Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Lisandro Alvarado
Decanato de Administracin y Contadura
Dpto. Estudios Bsicos y Formacin Integral
Licenciatura en Economa
2011
UNIDAD 1
USO DEL DICCIONARIO
Objetivos Especficos:
CONTENIDO
Una vez que conocemos la informacin que el diccionario contiene, es muy importante
fijarnos en la escritura de las palabras en ingls, ya que por la semejanza entre ellas
podemos cometer errores. Por ejemplo, a primera vista las siguientes palabras lucen
similares:
THOUGH /do/ conj. aunque, bien que, sin embargo, si bien, aun cuando. ... (Appleton-
Cuys, 1998)
PALABRAS HOMGRAFAS
Son palabras idnticas cuyo significado cambia de acuerdo con su funcin en el texto y
el contexto en el cual se usan.
Por ejemplo, en las siguientes oraciones la palabra man es usada en diferentes contextos
desempeando funciones distintas y asumiendo diferentes significados.
That man is my brother.
Funciones Traduccin
sustantivo (s) regla, norma, costumbre, imperio,
dominio, gobierno, mandato,
reinado
verbo transitivo (vt) gobernar, regir, (lnea) trazar.
verbo intransitivo (vi) (Jur) fallar, decidir.
EL SUSTANTIVO
Se llama sustantivo a la palabra que designa a una persona, animal, cosa o idea. Todas
las palabras resaltadas en las siguientes oraciones son sustantivos:
Efficiency means that society is getting the maximum benefits from its scarce
resources.
3. Termina con uno de los indicadores del plural. (Ver: Plural del Sustantivo).
Plans are necessary for business success.
5. Lo antecede o sigue otro sustantivo con el cual forma sustantivo compuesto como se
ilustra en el siguiente ejemplo,
The product code is on the label.
7. Termina en un sufijo que forma sustantivo. (Ver: Sufijos que forman sustantivos).
The management of societys resources is important because resources are
scarce.
En la oracin anterior, el sustantivo management termina en ment, el cual es un
sufijo que forma sustantivos.
Para visualizar mejor la identificacin de los sustantivos usaremos el siguiente ejercicio:
En el siguiente prrafo, identifique los sustantivos, diga como los identific y
tradzcalos segn contexto.
Economists examine how the multitude of buyers and sellers of a good together
determine the price at which the good is sold and the quantity that is sold. Finally,
they analize forces and trends that affect the economy as a whole.
Con la informacin leda, redacta en tu cuaderno con tus propias palabras la definicin
del sustantivo y las posibles formas para identificarlo en un contexto.
EL VERBO
El verbo es una palabra que afirma algo sobre el sujeto de la oracin y expresa acciones,
eventos o estados del ser. McFayden, (1996)
Se reconoce un verbo en contexto porque:
1. Termina en uno de los indicadores de tercera persona singular en presente: s o es
(ver: Sufijos infleccionales del verbo). Por ejemplo,
The airline requires minimal extra cost.
4. Termina en un sufijo que forma verbos (ver: Sufijos que forman verbos).
Buyers calculate the cost-benefit of the new law..
Aqu, el verbo produce est despus del sujeto de la oracin American and
Japanese firms.
EL ADJETIVO
Palabra que se agrega al sustantivo para: designar una cualidad, determinar o limitar su
extensin. Se reconoce un adjetivo en contexto porque:
2. Termina en un sufijo que forma adjetivo (ver: Sufijos que forman adjetivos).
Economists use the term marginal changes to describe small incremental
Qu es un adjetivo?
2. Termina en sufijo que forma adverbio (ver: sufijos que forman adverbios) Por
ejemplo,
Good leaders promote the work of others effectively.
En este ejemplo, el adverbio fast est ubicado despus del verbo performed.
Entre un auxiliar y un verbo:
We could only increase the production.
En esta oracin, el adverbio only est ubicado entre el auxiliar could y el verbo
increase.
Al final de la oracin:
The audience listened to the speaker carefully.
ADJETIVOS ADVERBIOS
PRONOMBRES:
Son palabras que sustituyen al nombre o sustantivo. Estos se clasifican en: subjetivos,
objetivos, posesivos, demostrativos y relativos.
Pronombres Subjetivos: Ejecutan la accin del verbo, por lo tanto, cumplen la funcin
de sujeto de la oracin. Se mencionan a continuacin:
Pronombres Significado
Subjetivos
I
You
He
She
It
We
You
They
Por ejemplo, en la oracin: They set up subsidiaries in Europe.
Pronombres Objetivos: Reciben la accin del verbo, por cuanto, cumplen la funcin de
objeto directo del verbo u objeto indirecto de una preposicin. Son los siguientes:
Pronombres Significado
Objetivos
Me
You
Him
Her
It
Us
You
Them
El pronombre objetivo it es objeto del verbo decided ya que recibe la accin que ste
expresa.
Pronombres Posesivos: Indican una relacin de posesin ocupando el lugar del nombre
o sustantivo. Dichos pronombres son:
Pronombres
Subjetivos Objetivos Posesivos
Pronombres Demostrativos
Significado Singular Plural Significado
This These
That Those
Ejemplo:
The key skills fit into three categories. These impact performance.
En el siguiente ejemplo:
The amounts which companies owe are referred to as debts.
