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Chem Study Notes

Number of C atoms Prefix Method to remember


1 Meth MEth (only 1 me)
2 Eth kEiTH had 2 hands
3 Prop Propeller has 3 blades
4 But 4 tires on a bute ute
5 Pent Penthouse (5 rooms)
6 Hex Hexagonal =6
7 Hept Heptagon= 7
8 Oct Octopus= 8 legs

1. Fossil Fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene for the production of
other substances
1.1. Construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions as they are
encountered
1.2. Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some fractions, from
the refining of petroleum
Ethylene (ethene):
Is an important raw material for production of synthetic carbon compounds
Doesnt naturally occur in petroleum or natural gas, can be obtained
Obtaining from petroleum Obtaining from natural gas
Step 1 Fractional distillation (produces fractions) Thermal (steam) cracking produces
ethylene
(heating fraction very high temperatures in
the absence of air)
Step 2 Various alkanes, synthesised ethylene (cracking)
Equations: Zeolite catalyst
CH(g) 4CH(g)=CH(g) + CH(g) CH(g) CH(g)= CH(g) + H(g)

Catalytic cracking Thermal Cracking


NOTE
Homogenous catalyst: used in step 1, then reformed in step 2
Heterogeneous catalyst: Catalyst is a different form to reactants, No. of successful collisions
1.3. Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is readily
transformed into many useful products
Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes (carbon=carbon double bond)
Ethylene is an extremely versatile starting material for organic compounds, thus
ensuring it is readily transformable into many useful products.
Hydrogenation: Ethylene + Hydrogen
Halogenation: Ethylene + Halogen
Hydration: Ethylene + Water
Ethylene undergoes both addition and substitution reactions (C=C double bond),
although primarily it undergoes addition reactions.

Addition reactions Substitution reactions


Two new atoms (or groups) are added An atom is simply substituted for another atom
across the C=C double bond, one to each e.g. hydrogen for chlorine
carbon, so that the double bond is
replaced with singles

Examples:
CH=CH(g) + H(s) CH-CH CH=CH(g) + HCl(g) CH-
CHCl(l)
Ethylene + hydrogen Ethane ethylene + hydrochloric acid Chloroethane
1.a. identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the reactivitys of
appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water
Aim: To plan and perform an experiment to compare the reactivitys of alkanes and the
corresponding alkenes with bromine water
Chemicals:

Bromine water
o Corrosive
o Harmful Use small quantities
o Volatile of these chemicals
Cyclohexane & Cyclohexene to reduce the risks
o Organic hydrocarbons that are toxic to the
environment
Special apparatus:

Fume Cupboard
o Removes dangerous & toxic fumes
Magnetic stirrer
o Prevents contact with bromine (dangerous)
Outline of procedure:
** wear safety glasses, avoid skin contact and do NOT pollute the environment
1. Prepare a test tube with 10mL cyclohexane and label it as 1
2. Prepare a second clean test tube with 10mL cyclohexene and label it as 2
3. Add one drop of bromine water to test tube 1, and shake test tube laterally
4. Observe if bromine water discolours
5. Decide if the test is positive (discolouration in one layer) or negative (no colour change)
** the chemicals WILL form layers due to differences in density
Results:

Cyclohexane:
o After stirring the brown layer has moved from the lower (aqueous) layer to the
upper organic layer because bromine dissolves better in cyclohexane (non-polar)
than water (polar)
Cyclohexene:
o During stirring the two layers are thoroughly mixed and the brown colour begins
to fade. After stirring the aqueous & organic layers are colourless, bromine +
cyclohexane is less dense than water so that layer is at the top
Conclusion:

Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes because it is simpler to break a non-polar
carbon-carbon bond then a a polar carbon-hydrogen bond
1.4 identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made
Monomers: small molecule, which when many join together form polymers
can accommodate the additional bonds needed

Polymers: large molecule, with a large number of identical monomers joined together
**The monomers must have a structure that

Naturally occurring polymers:


o Rubber, cellulose, starch, wool and silk
to join the repeating units together.

