()*+,-.&;3$<3*00&=">&#3*">0&%"&0#=#*&*0?)=?

$"&&

II Escola de Altos Estudos em Controle e Automao

12$3#&4$530*&$"&&

@*A*"#&/3$<3*00&=">&#3*">0&%"&0#=#*&*0?)=?$"&
B$3&7=3<*,0A=7*&%"#*77%<*"#&0C0#*)0&/01+2!33'!
!"#$"%$&'()*+,-./(0%#$&
!"#$%&$'"(&)*+"*,(-"(."%/$*0123&%.3$*
0435"1$*623(.3$*75#"%.)%*+"*,(-"(."%/$*
!"#$%&'#()(*(%*+%$#,,)*

6*7$&8$3%+$"#*&91*/#*):*3!"#$!"%#&'!
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()52-52,!
#6 7-8!,)*+9-,!):!;5:)+<1=)5!;5!4<1+2!>+;?,!
@;A;21B!,*C,21=)5,!D!3E@,!
4F59G+)HG1,)+!<-1,*+-<-52,!/0IJ,'!
4<1+2!<-2-+,!15?!?;,2+;C*=)5!1*2)<1=)5!

"6 K;-+1+9G;91B!4212-!E,=<1=)5!01+1?;A<!
4*C,21=)5LB-M-B!,212-!-,=<1=)5!
I*B=L1+-1!,212-!-,=<1=)5!

N6 O192)+-?!,)B*=)5!):!PQ4!5)5B;5-1+!H+)CB-<,!
R;LB-M-B!,H1=1B!?-9)<H),;=)5!):!,212-!-,=<1=)5!
SG+--L,21A-!:192)+-?!,)B*=)5!):!,212-!-,=<1=)5!

Gmez-Expsito
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D"#*77%<*"#&-7*A#3$"%A&E*F%A*0&9D-EG&
Digital relaying: early developments in the 70s (A. Phadke et. al.),
first commercial products in 1984 (E. Schweitzers, SEL company).
Nowadays: fully deployed technology at transmission levels
Main feature: possibility of sending out measured quantities

Example 1: SEL-787 Transformer protection

Metering and external reporting:

harmonics, power, frequency, and energy;
phase voltages and currents; neutral currents;
sequence voltages and currents; maximum/
minimum logging of selected quantities.
Synchronized measurements possible.

Gmez-Expsito

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D"#*77%<*"#&-7*A#3$"%A&E*F%A*0&9D-EG&
Example 2: ZIV-8ZLV Distance protection

Gmez-Expsito
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IEC 61850 Architecture

J",7%"*& 6=AK&$LA*
=//7%A=?$"0

4$"#3$7&4*"#*3 Basis for a local

SCADA system
'=#*I=C

1I%#A2 1#=?$"&:50

Substation
6=C&A$"#3$77*3 D-E& D-E& ;MN D-E&
Management
System
(SMS)
;3$A*00&:50 ;3$A*00&:50

Switchgear CT/VT Switchgear CT/VT

Gmez-Expsito

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Phasor Measurement Units (PMU)

()52-52,!
An arbitrary time reference defines the phase angle of a phasor.
Relative phase angles are independent of the time reference
(synchronized phasors).
GPS provides global access to a very accurate clock (time tag)
Birth of PMUs: associated to digital relaying in the 90s.

x (t ) = 2 X cos( 2"ft + ! )

X = Xe j!

(time ref.)

Source: A. G. Phadke, J. S. Thorpe, Synchronized Phasor

Measurements and Their Applications, Springer,2008.
Gmez-Expsito
 01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& H*I&0$53A*0&$B&%"B$3)=?$"&%"&1)=3#&'3%>0&

Phasor Measurement Units (PMU)

()52-52,!
Phasors are computed from a window of sampled data using DFT

PMUs capabilities
- Currents & voltages
- Positive-negative-zero
sequence system
- Frequency

IEEE C37.118 Standard

- Definitions & conventions
E (France)
- Error
E have five limits in operation. The applications are:
PMU devices
Monitoring- Communications
ng of inter-area
inter protocol
modes.
. The analysis is done periodically or after an incident,
using recorded data.
!
Validation and calibration of dynamic simulation models 2.1Simulation
models.
Source: Deliverable results after a
of Pegase project.
disturbance are compared with recordings.
Gmez-Expsito
Posterior analysis of major incidents.
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& H*I&0$53A*0&$B&%"B$3)=?$"&%"&1)=3#&'3%>0&
Improvement of past RTE defence plan. plan. By monitoring angle differences, PMU data help
PMU-related
to identify the system splitting into synchronous islands. infrastructure

()52-52,!
Receives information from
PMUs and other PDCs
Correlates time-tagged
phasor data
Link with SCADA

Source: Deliverable 2.1 of Pegase project.

