Analysis Coal Storage and Distribution Flow
Ryan Suhandita
Mechanical Engineer
PT. D&C Engineering Company
E-mail: toasuhandita@gmail.com
Abstract - In a typical coal-fired power plant, coal is
received from either barges or trucks. Then it is
unloaded in a coal-yard and often stored in stockpiles.
Material can be reclaimed from the stockpile using an
automatic reclaimer or a gravity-reclaim
arrangement consisting of reclaim tunnel hoppers and
feeders. It is then conveyed to a crusher house for
sizing and then transferred to fuel silos or bunkers that
typically have belt feeders beneath them. For a
pulverized coal boiler system, coal is then transferred
to a mill using a mill-feed chute, from where it is
conveyed to the boiler. If it is a fluidized bed boiler,
the coal is directly transferred to boiler-feed chutes. In
the following, we describe the common flow problems
that can occur when handling and storing coal
through the above equipment. Different coals have
different characteristics, measuring the effect of these
characteristics on the flow properties is essential in
determining a particular kind of coals flowability. In
addition to coal characteristics (contents of clay,
moisture and fines), valley angles of the various
hopper designs also impact flowability. The flow
problems that can occur in silos and bunkers are
related to how a coal material flows within them.
Material build-up and rat-holes can reduce capacity and
productivity, sometimes, resulting in material loss and
down-time. Because of that reason, to maintain coal
flow there method or equipment needed to solve coal
flow problem.
Keywords Coal, Flow, flowability
1. Introduction
Whether it is a coal mining facility, coal preparation
plant, power plant or a shipping terminal, a coal
stockyard is a busy place where several material
handling operations occur. Coal stockpiles, reclaim
hoppers, bunkers, silos, crusher bins and feeders are
typically used for coal handling/storage to provide a
controlled feed of coal for various processes. Belt
conveyors and transfer chutes are used to convey coal
from one location to another. For an operation to be
profitable, the entire coal handling system must be
reliable. However, the handling system components
do not always perform as expected and handling
problems related to material flow do occur. These
problems can cause flow stoppages, limited live
storage capacity and erratic flow, as well as plugged
feeders and transfer points. Such issues can result in
lost time, lost production, excessive maintenance,
safety issues and even, explain the importance of
correctly designed silos, feeders, chutes and coal
stockyard gravity reclaim systems. Equipment failure.
This paper discusses coal handling challenges and
explores options for alleviating flow problems. While
the discussion is focused on coal handling at a power
plant.
2. Coal Distribution
In a typical coal-fired power plant, coal is received
from either barges or trucks. Then it is unloaded in a
coal-yard and often stored in stockpiles. Material can
be reclaimed from the stockpile using an automatic
reclaimer or a gravity-reclaim arrangement consisting
of reclaim tunnel hoppers and feeders. It is then
conveyed to a crusher house for sizing and then
transferred to fuel silos or bunkers that typically have
belt feeders beneath them. For a pulverized coal boiler
system, coal is then transferred to a mill using a mill-
feed chute, from where it is conveyed to the boiler. If
it is a fluidized bed boiler, the coal is directly
transferred to boiler-feed chutes. In the following, we
describe the common flow problems that can occur
when handling and storing coal through the above
equipment.
3. Clasification Flow Problem
3.1 No Flow
The most common flow problem experienced when
handling coals is flow stoppage; that is, a no-flow
condition. This condition can result either from
arching (also known as bridging) or ratholing. A
stable arch (bridge) or rathole forms over the hopper
outlet as shown in Fig. 1. The arch is strong enough
to support the weight of material above it and it must
be broken by some method in order to induce flow
again. Generally, sledgehammers, air lances and air
blasters are used to break the arch. Vibrators have a
tendency to strengthen the arch because, in most
cases, they promote compaction. A rathole is formed
when a cylindrical flow channel develops in the
center of the bin and the remaining material is
stationary along the hopper walls. This generally
occurs when the walls are not steep and smooth
enough.
Fig. 1 No Flow
a. Arching
Arching occurs when an obstruction in the
shape of an arch or a bridge forms over the
silo, bunker or hopper outlet as a result of the
material's cohesive strength. When coal
forms a stable arch above the outlet,
discharge is prevented and a no-flow
condition results. Fig. 1 shows an illustration
of the arching problem.
b. Ratholing
Ratholing can occur when coal flow takes
place in a channel located above the silo,
bunker or hopper outlet. As the level of
material in the flow channel drops, a
resistance to further flow into this channel
occurs due to the material's cohesive
strength. If coal has enough cohesive
strength, the stagnant material outside the
channel will not flow into it, forming a stable
rathole. Once the flow channel has emptied,
no further material discharge will occur from
the outlet resulting in a no-flow condition.
Fig. 2 shows an illustration of ratholing. In
addition to causing a no-flow condition,