Synthetic Polymers:
o Polyethylene, PVC, PET, polyester, nylon and rayon. (synthetic polymers
in some cases have replaced wood, cotton, paper, wool and more)
POLYMERISATION: is a chemical process by which monomers become linked to form polymers
with the assistance of heat, pressure and metal catalysts
Ethylene serves as a monomer to produce polyethylene as well as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and
polystyrene.
catalyst
n... CH=CH ~~(- CH-CH-)~~
**n is any large number used to represent other links in the chain
1.5 identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term
Addition polymerisation: the process by which monomers simply add to the growing polymer
chain, this requires an initiator to get the reaction started. There must be Carbon=Carbon
double bonds in the monomer.
**All atoms present in the monomer are present in the polymer
Stages in the production of polyethylene:
1. Initiation: A chemical called an initiator (organic peroxide) starts the reaction by opening
the double bond of the ethylene monomers. This forms an ethylene free radical. (has an
unpaired outer shell electron so is very active)
2. Propagation: The monomers to join to form a chain
3. Termination: As free radical ethylene chains combine a complete polyethylene molecule
is formed and the process stops. (is terminated)
Polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene and Teflon are well known synthetic
polymers formed by addition polymerisation

Factors affecting properties of polymers:


Length of chain:
o Longer polymer chains are stronger than those with shorter chains because
they have greater dispersion forces between them
Arrangement of chain
o When molecules are lined up and closely packed, they form crystalline
regions resulting in a stronger, less flexible polymer
Degree of branching
o More branching restricts the orderly packing arrangement and therefore
reduces the density and hardness of the polymer but increases the flexibility
Functional groups
o Polar functional groups on the monomers increases the intermolecular forces
between polymer molecules which increases hardness
Cross linking between polymer chains
o This makes the polymer very hard and difficult to melt. The covalent bonds
cannot be broken by heat without decomposing the plastic
Inclusion of additives
o Additives include pigments to give desired colour, plasticisers to soften the
material, stabilizers to increase resistance to decomposition and flame
retardants
Thermoplastics:

Thermoplastics are plastics that become soft and flexible when heated but on
cooling become harder again
Examples: polyethylene, polystyrene, PVC
They tend to consist of many long chains with weak intermolecular forces
between chains. Heating allows the chains to rearranged
Thermosetting plastics:

Thermosetting plastics are hard plastics that cannot be softened by heating after
the plastic has been formed
Examples: Bakelite, epoxy resins
In these plastics there is a significant amount of cross-linking in the form of
covalent bonds between chains
Elastomers:

Elastomers are polymers that can be stretched by applying some force but revert
to their original shape after the distorting force is over
Examples: vulcanised natural rubber, synthetic rubbers
It stretches and contracts due to overlapping chains and a degree of crosslinking
1.6 Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a commercially and
industrially important polymer
Ethylene is useful as its a starting material for addition polymerisation because it contains a
double bond and readily undergoes addition polymerisation
Stages in Production of polyethylene:

Liquid polyethylene is heated in the presence of a catalyst, the ethylene molecules join
together to form a large chain or polymer called polyethylene.
The process is terminated when two free radical polymers react to form a covalent
bond. (CHAIN TERMINATING REACTION)

Two forms of polyethylene, low density polyethylene (LDPE) and high density polyethylene
(HDPE). The difference in properties between the two forms are dependent on the degree of
branching of the polymer chains.

In LDPE the degree of branching is much greater which reduces the dispersion forces
between strands. This results in soft, flexible, low density plastics with lower melting
points.
HDPE has fewer branches which means the polymer chains can pack closer together. As
a result there are greater dispersion forces between the molecules. This gives it strength
and toughness but makes it less flexible.
The degree of branching is dependent on the conditions and catalysts in the manufacturing
process.
Production and Uses of LDPE
Production of LDPE is initiated with an organic peroxide catalyst. This produces free radicals
which attacks the double bonds in ethylene. This causes one of the double bonds to break and a
covalent bond is formed between the carbons and the radical. This resulting molecule is also a
radical which will attack another ethylene. This process continues and is a CHAIN
PROPAGATING REACTION. (The molecules can backbite which causes branching density)
Properties: Tough, flexible, non-conductor, transparent, non-reactive and reasonably
strong
Uses: Glad Wrap, Plastic bags and insulation for wires

