Manual Rebop

REBOP Version 3.
1
For Block Caving
User Guide
REBOP Version 3.1
For Block Caving
User Guide
December 2008 Prepared For:

ICG08-2292-2-36 Mass Mining Technology Project
Prepared By:
Matthew Pierce
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
REBOP Version 3.1 User Guide i
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................. I

INTRODUCTION TO REBOP ....................................................................................................................... 1
RELEASE NOTES ........................................................................................................................................ 2
VERSION 3.1 ................................................................................................................................................. 2
Support .................................................................................................................................................. 2
Installation ............................................................................................................................................ 2
System Requirements ............................................................................................................................ 2
Version 3.1: Changes from Release 2.3 ................................................................................................. 3
OVERVIEW: REBOP ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................. 6
SEQUENTIAL MODELING .................................................................................................................................. 6
ABOUT REBOP DATA FILES.............................................................................................................................. 7
REBOP PROJECT FILES .................................................................................................................................... 8
REBOP INTERFACE .................................................................................................................................... 8
DATA VIEW AND GRAPHIC VIEW ........................................................................................................................ 8
Interaction Between the DATA VIEW and the GRAPHIC VIEW .............................................................. 9
Using the DATA VIEW to Control Plotting/Editing/Viewing/Exporting ................................................. 9
MENUS AND TOOLBARS ................................................................................................................................. 10
OTHER INTERFACE ELEMENTS.......................................................................................................................... 13
MODEL INPUTS ...................................................................................................................................... 13
BLOCK MODEL ............................................................................................................................................. 13
Data File Format ................................................................................................................................. 13
Properties ............................................................................................................................................ 14
Tools .................................................................................................................................................... 16
Plot Items ............................................................................................................................................ 18
DRAWPOINTS............................................................................................................................................... 18
Data File Format ................................................................................................................................. 18
Properties ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Tools .................................................................................................................................................... 19
Plot Items ............................................................................................................................................ 20
DRAWBELLS ................................................................................................................................................. 20
Properties ............................................................................................................................................ 20
Drawbell Definition Via Data File ........................................................................................................ 22
Drawbell Definition Via Drawpoint Tool ............................................................................................. 22
DRAW SCHEDULE.......................................................................................................................................... 23
Data File Format ................................................................................................................................. 23
Tools .................................................................................................................................................... 24
Plot Items ............................................................................................................................................ 24
TRACER MARKERS......................................................................................................................................... 25
Data File Format ................................................................................................................................. 25
Properties ............................................................................................................................................ 26
SOLVING ................................................................................................................................................ 26
SETTING SOLUTION PROPERTIES ...................................................................................................................... 26
Resolution ........................................................................................................................................... 27
Mechanisms ........................................................................................................................................ 27
Other ................................................................................................................................................... 28
REBOP Version 3.1 User Guide ii
SETTING SOLUTION PERIOD ............................................................................................................................ 28

EXECUTING .................................................................................................................................................. 29
INTERROGATING THE MODEL ................................................................................................................ 30
IMZS ......................................................................................................................................................... 30
Plotting Options .................................................................................................................................. 31
Export Options .................................................................................................................................... 31
CAVE PROPERTIES ......................................................................................................................................... 31
Defining a Plane .................................................................................................................................. 31
Contouring Properties ......................................................................................................................... 33
MATERIAL MOVEMENT.................................................................................................................................. 34
IEZS ........................................................................................................................................................... 35
Export Options .................................................................................................................................... 36
DRAWPOINT-BASED EXTRACTION PLOTTING AND REPORTING ............................................................................... 36
Export Options .................................................................................................................................... 37
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 38
TUTORIALS ............................................................................................................................................. 40
EXAMPLE #1: BASIC ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................................ 40
EXAMPLE #2: FINES MIGRATION ..................................................................................................................... 44
EXAMPLE #3: CAVE LIMITS ............................................................................................................................. 46
EXAMPLE #4: CAVE STRESSES ......................................................................................................................... 48
EXAMPLE #5: SECONDARY FRAGMENTATION ..................................................................................................... 50
APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................................ 1
IMZ SHAPE ................................................................................................................................................... 1
SECONDARY FRAGMENTATION .......................................................................................................................... 3
CAVE STRESSES .............................................................................................................................................. 5
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................. 6
REBOP Version 3.1 User Guide 1
Introduction to REBOP
Welcome to Version 3.1 of REBOP. We have improved the existing flow logic, added new
features and improved the speed and efficiency of the code (see the Release Notes for
details). There also is new and improved documentation, complete with examples, to help
you get the most out of REBOP.
REBOP is a numerical modeling tool that provides rapid analysis of the movement and
extraction of fragmented rock under draw in mine operations that use block- or panel-caving
techniques. The primary output from a draw analysis includes time- or tonnage-based
histories of extracted ore grades (and other rock properties), plots of material distribution
above the drawpoints and three-dimensional visualization of the fundamental volumes
associated with each drawpoint: Isolated Movement Zones (IMZs) and Isolated Extraction
Zones (IEZs).
REBOP was designed to be easy to use and does not require the user to be an expert in the
mechanics of flow. However, some background information on selected key mechanisms is
provided in this manual to assist the user in interpreting simulation results. A complete
description of the REBOP flow model can be found in Pierce (2009), A Model for Gravity
Flow in Block Caving Mines.
This document provides all the information necessary to run a complete analysis in REBOP.
The following sections are included.
Release Notes Information about installing REBOP, support contact
information, system requirements and a summary of
changes since Version 2.3.
Overview A quick description of the REBOP approach to
analysis of caving operations and file types.
REBOP Interface A description of what you'll see on-screen (and how
it works) when using REBOP.
Model Inputs A description of the data file format and required
properties for the BLOCK MODEL, DRAWPOINTS,
and DRAW SCHEDULE, as well as tools for
manipulation and visualization.
Solving Setting resolution parameters, activating mechanisms
and performing calculations.
Interrogating the A summary of outputs available in REBOP, and
Model tools for analyzing draw and recovery.
Tutorials Example files (included with the REBOP
installation) that illustrate a complete analysis and
some of the new features available in Version 3.1.
Release Notes
Version 3.1
Support
We encourage your feedback, especially if you notice any bugs or have suggestions for
improvements. For support, please contact Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.:
111 Third Avenue South, Suite 450

Minneapolis, MN 55401
Phone: (612) 371-4711
Fax: (612) 371-4717
email: rebop@itascacg.com
web: www.itascacg.com
Installation
REBOP can be installed and registered via the password-protected download page located at
www.itascacg.com/rebop. If you are unable to access to the download page, please contact
Itasca at rebop@itascacg.com.
System Requirements
REBOP and its implementation of the 1.6 version of Java require the following:
JRE 1.6.0 or later (supplied with the installation),

Windows XP, Windows XP x64, Windows Vista (32-bit or 64-bit),
Support for either OpenGL 1.3 or DirectX 9.0.
Graphics: In most cases, crashes at start-up after installation are graphics-related. The
(default) OpenGL renderer of Java 3D requires OpenGL 1.3 or later. OpenGL is
implemented on your graphics card. The REBOP console reports the OpenGL version found
at start-up. If your version is insufficient, an update to your graphics card driver (available
from your graphics card manufacturer) may resolve the problem. Please see the
Troubleshooting Graphics section at www.itascacg.com/rebop for more information.
Memory: The amount of memory required to run REBOP depends on the number of
drawpoints, the length of the draw schedule, and the desired resolution. In addition, the
graphical interface requires memory for visualization. If large cave-scale analyses involving
many years of production from several hundred (or more) drawpoints are to be conducted,
the several GB of RAM needed for the model will require a 64-bit OS. Memory made
available to REBOP is set by the user. This is done by altering the run.bat file that starts
REBOP. In that file, change the argument -Xmx1000m (which specifies an allocation of
1000 MB = 1 GB) to a higher number. The OS will require approximately 512 MB
(depending on which operating system) that cannot be allocated to REBOP.
Release History
REBOP was initially developed between 1997 and 2000 through funding provided by the
International Caving Study (ICS):
Version 1.0: Released in October 2000 at Brisbane Australia. Features: Base logic required
to emulate IMZ growth, interaction and associated material extraction in block and panel
caving; initial material distribution specified via user-defined layers; IMZ shape controlled
through numerical coefficients; visualization of IMZ limits and markers in 2D; graphing of
drawpoint grade-tonnage curves.
REBOP was completely redesigned between 2001 and 2004 through funding provided by the
International Caving Study II (ICSII):
Version 2.0: Released in March 2003 at Gallivare Sweden. New features: New graphical user
interface for better visualization and ease-of-use; specification of ore grades and caved rock
properties through a block model; import functions for block model, drawpoints and draw
schedule; three-dimensional visualization of the block model, drawbells, IMZs and IEZs;
visualization of material properties, ore grades and material movements (displacement and
velocity) on multiple user-defined planes; graphing and export of drawpoint grade-tonnage
curves; detailed user guide with tutorials.
Version 2.2: Released in November 2003 at Perth Australia. New features: Shape of IEZs
calibrated to physical experiments (JKMRC) and numerical experiments (Itasca/De Beers);
new logic aimed at mimicking stress-driven interaction prior to IMZ contact, including
shared flow boundaries between drawpoints, plug flow between interacting drawpoints,
compaction of IMZs and lateral movement of material due to compaction (note that this logic
has since been abandoned); sublevel caving logic added.
Version 2.3: Released in August 2004 at Pucon Chile. New features: Flow behavior
controlled entirely by rock properties and calibrated to physical model results; fines
migration logic; global free surface rilling; linked to the Integrated Draw Control System
(IDCS); tracer markers added; cave limit logic; caved block model export.
The Mass Mining Technology (MMT) project provided further funding between 2005 and
2008 to improve solution efficiency, improve existing mechanisms and add new
mechanisms. These are described in more detail in the next section.
Version 3.1: Changes from Release 2.3

General Improvements
Many algorithms in REBOP were rewritten to improve the efficiency of solution.
Preliminary testing indicates that Version 3.1 is approximately 5-10 times faster than
Version 2.3, depending on the size of the problem, the features modeled, and the resolution
selected.
REBOP Version 3.1 is now operable on a 64-bit OS, which allows for essentially unlimited
memory allocation. REBOP 3.1 installations are provided for 32-bit and 64-bit systems.
Previous versions of REBOP had both block-caving and sublevel-caving logic. These two
methods no longer have shared architecture in the code. Separate versions are being
maintained for each method. Version 3.1 is for block-caving analysis; Version 2.4 is for
sublevel-caving analysis. A separate users manual is available for conducting sublevel-
caving analyses with Version 2.4
Version 3.1 contains new security logic that eliminates the need for hardware keys to run
REBOP.
A number of mechanisms have been added or improved since Version 2.3. A brief summary
of all improvements/additions is provided below. An in-depth summary is provided for some
mechanisms in the Appendix of this manual. A complete description of the REBOP flow
model can be found in Pierce (2009).
Improvements to Existing Logic