Con la ayuda del diccionario, completa los cuadros con la traduccin de los
pronombres. Considera que algunos pueden traducirse de diferentes
maneras.
EL PARTICIPIO ACTIVO
El participio activo o participio presente, es una de las principales formas verbales
inglesas. Se reconoce por la terminacin ing, la cual se agrega a la raz verbal.
raz verbal + ing = participio activo
Ejemplos: keep + ing = keeping
do + ing = doing
make + ing = making
El participio activo puede funcionar de diferentes maneras en una oracin. Estas
funciones son:
1. Funcin de verbo en gerundio:
Expresa acciones que se estn ejecutando y corresponde al gerundio del idioma espaol.
El participio activo realiza esta funcin cuando est ubicado despus de un verbo
auxiliar expresando accin y se traduce agregando al significado del verbo las
FUNCIONES DEL
PARTICIPIO
SE TRADUCE
EL PARTICIPIO PASIVO
Llamado tambin participio pasado, es una de las principales formas verbales del
idioma ingls. Se presenta en dos formas: la forma regular constituida por los verbos
terminados en ed y la forma irregular, en la cual los verbos no tienen una terminacin
especfica. Ejemplos:
Podemos notar que los verbos regulares son ms fciles de identificar por
su terminacin ed, mientras que para identificar los verbos irregulares en un
contexto se requiere la ayuda del diccionario. El participio pasivo generalmente se traduce
al espaol agregndole al significado del verbo la terminacin ado o ido, excepto en
los participios irregulares del idioma espaol, como hecho, escrito, resuelto.
Este tiempo puede cumplir varias funciones dentro de un contexto:
1. Verbo principal:
En los tiempos presente perfecto y pasado perfecto: est ubicado despus de los
auxiliares have, has o had.
Ejemplo: Once society has allocated people to various jobs, it must also allocate
the output of goods and services.
En este ejemplo, la funcin del participio pasivo allocated es de verbo porque est
despus del auxiliar has formando el tiempo presente perfecto y se traduce asignado.
Modificador adjetival: el participio pasivo cumple esta funcin cuando est ubicado
antes del sustantivo.
Ejemplo: This imperfect substitutability of resources is due to the specialized
function of most machinery and many buildings.
La funcin del participio pasivo specialized es de modificador adjetival porque est
antes del sustantivo function y traduce especializada.
En las siguientes oraciones se ilustran las funciones que pueden cumplir los participios
activo y pasivo en la oracin y las maneras de traducirlos.
1. Generalizing from individual experiences often leads to wrong conclusions (this is
called the fallacy of composition).
5. When a commoditys price falls, the purchasing power of an individual with a given
income increases.
Traduzca segn el contexto los participios activos y pasivos subrayados en las oraciones
anteriores:
Palabras Traduccin
Generalizing Generalizar
called llamado ( se llama)
increasing aumentando
expected esperada
happening ocurriendo
increasing aumentar
purchasing adquisitivo
given dado
EJERCICIOS PROPUESTOS:
-Traduzca correctamente al espaol las siguientes oraciones.
1. A common error made by the beginning economics student is failure to differentiate
between a change in demand and a change in quantity demanded.
2. A change in demand refers to a shift of the demand curve because a variable other than
price has changed.
3. The government can alter an equilibrium price by changing market demand and/or
market supply.
5. In a market economy, economic decisions are decentralized and are made by the
collective wisdom of the marketplace.
6. Society should not stop protecting the environment just because environmental
regulations reduce our material standard of living.
7. Economic activity exists in a dynamic, changing environment.
8. Net export spending may increase after the fiscal stimulus is implemented.
Your your
Posesivos His
Her their
Its
Numerales todos los nmeros
Both
Each every
Some any
Indefinidos Many much
Few several
More most
All no
Either neither
Con la ayuda del diccionario, traduzca los determinantes en el cuadro.
LOS INTENSIFICADORES
Recibe este nombre una letra o un grupo de letras que se agregan a la raz de una
palabra para modificar su forma, no cambian la funcin pero nos dan una extensin del
significado de las palabras bsicas. Los sufijos inflexionales ms importantes se presentan
en:
Sustantivos en plural: s o es
comparativo: er
Adjetivos y adverbios
en los grados: superlativo. est
um A medium - media
datum - data
Algunos sustantivos tienen la misma forma en singular y en plural. Por ejemplo: sheep,
fish, Japanese.
Otros sustantivos slo tienen forma plural. Por ejemplo: pants, scissors, physics.
2. Verbos conjugados:
Nos concretaremos al pasado ya que los participios pasivo y activo han sido
explicados ampliamente.
En la conjugacin de los verbos en presente con la tercera persona del singular se
agrega la terminacin s o es. Por ejemplo: enter - enters. Pero, algunos verbos
tienen cambios determinados por su terminacin
Si la terminacin del verbo es: Cambia de esta manera: Ejemplos
O, s, sh, x y z Se agrega es Push - pushes
y precedida por consonante se cambia la y por i y try - tries
se agrega es
y precedida por vocal S Play - plays
En los verbos regulares los tiempos pasado y participio pasivo se forman agregando la
terminacin ed como se explica a continuacin:
Sufijos Derivacionales: Son partculas que se agregan al final de una raz y usualmente
cambian la funcin que cumple la palabra. Por ejemplo:
La palabra govern en funcin de verbo significa gobernar. Al agregarle el sufijo ment
se convierte en el sustantivo government que significa gobierno.