Figure 4. REE PMU system: hardware architecture (from [9])
Gmez-Expsito
ea Power Exchange (KPX) (Korea)
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& H*I&0$53A*0&$B&%"B$3)=?$"&%"&1)=3#&'3%>0&

Phasor Measurement Units (PMU)

4H-9;1BBF!9)5M-5;-52!;5!<*B=1+-1!,F,2-<,!
The error-free models corresponding to
ref
measurements
! UTC take the form:
State vector in rectangular coord.:

z = hr (xr )
PMU PMU
zV r = Kxr
TSO 1 TSO 3

=
PMU
zIr Yr xr
TSO 2 Linear model
where the measurement vectors zV r and
sumed in rectangular coordinates,
Synchronization of area-level estimates

Local phase references not needed (globalVreference provided) IR
Re
Vr =
Higher redundancy ! morezaccuracy ; zIr =
VIm II Gmez-Expsito

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because this way the measurement models
become linear, which is one of the key adv
PMU
ciatedapplications
with PMUs. In this case, hr (.) red
2
of quadratic functions, provided
Enhance digital relays (raison d'tre) V rather
surements are included in z.
State estimation (linear models)
ParameterNote that, unlike
estimation (e.g. in the polar state vector
generators)
jection constraints can be linearly formulat
Monitoring and control of dynamic events
rents rather
(10-30 samples than null powers are enforced.
per second)
The expressions
Early detection for hr (.) can be found e
of system separation
Speed upwhile those
service corresponding to Yr are given
restoration
5.2 Simultaneous SE formulation
See: Special Section on Synchrophasor Applications in Power Systems
The information provided by PMUs can a
IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, May 2013
handled in theory at the same time the conve Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& H*I&0$53A*0&$B&%"B$3)=?$"&%"&1)=3#&'3%>0&

Smart Meters
()52-52,!
Reading: bidirectional energy, P, V, I, cos T$!
;52-++*H=)5,!
Versatile tariffs and billing cycles (settable intervals)
Controlling (e.g. disconnect when P>Pmax)
Interfacing (PLC, wifi, smartphone)

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& H*I&0$53A*0&$B&%"B$3)=?$"&%"&1)=3#&'3%>0&

Advanced Meter Infrastructure (AMI)

()52-52,!

source: http://www.pcma.co.za/System-And-Services/
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& H*I&0$53A*0&$B&%"B$3)=?$"&%"&1)=3#&'3%>0&

Distribution Automation
()52-52,!
New comm. channels for reclosers, fault locators,...
At modest additional cost they can act as RTU (V & I meas.)

Remotely-controlled recloser Sectionalizing station

Source:
ABB

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& H*I&0$53A*0&$B&%"B$3)=?$"&%"&1)=3#&'3%>0&

Distribution Automation
()52-52,!
Example: Feeder Automation controller: Siemens SIPROTEC 7SC80

Can be used both as fault locator

and RTU (V, I, P, Q, cos !)
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& H*I&0$53A*0&$B&%"B$3)=?$"&%"&1)=3#&'3%>0&

From traditional RTU-based substation monitoring!

()52-52,!
Single-phase measurements currently sent to EMS

P&Q P&Q

V V

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& H*I&0$53A*0&$B&%"B$3)=?$"&%"&1)=3#&'3%>0&

!To all-digital (IED-PMU) substation monitoring

()52-52,!
Three-phase, synchronized measurements

Information increases
by one order of magnitude
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& H*I&0$53A*0&$B&%"B$3)=?$"&%"&1)=3#&'3%>0&

From todays unobservable passive feeders!

MV & LV system is
Bus voltage literally a Black Box
magnitudes

Feeder head
currents

Gmez-Expsito

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!To upcoming fully-monitored active feeders

(voltage violations, feeder congestions, harmonics, ")

Active loads: prosumers

Use AMI/AMR data

to illuminate the
MV radial system

Smart grid paradigm

Information increases by three orders of magnitude

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& H*I&0$53A*0&$B&%"B$3)=?$"&%"&1)=3#&'3%>0&

JH9)<;5A!1)=3#&'3%>&/=3=>%<).!
!

6$$)&$B&%"B$3)=?$"&=#&=77&7*F*70&OO&
&
Sending everything in real-time to the central EMS is no longer
feasible (technically & economically)
Solution: handle raw information in a hierarchical
greographically distributed fashion
&
Regional (multiarea)
Regional ISO
TSO
TSO1 TSO2 TSO3
Substation

Subs1 Subs2 Subs3 Subs4

RAW INFORMATION

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0&&

()52-52,!
#6 7-8!,)*+9-,!):!;5:)+<1=)5!;5!4<1+2!>+;?,!
@;A;21B!,*C,21=)5,!D!3E@,!
4F59G+)HG1,)+!<-1,*+-<-52,!/0IJ,'!
4<1+2!<-2-+,!15?!?;,2+;C*=)5!1*2)<1=)5!