ratholes significantly reduce the live capacity
of a bunker, silo or stockpile. While there
may be a large amount of material present, if
that material remains stagnant and would not
come out on its own, the volume occupied by
that material is essentially a dead volume. As
a result, the process or equipment may
require frequent filling to keep up with the
discharge rate. When flow obstructions
switch or interchange between arches and
ratholes, erratic flow results.
In a typical erratic flow problem, an arch formed over
a hopper outlet may fail due to an external force, such
as vibrations transmitted to the hopper, and then
material flow will resume and continue until the flow
channel formed above the outlet empties out. This will
result in formation of a rathole and prevent further
material discharge. This rathole can collapse due to a
similar external force and the material falling down
from the collapsed rathole may get compacted over the
hopper outlet and again form an arch, resulting in a no-
flow condition. Thus, in an erratic flow situation,
material discharges intermittently from the hopper
outlet. While flow stoppages can be a big issue by
themselves, when handling coals any material
remaining stagnant can pose a danger. This could
occur if material flow takes place through a channel
within the silo. Then the material outside of this
channel may remain stagnant for a long time,
depending on how often the silo or bunker is
completely emptied. The same problem can occur
within gravity-reclaim stockpiles, particularly if
significant amount of material remains un-reclaimed.
As coals have a tendency for spontaneous combustion,
such stagnant material present can pose risk of fires.
In addition to these problems associated with no-flow
conditions, when arches and ratholes collapse, sudden
dynamic forces act on surrounding equipment. These
forces can result in structural damage to walls, floors
and feeders. Also, the development of eccentric flow
channels within a silo, particularly due to multiple or
offset outlets, can result in non-uniform loading along
the outer walls of the silo. This situation may cause
wrinkling or buckling of the silo.
Whenever material is transferred from one point to
another, conveying systems and transfer chutes come
into the picture. Unfortunately, many times transfer
chutes get designed at the end of the development
phase, requiring them to fit within or stretch to an
already fixed layout.
This situation can often result in material flow
problems through poorly performing chutes. When
material discharged from a belt conveyor impacts a
chute surface, its velocity decreases. The larger the
impact angle, the bigger is the change in velocity.
Sliding friction with chute surface can decrease the
stream velocity even further, and the flowing material
may halt on the chute surface, creating a plugging
condition. Poor chute design or performance can also
result in material spillage.
3.2 Erratic Flow
Alternating formation and collapse of arches and
ratholes (Fig. 2) result in fluctuating discharge. This
causes thumping and vibrations that can damage or
destroy the integrity of a bin, leading to structural
failure and potential personnel injuries or deaths.
Fig. 2 Erratic Flow
3.3 Flushing or Flooding
Fine powders become aerated and discharge
uncontrollably from the bin, behaving like a liquid, as
shown in Fig. 3. This can happen when a rathole
collapses allowing the solids to fall into the open
channel under pressure.
Fig. 3 Flushing
3.4 Limited Discharge Rate
The flow from the hopper outlet is not adequate for
process requirements.
3.5 Segretion
Solid particles have a tendency to separate during the
filling of a bin, as shown in Fig. 5. The finer particles
will be predominate in the center of the bin and the
larger particles will roll and collect against the bin
wall. If flow does not occur along the bin wall during
discharge, the finer particles discharge first and the
coarse particles last. Results of Flow Problems These
very common flow problems will have a variety of
effects on a particular process that can result in
quality problems, lost production, fire, product
spoilage, structural damage, personnel injuries and
wasted time and money. Reduced storage capacity,
as shown in Fig. 6, results from the formation of
stable ratholes. The coal solid will cake and cement
itself to the bin walls if it is not cleaned from time to
time. The severity of these stagnant or dead regions
will vary according to the material being handled. For
example, in the food industry, the coal solid will
spoil, encouraging insect infestation. In coal handling
industries, the stagnant coal is highly susceptible to
spontaneous combustion the longer the coal is
allowed to remain in the bin. Spontaneous
combustion gets a lot of attention in the power
industry where large volumes of coal are stored in the
silos and bunkers that feed the boilers. Many power
companies are plagued with fire problems that can
eventually lead to explosions if dusting occurs while
they are charging a bin. In large silos, vibration and
thumping can occur during discharge resulting in
structural fatigue and collapse. There are
documented cases where the entire silo area was
declared off limits to individuals during the time of
discharge for fear that a fatality could occur if the
structure collapsed. Segregation issues make quality
control nearly impossible, greatly impacting the
bottom line in industries where consistency is
required from batch to batch.