Los sufijos derivacionales se pueden agrupar segn el cambio de funcin que realizan en
sufijos que forman sustantivos, sufijos que forman verbos, sufijos que forman adjetivos y
sufijos que forman adverbios.
A continuacin se presentan los sufijos ms usados en ingls agrupados de acuerdo con
la clasificacin antes mencionada:
Prefijos: Son partculas que se anteponen a una raz. Cada prefijo tiene un significado
especfico y su funcin es cambiar el significado de una palabra. Por ejemplo: uno de los
significados de understand en funcin de verbo es interpretar, al agregarle el prefijo mis se
convierte en misunderstand cuyo significado es malinterpretar. Segn su efecto, los
prefijos se pueden agrupar, en: negativos, positivos, de dimensin, de ubicacin, de tiempo
y orden, y de nmero.
SUSTANTIVO TRADUCCIN
plural o una v si es un verbo en tercera persona singular y traduzca las oraciones completas.
1. In more societies resources are allocated through the combined actions of millions of
households and firms.
2. The behavior of an economy reflects the behavior of the individuals who make up the
economy.
3. Making decisions requires trading off one goal against another.
4. The more a society spends on national defense to protect its shores, the less it can spend
on consumer goods.
Ejercicio 5: Subraye los verbos en el siguiente prrafo y tradzcalos segn contexto.
A rational decision maker takes an action if and only if the marginal benefit of the
action exceeds the marginal cost. This principle can explain why airlines are willing to
sell a ticket below average cost and why people are willing to pay more for diamonds
than for water. It takes time to get used to the logic of marginal thinking, but the study of
economics will give you ample opportunity to practice.
VERBO TRADUCCIN
Ejercicio 6: Subraye los adjetivos (adj.) y adverbios (adv.) y traduzca las oraciones.
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2. We shall assume that the amount a consumer spends is positively related to her
disposable income.
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3. Equality means that the benefits are distributed uniformly among society`s members.
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4. Economists use the term marginal changes to describe small incremental adjustments
to an existing plan of action.
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Ejercicio 7
Economists normally assume that people are rational. Rational people systematically and
purposefully do the best they can to achieve their objectives, given the available opportunities.
As you study economics, you will encounter firms that decide how many workers to hire and
how much of their product to manufacture and sell to maximize profits. You will also
encounter individuals who decide how much time to spend working and what goods and
services to buy with the resulting income to achieve the highest possible level of satisfaction.
En el texto anterior:
Funcin Traduccin
Normally
Rational
Achieve
Available
Economics
Workers
Hire
Sell
Profits
Also
Goods
Highest
Ejercicio 9: Determine a que sustantivo se refieren los pronombres subrayados en las
siguientes oraciones y traduzca las oraciones completas.
1. In many cases, the cost of an action is not as obvious as it might first appear.
2. People gain from the products and services they choose to consume.
3. The annual meeting of the Association attracts about eight thousand economists who
present their work.
4. Economics is the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce valuable
commodities and distribute them among different people
UNIDAD 2
Las palabras en una oracin no solo actan individualmente sino en grupos. Las palabras
agrupadas actan juntas como una unidad que puede ejercer diversas funciones en la oracin.
El grupo ms comn de palabras relacionadas es la frase. En esta unidad estudiaremos la Frase
Nominal, llamada tambin Sintagma Nominal.
Objetivo Terminal:
Al finalizar la presente unidad, el alumno estar en la capacidad de aplicar correctamente los
conocimientos adquiridos sobre los elementos que conforman el sintagma nominal en
oraciones y prrafos relacionados con la especialidad de Economa.
Objetivos especficos:
1. Identificar el sintagma nominal en contextos.
2. Traducir el sintagma nominal en contextos.
Contenido:
Sintagma nominal. (Frase nominal)
Ncleo
Modificadores
Funciones dentro de la oracin.
LA FRASE NOMINAL
Se llama frase nominal a un grupo de palabras que tiene sentido y cuyo ncleo es un
sustantivo. Una frase nominal puede funcionar independientemente, como un encabezado de
una noticia periodstica, como el ttulo de un artculo cientfico o de un captulo de un libro,
pero generalmente forman parte de una oracin como sujeto o como objeto de la misma.
En esta oracin, la frase nominal These factors funciona como sujeto, en tanto que, la frase
nominal various economic indicators es el complemento.
Algunas frases nominales contienen un solo sustantivo que funciona como ncleo, como en
la siguiente frase, cuyo nico sustantivo es price por lo cual acta como ncleo de la misma.
The price se lee: el precio.
Otras frases nominales pueden tener ms de un sustantivo por lo cual se hace necesario
conocer los diversos elementos que se pueden encontrar en una frase nominal para poder
identificar el ncleo. Adems del ncleo, una frase nominal puede contener: determinantes,
premodificadores y postmodificadores.
En estos casos, la identificacin del ncleo es indispensable para traducir correctamente la
frase nominal, ya que ste determina el sentido en el cual se debe leer. La lectura de la frase
debe comenzar con el determinante, seguido por el ncleo, luego se leen los premodificadores
y por ltimo los postmodificadores si los hay.