IMZ Shape Since Version 2.3, new physical experiments have been conducted to study
IMZ size and shape (Castro, 2006). These new results have been compared with the results
of similar PFC3D (Itasca, 2003) simulations conducted during ICSI and ICSII, the results of
other experiments available in the literature, the kinematic theory of Nedderman (1995), and
the empirical model of Laubscher (2000). The logic controlling IMZ shape in Version 3.1
has been improved and extended to be consistent with the new understanding of IMZ shape
that has emerged from this research. More detailed information on IMZ shape can be found
in the New Developments section of this manual, as well as in Pierce (2009).
Fines Migration The fines migration logic has been improved significantly by considering
both the mean and variance in percolation distance. In previous versions of REBOP, only
mean percolation distances were considered, and the potential for particles to travel longer
(and shorter) distances by diffusion was ignored (in the interest of simplicity). Experience
with the old logic suggests that fines entry into the drawpoint is delayed unrealistically when
only the mean percolation rate is considered. By accounting for the variance in percolation
distance (rather than just the mean), a wider and more realistic range of percolation distances
is represented now. The user may now activate or deactivate the fines migration logic.
Free-Surface Rilling The free-surface rilling logic has been revised completely to handle
a new cave-limit logic (described in the New Features section below). Now it is based on
the block model rather than the IMZs. This offers a much more uniform, rapid means to track
the free surface of the flowing material.
New Features
Secondary Fragmentation Logic has been added for estimating secondary fragmentation
via splitting and rounding inside the IMZs. The new logic employs the model for shearing-
induced secondary fragmentation developed by Bridgwater et al. (2003) from laboratory
testing. The calculations make use of the new stress logic, shear-strain calculations internal
to the IMZ, and a user-defined distribution of primary fragmentation and intact strength
(UCS) via the existing block model. The user can graph the minimum, mean, and maximum
fragment sizes exiting each drawpoint on a daily basis, and can export the size distributions
accumulated over each draw period. In addition, the user can contour the fragment size
distribution along user-defined planes through the cave.
Stress Logic Stress logic has been developed in REBOP that relies on a combination of
analytical solutions and relations derived from numerical analysis to predict the vertical and
horizontal stresses in the cave. The stress distribution is directly dependent on the shape of
the cave (as defined using the new cave-limit logic), the properties of the caved rock and
cave periphery, the drawpoint spacing, and the draw strategy. The user can plot the
distribution of vertical and horizontal stresses throughout the cave at any point in a REBOP
simulation. In addition, a facility has been provided to indicate where there is potential for
stress-driven flow and movement of the stagnant zone material (i.e., interactive draw prior to
IMZ overlap).
Multiple Level Draw REBOP can now accept drawpoints at any elevation, allowing for
simulation of blocks undercut at different elevations or drawpoints within a single block that
lie at different elevations (e.g., rim drawpoints on the undercut level). A set of example input
files and guidelines also have been developed to illustrate how this new logic might be used
to simulate inclined caving.
Caving Limits The user may specify the limits of the caved zone as a function of time.
These could be assumed or derived from caving prediction models. The evolving cave limits
are set in REBOP by assigning a date stamp to each block in the block model. A block can be
mobilized only when the REBOP simulation has reached the date specified for the block. By
releasing groups of blocks at specific time periods, the cave advance can be modeled at any
rate with reasonable accuracy. If this caving rate is low relative to the draw rates specified in
REBOP, then an air gap can develop beneath the cave back, and rilling can occur. When the
next stage of cave advance is reached (i.e., when the blocks above reach their date stamp),
the newly caved sections bulk and translate downward automatically through the air gap.
Overview: REBOP Analysis

Basic Concept
REBOP simulates flow within a block or panel cave by tracking the growth of Isolated
Movement Zones (IMZs) associated with each drawpoint. The IMZ encompasses all material
that moves as a result of draw from the drawpoint. An IMZ is REBOP is comprised of a
number of discrete layers stacked above the drawpoint. The volume of an IMZ is tracked in
REBOP by balancing the incremental mass drawn from the drawpoint with the mass
produced by a bulking of material at the periphery of the IMZ. The amount of bulking is
controlled at the local level by the average initial and maximum porosities of material at the
IMZ periphery as specified in the block model. The relative rate of upward and lateral
growth (which controls IMZ shape) is controlled by the fragmentation and friction angle of
material at the IMZ periphery as specified in the block model. An array of markers (initially
at a fixed spacing in 3D) is used to track the movement of material internal to the IMZ and
the material extracted from the drawpoint. The Isolated Extraction Zone (IEZ) can be
visualized by plotting the original locations of markers extracted from the drawpoint. The
properties and relative flow rates of markers can change throughout the simulation as a result
of various mechanisms, including fines migration, secondary fragmentation and free surface
rilling. These changes, as well as local rather than global enforcement of mass balance, can
result in IMZs that deviate from the ideal shape generally observed in physical or numerical
models. The following plot illustrates the basic components of a REBOP simulation (i.e.
IMZs, IEZs, markers, and blocks) as discussed above:
Sequential Modeling
There are four stages in a REBOP analysis: (1) BLOCK MODEL, (2) DRAWPOINTS, (3)
DRAW SCHEDULE, and (4) SOLVE. REBOP uses a sequential modeling process; each stage of
the process is disabled in the user interface until the stage preceding it contains data. On
start-up, all stages are inactive. First the user must create a new project. Once a project has
been created, the BLOCK MODEL stage is active, and data may be imported/added to create
the block model. In each stage, data may be changed or added once a data file has been
imported. However, the initial data in each stage must be provided via a data file. Note that
while the data files may be imported individually within each stage, it will be easiest, in most
cases, to specify all the data files for a project at the outset using the N EW tool.
About REBOP Data Files

In the first three stages, the user creates a BLOCK MODEL, DRAWPOINTS, and a DRAW
SCHEDULE by importing an existing data file. Each data file must conform to a specific
format or the import will fail. REBOP calculations are performed at the SOLVE stage. The
user may solve for any discrete increment of time or solve for the entirety of the draw
schedule. Calculation results provide the user a range of data that includes IMZ and IEZ
limits, movement of caved material in the IMZ displayed as vectors, contours of grade and
other caved rock properties, and histories of tonnage, grade and other caved rock properties
from each drawpoint.
The properly formed data files required by the BLOCK MODEL, DRAWPOINTS, and DRAW
SCHEDULE stages are tab-delimited tables that have been created prior to beginning a
REBOP project. The use of a spreadsheet program for creating/editing data files (Microsoft
Excel, for instance) is recommended. Data is more easily read and correctly preserved when
presented in a table (columnar) structure. Errors are easier to identify as well. Tab-delimited
text files are readily exported from most spreadsheet programs.
For each type of data file, an exact columnar structure is expected. Although user-specified
column titles are acceptable within the data file, they will not be used as the column headings
of REBOP. (The exception is the Ore Grade column(s) in a user's BLOCK MODEL. These
may vary from project to project, so REBOP adopts the user-specified titles it finds for these
columns.)
Errors reported during data file import require review of the data file to find the error.
REBOP allows import of empty data fields as long as the data table is maintained in the
proper structure. Users should review data files for correct and complete information prior to
importing into REBOP. The proper format for the input data files is described in the Model
Inputs section below.
REBOP Project Files

The files REBOP imports/creates/saves as part of a project are described below.
.prj The REBOP project file, which stores interface project settings and
tracks linked SAV files.
.sav REBOP data containing the imported project data as well as any
solution data. Note the data in a SAV file and the source import files
are not linked; changes made to data once imported to REBOP will not
be made to the corresponding import files.
.txt Tab-delimited text file(s) used for import/export of BLOCK MODEL,
DRAWPOINTS, and DRAW SCHEDULE; also used for exported SOLVE
data.
.out Tracer marker position and extraction output data, contained in two
separate files. These files are output automatically to the project folder
after completion of a SOLVE period; they contain position and
extraction data for each day and trace marker, respectively, since the
start of draw.
On start-up, all stages in REBOP are disabled. To begin modeling, the user may create a new
project using the N EW tool or O PEN an existing model. This behavior prevents SAV files from
being orphaned from the project (PRJ) file. When a new project is created, an initial SAV
file also is created and given a default name that prefixes the project name to the base
_initial.sav. Each time the S AVE tool is used, project data are saved to the current SAV file.
Using the S A V E A S ... tool causes a new SAV file to be created. This facility provides a means
to restore a model to an earlier state quickly by using the R ESTORE MODEL tool.
REBOP Interface
Data View and Graphic View
The left side of the main work area in REBOP is the Data View. In the BLOCK MODEL,
DRAWPOINTS, and DRAW SCHEDULE stages, it displays imported data in list form. Items
may be selected and edited from the Data View. In the SOLVE stage, the Data View lists
drawpoints and extraction data (cumulative mass extracted, mass extracted for the last day of
the specified solution period, and grade(s) tonnage).
The right side of the main work area in REBOP is the Graphic View. Two and three-
dimensional displays of model data are presented in this window. For each stage, there is a
Base View window that allows manipulation of the visual representation of the model using
the Graphic View Toolbar. In the DRAW SCHEDULE and SOLVE stages user-specified views
may be added and removed as tabbed windows within the Graphic View.
It is not possible to select model elements in the Graphic View. Editing of model data is
limited to the facilities available in the Data View.
Interaction Between the DATA VIEW and the GRAPHIC VIEW

There is a one-way control relationship going from the Data View to the Graphic View.
Changes made to the data in the Data View are reflected in the Graphic View, but plotted data
may not be selected or edited from within the Graphic View. Right-clicking the mouse on a
selected item or items in the Data View will present a pop-up menu that lists choices for
reviewing and editing data as well as manipulating the plotted contents of the Graphic View.
Using the DATA VIEW to Control Plotting/Editing/Viewing/Exporting

The Data View can be used to select a subset of items for editing/plotting data or
viewing/exporting results. The method for selecting one or more data items in the Data View
is the same for all stages.
Selecting You may select

a single data item, single click on an item from the list.
multiple, contiguous items, select the upper- (or lower-) bound item from
the list, hold down the shift key and select the lower- (or upper-) bound
item. The range of items between the bounds is selected
multiple, non-contiguous items: Select an item; hold down the control
key while selecting additional items to add them to the set
Editing: Data have been imported into REBOP may be edited prior to solving by right-
clicking on selected items. A dialog box will appear that lists the current editable properties
for that item in a set of edit boxes. Changing the value(s) that appear in the edit boxes will
change the properties for that item. If multiple items are selected, no data appear in the edit
boxes. Entering a value in one or more of the edit boxes in this case will set the value(s) for
all items in the selected set.
Plotting When one or more items are selected in the Data View, the Graphic View may be
toggled to display only the selected item(s) by right-clicking on the selection. In the BLOCK
MODEL, DRAWPOINTS, and SOLVE stages, the pop-up menu view options are P LOT S ELECTED
and P LOT A LL . In the DRAW SCHEDULE stage, the only viewing option is P LOT S ELECTED ,
which, when used, adds a new tabbed window with the selected data item(s) to the current
set of views. In the DRAW SCHEDULE stage, the Base View window always contains A LL
items, so there is no need for a P LOT A LL option.
Viewing/Exporting Results In the SOLVE Stage, drawpoint-specific results may be

displayed in a dialog box or exported to a file by selecting one or more DRAWPOINTS, right-
clicking and choosing one of the options displayed. These options are discussed in more
detail in the section Interrogating the ModelExporting Data.
Menus and Toolbars

The main menu appears immediately below the title bar. It is the one component of the
interface whose display may not be turned off (see View menu for more information).
The third menu item from the left is the Context menu; this menu always displays the name
(and offers the tools) of the current modeling stage. The fourth menu item from the left is the
Graphic Tools menu; this menu always appears, but the roster of tools available from the
menu changes with each modeling stage. Both menus have corresponding toolbars that
exactly duplicate the tools that appear on the menus. If the display of the toolbars is toggled
off, all tools available from them still may be accessed from the menus.
Main Project Operations (Creating, Opening, Saving, etc.)