"6 K;-+1+9G;91B!4212-!E,=<1=)5!01+1?;A<!
4*C,21=)5LB-M-B!,212-!-,=<1=)5!
I*B=L1+-1!,212-!-,=<1=)5!

N6 O192)+-?!,)B*=)5!):!PQ4!5)5B;5-1+!H+)CB-<,!
R;LB-M-B!,H1=1B!?-9)<H),;=)5!):!,212-!-,=<1=)5!
SG+--L,21A-!:192)+-?!,)B*=)5!):!,212-!-,=<1=)5!

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& 8%*3=3A2%A=7&1#=#*&-0?)=?$"&

Hierarchical State Estimation

Advantages:
Raw measurements handled at the right level
(no need to discard or aggregate raw measurements)

Bandwidth (cost) reduction

Regional (multi-area)
Increased reliability against centralized
scheme
TSO
More detailed models possible at local
level
Three-phase models Substation
CBs models (local topology processing)

Possibility of early bad data detection (locally)

Gmez-Expsito

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15:0#=?$",7*F*7&0#=#*&*0?)=?$"&
Detailed substation physical model:
- Nonlinear model for substations with power transformers (losses)
- Each CB retained (explicit or implicitly): linear model

Pij Qij
V (P and Q are state variables)
I ij

Enhanced measurement set:

Raw (three-phase) measurements
Voltage magnitudes at individual busbar sections
Currents (or power flows) through individual CBs
Phase angle differences between internal magnitudes (IEDs)
V-V, V-I or I-I
Additionally: V & I phasors if PMUs are available

Gmez-Expsito
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15:0#=?$",7*F*7&0#=#*&*0?)=?$"&
Example: Nonlinear (lossy) substation
Bus-branch EMS model

Physical
model

Subtransmission system
Gmez-Expsito

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15:0#=?$",7*F*7&0#=#*&*0?)=?$"&

Measurement sets (#1: classical; #2: IEDs)

(18)

(38)

Gmez-Expsito
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15:0#=?$",7*F*7&0#=#*&*0?)=?$"&
Enhanced bad data detection capability

~ exac
V9b = V9b + 5!
! # 2 = 3! #1

Safer margins for local detection of topology errors

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& 8%*3=3A2%A=7&1#=#*&-0?)=?$"&

P%"*=3&15:0#=?$"&)$>*7&
132 kV
Real substations usually comprise two
or more rated voltages.

Set of bus bars sections, CBs and

switches at the same rated voltage lead
to the Linear Substation concept:
i.e., linear measurement model (nice
66 kV
feature for hierarchical SE).

Augmented state vector: voltages and

CB power flows.

Power transformer & lines are nonlinear

external components interconnecting linear
substations.

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& 8%*3=3A2%A=7&1#=#*&-0?)=?$"&

Q1J,7*F*7&%"#*<3=?$"&$B&05:0#=?$"&*0?)=#*0&
Local estimates are pseudomeasurements for TSO-level SE

First (linear or nonlinear) stage: SE at the substation level

(local observability assumed):

Local state vector: y

Branches to other
- branch power flows
Substation substations
- bus voltages

y sub ; Wsub = cov !1 ( y sub ) = Gsub

(Gsub is constant for linear substation models)

Centralized (nonlinear) stage: TSO-level SE based on ~

y and
associated covariance matrix.

Gmez-Expsito

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Q1J,7*F*7&%"#*<3=?$"&$B&05:0#=?$"&*0?)=#*0&
TSO-level measurement model:
& zraw # &hr ( x )# &' z #
$ y ! = $h ( x )! + $' !
% sub " % s " % y "
Modified Normal Equations:
&/, H r )T ,Wraw 0 ) , H r ) #/
T
, H r ) ,Wraw 0 ) &, zraw ) ,hr ( xk )) #
%* ' * '*H '" [.x ] = * H ' * 0 G ' %* y ' - *h ( x )' "
H
/$+ s ( + 0 Gsub ( + s ( / + s( + sub ( $ + sub ( + s k (!
!

Gsub is composed of as many blocks as substations

&G11 #
$ G22 !
Gsub =$ !
$ G33 !
$ !
% Gss "

Need to update Gsub in the nonlinear case to reach the optimal estimate
Gmez-Expsito
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Q1J,7*F*7&%"#*<3=?$"&$B&05:0#=?$"&*0?)=#*0&
Illustration on a 3-substation system:

Bus-branch
model

Higher redundancy than bus-branch model ! more accurate TSO SE solutions

Gmez-Expsito

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Q1J,7*F*7&%"#*<3=?$"&$B&05:0#=?$"&*0?)=#*0&
Illustration on a 3-substation system:

Stage 1: Substation-level (distributed) SEs

linear

nonlinear
linear

Estimates of P-Q flows & bus voltages

Gmez-Expsito
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Q1J,7*F*7&%"#*<3=?$"&$B&05:0#=?$"&*0?)=#*0&
Illustration on a 3-substation system:

Stage 2: TSO-level (centralized) SE

Bus-branch model

Power injections (raw meas.) used only at local level

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0&&

()52-52,!
#6 7-8!,)*+9-,!):!;5:)+<1=)5!;5!4<1+2!>+;?,!
@;A;21B!,*C,21=)5,!D!3E@,!
4F59G+)HG1,)+!<-1,*+-<-52,!/0IJ,'!
4<1+2!<-2-+,!15?!?;,2+;C*=)5!1*2)<1=)5!