A continuacin se explican los elementos de la frase nominal:
Los premodificadores: son modificadores que se ubican antes del ncleo y pueden ser:
Adjetivos:
Ejm: Raw materials = Materias primas.
En el ejemplo anterior, el adjetivo raw acta como premodificador porque est antes
del sustantivo materials que es el ncleo de la frase nominal.
Sustantivos:
Ejm: Output levels = Niveles de produccin.
En esta frase se observa que el sustantivo Output acta como premodificador por estar
antes del sustantivo levels, que es el ncleo de la frase nominal.
Ejm: Consumer Price Index = Indice de precios al consumidor.
En esta frase los sustantivos Consumer y Price son premodificadores porque estn
antes del sustantivo Index, que es el ncleo de la frase nominal.
Genitivos:
Ejm: Corporations announcements = Anuncios de la corporacin.
En esta frase el genitivo s acta como premodificador porque est antes del
sustantivo announcements que es el ncleo de la frase nominal.
Participios activos:
Ejm: The expanding production = La produccin en expansin.
Aqu se observa que el participio activo expanding es el premodificador ya que precede al
ncleo de la frase nominal, el sustantivo production.
Participios pasivos:
Ejm: A limited productive capability = Una capacidad productiva limitada.
En la frase anterior, el participio pasivo limited acta como premodificador del
sustantivo capability que es ncleo de la frase nominal.
Los postmodificadores: son modificadores que se encuentran despus del ncleo y pueden
ser:
Frase preposicional: recibe este nombre porque comienza con una preposicin. En el
siguiente ejemplo, el postmodificador se reconoce porque comienza con la preposicin of
y est despus del ncleo amounts.
Ejm: The total amount of goods = La cantidad total de productos.
Clausula en infinitivo: se llama asi porque empieza con un verbo en infinitivo, tal como
se observa en la siguiente frase nominal donde el postmodificador empieza con el verbo
en infinitivo to produce y se encuentra despus del ncleo de la frase, el sustantivo
Resources.
Ejm: Resources to produce goods and services. = Recursos para producir bienes y
servicios.
Clausula ing: asi llamada porque empieza con un participio activo, como se puede ver
en la frase siguiente donde el postmodificador empieza con deciding y est ubicado despus
del ncleo de la frase, el sustantivo Parents.
Ejm: Parents deciding how to spend their family income. = Padres que deciden como
gastar su ingreso familiar.
Clausula ed: es aquella que comienza con un participio pasivo como en el ejemplo
siguiente, en el cual el postmodificador comienza con el participio pasivo developed y se
encuentra despus del sustantivo activity que es el ncleo de la frase nominal.
Ejm: The promotional activity developed by the company. = La actividad promocional
desarrollada por la compa. (Con participio regular)
Ejm: Time spent in leisure. = Tiempo dedicado al ocio. (Con participio irregular)
Clusula relativa: es aquella que comienza con un pronombre relativo. Por ejemplo, en
la frase siguiente, el postmodificador comienza con el pronombre relativo which.
Ejm: Growth which is indicated in the GDP. = Crecimiento el cual es indicado en el PIB.
En el ejemplo siguiente podemos observar las frases nominales en la oracin. Este contiene
dos frases nominales. Una est antes del verbo y funciona como sujeto; la otra est despus del
verbo y funciona como objeto.
- The early work in this area emphasized the role of imperfect information regarding
prices.
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Explaining The World
Through Macroeconomic Analysis
Jan 7, 2011
When the price of a product you want to buy goes up, it affects you. But why
does the price go up? Is the demand greater than the supply? Did the cost go up
because of the raw materials that make the CD? Or, was it a war in an unknown
country that affected the price? In order to answer these questions, we need to
turn to macroeconomics.
TUTORIAL: Macroeconomics
What Is It?
Macroeconomics is the study of the behavior of the economy as a whole. This is
different from microeconomics, which concentrates more on individuals and
how they make economic decisions. Needless to say, macroeconomy is very
complicated and there are many factors that influence it. These factors are
analyzed with various economic indicators that tell us about the overall health of
the economy.
Consumers want to know how easy it will be to find work, how much it
will cost to buy goods and services in the market, or how much it may cost
to borrow money.
Businesses use macroeconomic analysis to determine whether expanding
production will be welcomed by the market. Will consumers have enough
money to buy the products, or will the products sit on shelves and collect
dust?
Governments turn to the macroeconomy when budgeting spending,
creating taxes, deciding on interest rates and making policy decisions.
When referring to GDP, macroeconomists tend to use real GDP, which takes
inflation into account, as opposed to nominal GDP, which reflects only changes
in prices. The nominal GDP figure will be higher if inflation goes up from year
to year, so it is not necessarily indicative of higher output levels, only of higher
prices.
The one drawback of the GDP is that because the information has to be collected
after a specified time period has finished, a figure for the GDP today would have
to be an estimate. GDP is nonetheless like a stepping stone into macroeconomic
analysis. Once a series of figures is collected over a period of time, they can be
compared, and economists and investors can begin to decipher the business
cycles, which are made up of the alternating periods between economic
recessions (slumps) and expansions (booms) that have occurred over time. (See
High GDP Means Economic Prosperity, Or Does It?)