These tools are available from the File menu. The Standard toolbar also provides a subset of
these tools. The following tools are available:
Displaying/Hiding Windows and Toolbars

These tools are available from the View menu. This is the only menu that appears on the main
menu that does not have a toolbar associated with it. Using the Window submenu allows the
user to toggle on/off display of the Stage Title, the REBOP Bar, the Data View, and the
Graphic View. Using the Toolbars submenu allows the user to toggle on/off display of the
Standard, Context, and Graphic View toolbars.
Context Tools
These tools are so named because they change as the user moves from one modeling stage to
the next. The tools available or appropriate to the active stage are accessed through the menu
or toolbar the tools that appear on the menu and the toolbar are identical. The available
tools are discussed in detail in the sections relative to each stage.
Graphic Tools
The listing below describes all the Graphic View tools. In each stage, the tools that appear on
the menu and the toolbar are identical. The menu and toolbar are dynamic, changing with
each stage to provide only the tools necessary for that stage. Not every tool shown below
will appear in every stage:
Other Interface Elements

The name of the current state appears across the combined width of the Data View and the
Graphic View, and indicates the current modeling stage.
The REBOP Bar is comprised of a set of tabbed panes on the left-hand side that facilitate
movement from one modeling stage to the next. It also contains a tab for the Console
window.
The Title Bar contains the title (REBOP) of the main window in which the program runs.
Model Inputs
Block Model
Data File Format
The block model input file must be in the form of a tab-delimited table. The file
bc_bm_v300_ex1.txt is included as part of the REBOP installation and can be found in the
examples program subfolder. The file is best viewed using a spreadsheet program. As
shown in the figure below, there are three header lines in the file, followed by the block
properties:
The first header identifies the file as a block model and must appear exactly as it appears
above i.e., Delimiter: r; .
The second header contains the block property names. The property columns must occur in
the exact order as shown below. You may use any column headings you wish in your data
file; however, only the labels for the ore grades will be used as column headings in REBOP.
All other columns will use the property names shown above. The file may contain any
number (N) of ore grades; however, there must be at least one grade specified, it must be in
the sixth column, and all succeeding grades must be adjacent (i.e., the ore grades are listed in
column 6 to column 6+N).
The third line of the data file contains units for columns in the data file. These units are not
used by REBOP for calculation purposes and are provided as a reference for the user only.
REBOP assumes that all grades are provided as a percentage by mass and that friction
angle is given in degrees. Any system of units may be used for the remaining quantities, but it
is up to the user to ensure consistency among the various quantities. The following table,
reproduced from the FLAC Version 5.0 Manual (Itasca, 2005) provides examples of
consistent units:
The succeeding lines of the data file are occupied by the block data. The number of blocks
imported to REBOP will have a direct impact on the memory requirements.
Properties
Easting, Northing, Elevation Position of the block center. All blocks must be aligned with
the coordinate directions. The size of the block can be different in each of the coordinate
directions (e.g., blocks 10 m x 15 m x 20 m are allowed), but all blocks must be the same
size.
CavePeriod The Period number in the draw schedule at which the block is capable of
flowing. The block is made available for flow at the start of the specified Period. If a block
is to be made available for flow from the start of the simulation, this number should be set to
1. If a block is never expected to flow (i.e., it lies outside the cave limits), CavePeriod should
be set to a large number (larger than the number of Periods to be simulated). The choice of
whether to specify cave limits in a simulation through the CavePeriod property depends on
two factors: (1) whether cave stalling and associated free-surface development and rilling is
to be simulated; and (2) whether cave stresses are of interest to the user. Cave stresses are
calculated for reference only and, in Version 3.1, presently do not impact flow or
fragmentation. (Note that stresses internal to the IMZ are estimated for secondary
fragmentation calculations in Version 3.1, but these are independent of the cave stress
calculations). If cave stalling is not to be simulated but cave stresses are of interest, the user
should establish the lateral limits of the cave with the CavePeriod settings. If neither cave
stalling nor cave stresses is of interest, the user is advised to set CavePeriod = 1 in all blocks.
BlockID A unique integer ID for the block. This is used for internal tracking and for
reporting which blocks have material reporting to each drawpoint (see the section
Analyzing Results for details on block-extraction reporting).
Grade1 Grade (or other property) of the block. A unique name can be specified in place
of Grade1.
Grade2.GradeN Optional additional grades or user-defined properties.
SolidsDen Specific gravity (or true solids density) of the block material.
InSituPor In-situ porosity of the block material. This is the porosity that the block
material exhibits before it starts flowing. Porosity, n, is related to the void volume, Vv, and
the total volume, Vt, as follows: n Vv / Vt . It also is related to the in-situ density,
InSituDen, and solids density, SolidsDen, as follows: n=1-SolidsDen/InSituDen. Therefore,
it should be set to zero in blocks that have not been caved. Blocks that lie within previously
caved ground (e.g., in an overlying lift) are likely to have a porosity that is greater than zero
(because it was previously flowing) but less than the maximum porosity inside the IMZs
(MaxPor, described below), because some compaction likely will have occurred since it was
caved.
MaxPor Maximum porosity of the block material. This is the porosity that the block
material exhibits once it has dilated fully (bulked) during flow (i.e., it is the porosity inside
the IMZs. Porosity, n, can be calculated as follows: n = B / (1 + B), where B is the bulking
factor. The bulking factor is calculated by considering that an in-situ volume, V, becomes a
volume of V (1 + B) on bulking. The denominator in this equation (1 + B) also is known as
the swell factor, S. MaxPor should not be estimated from the bulking factor, as it is
calculated traditionally. This is because the bulking factor is calculated normally for the
cave as a whole by combining estimates of the cave size with the mass drawn. A cave
generally is comprised of both high-porosity flowing regions (IMZs) and lower-porosity
stagnant regions. As a result, the bulking factor represents an average of these two and
depends on the proportion of the cave that is flowing and stagnant. In REBOP, the porosity
of the stagnant regions is established by the InSituPor block property, and the porosity of the
flowing regions is established with MaxPor block property. Depending on how cave draw is
simulated in REBOP, these two will combine to result in an overall cave porosity that is
somewhere between InSituPor and MaxPor, and is more comparable to traditional bulking
factors. (Note that there is presently no facility for calculating overall cave porosity or
bulking factor in REBOP, but this could be added in the future to permit comparison with
mine-based bulking factor calculations.) Theoretically, MaxPor could be calculated by
combining the estimate of IMZ size with the mass drawn from an isolated drawpoint. This is
difficult (if not impossible) to achieve in practice, however; thus, it usually is estimated from
the results of flow experiments or simulations. The results of such studies conducted during
ICSII and MMT suggest that MaxPor is generally in the range 0.45-0.55.
FricAng Friction angle of the block material. This is the friction angle that the caved rock
exhibits inside the IMZ at its maximum porosity. FricAng controls three different behaviors
in REBOP: (1) the minimum angle that the base of the IMZ makes with the horizontal,
calculated as 45+FricAng/2 (A large FricAng will result in a steep base to the IMZ.); (2)
the angle of repose at the free surface, calculated as 12+FricAng/2 (A large FricAng will
result in a steep angle of repose.); and (3) the stresses inside the IMZ, calculated in
proportion to 1/FricAng. A large FricAng will result in lower stresses inside the IMZ.
Theoretically, FricAng could be calculated by observing rill angles in the drawpoint, but this
is difficult to achieve in practice. The results of shear box and triaxial tests conducted in
MMT and elsewhere on a variety of different rock materials suggest that FricAng is
generally in the range 35-50o.
MeanDia Mean diameter of the primary fragmentation expected in the block (assuming a
Gaussian distribution). When a marker is created in REBOP to track flow of caved material,
it assigned a fragment diameter that is sampled randomly from the Gaussian distribution of
sizes defined by MeanDia and SDDia (described below). Mean fragment diameter
(calculated as the average by mass of all markers at a given level inside the IMZ) controls
three main behaviors in REBOP: (1) IMZ width, proportional to mean diameter inside the
IMZ (A large mean diameter will result in a wider IMZ.); (2) the shear annulus at the
periphery of the IMZ, which controls the internal velocity profile, always exhibiting a width
that is 10 times the mean diameter (A large mean diameter will result in a more non-uniform
velocity profile inside the IMZ.); and (3) rock-block strength, RBS, which is used for
secondary fragmentation calculations, estimated from the user-defined core strength (UCS,
described below) and the fragment diameter, d, using the following relation of Hoek and
Brown (1980): RBS UCS 50 / d . Larger fragments will exhibit a lower strength and a
0.18
higher susceptibility to secondary fragmentation (rounding and splitting) inside the IMZ. The
significance of these factors makes MeanDia (and SDDia) one of the most important inputs
to REBOP.
SDDia Standard deviation in the diameter of the primary fragmentation expected in the
block. When a marker is created in REBOP to track flow of caved material, it assigned a
fragment diameter that is sampled randomly from the Gaussian distribution of sizes defined
by MeanDia (described above) and SDDia. SDDia should be less than or equal to half of
MeanDia to prevent truncation at the lower end of the distribution. A minimum diameter
equal to 0.1% of the unit length is enforced in REBOP 3.1. If SDDia is set to zero, a uniform
fragment size equal to MeanDia is assumed. SDDia impacts flow calculations in two
significant ways: (1) a non-zero SDDia will result in a wider range of rock block strengths,
which can impact secondary fragmentation; and (2) a non-zero SDDia will result in a wider
range of fragment sizes, which can impact fines migration. It is also possible for fines to be
generated during secondary fragmentation, however; thus, even were SDDia set to zero (and
all fragments were to have an initial diameter equal to MeanDia), fines generation and
migration would occur if this logic is turned on.
UCS Unconfined compressive strength of the intact block material. The UCS specified
should correspond to that of a cylindrical core sample with a standard 5-cm diameter. The
strength of the caved rock fragments is scaled from this value for secondary fragmentation
calculations.
Tools
The following tools are available from the Context menu and associated toolbar when the
BLOCK MODEL stage is active:
Plot Items
The dialog below is called when the user selects the P LOT I TEMS tool, , on the BLOCK
MODEL Context toolbar/menu. The switches are used to display/hide plot elements in the
Graphic View.
Drawpoints
Data File Format
The drawpoint input file must be in the form of a tab-delimited table. The file
bc_dp_v300_ex1.txt is included as part of the REBOP installation and can be found in the
examples program subfolder. The file is best viewed and edited using a spreadsheet
program. As shown in the figure below, the first line contains the column headers. The
columns must occur in the exact order shown. The succeeding lines of the data file are
occupied by the drawpoint data.
Properties
DPName A unique name for the drawpoint.
Easting, Northing, Elevation Position of the drawpoint, which is defined as a point on the
floor of the draw drift immediately below the brow (2-drawpoint drawbell) or the center of
the drawbell on the floor (1-drawpoint drawbell). All drawpoints must lie within the limits of
the block model specified, but they do not need to be positioned relative to the blocks in any
particular way. Drawpoints do not need to be at the same elevation (as in previous versions
of REBOP).
DBID A unique number identifying the drawbell to which the drawpoint belongs. Two
drawpoints will have the same DBID if they belong to the same drawbell.
DBType A name that identifies the type of drawbell to which the drawpoint belongs. Two
drawpoints will have the same DBType if they belong to the same drawbell. Each drawbell
can be of the same type or of a different type. A drawbell type is defined its dimensions as
well as the number of drawpoints associated with it, which is either one (conical drawbell) or
two (rectangular drawbell).
Tools
BLOCK MODEL stage is active:
Plot Items
The dialog below is called when the user selects the P LOT I TEMS tool, , on the
DRAWPOINTS Context toolbar/menu. The switches are used to display/hide plot elements in
the Graphic View.
Drawbells
Drawbell types can be imported into REBOP using a separate input file, or they can be
defined within the Drawpoint Stage using the D EFINE D RAWBELL T YPE tool . These options
are discussed separately below, following a summary of the drawbell properties.
Properties
There are two types of drawbells in block caving: conical, and rectangular. Each has a
distinct set of properties necessary for definition, as shown below. In REBOP Version 3.1,
the only drawbell properties that affect IMZ growth and development are the draw-drift
width and height. Future versions may restrict flow within the drawbell according to the
specified geometry.
BellName is a unique identifier for the drawbell type.
NumDP is number of drawpoints: for a conical drawbell, this must be one; for a rectangular
drawbell, this must be two.
DDWidth is the draw-drift width.
DDHeight is the draw-drift height.
BellHeight is the drawbell height.
SideAngle is the wall angle (conical) or sidewall angle (rectangular).
EndAngle is the end wall angle (rectangular); it is not used for conical drawbells.
Drawbell Definition Via Data File