"6 K;-+1+9G;91B!4212-!E,=<1=)5!01+1?;A<!
4*C,21=)5LB-M-B!,212-!-,=<1=)5!
I*B=L1+-1!,212-!-,=<1=)5!

N6 O192)+-?!,)B*=)5!):!PQ4!5)5B;5-1+!H+)CB-<,!
R;LB-M-B!,H1=1B!?-9)<H),;=)5!):!,212-!-,=<1=)5!
SG+--L,21A-!:192)+-?!,)B*=)5!):!,212-!-,=<1=)5!

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& 8%*3=3A2%A=7&1#=#*&-0?)=?$"&

M57?,=3*=&0#=#*&*0?)=?$"&
ISO/TSO at the country/state/area level
Huge regional interconnected grids for energy trading: RTOs

Gmez-Expsito

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M57?,=3*=&0#=#*&*0?)=?$"&
Current paradigm: very limited amount of network data &
measurements from adjacent systems
- external equivalent + border measurements, at most
Each ISO/TSO uses its own phase angle reference.
Risky estimation nearby the borders (tie-lines)

~x ~x
1 3

~x
2

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& 8%*3=3A2%A=7&1#=#*&-0?)=?$"&

M57?,=3*=&0#=#*&*0?)=?$"&
U V-A;)51B!-B-92+;9;2F!<1+W-2,!C-;5A!;<HB-<-52-?!8)+B?8;?-.!
E*+)H-15!<1+W-2!8;2G!A+;?!9)5,2+1;52,!/<1+W-2!,HB;2'!B1*59G-?!;5!"%#&!
Accurate monitoring of border transactions (security & trading)
Multi-Area State Estimator needed: formidable data exchange
(infrastructure) and computational challenges

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& 8%*3=3A2%A=7&1#=#*&-0?)=?$"&

M57?,=3*=&0#=#*&*0?)=?$"&
Standard SE methods and existing communication infrastructures
are inappropriate
Hierarchical (two-level) State Estimation approach
Local solutions + coordination phase

~x ~x
1 3

Single phase
angle reference
~x
2

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& 8%*3=3A2%A=7&1#=#*&-0?)=?$"&

M57?,=3*=&0#=#*&*0?)=?$"&

Architectures

" Hierarchical SE (HSE)

" Fully distributed

Gmez-Expsito

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M57?,=3*=&0#=#*&*0?)=?$"&
Traditional solution procedures (suboptimal):
" Local State Estimation (TSO level)
Conventional non-linear SE (fully decoupled TSO solutions)
Area overlapping allows all border measurements to be used
at this level

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& 8%*3=3A2%A=7&1#=#*&-0?)=?$"&

M57?,=3*=&0#=#*&*0?)=?$"&
Traditional solution procedure (suboptimal):
" Local State Estimation (TSO level)
Conventional non-linear SE (fully decoupled TSO solutions)
Area overlapping allows all border measurements to be used
at this level

State variables
Area k
& xi #
xk = $ xb !
Phase $ !
reference $% xe !"
External border
Internal
buses xe
buses xi
Border buses xb

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& 8%*3=3A2%A=7&1#=#*&-0?)=?$"&

M57?,=3*=&0#=#*&*0?)=?$"&
Traditional solution procedure (suboptimal):
" Local State Estimation (TSO level)
Conventional non-linear SE (fully decoupled TSO solutions)
Area overlapping allows all border measurements to be used
at this level

Measurements
Area k
! z $
i
zk = # &
#" zb &%

Internal
External buses
meas. zi
Border meas. zb

min J ( ~
xk ) = [zk ! hk ( ~
xk )] Wk [zk ! hk ( ~
T
xk )]
Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& 8%*3=3A2%A=7&1#=#*&-0?)=?$"&

M57?,=3*=&0#=#*&*0?)=?$"&
Traditional solution procedure (suboptimal):
" Centralized coordination: reconcile local estimations
Phase angles referred to a single phase reference
Border buses and tie-line power flows re-estimated
Use of PMUs very helpful at this level