From there we can begin to look at the reasons why the cycles took place, which
could be government policy, consumer behavior or international phenomena,
among other things. Of course, these figures can be compared across economies
as well. Hence, we can determine which foreign countries are economically
strong or weak.
Based on what they learn from the past, analysts can then begin to forecast the
future state of the economy. It is important to remember that what determines
human behavior and ultimately the economy can never be forecasted completely.
Unemployment
The unemployment rate tells macroeconomists how many people from the
available pool of labor (the labor force) are unable to find work. (For more about
employment, see Surveying The Employment Report.)
Macroeconomists have come to agree that when the economy has witnessed
growth from period to period, which is indicated in the GDP growth rate,
unemployment levels tend to be low. This is because with rising (real) GDP
levels, we know that output is higher, and, hence, more laborers are needed to
keep up with the greater levels of production.
Inflation
The third main factor that macroeconomists look at is the inflation rate, or the
rate at which prices rise. Inflation is primarily measured in two ways: through
the Consumer Price Index (CPI) and the GDP deflator. The CPI gives the current
price of a selected basket of goods and services that is updated periodically. The
GDP deflator is the ratio of nominal GDP to real GDP. (For more on this,
see The Consumer Price Index: A Friend To Investors and The Consumer Price
Index Controversy.)
If nominal GDP is higher than real GDP, we can assume that the prices of goods
and services has been rising. Both the CPI and GDP deflator tend to move in the
same direction and differ by less than 1%. (If you'd like to learn more about
inflation, check out our Tutorial: All About Inflation.)
Demand alone, however, will not determine how much is produced. What
consumers demand is not necessarily what they can afford to buy, so in order to
determine demand, a consumer's disposable income must also be measured. This
is the amount of money after taxes left for spending and/or investment.
Monetary Policy
A simple example of monetary policy is the central bank's open-market
operations. (For more detail, see our Tutorial: The Federal Reserve.) When there
is a need to increase cash in the economy, the central bank will buy government
bonds (monetary expansion). These securities allow the central bank to inject the
economy with an immediate supply of cash. In turn, interest rates, the cost to
borrow money, will be reduced because the demand for the bonds will increase
their price and push the interest rate down. In theory, more people and businesses
will then buy and invest. Demand for goods and services will rise and, as a
result, output will increase. In order to cope with increased levels of production,
unemployment levels should fall and wages should rise.
On the other hand, when the central bank needs to absorb extra money in the
economy, and push inflation levels down, it will sell its T-bills. This will result
in higher interest rates (less borrowing, less spending and investment) and less
demand, which will ultimately push down price level (inflation) but will also
result in less real output.
Fiscal Policy
The government can also increase taxes or lower government spending in order
to conduct a fiscal contraction. What this will do is lower real output because
less government spending means less disposable income for consumers. And,
because more of consumers' wages will go to taxes, demand as well as output
will decrease.
A fiscal expansion by the government would mean that taxes are decreased or
government spending is increased. Ether way, the result will be growth in real
output because the government will stir demand with increased spending. In the
meantime, a consumer with more disposable income will be willing to buy more.
A government will tend to use a combination of both monetary and fiscal
options when setting policies that deal with the macroeconomy.
LA FRASE VERBAL
LA FRASE VERBAL.
Una frase verbal es aquella cuyo ncleo es el verbo. Esta puede constar de un verbo
ordinario o de uno o ms auxiliares y un verbo principal. Como en los siguientes ejemplos
donde las frases verbales estn resaltadas:
- Microeconomics covers the economic activity of individual consumers and
producers.
- Macroeconomics traditionally has addressed economic issues such as inflation
and unemployment.
En vista de que los elementos esenciales de las frases verbales son verbos, se hace
necesario el estudio de los mismos para comprender como stos se combinan para formar los
tiempos verbales.
En la unidad 1, se ha definido como una palabra que expresa accin o ayuda a hacer una
declaracin. Un verbo puede tener las siguientes formas bsicas: infinitivo, presente, pasado,
participio pasado y participio presente.
En ingls, los verbos se pueden clasificar en: verbos ordinarios y verbos auxiliares.
VERBOS ORDINARIOS
Son aquellos que expresan algo sobre el sujeto, de manera que, existen oraciones cuya frase
verbal est formada nicamente por un verbo ordinario, como en el ejemplo:
- The supply and demand model serves as the foundation of microeconomics.
El verbo serves expresa lo que hace el sujeto The supply and demand model y la traduccin
es:
El modelo de la oferta y la demanda le sirve de base a la microeconoma.
Ejercicios: Subraye las frases verbales y complete la traduccin. de las siguientes oraciones.
1. The terms microeconomics and macroeconomics have their origin in the early 1930s.
Son aquellos que ayudan a formar un tiempo o expresin, de all su nombre. Ellos se
combinan con el presente, infinitivo o los participios para formar los tiempos de los verbos
ordinarios.
Los auxiliares son muy importantes en la conversacin porque ellos se usan en las
respuestas cortas, en expresiones de acuerdo o desacuerdo, etc, para evitar repetir el verbo
original. En ingls existen dos grupos de auxiliares: Los auxiliares principales y los auxiliares
modales.