The input file must be in the form of a tab-delimited table. The file bc_db_v300_ex1.txt is
included as part of the REBOP installation and can be found in the examples program
subfolder. As shown in the figure below, the first line contains the column headers. The
columns must occur in the exact order shown. The succeeding lines of the data file are
occupied by the drawbell properties discussed above.
Drawbell Definition Via Drawpoint Tool

Drawbell types also may be defined using the D EFINE D RAWBELL T YPE tool , on the
DRAWPOINTS Context menu/toolbar. This brings up the Define Drawbell Type dialog, shown
below, which can be used to create new drawbell types and edit existing drawbell types.
The List of Drawbells panel provides a list of all existing drawbell types specified in the
project. Selecting a drawbell type from the list causes read-only display of that type's
parameters in the Parameters area. Use the E DIT tool to alter the properties of a selected
drawbell.
A DD O NE -DP B ELL and A DD T WO -DP B ELL tools will add a new drawbell of the specified type
to the list; use the E DIT tool to provide a name and properties for the newly created drawbell.
C OPY creates a new drawbell that is identical to the currently selected drawbell when the tool
is used; use the E DIT tool to change the name and properties for the newly created drawbell.
D ELETE removes the currently selected drawbell from the list (and the project).
E XPORT allows the entire list of drawbell types to be exported to a tab-delimited text file.
This file may be imported to other projects using this dialog. Also, a drawbell-type file may
be created from scratch and imported. The structure of a drawbell type file is shown above.
Draw Schedule
Data File Format
DRAW SCHEDULE input files must be in the form of a tab-delimited table. The file
bc_ds_v300_ex1.txt is included as part of the REBOP installation and can be found in the
examples program subfolder. The file is best viewed and edited using a spreadsheet
program.
As shown in the figure below, the first column contains the drawpoint names. Each
succeeding column provides draw information for individual draw periods.
Specifying Draw-Period Names and Lengths

The length of the draw period and the period name are established by the column header.
There are three different formats accepted for this header:
Integer This number will be taken as both the period name and period length (in days).
String with full or partial month name The string will be taken as the period name, and
the month name will be used to establish the period length in days (e.g., Sept-08 would
result in a period length of 30 days).
PeriodName%PeriodLength By using the separator character %, the user can specify both
the period name and period length (in days) e.g., Period1%20 would result in a period
name of Period1 and a period length of 20 days.
Specifying Draw Masses

The numbers in each column represent the mass to be drawn from the corresponding
drawpoint during that period. The mass units should be consistent with the units employed
for the SolidsDen property in the block model file. REBOP divides the total mass for the
period by the period length to work out a daily tonnage. REBOP updates marker locations on
a daily basis; thus, the daily tonnage that results from this calculation should be within
reason. If an unrealistically large draw mass is specified for a drawpoint marker (relative to
the period length), updates will not be frequent enough to track material movements in the
IMZ accurately.
Importing Multiple Draw Schedules

In previous versions of REBOP, it was not possible to amend the draw schedule once the
simulation started. In Version 3.1, the user may import new draw periods at any time. When
additional draw schedules are imported, REBOP will delete any undrawn periods from the
existing schedule and append the new draw periods. If an existing draw period is drawn only
partially, it will be completed before the remaining (new) draw periods are drawn.
Tools
DRAW SCHEDULE stage is active:
Plot Items
There is a base (permanent) plot in the Graphic View that plots schedule data for all
drawpoints. With the P LOTS tool , additional plots can be created and displayed as tabbed
panes. These plots may be created, modified, and deleted using the sub-sections of the P LOTS
tool.
The dialogs below are available from the P LOT I TEM S WITCHES tool , on the DRAWPOINTS
Context toolbar/menu. The switches are used to display/hide/alter plot elements in the
Graphic View.
Tracer Markers
Tracer markers are optional and may be added to a block cave model in REBOP to represent
markers that will be placed in situ or to track the movement of material from a specific
location. Trace markers differ from the regular markers automatically generated within
REBOP for tracking material movement. Tracer markers have zero mass and do not carry
any information on grade or material properties.
At the end of each solve period, the extraction status and position of tracer markers are
output to two separate files in the project folder. The filenames consist of the project file
name appended with _trace.out (extraction status) and _trace_pos.out (position). If any
trace markers have been extracted, the extraction status data reported in the _trace.out file
includes name, original position, drawpoint through which the marker was extracted, the
cumulative mass extracted from the drawpoint when the tracer marker extracted and the
solve day on which the tracer marker was extracted. The x-, y-, and z- positions of all tracer
markers at the end of each solve day is reported in the _trace_pos.out file.
The original position of trace markers may be visualized in the DRAWPOINTS Graphic View
and the current position and path may be visualized in the SOLVE Graphic View.
Data File Format

The I MPORT tool on the DRAWPOINTS Context toolbar may used to create tracer markers from
an existing data file. The file also may be specified, along with the other input files, when a
new project is created. The file bc_tm_v300_ex1.txt is included as part of the REBOP
installation and can be found in the examples program subfolder. As shown below, the
input file conforms to the following format:
Properties
MName is a unique name for the tracer marker. The file may contain an unlimited number of
tracer markers, but each marker must be uniquely identified.
Easting, Northing, Elevation is the initial location of the marker.
Solving
Once the three main input files (block model, drawpoints and draw schedule) have
been imported and the drawbell geometries have been defined (either with an input file or by
using the D EFINE D RAWBELL T YPE in the DRAWPOINTS stage), the user is ready to move to the
SOLVE stage to begin the draw simulation.
Prior to the start of a new simulation, the user should use the S OLUTION P ROPERTIES and
S OLUTION P ERIOD tools to establish the controls for the simulation.
Setting Solution Properties

When the S OLUTION P ROPERTIES tool is selected the following dialog appears:
The three tabs correspond to the three main categories of solution property available to the
user: Resolution, Mechanisms and Other. These are described in more detail below.
Resolution
The Resolution settings control how finely the IMZ surface is discretized into disk-shaped
layers and the block material into markers. Three different predefined settings are
provided: Fine, Medium and Coarse. For most mine-scale problems, it is possible to
improve solution speed and reduce memory requirements by decreasing the resolution from
Medium (default setting) to Coarse. The layer thickness and marker spacing, which are
multiples of the block height, can be set even coarser in some cases using the Manual option.
Regardless of the resolution settings selected, the user should multiply the specified marker
spacing and layer thickness by the block height and compare these dimensions to the draw
width. Experience suggests that the marker spacing should not exceed the draw width or
block height (whichever is smaller), and the layer thickness should not exceed twice the
draw width.
For large problems involving hundreds of drawpoints over many years (in which the material
extracted per period is of greater interest than the material extracted per day), it is
recommended to start with the coarsest resolution possible to minimize solution times and
memory requirements. For smaller problems involving only a few drawpoints, or where the
daily movements and extractions are relevant, a more precise result can be achieved by
setting the resolution to finer levels.
Mechanisms
There are three mechanisms that can be activated from this tab: fines migration, stress
calculations and secondary fragmentation.
Fines Migration When the Allow Fines Migration box is checked, markers can move at
different rates through the IMZ depending on the diameter of caved rock they represent.
Each marker represents a volume of caved rock of a specific fragment diameter that is
established at the start of flow through random sampling of the Gaussian distribution defined
by the MeanDia and SDDia properties of the parent block (see Model Inputs Block
Model Properties). A marker can migrate preferentially downward through an IMZ if
(1) it has a diameter smaller than the mean diameter of all markers in the same IMZ slice,
and (2) it resides in the shearing zone of an IMZ. The migration distance increases as the
fragment size decreases (relative to the mean size at that level in the IMZ) and increases in
proportion with the shear strain inside the shearing zone. There is a random component to the
migration distance to account for the fact that percolating particles exhibit a range of
migration distances under a given size and shear strain. Note that activating the fines-
migration logic generally does not have an adverse effect on solution time or memory
requirements. For more information see Pierce (2009).
Cave Stresses When Perform Stress Calculations is selected, the user activates two
additional input fields that provide the information necessary for conducting stress
calculations in REBOP. The value entered into the Gravitational Acceleration field is used
to calculate the unit weight of the caved rock and must have units that are consistent with
those used in the block model (see Model Inputs Block Model for examples of
consistent units). The value entered in to the Friction Angle at the Block Model Boundary
field is used to estimate the stress arching that occurs into the walls of the cave wherever
flow intersects the block model boundary. This normally is used only if the walls of the cave
are expected to exhibit a lower friction angle than the caved rock itself (e.g., in the case
where the cave boundary is faulted and clay-filled). It also may be used to simulate the
effect of smooth walls on the stresses in a physical model. Note that activating the stress
logic generally does not have an adverse effect on solution time or memory requirements.
Additional background information on this mechanism is provided in the Appendix. A
complete description of the logic can be found in Pierce (2009) .
Secondary Fragmentation This option allows the user to simulate the rounding and
splitting that fragments can experience during draw and flow. This option becomes available
only when the Perform Stress Calculations check box is selected because the logic requires
knowledge of the Gravitational Acceleration field. When the logic is activated, the degree of
breakage experienced by markers (representing volumes of caved rock) moving through the
IMZs is estimated and the diameter is updated accordingly. The degree of breakage
experienced by a marker moving inside the IMZ is a function of the average stress inside the
IMZ (estimated via bin theory) relative to the strength of the fragments and the incremental
shear strain. The fragment strength is established from the UCS property of the parent block
and the current fragment size (see Model Inputs Block Model Properties). At
present, the logic makes use of the shearing attrition model developed by Bridgwater et al.
(2003) on the basis of laboratory experiments. This logic should be considered experimental
until it has been tested against in-situ case studies in which both primary and secondary
fragmentation have been documented. Note that REBOP 3.1 does not consider secondary
fragmentation that may result from compression in stagnant areas of the cave or from impact
when falling through an air gap or rilling down a free surface. Additional background
information on this mechanism is provided in the Appendix. A complete description of the
logic can be found in Pierce (2009).
Other
The only other setting available via the Solution Properties dialog is IMZ Property Update
Frequency. This setting established the frequency (in days) at which the average properties
around the outside perimeter of the IMZs are recalculated. For mine-scale problems in which
the initial porosity is zero, it is generally possible to improve solution speed by increasing
this value from 2 days (default) to 4 or 6 days, as IMZ growth will be relatively slow,
requiring less frequent updating of boundary properties.
Setting Solution Period