Fig. 4 Segretion
4. Measuring Flow Properties
If a handling system is not designed properly, flow
problems will occur. So, the question arises: what
approach and design criteria should one use to
properly design a coal handling system? For reliable
storage and handling of coal, the geometry
construction materials for the systems components
must be designed to suit the flowability of the coal.
Flowability of a coal solid is determined by
conducting flow properties tests. These are bench-
scale laboratory tests that characterise flow behaviour
of a given coal material at representative handling
conditions. The critical flow properties needed for a
reliable system design are the following:
a. Cohesive strength of a coal material
determines its ability to flow reliably, without
forming a stable arch or rathole. Information
obtained from this test is used as a standard
method to determine minimum hopper outlet
dimensions to prevent cohesive arches and
ratholes and often dictates the flow pattern
required in the handling system.
b. Wall friction between a coal material and
wall surface of equipment is critical in
assessing the flow pattern in an existing
system or ensuring the selected flow pattern
in a new or modified one. Information
obtained from this test allows determination
of critical (limiting) hopper angles required
to achieve mass flow.
c. Compressibility or changes in a materials
coal density, as a function of consolidating
pressure, is measured and used in
calculations of hopper outlet dimensions and
mass flow hopper angles. This data is also
used to determine capacity and material
induced loads for equipment, such as silos
and stockpiles, as well as to calculate speeds
and loads for feeders and conveyors.
d. Chute angle tests are run to determine the
minimum (shallowest) angles required to
reinitiate flow after an impact with a
chute/liner surface has caused the material
stream to halt.
e. Permeability is a measure of a materials
resistance to the flow of gas through it. The
data obtained from this test is used to
calculate the critical steady state flow rate of
a material as a function of the outlet size and
the consolidating pressure, above which two-
phase (gas/solid) flow problems, such as
flooding or limited discharge rate, may occur.
It is particularly important when the material
contains a significant portion of fines. This
information can also be used to determine the
ability of a column of material to seal against
gas pressure.
All of these flow properties will be influenced by
moisture content, storage time at rest, temperature and
fines content, among other factors. Therefore, to
design a system that ensures reliable flow, the
flowability of a given coal must be determined for the
full range of representative conditions.
5. Type of Flow Patterns
The flow problems that can occur in silos and bunkers
are related to how a coal material flows within them.
There are two primary flow patterns that can develop
during material discharge: funnel flow and mass flow.
Both patterns are shown in Figure 5.
Fig. 5 Funnel and Mass Flow Patterns
In funnel flow, an active flow channel forms above the
hopper outlet with stagnant material at the periphery.
As the level of material in the silo decreases, material
from stagnant regions may or may not slide into the
flowing channel, depending on the material's cohesive
strength.

