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By
Alain Kassab
3. the relationship has a negative sign so that heat flows from high to low temperature (the
gradient T(x) T(x)
points in the direction of maximum increase of a function)
dT dT
0 0
dx dx
Note: the partial derivative q >0 q<0
x x
is used here to account for
x=0 x=L x=0 x=L
transient behavior T(x,t)
where t denotes time.
Application of Series in Heat Transfer: transient heat conduction
1.a Application of Maclaurin series to heat transfer: quenching of a metal bar at early times
quenching: a rapid cooling by immersion in water or oil. In metallurgy it is used to prevent phase
transformations or diffusion and lock in a phase of interest.
quenching is used in metallurgy to harden steel by rapidly cooling austenite phase of steel, which
is a non-magnetic solution of the alloy of iron (Fe) and carbon (C) that forms above 1000K or 727oC,
in order to produce what is called the martensite phase (hardened steel).
quenching effectively locks in the carbon so that it does not diffuse out of the crystalline structure.
by repeated tempering and quenching skilled blacksmiths control the amount of martensite to
craft high quality swords throughout history.
1. Let us take a typical value for the thermal diffusivity, , for steel which is about
=10-5 [m2/s], and a location close to the surface, say xo =1 cm.
2. What is the temperature there 1 s after the metal bar was plunged
into the water bath?
3. We compute the argument of the error function for this combination:
4. Using the Maclaurin series for erf(x) we compute the error function of 1.581 as:
5. With the value of the error function for x=1.581, we now compute the temperature
at xo=1cm and after 1s as:
In such a manner, we can determine the temperature at various locations in the bar for various times
and a plot of these results is:
Note: the effect of the cooling from the water bath takes time to be
(5 s) felt at the interior of the bar. That is called the penetration
(1 s) depth (t), and it is controlled by the parameter
1000oC
T ( x , 1s)
T ( x , 5s)
500oC steel
T ( x , 15s) To =100oC
bar
T ( x , 25s) x
x=0
100oC
0
0 cm 1 cm 2 cm 3 cm 4 cm 5 cm 6 cm 7 cm
x
The solution we have been considering is valid until the penetration depth reaches the
midpoint of the bar, L= 5cm. When does this happen? We have to agree how to define
that the midpoint has felt the cooling effect of the water. One way to do this is to use
behavior of the error function: erf ( 0.5) = 0.52 erf ( 2) = 0.995 erf ( 2.5) = 1
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
x
or, we find that the time for the penetration depth* to reach the midpoint of the bar is
After the penetration depth reaches the centerline, we then have to use another solution for
the temperature, and this is in terms of what is called a Fourier series. This part of the
solution will then comprise our second example of series applications in heat transfer.
*
Note: we could relax this definition and use a lower
value for x. For instance, for x=1.575 then erf(1.575)=0.974
which corresponds to a time of 25s at which the centerline
temperature is ~98% of the initial temperature according to
the error function solution (not a good idea ~ see later).
Application of Series in Heat Transfer: transient heat conduction
1.b Application of Fourier series to heat transfer: quenching of a metal bar at later times
By "later times," we mean after the middle of the bar has felt the cooling
steel bar
effects of the water bath. The solution for the temperature at any location
in the bar and at any time after this is given by the infinite series, T=100oC T(x,t) T=100oC
X=0 X=L
This Fourier series for the temperature converges slowly when the non-dimensional value
of time that appears in the exponential called the Fourier number, Fo, is less than 0.2, where
In our case, our bar is L=10cm and =10-5m2/s, then a Fourier number of Fo=0.2 corresponds
to a time of:
For times larger than Fo=0.2, or 200s in our case, the series converges rather quickly,
and you can obtain the solution pretty accurately by using only one term!
Taking more terms does not improve the solution much at all
N := 1 , 3 .. M
1 259.18 0.995
3 259.18 -0.046 259.180432
5 259.18 5.33310 -4
7 259.18 -1.02110 -6
259.18043
9 259.18 2.95710 -10
T1( xo , 200 , N)
11 259.18 -1.25110 -14
13 259.18 0 259.180428
15 259.18 0
17 259.18 0 259.180426
19 259.18 0
21 259.18 0
259.180424
23 259.18 0 0 10 20 30
25 259.18 0 N
Application of Series in Heat Transfer: transient heat conduction
Example: the temperature at the midpoint at 25s which corresponds to a Fourier number of
Fo=0.025
N := 1 , 3 .. M
1 995.354 0.995
3 953.896 -0.046 990
5 954.376 5.33310 -4
7 954.375 -1.02110 -6
9 954.375 2.95710 -10 980
11 954.375 -1.25110 -14 T1( xo , t1 , N)
13 954.375 0 970
15 954.375 0
17 954.375 0
19 954.375 0 960
21 954.375 0
23 954.375 0 950
25 954.375 0 10 20 30
N
Application of Series in Heat Transfer: transient heat conduction
N := 1 , 3 .. M
1 1.19110 3 1.212
3 945.75 -0.272
5 1.01210 3 0.074
7 997.906 -0.016 1100
9 110 3 2.59810 -3
11 999.979 -2.95310 -4 T1( xo , t1 , N)
13 110 3 2.33910 -5
15 999.999 -1.27910 -6 1000
17 999.999 4.79410 -8
19 999.999 -1.22810 -9
21 999.999 2.14510 -11
23 999.999 -2.54610 -13
900
25 999.999 2.05210 -15 10 20 30
N
Application of Series in Heat Transfer: transient heat conduction
Doing this for various times and x-values we can develop the temperature history in the bar
1200oC
1000 oC
T ( x , 1s)
o
T ( x , 5s ) 800 C
T ( x , 15s)
600oC
T ( x , 25s)
T ( x , 50s)
400oC steel bar
200 oC x
X=0 X=L
0
0 2 cm 4 cm 6 cm 8 cm 10 cm
x
Check solution: at time t=0 the temperature should be the initial temperature, Ti . Lets check this,
t=0
1500oC
1000 oC
T (x,0) N=20
T(x,0) N=50
T(x,0) N=200
T(x,0) N=400
500o C
Checks!! T(x,0)=To+ ( Ti To ) = Ti 0
0m 0.02 m 0.04 m 0.06 m 0.08 m 0.1 m
x
sine series for 1 on the interval [0,0.1]
2
1 ( 1)
n
C ( n) := 1
n
500
Note: series represents
C ( n) sin n xx
L
x
0 x=1 on x [0,0.1] and
n =1
does so periodically
Taylor series and their use in finite difference methods (FDM). a method to approximate
derivatives and why we can't take limits to zero on the computer.