Auxiliares To Be To Do To Have
Principales
Auxiliares Can May Will Shall Must
Modales could might would should
TO BE, cuya traduccin es ser o estar, es auxiliar en los tiempos presente y pasado
continuo, combinado con el participio presente (gerundio) de un verbo ordinario. Por ejemplo,
- Farmers are producing more agricultural products than they need.
Los granjeros estn produciendo mas productos agrcolas de los que ellos necesitan.
En este ejemplo, el verbo auxiliar is forma con el participio presente (gerundio) producing
el tiempo presente contnuo.
- Large businesses were operating as corporations.
Los negocios grandes estaban operando como corporaciones.
Aqu, el verbo auxiliar were forma con el participio presente (gerundio) operating el
tiempo pasado continuo.
En el ejemplo anterior, la frase verbal en voz pasiva est formada por el verbo auxiliar are,
el gerundio being y el participio pasado bought.
THERE BE:
Cuando un sustantivo que representa una persona o cosa indefinida es el sujeto del verbo,
normalmente usamos la construccin THERE + BE + SUSTANTIVO. Esta construccin es
usada para expresar existencia, suceso, tomar lugar.
En el siguiente ejemplo, la expresin there are expresa la existencia de dos tipos de
categoras.
- There are two types of categories.
Hay dos tipos de categoras.
La expresin there be se puede usar en diferentes tiempos, en algunos, la construccin
formada es: There + auxiliar + be, como se puede observar en los siguientes cuadros:
TIEMPOS SINGULAR PLURAL TRADUCCIN
Presente there is there are hay
Pasado there was there were haba o hubo
Futuro there will be there will be habr
Presente perfecto there has been there have been ha habido
Pasado perfecto there had been there had been haba habido
2. Farmers are selling the surplus to others who do not produce food of their own.
- Los granjeros ________________________ el excedente a otros quienes no producen
sus propios alimentos.
EJEMPLO TRADUCCIN
A corporation has access to capital. Una corporacin tiene acceso al capital.
We have coffee at ten. Tomamos caf a las diez.
They had a party last night. Ellos dieron una fiesta anoche.
Para las formas interrogativas y negativas se acompaa con auxiliares. Por ejemplo,
EJEMPLO TRADUCCIN
I dont have an innovative method. No tengo un mtodo innovador.
Did the company have a successful year? La compaa tuvo un ao exitoso?
He will have a meeting on Monday. El tendr una reunin el Lunes.
1. Commodities have prices because they are both useful and scarce.
Los productos ______________ precios porque son tanto tiles como escasos.
En esta pregunta, el auxiliar does no se traduce y con el verbo en infinitivo yield forman el
tiempo presente simple.
- Those methods of production did not maximize the cost efficiency of the inputs.
Esos mtodos de produccin no aumentaron la eficiencia del costo de las entradas.
En esta oracin negativa, el auxiliar negado did not y el verbo en infinitivo maximize
forman el tiempo pasado simple.
2. Society must do an efficient work to get the maximum benefits from its scarce resources.
4. Rational people systematically do the best they can to achieve their objectives.
5. Both factors might influence the kind of commodities a consumer will buy.
TIEMPOS VERBALES:
Los verbos cambian su forma para mostrar el tiempo de su accin o de la idea que ellos
expresan. El tiempo expresado por un verbo (presente, pasado o futuro) es el tiempo verbal.
Los tiempos verbales estn formados por los verbos ordinarios o los verbos auxiliares
combinados con el infinitivo, el participio presente o el participio pasado de los verbos
ordinarios.
Los tiempos verbales pueden estar en voz activa o pasiva y la voz es determinada por el
tipo de sujeto que tiene la oracin.
Oraciones activas.
Las oraciones se llaman activas cuando el sujeto es el agente o autor, Danielson y Hyden
(1973). En la oracin activa, el sujeto causa la accin o se encuentra en el estado expresado
por el verbo. La oracin activa forma la siguiente construccin: alguien hizo algo, Sander
(1971).
VERBOS FRASALES:
look at = Observar
look for = Buscar
look after = Cuidar de
Algunos de estos verbos tienen varios significados, como el siguiente caso:
Plot out = Trazar, determinar, conspirar.
Aunque pueden tener un significado bsico o ms frecuente, el contexto resulta
determinante para su comprensin. Por ejemplo, en la oracin:
Economists plot out consumer preferences on graphs.
la traduccin del verbo frasal plot out es trazan, ya que expresa lo que los economistas hacen
con las preferencias del consumidor.
El significado de un verbo frasal puede ser la suma semntica de sus partes. Por ejemplo:
+
go = ir up =arriba go up = subir
El significado puede no tener relacin semntica directa con las partes. Por ejemplo:
Se conjugan como todos los verbos, pero la preposicin no vara. Por ejemplo:
Los verbos que tienen dos partculas no se pueden separar. Por ejemplo:
- The money spent added up to several thousands.
La traduccin es: El dinero gastado alcanz a varios miles.
Ejercicio: Subraye los verbos frasales y traduzca las oraciones correctamente al espaol.
1. The expert points out that consumption of salt is not very responsive to price changes.
3. A decrease in demand forces prices down and lowers the margin of profit.
4. These principles account for microeconomic phenomena such as price changes, profit
margins, and wage differences.