Production and Uses of HDPE


Production of HDPE is initiated with an iconic catalyst (Ziegler-Natta catalyst- this minimises
backbiting and branching). Ethylene molecules are added to the growing polymer molecule on
the surface of the catalyst which reduces the amount of branching
Properties: Resistant to chemicals, durable and tough
Uses: childrens toys, buckets, lunch boxes, and can hold petrols and acids etc
Branching
The chain curls back
on itself so that the
radical end of the
chain removes a
hydrogen atom
(backbiting). This
leaves an unpaired
electron which will
react with an
ethylene molecule
and start a new
branch.
1.c.analyse information from secondary sources such as computer simulations, molecular
model kits or multimedia resources to model the polymerisation process
http://www.easychem.com.au/production-of-materials/fossil-fuel-products/modelling-
polymerisation

1.7 identify the following as commercially significant monomers:


vinyl chloride
styrene
by both their systematic and common names
&
1.8 describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms of their
properties
Polyvinyl chloride:
Common name of monomer: Vinyl Chloride
Systematic name: Chloroethene
Formula of monomer: CHCl
Structure of monomer:

Name of polymer: Polyvinylchloride (PVC)


Structure of polymer:
Uses of polymers: Wrapping film, vegetable oil bottles, electrical insulation, vinyl flooring, credit
card Properties:
Fire-retardant, rigid (water pipes), flexible (garden hoses), water proof, soft
Polystyrene:
Common name of monomer: Styrene (Vinyl benzene)
Systematic name: Ethenylbenzene
Formula of monomer: CHCHCH

Name of polymer: Polystyrene


Structure of polymer:
Uses of polymers: Clothes hangers, meat trays, packing foam, compact disc, toys, surfboards
Properties: Hard, clear,
brittle, durable, inert,
insulator
2. Some scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to reduce our
dependence on fossil fuels
2.1 discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained from the
petrochemical industry

Most synthetic polymers produced today are derived from fossil fuels. However these
are rapidly being used up
Biomass is an organic material derived from living organism eg crops trees & animal
dung. It can be used to produce biopolymers
Biopolymers are polymers formed from biomass for example, cellulose, starch, wool,
hair, silk and DNA
2.2 explain what is meant by a condensation polymer
A condensation polymer is a long chain formed when molecules join together and release other
small molecules as a by-product eg. Water. Condensation polymerisation involves a reaction
between two different functional groups in which a molecule of water is eliminated (one or
more atoms is lost from each monomer) and the two functional groups become linked
together. This is classified as a substitution reaction.
Condensation polymers include natural (cellulose, starch, wool and silk) and synthetic (nylon,
kevlar)
2.3 describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed
A condensation polymerisation reaction involves a monomer with a hydroxide (OH) group
reacting with a monomer that has a hydrogen (H) atom. During this reaction the OH and H are
strongly attracted to each other, and as a result break away from their original monomers and
form a water molecule. This leaves bonds opportunities available for the two monomers. The
two

monomers join and it becomes a polymer.


2.4 describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a condensation
polymer found as a major component of biomass
Glucose is the monomer that forms the polymer cellulose, glucose has a:

Hexagonal ring structure


5 carbons + 1 oxygen make up
draw O on right so it can join to the

ring
***Note: When drawing glucose

H + OH groups protrude off


the ring, while a single CHOH
group is also present off the
ring
next monomer!!

Cellulose is a major part of


biomass because it makes up
most of plants and crops.
Cellulose is made of glucose
molecules, with every second
monomer inverted.

Glucose Cellulose + Water

CH0 CH0 + H0

2.5 identify that cellulose contains


the basic carbon-chain structures
needed to build petrochemicals and
discuss its potential as a raw
material
Cellulose is a carbon chain structure,
it could be used as a raw material for
the plastics industry in two ways:
1. Keep the chain in-tact
Substitiute other atoms or groups for the H and/or OH
Therefore developing new polymers with desirable properties and new uses
o Eg Celluloid- was used for films in cinemas (was too flammable to
continue that use)
2. Break the chain into separate rings (using an enzyme called cellulose)
-glucose rings can be converted into other materials
Then repolymerise modified rings to develop new polymers with desirable
properties and new uses
o Eg. Rayon- used for creating clothes