Variables close enough to border

retained at this stage & xb1 #
$ ! !
$ !
Area k xb = $ xbk !
$ !
!k $ ! ! State variables
$% xbA !"
A-1 slack variables (local refs.) added &x #
xc = $ b !
uT = !" ! 2 ! k ! A #$ %u"

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& 8%*3=3A2%A=7&1#=#*&-0?)=?$"&

M57?,=3*=&0#=#*&*0?)=?$"&
Traditional solution procedure (suboptimal):
" Centralized coordination: reconcile local estimations
Phase angles referred to a single phase reference
Border buses and tie-line power flows re-estimated
Use of PMUs very helpful at this level

Measurements:

x! b = xb + ! x ! x! $
Local estimates of border variables b
Border measurements not yet used zb = f ( xc ) + ! z
zc = # &

(linear model if this set is empty)

#" zb &%
Covariances (approximate values) ! x , !z

T
min J ( xc ) = [zc ! hc ( xc )] Wc [zc ! hc ( xc )]
Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& 8%*3=3A2%A=7&1#=#*&-0?)=?$"&

M57?,=3*=&0#=#*&*0?)=?$"&
Traditional solution procedures:
" Local State Estimation (TSO level)
Conventional non-linear SE (fully decoupled TSO solutions)
Several ways of handling border measurements (overlapping degree)

" Centralized reconciliation & synchronization

Phase angles referred to a single phase reference
Border buses and tie-line power flows re-estimated
Use of PMUs very helpful at this level

" Refinement of TSO level solution (Optional)

Buses farther from the border can be re-estimated
Linearized solution (one iteration) usually satisfactory

- Goal: reduce the amount of data exchanged with central coordinator

- Heuristic simplifying assumptions: suboptimal solutions
Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0&&

()52-52,!
#6 7-8!,)*+9-,!):!;5:)+<1=)5!;5!4<1+2!>+;?,!
@;A;21B!,*C,21=)5,!D!3E@,!
4F59G+)HG1,)+!<-1,*+-<-52,!/0IJ,'!
4<1+2!<-2-+,!15?!?;,2+;C*=)5!1*2)<1=)5!

"6 K;-+1+9G;91B!4212-!E,=<1=)5!01+1?;A<!
4*C,21=)5LB-M-B!,212-!-,=<1=)5!
I*B=L1+-1!,212-!-,=<1=)5!

N6 O192)+-?!,)B*=)5!):!PQ4!5)5B;5-1+!H+)CB-<,!
R;LB-M-B!,H1=1B!?-9)<H),;=)5!):!,212-!-,=<1=)5!
SG+--L,21A-!:192)+-?!,)B*=)5!):!,212-!-,=<1=)5!

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&"$"7%"*=3&/3$:7*)0&
Rigorous (optimal) approach to decompose nonlinear WLS
problems into two simpler subproblems

Conventional

[ H T WH ]"xk = H T W [z ! h( xk )]
(Normal equations)

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&"$"7%"*=3&/3$:7*)0&
y : dim (z) > dim (y) > dim (x)
- Introduce an auxiliary vector
- Assumption: enough redundancy to render y observable

Conventional Factorized

T T
[ H WH ]"xk = H W [z ! h( xk )]
[
[ F1T WF1 ]"yk = F1T W z ! f1 ( yk ) ]
(Normal equations)
[ F2T W y F2 ]"xk = F2T W y ~ [
y ! f 2 ( xk ) ]
Wy =
(sparse non-diagonal matrix)

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&"$"7%"*=3&/3$:7*)0&

Two relevant particular cases:

1st stage linear

(sparse constant matrix)

First stage is run only once

No risk of divergence: it always provides a solution

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&"$"7%"*=3&/3$:7*)0&

Two relevant particular cases:

1st stage linear

(sparse constant matrix)

2nd stage linear

Different applications arise for each particular case

Key issue: the way the intermediate vector y is chosen
Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&"$"7%"*=3&/3$:7*)0&
Different objectives when selecting y:

1. Geographical decomposition of the WLS problem

(tackle boom of information in Smart Grids):
Multilevel Hierarchical State Estimation

Regional (multiarea) linear

A hierachical sequence
TSO nonlinear
of two-level problems

Substation linear

RAW INFORMATION

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&"$"7%"*=3&/3$:7*)0&
Different objectives when selecting y:

1. Geographical decomposition of the WLS problem

(tackle boom of information):
Multilevel Hierarchical State Estimation

Regional (multiarea) linear

TSO nonlinear Two-level:

- Substation (distributed)
Substation linear - TSO (centralized)

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&"$"7%"*=3&/3$:7*)0&
Different objectives when selecting y:

1. Geographical decomposition of the WLS problem

(tackle boom of information):
Multilevel Hierarchical State Estimation

Regional (multiarea) linear Two-level:

- TSO (distributed)
TSO nonlinear - RTO (centralized)