When the material has sufficient cohesive strength, the

stagnant portion does not slide into the active flow
channel, which results in the formation of a stable
rathole. In addition to flow stoppages that occur as a
consequence of ratholing, funnel flow can cause
oxidation of material, results in a first-in-last-out flow
sequence and increases the extent to which sifting
segregation impacts the uniformity of the discharging
material.

In mass flow, all of the material is in motion whenever

any is withdrawn from the hopper. Material from the
center as well as the periphery moves toward the
outlet. Mass flow hoppers provide a first-in-first-out Fig. 6 Expanded Flow
flow sequence, eliminate stagnant material, reduce
sifting segregation and provide a steady discharge with
Which flow pattern develops in a silo or a bunker is a
a consistent coal density and a flow that is uniform and
function of the flow properties of the material being
well controlled. Requirements for achieving mass
handled within it.
flow include sizing the outlet large enough to prevent
arching, as well as ensuring the hopper walls have
sufficiently low wall (material/surface boundary) 6. Maintenance Equipment of Coal Storage
friction and are steep enough to achieve flow along
them. Different coals have different characteristics.
Measuring the effect of these characteristics on the
flow properties is essential in determining a
A third type of flow pattern, called expanded flow, can
particular kind of coals flowability. In addition to
develop when a mass flow hopper (or hoppers) is
coal characteristics (contents of clay, moisture and
placed beneath a funnel flow hopper, as shown in
fines), valley angles of the various hopper designs
Figure 4. The mass flow hopper is designed to activate
also impact flowability. Material build-up and rat-
a flow channel in the funnel flow hopper, which is
holes can reduce capacity and productivity, sometimes,
sized to prevent the formation of a stable rathole.
resulting in material loss and down-time. Because of
Particularly for large diameter silos, the major
that reason, to maintain coal flow there method or
advantage of an expanded flow discharge pattern is the
equipment needed to solve coal flow problem.
savings in headroom as compared to an all mass flow
design. This approach not only reduces the capital
The pneumatic whip bin cleaning system (Fig. 7) is
cost, but also facilitates retrofitting existing silos by
the safe alternative for cleaning blocked or
minimizing the additional headroom requirement. The
compacted silos and to improved capacity and
mass flow hopper beneath the funnel flow hopper still
productivity bins return to original capacity. Material
has the benefit of discharging material reliably with a that recovered are no waste or no contamination
consistent coal density. Note that segregation and chemical free and procedure will not damaged the bin.
material degradation problems are not necessarily
minimized with an expanded flow pattern.

