---------- ----------
E E
cL 1
= ---------- ------
E c
(Eq. 1200-15)

V = AL
(Eq. 1200-16)

V = AL + LA
(Eq. 1200-17)

LA L D 2 D
= ------------------ + 2L ---------- --------
L 4 D
L D
= V ------- + 2 --------
L D
(Eq. 1200-18)

V cL 1 2 c D 1
-------- = ---------- ------ + -------------- 1 ------
V EL c ED c

c
= ------ [ ( 0.5 0.3 ) + 2 ( 1 0.3 0.5 ) ]
E
c
= 1.90 ------
E
1.90 PD
= ----------------------
2tE
(Eq. 1200-19)
Thermal expansion of steel pipe:

V
-------- = 3T
V
(Eq. 1200-20)
Total expansion of steel pipe:

V 1.90PD
-------- = ---------------------- + 3T
V 2t E
(Eq. 1200-21)
Thermal expansion of liquid:

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V
-------- = T
V
(Eq. 1200-22)
Compression of liquid due to pressure:

V P
-------- = -------
V K
(Eq. 1200-23)
Total expansion of liquid:

V P
-------- = T -------
V K
(Eq. 1200-24)
Total liquid pressure increase:
V
Equate -------- for liquid and pipe
V

1.90PD P
---------------------- + 3T = T -------
2t E K
(Eq. 1200-25)

1.90 ( D ) 1
P -------------------- + ---- = ( 3 )T
2t E K
(Eq. 1200-26)

( 3 )K T
P = ----------------------------------------
1.9DK 2t E + 1
(Eq. 1200-27)
Relief volume:
At a set pressure of PR the volume to be released must be

V P R
-------- = T ----------
V K
1.90 P R D
--------------------------- + 3T
2t E

1.90 DK P R
= ( 3 )T 1 + --------------------- ----------
2t E K
(Eq. 1200-28)

If we wish to be conservative and neglect the expansion of the pipe (small) and
compression of the liquid (moderate) then:

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P = KT
(Eq. 1200-29)

V = VT
(Eq. 1200-30)

1270 References
1. American National Standards Institute, ANSI B95.1, Terminology for Pressure
Relief Devices.
2. API Guide for Inspection of Refinery Equipment, Chapter XVI, Pressure
Relieving Devices.1
3. API RP 14C. Analysis, Design, Installation, and Testing of Basic Surface Safety
Systems on Offshore Production Platforms.
4. API RP 520. Design and Installation of Pressure-Relieving Systems. 1
5. API RP 521. Guide for Pressure Relieving and Depressuring Systems.1
6. API Std 526. Flanged Steel Safety-Relief Valves.1
7. API Std 527. Commercial Seat Tightness of Safety Relief Valve with Metal-to-
Metal Seat.1
8. API Std 620. Recommended Rules for Design and Construction of Large,
Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks.
9. API Std 650. Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage.
10. API Std 2000. Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks.
11. ASME Pressure Vessel Code.
12. ASME Boiler Code.
13. Code of Federal Regulations, Part 192, Title 49, Transportation of Natural and
Other Gas By Pipelines: Minimum Federal Safety Standards Code of Federal
Regulations, Department of Transportation, Federal Gas Pipeline Safety
Standards.
14. Department of Interior, Federal Register, Vol. 53, No. 63, Appendix 1, Register
No. 250.124, Production Safety Systems Records.
15. ISA Std S20. Specification Forms for Process Measurement and Control
Instruments, Primary Elements and Control Valves.
16. ISA Std S20.53, Instructions for Ordering Pressure Relief Valves.
17. National Board Inspection Code, Boilers and Pressure Vessels.

1. Indicates that the reference is included in this manual.

Chevron Corporation 1200-65 July 1999


1200 Relief Systems Instrumentation and Control Manual

18. NB-18, Pressure Relief Device Certifications (National Board of Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Inspectors), National Board Authorization to Repair ASME
and NB Safety and Safety Relief Valves for VR Certification.
19. Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook. [Robert H. Perry]. 6th edition. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1984.

July 1999 1200-66 Chevron Corporation

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