Cellulose as a raw material for the plastics industry


Advantages Disadvantages
Renewable Expensive production compared to ethylene-based
polymers
Biodegradable (waste breaks down) Biodegradable (non-waste also breaks down)

2.a) a. use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources and
analyse progress in the recent development and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis
should name the specific enzyme(s) used or organism used to synthesise the material and an
evaluation of the use or potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties
Polyhydroxyalkanoates
Polyhydroxalkanoates are produced by bacteria
(Alcaligenes eutrphus). These bacteria are grown in
fermentation vats and fed a by-product of sugar
production (molasses). Extraction of the plastic
involves breaking down the bacterias cell wall and
separating it from the cell debris.

Advantages Disadvantages
Melted easily- moulded Expensive to produce
and shaped
Similar properties to Uneconomical as other
polypropene (Low plastics are so cheap to
density, heat resistant, manufacture
chemically inert

3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable resources such
as plants
3.1 describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a catalyst in
this process and the catalyst used
Industrially: Ethanol vapour is heater over a ceramic catalyst at 350C
Catalyst
CHOH(g) CH(g) + HO(g)
reactions because they
involve the removal of
known as dehydration
**These reactions are

Lab: Ethanol is heater with concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst


Concentrated
water molecules

HSO
CHOH(g) CH(g) + HO(g)
The concentrated HSO uses the HO; as a result more HO is
produced, which is also produced at a faster rate
3.a. process information from secondary sources such as molecular model kits, digital
technologies or computer simulations to model:
- the addition of water to ethylene
- the dehydration of ethanol
http://www.easychem.com.au/production-of-materials/renewable-ethanol/modelling-
dehydration-and-hydration

3.2 describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol and
identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used
Dilute
HSO
CH(g) + HO(g) CHOH(g)
Concentrated sulfuric acid is used as a catalyst. A catalyst is required to convert the ethanol,
which is in a stable state, to ethylene, which is reactive, at a lower temperature than otherwise
would be required.
3.3 describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and non-polar
substances
The hydroxyl (OH) end of the molecule is polar and therefore acts as a solvent for polar
substances by forming dipole-dipole forces with the solute. Hydrogen bonds can also be formed
with molecules containing H, O, N or Fl e.g. water. This makes them soluble in ethanol.
The alkyl (CHCH) end of the molecule is non-polar and therefore acts as a solvent for non-
polar substances by forming dispersion forces with the solute e.g. oils, hydrocarbons and resins.
Examples of ethanol as a solvent: cough medicine, perfumes, and varnishes
3.4 outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable resource

Ethanol can be used as a fuel because it undergoes combustion producing energy. It


undergoes combustion very similar to octane, only it combusts at a much lower
temperature.
o For example: In Brazil in the 1970s ethanol was added to petrol, engine
modifications were made and as a result cars ran off 20-25% ethanol (the
remainder was fuel). During the 1980s the majority of cars ran exclusively on
ethanol.
Ethanol is a renewable resource because it is made from plant material e.g. starch or
sugars present in sugar cane, corn, wheat, maize etc.
3.5 describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted
Carbohydrates usually glucose, sucrose or starch are used to produce ethanol in the
fermentation process. The process depends on the presence of micro-organisms called yeasts,
which produces enzymes that catalyse the conversion of glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Yeast
CHO(aq) 2CHOH(aq) + CO + heat
Conditions required:
o Anaerobic
o Between 35-40C
o Ethanol removed as it is produced as concentration above 15% will kill yeast
o CO produced must be able to escape
o Equipment must be sterile
3.6 summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process
o Crush and grind biomass (sugar cane) to expose cellulose
o Add dilute HSO to break cellulose into separate glucose units
o Neutalise solution by adding base e.g Calcium Sulphate
o Filter to remove solid wastes
o Ferment to recover solid wastes
o Ferment the resulting glucose solution which involves heating the solution to 35-40C in
anaerobic conditions and adding yeast to produce enzymes to break glucose molecules
down
o Separate ethanol by distillation
3.b. process information from secondary sources to summarise the processes involved
in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane
3.7 define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value for ethanol
from first-hand data