Fig. 7 Bin Whip
It is a completely portable shown in Fig. 8,
remote-controlled tool that can be lowered into
storage containers through a manhole opening.
Powered by compressed air, gyro motor uses a
variety of whips and cutting edges to knock
down even the toughest materials without
damaging the walls of the storage bins. This tool
are use to remove build-ups, complete blockages,
rat-holes, and bridges.
Fig. 8 Bin Whip Spesification
Acoustic cleaning is a maintenance method used in
material-handling and storage systems that handle
coal granular or particulate materials, such as grain
elevators, to remove the buildup of material on
surfaces. Acoustic cleaning apparatus, usually built
into the material-handling equipment, works by
generating powerful sound waves which shake
particulates loose from surfaces, reducing the need
for manual cleaning.
A compressed-air driven (plant air: 85-100 PSI)
Sonic Horn that produces deep penetrating, low-
frequency, high-energy sound waves. The sound
waves are produced by the compressed air flexing a
titanium diaphragm in the Horn's sound generator.
The sound waves are then magnified as they are
emitted through the Horn's bell, and travel at > 1100
ft/sec in a 360 radial pattern. The Sonic Horn is
mounted to or suspended in the vessel at strategic
locations, and then air pressure and volume are
controlled remotely from outside the vessel.
Alternating sound waves, repeating 60-420 times per
second, produce a range of fundamental frequencies
that cause dry particulate deposits to resonate and
become fluidized. Once fluidized, gravity causes the
material to flow freely to the discharge. Because
Sonic Horns operate at frequencies higher than the
resonance frequency of steel, ceramic linings,
concrete, etc, they do not cause vibrational damage to
the vessel or surrounding structure. Suitable for
explosive environments, Sonic Horns have not only
been used for vessel cleaning, but also for
maintaining air preheaters, precipitators, SCR
reactors, heat exchangers, filters, boiler tubes,
baghouses, draft fans, and ductwork.
The majority of acoustic cleaners operate in the audio
frequency range from 60 hertz up to 420 Hz. However
a few operate in the infrasonic range, below 40 Hz,
which is mostly below the human hearing range, to
satisfy strict noise control requirements. There are
three scientific fields which converge in the
understanding of acoustic cleaning technology.
Sound propagation. This relates to an
understanding of the nature of the sound
waves, how they vary and how they will
interact with the environment.
Mathematics of the environment. Materials
science, surface friction, distance and areas
familiar to a mechanical engineer.
Chemical engineering. The chemical
properties of the powder or substance to be
debonded. Especially the auto adhesive
properties of the powder.
An acoustic cleaner will create a series of very rapid
and powerful sound induced pressure fluctuations
which are then transmitted into the solid particles of
ash, dust, granules or powder. This causes them to
move at differing speeds and debond from adjoining
particles and the surface that they are adhering to.
Once they have been separated then the material will
fall off due to gravity or it will be carried away by the
process gas or air stream.
The key features which determine whether or not an
acoustic cleaner will be effective for any given
problem are the particle size range, the moisture
content and the density of the particles as well as how
these characteristics will change with temperature and
time. Typically particles between 20 micrometres and
5 mm with moisture content below 8.5% are ideal.
Upper temperature limits are dependent upon the
melting point of the particles and acoustic cleaners
have been employed at temperatures above 1000 C to
remove ash build-up in boiler plants.
It is important to match the operating frequencies to
the requirements. Higher frequencies can be directed
more accurately whilst lower frequencies will carry
further, and are generally used for more demanding
requirements. A typical selection of frequencies
available would be as follows:
420 Hz for a small acoustic cleaner which
might be used to clear bridging at the base of
a silo.
350 Hz will be more powerful and this
frequency can be used to unblock material
build-up in ID (induced draft) fans, filters,
cyclones, mixers, dryers and coolers.
230 Hz. At this frequency, the power
involved is sufficient to use in most
electricity generation applications.
75 Hz and 60 Hz. These are generally the
most powerful acoustic cleaners and are often
used in large vessels and silos.
Fig. 9 Acoustic Cleaner
8. Conclusion
In a typical coal-fired power plant, the most common
flow problem when handling coals are, no flow
condition, erratic flow, flooding, limited discharge
rate and segretion, flow problems occur this
determined by conducting flow properties. The
following flow properties such as; cohesive strength,
wall friction between a coal material and wall
surface, compressibility or changes in a materials
coal density, chute angle, and permeability. All of
these flow properties will be influenced by moisture
content, storage time at rest, temperature and fines
content, among other factors. Therefore, to design a
system that ensures reliable flow. The flow problems
that can occur in silos and bunkers are related to how
a coal material flows within them. There are two
primary flow patterns that can develop during
material discharge: funnel flow and mass flow. A
third type of flow pattern, called expanded flow, can
develop when a mass flow hopper (or hoppers) is [5] Khambekar, J., Rulff, M., Cabrejos, F., (2009).
placed beneath a funnel flow hopper. In addition to "Improving Storage and Handling of Ores in Mining
coal characteristics (contents of clay, moisture and and Processing Applications", Mining Engineering,
fines), valley angles of the various hopper designs October 2009, Vol. 61, No. 10.
also impact flowability. Material build-up can reduce
capacity and productivity, sometimes, resulting in
material loss and down-time. The pneumatic whip bin
cleaning system and Acoustic cleaning are one of
many safe alternative for cleaning blocked or
compacted silos and to improved capacity and
productivity bins to prevent down-time.

7. References

[1 http:// www. Powdercoalsolids . com/ article%

5CW hat -is- Ex panded -Flow%3F-09-22-2014
[2] http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?
article= 2580 &context=theses Ryan Suhandita S.T.
[3] Jenike, A.W.. : Storage and Flow of Solids. Mechanical Engineer
University of Utah, Eng. Exp. Station, Bull. No. PT. D&C Engineering Company
123, Nov. 1964 Email: toasuhandita@gmail.com
[4] Jenike, A.W.: Storage and Flow of Solids,
University of Utah Engineering Experiment
Station, Bulletin No. 123, 1964.