Substation linear

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&"$"7%"*=3&/3$:7*)0&
Different objectives when selecting y:

1. Geographical decomposition of the WLS problem

(tackle boom of information):
Multilevel Hierarchical State Estimation

Regional (multiarea) linear

TSO nonlinear

Substation linear Two-level:

Distribution - Feeders (decoupled)
systems
Feeder system nonlinear - Substation (centralized)

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&"$"7%"*=3&/3$:7*)0&
Different objectives when selecting y:

1. Geographical decomposition of the WLS problem

(tackle boom of information):
Multilevel Hierarchical State Estimation

2. Unfolding the WLS problem into a squence of simpler

problems (computational enhancement & robustness)
Three-Stage Bilinear State Estimation concept

Q;5-1+!PQ4!4E! Q;5-1+!PQ4!4E!

7)5LB;5-1+!)5-L2)L)5-!
-XHB;9;2!2+15,:)+<1=)5!
H$",7%"*=3&SP1&1-&

Q;5-1+!PQ4!4E!
Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Geographical decomposition for multi-TSO problem

Single (global) phase angle reference

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Geographical decomposition for multi-TSO problem

Replicate border variables: augmented vector y

Several (local) phase angle references

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Geographical decomposition for multi-TSO problem

Stage 1: TSO level

z 1 = f 11 (yi 1 , yb 1) + e1 Gii 1 Gib 1

G11 = =
Gbi 1 Gbb 1

Overlapping adopted allows all raw measurements

to be processed at this local stage (nonlinear WLS)
Weight adjustment for multiply used measurements

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Geographical decomposition for multi-TSO problem

Stage 1: TSO level

z 1 = f 11 (yi 1 , yb 1) + e1 Gii 1 Gib 1

G11 = =
Gbi 1 Gbb 1
.
.
. (cov)-1 of local estimates

z j = f 1j (yij , ybj) + ej Gii j Gib j

G1j = =
Gbi j Gbb j

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Geographical decomposition for multi-TSO problem

Stage 2: Coordination
No raw measurements:
linear model

y = V!! x = V!!

Phase angles referred Local phase references

to local references: added to the state vector
" 1 %
ref
! j =0 $ '
! j = " j ! $ ! '! ref
j
$ 1 '
# &

Hint: local phase references selected among border buses

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Geographical decomposition for multi-TSO problem

Stage 2 (linear model):

Reordering
y= =

G1 = G1 = Gii Gib
=
=

Gbi Gbb
Wy

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Geographical decomposition for multi-TSO problem

Stage 2 (linear model):

Goal: distribute computations as much as possible

ri = ~
yi $ xi $ Bi xb # Small residuals for typical
"
rb = ~
measurement accuracy
yb $ Bb xb !
Two main steps:
2.1. mostly centralized (BbT Gbb Bb )xb = BbT (Gbb y!b + GibT ri )
2.2. fully distributed Gii ri = !Gib rb " [xi = y!i ! Bi xb ! ri ]
Block Gauss-Seidel iterations: Initialize with ri = 0
Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Case study: PEGASE project

IPS-UPS
Nodes > 2300
Branches > 4000

UCTE
Nodes > 9000
Branches > 16000

TEIAS

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Case study: PEGASE project

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Case study: PEGASE project

TU&Q1J0&/#%W!C*,-,'!
S)21B!C)+?-+!5)?-,.!Y&%!!!#"Z%!,212-!M1+;1CB-,!
!/1M-+1A-![!"&!C)+?-+!C*,-,'!!

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Case study: PEGASE project

First prototype: V&Q1J0&&/VSELVEELVE7'!!"\&Z!C*,-,!!!

Computational environment:
Matlab R2008a running on Intel Core i5
2.27GHz, 4GB RAM, 64-bit Windows 7 RTE

REN REE
V-?*5?159F.!"6]"!

WXV&

O+159-! 4H1;5! 0)+2*A1B!

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Case study: PEGASE project

First prototype: V&Q1J0&&/VSELVEELVE7'!!"\&Z!C*,-,!!!

V-?*5?159F.!]6%]!

V-?*5?159F.!"6]"!

WXV&
WXV&

O+159-! 4H1;5! 0)+2*A1B!

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Case study: PEGASE project

First prototype: V&Q1J0&&/VSELVEELVE7'!!"\&Z!C*,-,!!!

I-1,*+-<-52,.!!
!
O+)<!B)1?!^)8!,)B*=)56!>1*,,;15!5);,-!
Q)8!15?!K;AG!+-?*5?159F!
()<H1+-?!2)!9)5M-5=)51B!-,=<12)+!/$/?)=7'.!

1%)57=?$"&3*057#0&

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Case study: PEGASE project

Mock-up for Paneuropean system

O+159-! 4H1;5! 0)+2*A1B!