Once the Solution Properties have been established, the S OLUTION P ERIOD tool tool can be
selected to establish the setting for execution of the simulation. The following dialog box is
associated with the tool:
The first section indicates the Current Solution state of the simulation in terms of periods and
days solved, as well as the total number of periods and days that are contained in the current
schedule. This is updated if new draw periods are imported into REBOP. There is also a
button (activated once solving begins) that allows the user to reset the simulation and start
drawing from the start of the schedule.
The second section provides several options for controlling the Solution Period when the
E XECUTE tool is selected.
At the bottom of the dialog, there is an option to Autosave at the end of each period. If no
base name is given, the save-file name will be the project name with the period name
appended to it.
Executing
Once the Solution Properties and Solution Period are established, the EXECUTE tool can
be selected to start solving. The following dialog box appears once solving begins:
As shown, the dialog contains a listing of the current state of the solution, including the
Current period (an integer number starting from 1 and increasing with number of periods
drawn), the Period length (which will be an integer number of days or a month name), the
Period days solved and the Total days solved since the start of the simulation.
At any time during the execution of the solution period, solving can be stopped by hitting the
S TOP button. Once the solution has stopped, the user can view results, create a save file,
export, etc. and then resume the solution from where it has stopped by selecting the E XECUTE
tool again. The user may also change the Solution Period settings while solving has
stopped. It is not possible to change the Solution Properties (resolution, mechanisms, etc.)
once solving has begun.
If the user has established a plot or view of interest before starting the simulation, the
R EFRESH P LOT button can be selected to refresh the view without having to stop the solution.
Note that there may be some delay before the view is refreshed.
Interrogating the Model

Once draw has been simulated in REBOP, there are several different tools available within
the SOLVE stage Context menu for interrogating the extracted material as well as material
still remaining within the cave. These are reviewed in detail in the following sections.
REBOP does not provide a facility for creating and exporting plots or graphs generated
during interrogation but the Print Screen facility available on most computer keyboards be
used to capture bitmaps for saving/pasting elsewhere.
IMZs
An Isolated Movement Zone (IMZ) is defined as the volume of material that moves in
response to the removal of material from a drawpoint. It is the fundamental volume used in
REBOP to control material movements in the cave, and its growth and shape are impacted
directly by the material properties specified in the block model. Movement resulting from
free-surface rilling or caving of new material into an air gap also are impacted by these
properties, but are controlled by global (rather than IMZ-specific) controls in REBOP.
IMZs are capable of overlapping in REBOP if they are wide enough relative to drawpoint
spacings meaning that caved rock can be mobilized by draw from more than one
drawpoint. The result of physical and numerical experiments, as well as empirical evidence,
suggest that these conditions lead to more uniform drawdown, which promotes higher
recovery and lower dilution than when IMZs are isolated from one another. (See Pierce
(2009) for more information.) As a result, it is generally instructive to examine the sizes and
shapes of IMZs resulting from draw and to determine whether overlap is occurring or may be
possible in the future.
When solving is stopped, all IMZs are shown by default in the Graphic View as transparent
three-dimensional surfaces. There are options available for plotting and exporting IMZs as
discussed in the next sections.
Plotting Options
IMZ subsets can be viewed by selecting Drawpoints in Data View, as discussed in REBOP
Interface Using the Data View to Control Plotting/Editing/Viewing/ Exporting. Other
options for viewing IMZs are available with the Movement and Extraction Surfaces sections
of the P LOT I TEM S WITCHES tool, , as shown below:
The dialog box offers options for making the IMZ Transparent, viewing the discrete Levels
comprising the IMZ and viewing the intersection of the IMZ surface with a Plane, which can
be created using the D EFINE P LANE tool, (discussed in more detail below).
Export Options
The IMZ shapes can be exported from the SOLVE stage by right-clicking on any drawpoint in
Data View and choosing S AVE IMZ R ADIUS R EPORT TO F ILE . This is useful for reconstructing
IMZ shapes in other programs. The report provides IMZ radii for each quadrant as a function
of elevation in the model. In most cases, the radii for each quadrant of an IMZ will be the
same. Where the IMZ intersects the cave or block model boundary, some radii will be less.
Cave Properties
It is useful to examine the distribution of grade and material properties within the cave and
how these move and change in response to draw. Movements can result from flow with an
IMZ (or several IMZs, if there is overlap), free-surface rilling or the collapse of previously
stable ground into an air gap. Properties can change as a result of the bulking (increase in
porosity) that accompanies movement, while changes in other properties can result from
material mixing and secondary fragmentation. The best way to examine material properties
within the cave is to create a plane using the D EFINE P LANE tool , and to contour properties
on that plane using the C ONTOUR tool .
Defining a Plane
The material distribution and properties are viewed on two-dimensional surfaces that are
created by the user using the D EFINE P LANE tool . When the D EFINE P LANE tool is selected, a
dialog appears; once the C REATE button is hit, the following dialog appears:
Defined Planes area lists all currently defined planes and includes tools to C REATE a new
plane, create a C OPY of the currently selected plane as a new plane, and D ELETE the currently
selected plane.
The upper-right area of the dialog box includes a control to specify a Plane Name and
switches to toggle off/on display of the plane (Visible?) and display of the currently selected
contour on the plane (Show Contour?).
Plane direction area allows specification of the plane's orientation, which must be normal to
one of the coordinated axes.
Plane extent area allows specification of the plane's dimensions (the proper x-, y- or z-
coordinate edit boxes are enabled to match the selected plane direction).
Plane parameters fixes the location of the created plane on the plane to which it is normal;
the step button at the right of the edit box may be used to set the increment that is used by the
X Level spin buttons.
Coordinate input mode allows the coordinates for the plane extent and plane parameters to
be input as Absolute coordinates or as Parametric coordinates (where -1 is the lowermost
limit of the model and +1 is the uppermost limit).
The Update View area contains switches to Automatically Apply Changes made in the dialog
on the graphic view and to Automatically selection visible to override the Visible? switch
above and to keep constant display of the plane.
The OK tool retains all current data in the dialog and closes it. The C ANCEL tool dismisses the
dialog without retaining any data that may have changed since the dialog was first activated.
The A PPLY tool renders the dialog's current data to the GRAPHIC VIEW. The Reset tool
restores the dialog (and its constituent data) to the state it was in when first activated. The
H ELP tool opens an illustrative figure for assistance.
Contouring Properties
By default, user-defined planes are blank and do not contain any material property contours.
A property is selected for contouring and display on the plane via the C ONTOUR tool . This
tool provides a drop-down menu of the properties available for contouring, which include the
following.
Grades All grades included in the block model are available for contouring. The names
provided in the headers of the grade columns are used to identify them in this list.
SolidDen Solids density.
InSituPor The porosity of the material prior to flow (at the start of the simulation). Note
that this may not be the current porosity. Note, too, that once material starts to move, it will
bulk and exhibit a higher porosity than this (see CurrentPor, below).
MaxPor The maximum porosity that the material can exhibit. (This is achieved inside the
IMZs.) Note that even if material has moved, it may exhibit a lower porosity than this (see
CurrentPor below).
Fric Friction angle.
MeanDia, SdDia The mean and standard deviations in fragment diameter used to specify
the Gaussian distribution of primary fragmentation in the parent block. Note that once
material starts to move, it will be assigned a fragment diameter that is sampled randomly
from this distribution (see CurrentDia, below).
CurrentPor The current porosity of the material inside the cave. Material that has not
moved yet will exhibit InSituPor. Material that is flowing inside an IMZ will exhibit
MaxPor. Previously stable material that has collapsed into an air gap will exhibit a porosity
equal to MaxPor-0.05.
CurrentDia The current fragment diameter. Material that has not moved yet will have a
diameter of MeanDia. Material that has just started to move will exhibit a diameter
(representative of primary fragmentation) that was assigned randomly based on MeanDia
and SdDia. Material that has moved with the secondary fragmentation logic turned on may
be finer than its originally assigned diameter.
VertStr, HorizStr The vertical and horizontal stresses inside the cave limits. By default,
the cave limits are defined by the block model limits. The cave limits also may be
established using the CavePeriod block model property. These stresses will be calculated
only if the P ERFOR M S TRESS C ALCULATIONS tool has been turned on (see Solving Solution
Properties); otherwise, they will be plotted as zero. The units will be consistent with what
was used for block model properties as well as the Gravitational Acceleration provided as
part of the Solution Properties (see Model InputsBlock ModelData File Format
for examples of consistent units).
Plotting Options
Contouring options are available in the upper left-hand area of the dialog P LOT I TEM
S WITCHES Tool as shown below:
Properties can be displayed based on the Block properties, the Marker properties, or both.
Typically, both boxes would be checked in order to contour based on block properties in
unmoved areas and marker properties in moved areas. If only original properties are of
interest (in all areas), just the Block properties box should be checked. If only properties of
flowing material are of interest, just the Marker properties box should be checked.
Material Movement
The most common, and generally most insightful, way to track material movements in
REBOP is to establish a layered system of fictitious grades within the block model prior to
flow. By plotting the contours of this grade with time, the deformation of the initially
horizontal layers can provide significant insight into the material movements that accompany
flow. An example of this technique is provided in TutorialsTutorial #1. Another way
to plot material movements is by examining the velocity or displacement of the Regular
markers used in REBOP to track flow or by plotting the path of user-defined Tracer markers
(see Model InputsTracer Markers for more information).
Plotting Options
Marker plotting options are available in the upper right-hand area of the PLOT ITEM
SWITCHES tool as shown below:
The MARKERS area is divided into regular markers and tracer markers. The regular marker
area has two subgroups: Type and Range. The Type group controls what kind of marker
motion is shown, the options being Position, ExtractPos (the original position of all markers
that have been extracted; see Extraction InfoIEZs in the next section), Displace
(marker displacement), Velocity, or Off (no marker data display). The Range area allows the
marker data to be limited to plotting on any/all specified viewing planes via Plane Section
(See Defining a Plane in the previous section for more information on viewing planes.), or
using Field (all), which will show all marker data. The Tracers area has three options:
Position, Path (colored green if the tracer has moved and red if extracted) and Label.
IEZs
An IEZ outlines the original (pre-mining) locations of material that has been extracted from a
drawpoint. As Peters (1984) points out, [T]his is, of course, the ellipse that is most
important to mining, because it is the ore that is removed from a mine that pays the bills, not
all the rock that may just move downward. When plotted along with the orebody limits, the
IEZ shapes reveal where ore has been left behind or where waste has been extracted. IEZs
can be plotted in the same way as IMZs (e.g., as three-dimensional surfaces) or they can be
inferred from the positions of extracted markers, as discussed below.
Plotting Options
The first option for viewing IEZs is available in the Movement and Extraction Surfaces
section of the P LOT I TEM S WITCHES tool as shown below:
The dialog box offers options for viewing the IEZ as a Surface, making the IEZ Transparent,
viewing the discrete Levels comprising the IEZ, and viewing the intersection of the IEZ
surfaces with a Plane, which can be created using the D EFINE P LANE tool, . A subset of
IEZs can be viewed by selecting Drawpoints in the Data View as discussed in REBOP
Interface Using the Data View to Control Plotting/Editing/ Viewing/Exporting.
There is a second option for viewing IEZs that may be preferable in some circumstances.
The IEZ is not a mathematically defined surface in the same way an IMZ is. Rather, it is an
approximate bounding surface that encompasses all of the original positions of extracted
markers. As a result, its shape is somewhat approximate. If fines migration is activated, the
surface can be misleading, as markers originating further up in the column may be isolated
form the main body of extracted material. In this case, it is preferable to plot the IEZs
through the ExtracPos option in the Markers section of the Plot Item Switches tool,
(discussed in the previous section). By plotting the positions of extracted markers, the IEZs
can be inferred with better accuracy.
Export Options
The IEZ shapes can be exported from the SOLVEstage by right-clicking on any drawpoint in
the Data View and choosing S AVE IEZ R ADIUS R EPORT TO F ILE . This is useful for
reconstructing IEZ shapes in other programs. The report provides IEZ radii for each quadrant
as a function of elevation in the model. In some cases, the radii for each quadrant of an IEZ
will be the different because the discrete marker spacing relative to the drawpoint.
Drawpoint-Based Extraction Plotting and Reporting