LISTA DE LOS VERBOS FRASALES MAS USADOS EN CONTEXTOS TCNICOS
(Con sus significados ms comunes)
Traditionally, the supply and demand model serves as the foundation of microeconomics,
along with a basic set of interrelated principles, including markets, competition, production,
cost, and distribution. Together, these principles account for microeconomic phenomena such
as price changes, profit margins, and wage differences.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The terms microeconomics and macroeconomics have their origin in the early 1930s, when
economists strove to gain an understanding of factors that created the Great Depression.
Separate mechanisms to describe the actions of individuals and aggregate populations were
first described by the Norwegian economist Ragnar Frisch (1895-1973) in 1933.
Frisch called these mechanisms "microdynamic" and "macro-dynamic." He wrote that micro-
dynamic analysis seeks to "explain in some detail the behavior of a certain section of the huge
economic mechanism" within specific parameters, while macro-dynamics gives "an account of
the whole economic system taken in its entirety."
John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946), in his seminal 1936 publication The General Theory of
Employment, Interest, and Money, established a popular scientific basis for the separate
analysis of micro- and macro-dynamic activity. Economists adopted many of Keynes's
assumptions about equilibrium, assumptions required to make the models simple enough to
work, and subsequently developed these separate methodologies into often unresolvably
dissimilar sciences.
The Dutch economist Peter de Wolff was the first to publish the term "micro-economics" in a
1941 article on the income elasticity of demand. Others began using the term in their own
works, and by the late 1950s microeconomics and macroeconomics made their way into
textbooks. Thus, the division of analysis along two different lines of assumptions about the
market was institutionalized as a central feature of the study of economic systems.
THE MARKET ECONOMY
Market economy refers to the developed, industrialized economies found throughout most of
the world, in which people specialize in the production of a limited array of goods or services
and meet their food and material needs through exchange. In market economies, because of
specialization and agricultural advances, farmers can produce far more agricultural products
than they need, which allows them to sell the surplus to others, who consequently do not have
to produce food of their own. Instead, the rest of the population can specialize in other goods,
or in services. Hence, farmers, for example, can trade agricultural products for furniture and
clothing made by people who specialize in these products and vice versa. While early
exchanges were done with bartertrading corn for clothes, for instancecontemporary
exchanges are done with money, which facilitates trade in that farmers with corn do not have
to find clothing makers seeking corn in order to obtain clothing.
As a result, a commodity that is very scarce will cost far more than a commodity that is not as
scarce, because consumers will be willing to pay more money given the small supply. In most
cases, however, when a commodity's price is high, demand will fall, because consumers will
meet their needs with alternative products. For example, if the lettuce crop is small because of
frost damage and the price of lettuce is high, consumers will buy less lettuce and more
cabbage, assuming it has a lower price. In other words, if supply exceeds demand prices
decrease and if demand exceeds supply prices will increase.
EQUILIBRIUM.
Equilibrium refers to the effect of the economic forces supply and demand in balancing each
other's influence so that there is no tendency for change. The price of a commodity will be in
equilibrium if the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied; that is, if the amount of a
commodity consumers are willing to buy equals the amount sellers are willing to supply.
Economists call the price in such a scenario the "equilibrium price" and the quantity the
"equilibrium quantity." At the equilibrium price, buyers and sellers can trade as much of a
commodity as they want.
If the price is not in equilibrium, however, quantity demanded will not equal the quantity
supplied. If the price rises above the equilibrium price, consumers will buy less of a
commodity than they would at the equilibrium price, and so supply would exceed demand.
Consequently, there would be a surplus or excess supply. Conversely, if the price falls below
the equilibrium price, the consumers will buy more of a commodity than would they would at
the equilibrium price, and so demand would exceed supply. Consequently, there would be a
shortage or excess demand.
In the long run, however, sellers and consumers may exercise changes in supply and demand:
sellers by offering more or less of a product to maximize profit, and consumers by reacting to
these changes in supply.
The common denominator for both sellers and consumers is the price mechanism. Excess
demand in the short run yields high profits, inspiring greater supply in the long run. This
increases the supply and dries up excess demand, forcing prices down and lowering the
margin of profit.
Consequently, businesses and governments must take into account the responsiveness of
demand to price changes in order to plan budgets and strategies prudently. For example, a
store cannot raise its prices arbitrarily without considering how many customers it will lose to
competitors because of the price increases.
Moreover, the perfectly competitive market prohibits any seller from earning an
extraordinarily high profit. If the goods were extremely profitable, then many new sellers
would enter the market, since there are no barriers to entry. Presumably, the new sellers would
keep prices low to attract customers and these efforts would cause established sellers to lower
their prices to compete, driving profits down to a normal level.
On the other hand, a seller that is alone in a market with no competitors is a monopoly.
Monopolies exist because they own proprietary rights to their product (for example, a
pharmaceutical company with a patented drug formula), because competition would raise
average costs in the industry (such as with electrical power distribution), or because there are
significant barriers to entry.