Conventional SE could not be run (no comparison possible)

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Case study: PEGASE project

Incorporation of PMUs: UCTE+TEIAS case study

Q-D!1

TY&Q1J0&
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Case study: PEGASE project

Incorporation of PMUs: UCTE+TEIAS case study

From 0 to 500 PMUs (in steps of 100)

PMU meas.: polar voltages, rectangular currents

Voltage phasor (polar)

Current flow phasor (rectangular)
Current injection phasor (rectangular)

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Case study: PEGASE project

Incorporation of PMUs: UCTE+TEIAS case study
Accuracy enhancement

# of PMUs Total # of measurements Redundancy

100 50512 2.80
200 51736 2.87
Sv 300 52838 2.93
400 54102 3.00
500 55206 3.06

1 n ! exact !
S v = ! Vi " Vi 10% redundancy increase:
n i =1
! 38% accuracy improvement

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Case study: PEGASE project

Incorporation of PMUs: REE only (Spanish TSO)

Convergence rate

Convergence threshold: Simulations with Simulations with

0.000001 5 iterations 4 iterations
Without PMU. 200 0
With PMU 93 107

Convergence threshold: 0.001 Simulations with Simulations with

4 iterations 3 iterations
Without PMU. 200 0
With PMU 0 200

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Case study: PEGASE project

Incorporation of local SE: UCTE+TEIAS case study
Up to 300 substation-level SE results added:

Substations with Total # of

Redundancy
LSE measurements
100 55850 3.10
200 64682 3.60
300 72913 4.04

30% redundancy increase:

! 26% accuracy improvement

The additional measurements are locally processed (same global

redundancy, more accurate pre-processed SCADA measurements)
Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0&&

()52-52,!
#6 7-8!,)*+9-,!):!;5:)+<1=)5!;5!4<1+2!>+;?,!
@;A;21B!,*C,21=)5,!D!3E@,!
4F59G+)HG1,)+!<-1,*+-<-52,!/0IJ,'!
4<1+2!<-2-+,!15?!?;,2+;C*=)5!1*2)<1=)5!

"6 K;-+1+9G;91B!4212-!E,=<1=)5!01+1?;A<!
4*C,21=)5LB-M-B!,212-!-,=<1=)5!
I*B=L1+-1!,212-!-,=<1=)5!

N6 O192)+-?!,)B*=)5!):!PQ4!5)5B;5-1+!H+)CB-<,!
R;LB-M-B!,H1=1B!?-9)<H),;=)5!):!,212-!-,=<1=)5!
SG+--L,21A-!:192)+-?!,)B*=)5!):!,212-!-,=<1=)5!

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Three-stage Bilinear WLS State Estimation

1*A$">&"$"7%"*=3&0#*/&B53#2*3&B=A#$3*>&95"B$7>*>G&

Q;5-1+!PQ4!4E! z = By + e Q;5-1+!PQ4!4E!

7)5LB;5-1+!-XHB;9;2!
2+15,:)+<1=)5!
H$",7%"*=3&SP1&1-&

Q;5-1+!PQ4!4E!

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Three-stage Bilinear WLS State Estimation

1*A$">&"$"7%"*=3&0#*/&B53#2*3&B=A#$3*>&95"B$7>*>G&

P%"*=3&SP1&1-& z = By + e y! , cov !1 ( y! ) = GB = BT WB

K ij = ViV j cos ! ij
Branch
7)5LB;5-1+!-XHB;9;2! Lij = ViV j sin ! ij
2+15,:)+<1=)5! y = {Ui , K ij , Lij }
(2b+N variables) 2
Bus Ui = Vi

Q;5-1+!PQ4!4E!

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Three-stage Bilinear WLS State Estimation

1*A$">&"$"7%"*=3&0#*/&B53#2*3&B=A#$3*>&95"B$7>*>G&

P%"*=3&SP1&1-& z = By + e y! , cov !1 ( y! ) = GB = BT WB

Linear measurement model:

P m ij = ( g sh ,i + g ij )U i " g ij K ij " bij Lij + ! p
7)5LB;5-1+!-XHB;9;2!
2+15,:)+<1=)5! Q m ij = "(bsh ,i + bij )U i + bij K ij " g ij Lij + ! q
Pi m = " Pij + ! pI
Qim = " Qij + ! qI
Q;5-1+!PQ4!4E! [Vi 2 ]m = Ui + !V

7)!5--?!2)!9G)),-!;5;=1B!M1B*-,!
_P1+<!,21+2`!:)+!+-H-12-?!+*5,!/9)5,2152!B!<12+;X'!
Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Three-stage Bilinear WLS State Estimation