The trend of grade, fragmentation and other property extracted from the cave over time is
one of the most useful outputs from REBOP. Grade-tonnage curves can provide the
information needed for forecasting, and fragmentation trends may be employed to predict
secondary breakage requirements or for use in empirical hang-up models. These data can be
plotted in REBOP for quick viewing, but more commonly is exported for viewing and
manipulation in Excel
Plotting Options
The mass, grade and fragmentation of material extracted from a drawpoint or a group of
drawpoints over time can be plotted directly in REBOP with the A DD N EW W INDOW tool in
the SOLVE stage. After selecting a drawpoint (or drawpoints) from Data View, hit the
button and select C REATE A NEW PLOT FRO M SELECTED DRAWPOINT S from the drop-down menu.
The following dialog box presents options for graphing various drawpoint-based quantities
against one another:
It is important to note that the smoothness of the tonnage trends will be affected by the
marker spacing. With very coarse marker spacings, only one or two markers may be
extracted per day from a drawpoint; thus, the trend may be highly variable. In order to view
the trends over more meaningful period lengths, it is advised to export the extraction data for
viewing and manipulation in Excel, as discussed below.
Export Options
The drawpoint-based extraction data can be exported from the SOLVEstage by selecting a
drawpoint (or group of drawpoints) in Data Viewand right-clicking. The following options
become available to the user in a drop-down menu:
The first four options are for Block Mass Extraction Reports, which provide a history of the
grades extracted over time.
The next two are options for exporting IMZ and IEZ shapes, which have been discussed
elsewhere in this section.
The next two options are for Block Mass Extraction Reports, which provides a history of the
origin (by BlockID) of material that extracted over time.
There is also an option to E XPORT M ARKER R EPORT TO F ILE . This is a very detailed report
providing a history of all material extracted over time, including original location, current
location, parent block id, grades, mass, volume, porosity, solid density, bulk density, friction
angle, fragment diameter, shear strain and work (the product of shear strain and stress
used for secondary fragmentation calculations), extraction drawpoint and day of extraction.
For markers still inside the cave, the extraction drawpoint and day of extraction will be
reported as null and -99, respectively. For extracted markers, the current position is reported
as -99,-99,-99.
The last two options are for selective plotting of items in the Graphic View, which has been
discussed previously.
REFERENCES
Bridgwater, J., Utsumi, R., Zhang, Z. and Tuladhar, T. (2003) Particle attrition due to
shearing the effects of stress, strain and particle shape, Chemical Engineering Science,
58, Pergamon, 4649-4665.
Castro R. (2006) Study of the mechanisms of granular flow for block caving. PhD. thesis,
University of Queensland.
Hardin, B.O., 1985. Crushing of soil particles. J. Geotech. Engrg.,ASCE, 111(10), 1177-
1192.
Hoek, E., and E. T. Brown. (1980) Underground Excavations in Rock. London: IMM.
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc. (2005) FLAC (Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua),
Version 5.0. Minneapolis: Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc. (2005) FLAC3D (Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua in 3
Dimensions), Version 3.0. Minneapolis: Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc. (2003) PFC3D (Particle Flow Code in 3 Dimensions),
Version 3.0. Minneapolis: Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.
Laubscher, D. (2000) Block caving manual. Report for the international caving study.
Brisbane: JKMRC and Itasca Consulting Group; 2000.
Nedderman, R. M. (1995) The Use of the Kinematic Model to Predict the Development of
the Stagnant Zone Boundary in the Batch Discharge of a Bunker, Chem. Eng. Sci., 50, 959-
965.
Tuzun, U. and Nedderman, RM, (1982) An investigation of the flow boundary during
steady -state discharge from a funnel-flow bunker. Powder Technology, 31, 27-43
Peters, D. C. (1984) Physical Modeling of the Draw Behavior of Broken Rock in Caving,
Colo. Sch. Mines Q., 79(1), 1-60.
Pierce, M (2009) A model for gravity flow in block caving mines. PhD. thesis, University
of Queensland (in process).
Nedderman, R.M. (1995) The use of the kinematic model to predict the development of
the stagnant zone boundary in the batch discharge of a bunker, Chemical Engineering
Science, 50, Pergamon, 959-965
Nedderman, R.M. and U. Tuzun, A Kinematic model for the flow of granular materials,
Powder Technology 20 (24) (1978), pp. 243253
Tutorials
The input files for all of the examples listed here are contained in the examples folder that
was created as part of the REBOP installation on your computer.
Example #1: Basic Analysis

This example demonstrates the basic steps in performing a REBOP analysis.
Start REBOP from the Windows Start menu or by using the rebop.bat file located in the
Rebop directory.
1. Use the N EW tool to create a project.
2. Use the B ROWSE tool in the Project File Name section of the N EW dialog to navigate
to the Examples subfolder of the Rebop folder and enter a project name.
3. Use the B ROWSE tool in the Import Data section of the N EW dialog to specify the
names for the BLOCK MODEL (bc_bm_v310_ex1.txt), DRAWPOINTS
(bc_dp_v310_ex1.txt), DRAWBELL GEOMETRY (bc_dg_v310_ex1.txt) and
DRAW SCHEDULE (bc_ds_v310_ex1.txt) input files. Leave the Trace Markers
input empty.
Selecting OK in the dialog will create the new project. As the project is created, an initial
SAV file is also created to store project data. While this occurs, REBOP displays a title bar
that is captioned to indicate the name of the save file (which is derived by adding
_initial.sav to the project file name that was specified in the N EW dialog). When the SAV
file has been created, REBOP's title bar will indicate the project name and path of the current
SAV file.
4. Go to the SOLVE stage using the stage tabs to the left. Use the S OLUTION P ROPERTIES
tool to view the default setting for Resolution, Mechanisms and Other that will be
used in this example.
5. Next, select the S OLUTION P ERIOD tool . To solve for the first two periods in the
DRAW SCHEDULE, select the Run # of Periods radio button and enter 2.
6. Hit the E XECUTE tool to begin solving.
The SOLVE dialog box will indicate the status of the simulation. Once solving stops, the
IMZs will be displayed automatically as transparent surfaces in the Graphic View, and the
drawpoint extraction data will be displayed in the Data View, as shown below. Note that the
Graphic View can be manipulated using the tools on the right-hand side of the window.
We now define a 2D plane and contour grades on it.
7. Select the D EFINE P LANE tool and hit the C REATE button on the left-hand side of the
dialog to define a new plane. In the Plane direction section of the dialog, hit the (YZ
PLANE ) X-N ORMAL radio button to define the orientation, then enter 83 as the X-level
input field, located in the bottom right-hand corner of the dialog. Hit OK .
8. Use the P LOT I TEMS tool to activate the On plane plotting of IMZs and deactivate
the Surface plotting of IMZs (near the bottom of the dialog).
9. Use the C ONTOUR tool to select Grade1 as the item to be contoured, then snap the
view using the N ORMAL -X tool, , on the Graphic View toolbar.
The IMZ intersections and Grade1 contours should appear as follows:

With continued solving (by hitting the E XECUTE tool), the changes in Grade1 locations can
be seen to evolve with draw:
10. Select Drawpoint 6W in the Data View and then hit the P LOTS tool . Select C REATE
A NEW PLOT FROM SELE CTED DP S from the drop-down and plot Grade1 on the y-axis
versus Days on the x-axis.
The changes in Grade1 drawn from Drawpoint 6W over time will appear as follows (note
the grade-time curve displayed should be similar to the graph below but it will not be exactly
the same due to the random assignment of fragment diameters based on the Gaussian
distribution specified.):
Example #2: Fines Migration

This example demonstrates the ability to model fines migration. This example uses a
different BLOCK MODEL (bc_bm_v310_ex2.txt) than Example #1, but the remaining input
files are the same. The block model for this example is a two-layer system with coarsely
fragmented ore from 0-50 m above the drawpoints (MeanDia = 0.5 m, SdDia = 0.25 m) and
finely fragmented waste with zero grade above 50 m (MeanDia = 0.125 m, SdDia = 0.06 m).
1. Follow steps 1-3 in Example #1 to start a new project and specify the input files, but
select bc_bm_v310_ex2.txt as the block model file rather than
bc_bm_v310_ex1.txt.
We will solve first with the fines migration logic inactive (default).
2. To begin solving, select the SOLVE stage from the tab set on the left-hand side of the
REBOP window.
3. Next, select the S OLUTION P ERIOD tool and choose to solve for the entire schedule.
4. Hit the E XECUTE tool .
When solving is complete, create a contour plane as described in Example #1. You will note
that the IMZ exhibits a narrower shape on top because of the finer fragmentation there:
5. Select Drawpoint 5W in the Data View and then hit the P LOTS tool, .
6. Select C REATE A NEW PLOT FRO M SELECTED DP S from the drop-down and plot Grade1
on the y-axis versus Cumulative Mass on the x-axis.
The grade-tonnage curve displayed should be similar to the graph below (It will not be
exactly the same due to the random assignment of fragment diameters based on the Gaussian
distribution specified.):
The drop to zero grade at ~14,000 tonnes drawn indicates the first arrival of fine waste from
the top layer (> 50 m from the drawpoint). In this case, the fine waste is traveling down
through the IMZ at the same rate as the coarser bottom layer material.
7. Next, reset the solution to Day 0 via the S OLUTION P ERIOD tool and choose to solve
for the entire schedule.
8. Activate the fines migration logic via the Mechanisms tab of the S OLUTION
P ROPERTIES tool .
9. Hit the E XECUTE tool .
The grade-tonnage curve should now look something like this:

The waste fines now enter at ~10,000 tonnes rather than ~14,000 tonnes because it can travel
more quickly to the drawpoint via percolation inside the IMZ.
Example #3: Cave Limits

This example demonstrates the ability to specify cave limits. This example uses a different
block model (bc_bm_v310_ex3.txt) than Example #1, but the remaining input files are the
same. The block model for this example contains a block of ground from x = 70-130, y = 60-
130 and z = 0-50, in which CavePeriod = 1, meaning that it is allowed to flow immediately.
The overlying material is allowed to flow only at the start of the 5th draw period (i.e.,
CavePeriod = 5).
1. Follow steps 1-3 in Example #1 to start a new project and specify the input files, but
select bc_bm_v310_ex3.txt as the block model file rather than
bc_bm_v310_ex1.txt.
2. Select the S OLUTION P ERIOD tool and enter 4 in the Run # of Periods field to solve
for 4 periods.
Once solving stops, the IMZs will be displayed automatically as transparent surfaces in the
Graphic View, as shown below. Note that the Graphic View can be manipulated using the tools
on the right-hand side of the window.
The impacts of the lateral and vertical limits to caving are indicated by the flattened sides
and top of the IMZs. By creating a contour plane through the model as described in Example
#1, it can be seen that an air gap develops beneath the stable cave back. The free surface
takes on a stair-step appearance because the block model columns are used to enforce a
maximum rill angle:
4. Solve for one single day beyond this point by changing the settings in the Solution
Period tool .
5. Hit the E XECUTE tool to solve.
Because the overlying blocks have been assigned a CavePeriod of 5, they will become active
on the first day solved. The contour plot reveals that they bulk and collapse into the air void
(Collapse is assumed to cause an increase in porosity to MaxPor-0.05):
With continued solving, the collapsed material begins to flow and be incorporated into the
growing IMZs:
Example #4: Cave Stresses

This example demonstrates the ability to plot stresses inside the cave. This example uses the
same input files as Example #3.
1. Follow the same steps outlined in Example #3 to start a new project and specify the
input files.
2. Before solving, turn Stress Logic on via the Mechanisms tab of the S OLUTION
P ROPERTIES tool .
3. Set gravity to be consistent with units employed in the block model (9.81 m/s2 if
meters used).
The friction angle of the block model limits does not impact the solution in this case; it is
only used if cave limits are not specified.
4. Select the S OLUTION P ERIOD tool, , and enter 4 in the Run # of Periods field to solve
for 4 periods.
6. Once solving stops, create a contour plane at z = 25 m using the D EFINE P LANE tool
. (See Example #1 for details on how to do this.)
7. Use the C ONTOUR tool to select VertStr as the item to be contoured.
8. Snap to plan view using the N ORMAL -Z tool, , on the Graphic View toolbar.
9. Activate the contour legend using the S HOW L EGEND tool on the Graphic View
toolbar.
The vertical stress contours should appear as follows:
The lowest stresses (~ 85 kPa, blue) are predicted to occur inside the IMZs. Stresses are
highest between the IMZs (~ 1500 kPa, purple) and around the group of IMZs (~1000 kPa,
orange). Intermediate stresses (~ 600 kPa, green) are predicted to exist in the remaining
stagnant portions of the cave to the north.
Example #5: Secondary Fragmentation

This example demonstrates the ability to include secondary fragmentation via shearing inside
the IMZs as part of a REBOP simulation. This example uses a different block model
(bc_bm_v310_ex5.txt) than Example 1, but the remaining input files are the same. The
block model for this example has a UCS of 100 kPa and a uniform initial fragment size of
0.5 m. (This is for illustration purposes; normally, a distribution of sizes would specified in
the block model to represent the primary fragmentation.)
1. Follow steps 1-3 in Example #1 to start a new project and specify the input files,
except select bc_bm_v310_ex5.txt as the block model file rather than
bc_bm_v310_ex1.txt.
2. Before solving, turn stress logic and secondary fragmentation on via the Mechanisms
tab of the S OLUTION P ROPERTIES tool .
3. Set gravity to be consistent with units employed in block model (9.81 m/s2 if meters
used).
The friction angle of the block model limits does not impact the solution in this case; it is
used only to estimate stresses outside the IMZ.
4. Select the S OLUTION P ERIOD tool and enter 4 in the Run # of Periods field to solve
for 4 periods.
6. Once solving stops, create a contour plane through the IMZs using the D EFINE P LANE
tool . (See Example #1 for details on how to do this.)
7. Use the C ONTOUR tool to select CurrentDia as the item to be contoured.
8. Activate the contour legend using the S HOW L EGEND tool on the GRAPHIC VIEW
toolbar.
The fragment diameter contours should appear as follows (note the fragment diameter
contours displayed should be similar to the plot below but will not be exactly the same due to
the random assignment of fragment diameters based on the Gaussian distribution specified.):
Note how the fragment diameter is lower than the initial uniform value of 0.5 m inside the
IMZ.
9. The change in fragment diameter exiting the drawpoint can be viewed by using the
P LOTS tool to graph MeanFragDia versus cumulative tonnage in drawpoint 5W.
(See Example #1 for details on how to do this.)
Note the drop in mean diameter with tonnage drawn that results from splitting and rounding
inside the IMZs in this case:
REBOP Version 3.1 User Guide A1
Appendix
This Appendix provides more detail on selected new/improved mechanisms in REBOP
Version 3.1. A more complete description of the REBOP flow model can be found in Pierce
(2009), A Model for Gravity Flow in Block Caving Mines.
IMZ Shape
The width of the IMZ, in particular, is very important in block/panel cave design: if the
IMZs can be engineered to touch at relatively early periods in the draw history, then it may
be possible to achieve uniform, interactive draw with good recovery. Much of the historic
understanding of IMZ development has been derived from observations of flow in two-
dimensional plane hoppers, where it is easy to observe flow patterns through sidewalls made
of glass or Plexiglas. In many of these physical experiments, flow is confined not only
between two walls, but is also restricted by lateral boundaries and, in some cases, angled
vessel bases. Because flow within a block or panel cave is often unbounded (i.e., unrestricted
by the walls of the cave), the results of two-dimensional plane hopper cannot be used
quantitatively. To obtain quantitative measures of IMZ shapes that are relevant to block and
panel caving, flow must be studied in a wide, flat-bottomed vessel in three dimensions.
In ICSI and ICSII, significant effort was put toward the study of IMZ size and shape using
PFC3D. In MMT, the JKMRC physical model was used to obtain similar estimates using
crushed rock. In the process of comparing the results of these simulations and experiments, a
literature review was conducted to accumulate the results of other published three-
dimensional experiments in which the dimensions of the IMZ have been measured. In
addition, available theoretical and empirical data were examined. The following conclusions
were drawn from a detailed comparison of all available experimental, theoretical and
empirical data.
Experimental data suggest that IMZ width continues to grow with draw,
but that the rate of growth diminishes significantly once the IMZ height
exceeds ~100-200 mean particle diameters. Below this, the IMZ exhibits
an ellipsoid shape; above this, the shape evolves toward a cylinder.
The controls on shape of an IMZ appear to differ in the near and far
fields. Experimental data suggests that the transition between these two
states may occur at an IMZ height of approximately 100-200 mean
particle diameters.
In the far field, the IMZ assumes a cylindrical shape with a width that is a
function of IMZ height and the mean particle size. The results of
experiments on a range of materials (including rock) at several different
scales suggest that the far-field width is predicted well by the kinematic
theory of Nedderman (1995), in which IMZ width and height (when
expressed in dimensions of mean particle diameter) are related as
follows: W 3.42 H .
In the near field, the shape of the IMZ appears to be controlled more
strongly by the drawpoint geometry. Above a wide drawpoint (i.e., > 10
mean particle diameters), the near-field shape of the IMZ is generally
ellipsoidal and is wider than predicted by kinematic theory, which
assumes a point sink of zero width.
Above a narrow drawpoint (i.e., < 10 mean particle diameters), there is
empirical and experimental evidence to suggest that stable arching could
result in near-field IMZ widths that are narrower than predicted by
kinematic theory.
Analysis of the experiments and simulations suggests that the friction
angle of the granular material limits the angle at the base of the IMZ to
45 / 2 , as proposed by Tuzun and Nedderman (1982).
The results of experiments employing non-spherical particle shapes
suggest that the exact shape of the particles does not have a significant
impact on far-field IMZ shape (as long as they are non-spherical).
Particle shape, as well as friction, is likely to have a much greater impact
on the near-field shape of IMZs above narrow drawpoints, where stable
arching appears to play a significant role.
To be applicable to caving environments, the impact of other factors on
IMZ shape, including material heterogeneity, IMZ overlap, secondary
fragmentation, fines migration and free-surface rilling, should be
considered.
In the absence of material heterogeneity, IMZ overlap, secondary fragmentation, fines

migration and free-surface rilling, REBOP 3.1 will reproduce the far-field IMZ shapes, as
discussed above, correctly. It also will reproduce correctly the near-field shapes in free-
flowing materials. REBOP currently does not consider the potential influence of hang-ups on
IMZ shapes in the near field. A narrowing of the IMZ is suggested by the experimental data
of Castro (2006), on 18-mm gravel, and the empirical data of Laubscher (2000), but more
research is required to understand the potential effects better.
It is important to understand how IMZ shapes in REBOP can deviate from the ideal shapes
observed in experiments and simulations. In REBOP, IMZ growth is controlled by the mean
particle diameter inside the IMZ at the local level i.e., an overall IMZ shape is not
enforced. This has a significant (and beneficial) consequence for flow prediction: in a
homogenous medium, the shape of the IMZ will match experimental and theoretical
observations; however, in a heterogeneous medium (as can be specified through the block
model), the relative rate of upward and lateral growth will change locally, resulting in non-
uniform IMZ shapes. A simple example of this effect can be demonstrated by draw from a
two-layer system of fine material lying above coarse material. Initially, the IMZ will be
wider in the lower half than in the upper half (because of the larger particle size there);
however, as the fines move downward through the IMZ from the upper to the lower half and
mix with the coarser fragments there, the mean fragment diameter inside the lower part of
the IMZ will drop, resulting in a lower rate of lateral growth than if only coarse
fragmentation were present. Fines migration, when activated in REBOP, could exacerbate
this effect. In addition, secondary fragmentation logic, when activated, could cause further
reduction in fragment size, resulting in further narrowing of IMZs. Free-surface rilling
causes a deviation from the idealized IMZ shape in REBOP because a surface cone develops
where the IMZ intersects a free surface.
Secondary Fragmentation
Secondary fragmentation impacts caving operations by causing the mean fragment diameter
to decrease with draw/time, resulting in narrower IMZs. Secondary fragmentation should be
taken into account when designing drawpoint layouts to ensure IMZ overlap, uniform
drawdown and optimal recovery throughout cave history. Secondary fragmentation also
produces fines that may travel more quickly down the draw column than coarser fragments.
Fines can impact processing efficiency negatively down the line. Fines also may be of a
different grade than coarser fragments, causing an impact on grade-tonnage trends. As a
result of these factors, there is considerable value in providing a means for predicting
secondary fragmentation.
A literature review conducted within MMT demonstrated that the splitting and rounding
failure modes considered in BCF, as well as the impacts of various material and operational
factors on those modes, are qualitatively consistent with the results of published experiments
on the yielding of granular materials. The review also indicated, however, that secondary
fragmentation prediction would benefit from more careful consideration of stress in the
stagnant portions of the cave (rather than an average cave stress) and shear strain in the
flowing portions of the cave (rather than distance traveled). Two different PFC3D models
were developed to study compression and shearing of caved rock in more detail and to
supplement the understanding developed from the review and analysis of secondary
fragmentation mechanisms. The following specific conclusions were drawn from the study.
Analysis of secondary fragmentation should consider both splitting and