A monopoly will determine a price based on demand elasticity. In other words, it would lower
its price only if that would increase its total revenues. For example, electricity is very nearly a
necessity in daily life. The utilities that provide it operate in a natural monopoly (where
competition could only raise costs, rather than lower them). If they were allowed to set a high
price for electricity, demand might drop only slightly. For this reason, governments have
created regulatory agencies not only to police monopolies' costs but also to set their prices at
affordable levels.
Using these assumptions, economists plot out consumer preferences on graphs or indifference
maps to represent how consumers rank various commodities or groups of commodities. In
addition, economists attach numbers or utilities to these commodities to reflect their levels of
preference by consumers. This approach to analyzing and representing consumer preferences
enables economists to determine consumer preferences by glancing at their numbers or
utilities. For example, if commodity A has a higher number or utility than commodity B,
consumers will prefer commodity A over B.
But consumer preferences are only half the picture. Economists assume that consumers strive
to maximize the utility of their purchases. Consequently, commodity prices and consumer
income also come into play, since both factors will influence the kinds of commodities a
consumer will buy. Economists call the amount of money a consumer has to spend in a
specific period of time, such as a month, "money income." Hence, the higher the commodity
price, the smaller the quantity a consumer can purchase, regardless of consumer preferences.
The production process generally involves a variety of inputs or production factors, which
economists divide into four categories: labor services, capital goods, land, and managerial
skills. Labor services are provided by a plethora of different kinds of workers including
construction workers, doctors, farmers, lawyers, plumbers, teachers, and writers. Capital
goods refer to the equipment, goods, and other materials companies use to make their end
products and include buses, trucks, machinery, tools, wood, fuel, and grain. While all firms
need land to some extent, some enterprises such as farming and mining require land with
specific characteristics such as fertility and the presence of mineral deposits, respectively.
Finally, the production process must have people or groups of people to provide a firm with
coordination, leadership, strategy, and supervision.
Economists assume that firms attempt to coordinate the factors of production so that they can
generate commodities as efficiently as possible, which will enable them to maximize their
profits. In addition, economists use the concept of the "production function" to indicate a
firm's technical capability. A firm's production function refers to its ability to produce its
commodities efficiently and covers the relationship between labor and capital goods for a
given unit of time, for example.
The other part of the supply side is cost. Simply put, the amount paid for all the inputs such as
labor, land, and materials a firm needs to produce a specific output is the "total cost." Total
cost includes total fixed cost and total variable cost. Total fixed cost remains the same no
matter if 10 units are produced or 10,000. On the other hand, total variable cost fluctuates with
the level of production, increasing with greater production and decreasing with less
production. Firms choose methods of production that maximize the cost efficiency of the
inputs; that is, they seek the method of production with the lowest total cost to produce a
certain outputa specific quantity of a commodity. Firms achieve this efficiency by
calculating their revenues at various levels of output at minimal total costs and choosing the
level of output at which revenues exceed total cost the most.
DISTRIBUTION
Economists examine distribution in order to explain how the prices for the factors of
production are established. Therefore, distribution covers the payment of wages for labor
services as well as the rent paid for land and capital goods. Just as supply and demand
determine commodity prices, so they also determine prices of the factors of production. For
example, the supply of nuclear physicists is scarce relative to the demand, and so nuclear
physicists can earn high wages in the labor market. In contrast, unskilled general laborers are
not nearly as scarce; hence, they earn far lower wages. A number of factors determine the
supply and hence the wage differences for various job including education, training,
experience, and market structure (e.g. union versus nonunion jobs). In addition, state and
federal laws also influence the cost of labor services. For example, the federal minimum wage
guarantees that workers receive at least the federally mandated minimum hourly wage. Supply
and demand also determine levels of employment: unemployment is high when demand for
workers is low.
The cost of capital goods such as raw materials, industrial equipment, tools, and fuel also are
set by supply and demand factors, similar to those that determine commodity prices paid by
consumers.
Businesses usually use the factors of production indirectly; that is, the demand for the factors
of production is derived demand. Businesses generally do not simply hire workers and buy
raw materials for their own sake. Instead, they hire workers and buy raw materials to produce
goods, which they will sell for profit. For example, the demand of butchers stems from the
demand for meat. Hence, payment for the factors of production depends on what is being
produced.
[ John Simley ,
updated by Karl Heil ]
GLOSARIO
Obligatoria o Bsica:
- Diccionario Ingls - Espaol. Universidad de Chicago.
Complementaria:
- Close, R.A. A Reference Grammar for Students of English. Longman, 1975.
- Diccionario Econmico, Comercial, Financiero. Espaol Ingls, Ingls Espaol. Larousse
1998 Mxico
- French Johm T. (1984). You're in Bussiness! Building Business English Skills. Addison -
Wesley Publishing Company .USA.
- Ortega, Victor. Gua General de Estructuras Gramaticales del Ingls Tcnico. IUP. 1982.
_______________ El Ingls de la Tecnologa y la Ciencia. I Parte: Las Estructuras Bsicas;
UNEXPO, 1992.
- Pyle M. and Muoz M. (1986) Toefl. Preparation Guide. Cliffs Notes Incorporated. USA.
- Thomson A. and Martinet A. (1995). A. Practical English Grammar. Oxford University
Press. Hong Kong.
- Warriner J. y Griffith F. (1979) English. Grammar and Composition. Grammar and
Composition. Ed. Harcourt, Brace & World INC. USA.