1*A$">&"$"7%"*=3&0#*/&B53#2*3&B=A#$3*>&95"B$7>*>G&

Q;5-1+!PQ4!4E! z = By + e y! , cov !1 ( y! ) = GB = BT WB

H$",7%"*=3&*./7%A%#& ! = W! u = F!u!T GB F!u!1

u! = fu ( y! ) u! , cov !1 (u)
#3="0B$3)=?$"&
trivial
" i = ln U i inverse
(
" ij = ln K ij 2 + Lij 2 )
Q;5-1+!PQ4!4E! ! ij = arctan (Lij / K ij )

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Three-stage Bilinear WLS State Estimation

1*A$">&"$"7%"*=3&0#*/&B53#2*3&B=A#$3*>&95"B$7>*>G&

Q;5-1+!PQ4!4E! z = By + e y! , cov !1 ( y! ) = GB = BT WB

7)5LB;5-1+!-XHB;9;2! ! = W! u = F!u!T GB F!u!1

u! = fu ( y! ) u! , cov !1 (u)
2+15,:)+<1=)5!

P%"*=3&SP1&1-& u! = Cx + eu x , cov !1 ( x) = GC = C T W! uC
!i
"i
Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Three-stage Bilinear WLS State Estimation

1*A$">&"$"7%"*=3&0#*/&B53#2*3&B=A#$3*>&95"B$7>*>G&

Q;5-1+!PQ4!4E!
Is it a non-iterative procedure?
Not really !!
7)5LB;5-1+!-XHB;9;2! W! u = F!u!T GB F!u!1
2+15,:)+<1=)5!
depends on the operating point: u!

Q;5-1+!PQ4!4E! u! = Cx + eu x , cov !1 ( x) = GC = C T W! uC

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Three-stage Bilinear WLS State Estimation

1*A$">&"$"7%"*=3&0#*/&B53#2*3&B=A#$3*>&95"B$7>*>G&

Q;5-1+!PQ4!4E! z = By + e y! , cov !1 ( y! ) = GB = BT WB

7)5LB;5-1+!-XHB;9;2! ! = W! u = F!u!T GB F!u!1

u! = fu ( y! ) u! , cov !1 (u)
2+15,:)+<1=)5!

P%"*=3&SP1&1-& u! = Cx + eu x , cov !1 ( x) = GC = C T W! uC

W unew unew = Cx
Repeat until x k+1 ! x k
Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Three-stage Bilinear WLS State Estimation

Tests:
Benchmark networks: 118-, 298-, 2948- bus
1000 simulations (to obtain pdfs)
2 redundancy levels

Quality Indices

Accuracy (with a single run)

Computation time and speed-ups
Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Three-stage Bilinear WLS State Estimation

Voltage errors

Factored (single run)

Phase angle errors

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Three-stage Bilinear WLS State Estimation

Computation times factored (single run)

t (s) t (s)
%$Y! a!
%$]! Y!
%$&! ]!
&!
%$N!
N!
%$"!
"!
%$#! #!
%! %!
##Z! N%%! "\&Z!

Number of buses

Gmez-Expsito

01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& R=A#$3*>&0$75?$"&$B&SP1&/3$:7*)0&

Three-stage Bilinear WLS State Estimation

Advantages

Enhanced convergence rate

First (linear) step always gives an estimate
Early detection of bad data or topology error
Less computational effort (constant or simpler Jacobians)
Approx. 3 times speedup (for good quality meas.)
More advantageous with accurate measurements
More advantageous under peak loading

Gmez-Expsito
01+2!33.!4#=#*&*0?)=?$"&B$3&1)=3#&'3%>0& @*B*3*"A*0&

A. Gmez-Expsito, A. de la Villa Jan, Two-Level State Estimation With Local

Measurement Pre-Processing, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 2008.

A. Gmez-Expsito; A. Abur; A. de la Villa Jan; C. Gmez-Quiles,

A Multilevel State Estimation Paradigm for Smart Grids,
Proceedings of the IEEE, vol.99(6), pp.952-976, June 2011.

A. Gmez-Expsito; A. Abur; P. Rousseaux, A. de la Villa Jan; C. Gmez-Quiles,

On the Use of PMUs in Power System State Estimation
Power Systems Computation Conference, 2011.

A. Gmez-Expsito, A. de la Villa Jan, C. Gmez-Quiles, P. Rousseaux, T. Van Cutsem,

A Taxonomy of Multi-Area State Estimation Methods,
Electric Power Systems Research, vol. 81, pp. 1060-1069, 2011.

A. Gmez-Expsito, C. Gmez-Quiles, A. de la Villa Jan,

Bilinear Power System State Estimation,
IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 27(1), pp. 493-501, Feb. 2012.

C. Gmez-Quiles, H. Gil, A. de la Villa Jan, A. Gmez-Expsito,

Equality-Constrained Bilinear State Estimation,
IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 28 (2), pp. 902-910, May 2013.

A. Gmez-Expsito, Factored solution of nonlinear equation systems,

Proceedings of the Royal Society A, 2014 470, 20140236, July 2014.

Thank you !