rounding modes of breakage, as presented in BCF.
Analysis of secondary fragmentation via rounding and splitting should
consider stress and shear strain as controlling parameters (along with
fragment strength, shape and size distribution), rather than average cave
stress and distance traveled.
PFC3D simulations indicate that the stress and shear strain can vary
significantly between the moving and stagnant portions of the cave. The
degree of variation in these quantities (and the resulting secondary
fragmentation) likely will depend strongly on the draw strategy employed
as well as the expected IMZ sizes.
For the purposes of secondary fragmentation prediction, the cave should
be divided into three major regimes: compression in the stagnant zones,
shearing in the IMZs and impact in the air gap (if present).
Compression in stagnant zones mostly causes splitting. In laboratory
studies on granular materials, the cumulative size distribution is observed
to rotate around the largest fragment size under these conditions. The
largest fragments survive because they are stabilized by large numbers of
smaller fragments that surround it. This is analogous to the fines
cushioning logic employed within BCF.
The fragmentation model of Hardin (1985) offers promise as a means to
predict secondary fragmentation via compression in the stagnant zones.
The advantage of Hardins model is that it considers stress and material
strength as controlling parameters, and accounts for most of the other
factors believed to impact secondary fragmentation via compression. The
disadvantage of Hardins model is that it does not consider aspect ratio,
time or the size distribution resulting from fragmentation. These aspects
could be improved through further review of published experiments and
parametric studies with the PFC3D compression model.
Shearing in IMZs mostly causes rounding, although splitting also can
occur if the material is weak or the IMZs are large. More fines are likely
to be produced in this regime than in the compression regime.
The fragmentation model of Bridgwater et al. (2003) offers promise as a
means to predict secondary fragmentation via shearing in the IMZs. The
advantage of Bridgwaters model is that it considers shear strain, stress
and material strength as controlling parameters, and can handle the
transition between rounding and splitting modes of failure. The
disadvantage of Bridgwaters model is that it does not consider aspect
ratio, angularity or initial size distribution. These aspects could be
improved through further review of published experiments and
parametric studies with the PFC3D shearing model.
Comminution models offer good potential for estimating secondary
fragmentation resulting from impact in the air gap.
The secondary fragmentation logic in REBOP 3.1 conforms to the findings for shearing-
induced fragmentation outlined above. Secondary fragmentation resulting from compression
or impact is not accounted for currently in REBOP 3.1; thus, it is the responsibility of the
user to consider these potential effects. It is hoped that future versions will include these
mechanisms. The current logic relies on the Bridgwater et al. (2003) model for shearing-
induced secondary fragmentation, and fragmentation is restricted to material flowing inside
the IMZs. The calculations make use of the stress logic, shear strain calculations internal to
the IMZ, and the distribution of primary fragmentation and intact strength (UCS) defined via
the block model. The logic should be considered experimental until it has undergone further
testing and validation. User experience with the secondary fragmentation logic, particularly
where comparisons have been made with in-situ data, will be critical in evaluating and
improving the logic.
Cave Stresses
Stresses within the cave are of interest because they have the potential to impact flow,
secondary fragmentation, compaction and extraction-level stability. It may be possible to
manage stresses through drawpoint layout and draw strategy, which may allow the operator
to optimize fragmentation and minimize the potential for compaction, stress build-up and
damage to extraction-level development.
Limit equilibrium and numerical analyses conducted in ICSI suggest that under conditions of
uniform draw, average stresses at the cave base could be as low as 20-25% of the total caved
weight because of stress arching. Stress arching is a well-known phenomenon in which shear
resistance at the boundary of the cave causes a transfer of stresses into the cave walls and a
drop in stresses inside the cave. The actual amount of arching depends on the hydraulic
radius of the cave, the height of the cave and the frictional resistance at the cave periphery.
Caves with a small hydraulic radius and rough cave boundary would be expected to exhibit
significant arching and, therefore, low average stresses inside the cave. Stress arching also
occurs at the scale of individual IMZs. Just as stresses arch from the caved rock to the walls
of the cave, stresses can arch from the flowing rock inside an IMZ into the stagnant material
surrounding the IMZ. This smaller-scale arching results in a very heterogeneous distribution
of stresses inside the cave.
Both physical and numerical experiments were conducted in MMT to improve understanding
of stress arching in caves. This included single drawpoint simulations in FLAC (2D,
axisymmetric), multiple drawpoint simulations in FLAC3D (Itasca, 2005) and equivalent
multiple drawpoint experiments in the JKMRC physical model. Analysis of the stress
distributions measured in these simulations and experiments yielded the following
conclusions:
Stresses are normally low inside an IMZ because of stress arching into
the surrounding stagnant zones.
If the height and width of an IMZ, and the frictional strength of the caved
rock are known, the stresses inside can be predicted with reasonable
accuracy using the analytical solution for stresses in a silo.
Because of the low stresses inside the IMZ, a zone of yielded but
unmoved stagnant zone material surrounds the IMZ. The thickness of this
yield zone depends on the stresses inside the IMZ, the frictional strength
of the stagnant zone material and the average vertical stress inside the
cave.
Beyond the yielded zone is an area, termed the area of influence, in
which the stagnant zone material is unyielded but in which stresses still
are elevated above the average cave stress. The area of influence depends
on the size of the IMZ, the stresses inside the IMZ and the thickness of
the yielded zone.
If the height and width of an IMZ, the frictional strength of the caved
rock, and the average cave stresses are known (or can be estimated), the
thickness of the yield zone, the area of influence and the associated
stresses can be predicted with reasonable accuracy using the analytical
(elasto-plastic) solution for stresses around a pressurized tunnel.
If a group of IMZs are spaced such that their areas of influence overlap,
stresses will concentrate further in the overlapped areas, causing an
enlargement of the yield zone.
If a group of IMZs are spaced such that their yield zones overlap, excess
stresses (i.e., above the yield limit) can arch into the stagnant material
surrounding the group. The observation that arching can occur inside a
group of IMZs is significant and suggests that not two but three vastly
different scales of arching are possible within a cave: (1) at the scale of
the cave itself; (2) at the scale of a group of IMZs whose yield zones are
touching; and (3) at the scale of an isolated individual IMZ.
If arching of stresses at the group scale is inhibited (e.g., due to a smooth
boundary adjacent to the group or a large hydraulic radius), then stresses
will be forced to transmit through the yield zones, leading to movement
and flow of the stagnant rock there. This scenario is equivalent to the
stress-driven interactive draw mechanisms described by Laubscher
(2000).
The stress logic in REBOP conforms to the findings above. It relies on a combination of
analytical solutions and relations derived from numerical analysis to predict the vertical and
horizontal stresses in the cave. The stress distribution is directly dependent on the shape of
the cave (as defined by the block model limits or cave limits defined by the CavePeriod
block model property), the properties of the caved rock and cave periphery (as defined in the
block model and in the Solution PropertiesMechanisms dialog), the drawpoint spacing
and the draw strategy. The logic should be considered experimental until it has undergone
further testing and validation. User experience with the stress logic, particularly where
comparisons have been made with in-situ data, will be critical in evaluating and improving
the logic.
References
Bridgwater, J., Utsumi, R., Zhang, Z. and Tuladhar, T. (2003) Particle attrition due to
shearing the effects of stress, strain and particle shape, Chemical Engineering Science,
58, Pergamon, 4649-4665.
Castro R. (2006) Study of the mechanisms of granular flow for block caving. PhD. thesis,
University of Queensland.
Laubscher, D. (2000) Block caving manual. Report for the international caving study.
Brisbane: JKMRC and Itasca Consulting Group; 2000.
Nedderman, R.M. (1995) The use of the kinematic model to predict the development of
the stagnant zone boundary in the batch discharge of a bunker, Chemical Engineering
Science, 50, Pergamon, 959-965
Pierce, M (2009) A model for gravity flow in block caving mines. PhD. thesis, University
of Queensland (in process).
Nedderman, R.M. and U. Tuzun, A Kinematic model for the flow of granular materials,
Powder Technology 20 (24) (1978), pp. 243253

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REBOP Version 3.

December 2008 Prepared For:

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................. I

SETTING SOLUTION PERIOD ............................................................................................................................ 28

111 Third Avenue South, Suite 450

JRE 1.6.0 or later (supplied with the installation),

Version 3.1: Changes from Release 2.3

Improvements to Existing Logic

Overview: REBOP Analysis

About REBOP Data Files

REBOP Project Files

Interaction Between the DATA VIEW and the GRAPHIC VIEW

Using the DATA VIEW to Control Plotting/Editing/Viewing/Exporting

Selecting You may select

Viewing/Exporting Results In the SOLVE Stage, drawpoint-specific results may be

Menus and Toolbars

Main Project Operations (Creating, Opening, Saving, etc.)

Displaying/Hiding Windows and Toolbars

Other Interface Elements

Grade2.GradeN Optional additional grades or user-defined properties.

BellName is a unique identifier for the drawbell type.

DDWidth is the draw-drift width.

DDHeight is the draw-drift height.

BellHeight is the drawbell height.

SideAngle is the wall angle (conical) or sidewall angle (rectangular).

Drawbell Definition Via Data File

Drawbell Definition Via Drawpoint Tool

Specifying Draw-Period Names and Lengths

Specifying Draw Masses

Importing Multiple Draw Schedules

Data File Format

Easting, Northing, Elevation is the initial location of the marker.

Setting Solution Properties

Setting Solution Period

Interrogating the Model

SolidDen Solids density.

Fric Friction angle.

Drawpoint-Based Extraction Plotting and Reporting

Example #1: Basic Analysis

1. Use the N EW tool to create a project.

6. Hit the E XECUTE tool to begin solving.

We now define a 2D plane and contour grades on it.

The IMZ intersections and Grade1 contours should appear as follows:

Example #2: Fines Migration

4. Hit the E XECUTE tool .

9. Hit the E XECUTE tool .

The grade-tonnage curve should now look something like this:

Example #3: Cave Limits

3. Hit the E XECUTE tool to begin solving.

5. Hit the E XECUTE tool to solve.

Example #4: Cave Stresses

5. Hit the E XECUTE tool to begin solving.

7. Use the C ONTOUR tool to select VertStr as the item to be contoured.

The vertical stress contours should appear as follows:

Example #5: Secondary Fragmentation

5. Hit the E XECUTE tool to begin solving.

7. Use the C ONTOUR tool to select CurrentDia as the item to be contoured.

In the absence of material heterogeneity, IMZ overlap, secondary fragmentation, fines

Analysis of secondary fragmentation should consider both splitting and

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