Such equations are derived from the conservation principle (balance) typically applied to mass,
linear momentum, energy, and species, and they are called differential equations.
You will learn how to solve such differential equations in MAP 3032 and in most of your
engineering courses, and you will encounter finite differences in EML 3034 and EML 4142.
The reason that finite differences are used is that although we can solve certain differential
equations analytically, we cannot do so in many cases especially when the geometry is
complicated or the problem is non-linear.
We simply focus on one of the basic devices utilized in FDM: approximation of the first
derivative using one sided differences to compute the heat flux at the wall.
Application of Series in Heat Transfer: transient heat conduction
qf qf
x
Point of departure for the finite difference method is the Taylor series
location at which we take x can be anywhere to the right or to the left of the point xo.
Application of Series in Heat Transfer: transient heat conduction
x=0 x=L
Note as we learned in Calculus, if we take the limit x 0 we retrieve exactly the definition of the
first derivative of f(x) at xo! We will see what happens when we try to take this limit on the computer
Dropping (truncating) the terms as indicated we find the following approximate formula for the first
derivative:
Forward Finite Difference
First order (truncation error (TE) is
proportional to x)
truncation error is order of x
Lev Davidovich Landau big O notation introduced by
1908-1968 (Nobel Prize Lev Landau
in Physics 1962)
Application of Series in Heat Transfer: transient heat conduction
Applying the forward difference to estimate the heat flux at the left wall,
Let us choose a time to=250s and estimate the heat flux at the left wall utilizing the above first
order forward finite difference, using various values
We expect the estimate for the heat flux to approach the exact value as x approaches zero.
We can compute the exact solution using a one term solution since Fo > 0.2, and
First order
Forward Finite Difference
Why cant take the limit x->0 on the computer ? Answer: Round Off (RO) error.
The computer makes very small mistakes every time it stores and computes with numbers
due to the fact that it utilizes finite arithmetic: there is no way to get around it.
Round off will always exist due to the binary nature of representation of data on the computer
(one and zeroes, called bits) on the computer and the limited amount of bits the computer
uses to represent a number (in our case we used 64 bits).
There is yet another way to approximate the first derivative, and this method
is called a central difference and is of second order accuracy TE ~ O(x2).
In light of our discussions on the limits of the computer, this is a big advantage over first
order forward and backward finite differences.
qf
xo-x xo xo+x
x
x x
x=0 x=L
Application of Series in Heat Transfer: transient heat conduction
Finite difference methods and the closely related finite volume method are used widely to solve
problems in a variety of fields:
Power generation
Aerospace
Defense
Heating, ventilations and refrigeration
Oil and Gas industry
Semiconductor
Polymer processing
Biomedical engineering
Nuclear
Marine and coastal engineering
Application of Series in Heat Transfer: transient heat conduction
How?
We start from equations that describe the physical phenomenon: what causes
the temperature to vary, the stresses to exist etc
mass
out linear momentum
energy
in species
Control angular momentum
volume
+ fundamental relation between first principle
and measurable quantity constitutive law
out e.g. heat flows due to a temperature difference,
stress is linearly related to displacement,
Application of Series in Heat Transfer: transient heat conduction
Inflow 6 (mm)
Heel IH occluded artery mesh
Toe IH
45
4 (mm)
Outflow
Blockage
Floor IH
velocity magnitude at various times in
cardiac cycle: 0.00 0.02 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.23 0.25 0.27
0.00 0.07 0.14 0.21 0.28 0.35 0.42 0.49 0.56 0.63 0.70 0.77 0.84
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.14
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.21 0.23 0.25
Application of Series in Heat Transfer: transient heat conduction
Movie of FDM model of blood flow in artery through the cardiac cycle
Application of Series in Heat Transfer: transient heat conduction
insulated
Tcold Thot g
air
Conclusions
2. Fourier series.
Part II applications