however more oxygen is

incomplete combustion
ethanol ie. Some water
combustion us less for
Molar heat of combustion of ethanol:

may be left in engine,

required for petrol to


burn. Petrol is more
1376kJ per mole of ethanol are released or 29.7kJ per gram

likely to undergo
Molar heat of
CHOH(l) + 3O(g) 2CO(g) + 3HO(l)
Molar heat of combustion of petrol (CH)
5470kJ per mole of petrol are released or 47.9kJ per gram
3.c. process information from secondary sources to
summarise the use of ethanol as an alternative car fuel, evaluating the success of current
usage
3.8 assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of its use
Combustion of ethanol:
CHOH(l) + 3O(g) 2CO(g) + 3HO(l)
Ethanol as a Fuel
Advantages Disadvantages
A renewable resource Large areas of land required for production of raw
materials
Produce fewer pollutants High cost of distillation
Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (carbon Molar heat of combustion is less, therefore some
monoxide as combustion is more complete) water condense which stays in the engine and leads to
corrosion
Toxic additives used in petrol to help complete Modification of engines to stainless steel is needed
combustion do not need to be used because of OH which is more expensive
group
Spills are more easily biodegraded or diluted to non- Spills are difficult to contain and recover as water
toxic concentrations blends with ethanol

3.d. solve problems, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to carry out the fermentation
of glucose and monitor mass changes
Aim: to plan an investigation that monitors the changes in mass occurring during fermentation
Apparatus:

6x 250ml conical flasks


stirring rod
incubator
Yeast
Yeast nutrients
Method:
1. Prepare a 5% glucose solution (1,500mL)
2. Place approx. 250mL of the glucose solution in each of the conical flasks
3. Label the flasks A,B,C, 1,2,3
4. Record their respective masses
5. In flasks A, B, C place 1 teaspoon of yeast and a teaspoon of yeast nutrients
6. In flasks 1, 2, 3 place a teaspoon of yeast nutrients
Results:

Original mass(g) Mass after 3 days(g) Difference(g) Average


difference(g)
A 235.31 233.39 1.92 2.27
B 256.96 254.46 2.5
C 257.84 255.44 2.4
1 242.68 242.36 0.32 0.23
2 247.39 247.16 0.23
3 233.63 233.48 0.15
Overall Average Difference: 2.043g

C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2


RATIO 1 2 2
NO. MOLES 0.02321063395 0.04642126789 0.04642126789
MOLAR MASS 180.156 46.068 44.01
MASS 4.18153497 2.138534696 2.043
Conclusion:
The fermentation of glucose produced ethanol and carbon dioxide, the loss of mass can be
accounted for by the mass of gas (CO2)
3.e. present information from secondary sources by writing a balanced equation for the
fermentation of glucose to ethanol

C6H12O6(aq) 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)


3.f identify data sources, choose resources and perform a first-hand investigation to
determine and compare heats of combustion of at least three liquid alkanols per gram and
per mole
Aim: To determine and compare the heat of combustion values for methanol, ethanol and 1-
propanol by measuring and processing calorimetry data
Apparatus:

Safety glasses
Spirit burner filled with alcohol (methanol, ethanol, propanol)
Thermometer
100mL conical flask
retort stand, bosshead, clamp
100mL measuring cylinder
electric balance
Safety:

Wear safety glasses


Experiment involves flammable fuels, review fire incident procedures
Ensure equipment is placed safely and is not endangering other students
Methanol is toxic. Avoid skin contact
Spirit burner must be capped at all times while not burning as the spirit vapours are
toxic. Always extinguish the flame by replacing the cap (never by blowing)
Procedure:
1. Transfer exactly 100mL of water into a 100mL conical flask. Immerse the thermometer,
record the initial heat of the spirit burners
2. Clamp the neck of the flask into the conical stand. Raise it high enough to fit the
methanol filled spirit burner beneath.
3. Adjust the flask to a few centimetres above the wick. Ignite the wick, adjust the height
of the conical flask so that the tip of the flame just touches the flask
4. Heat the flask until the water temperature rises by about 20C. Blow out the flame,
gently stir the flask with the thermometer. Record the starting temperature and the
final temperature.
5. Remove the spirit burner, record its mass.
6. Repeat steps 1-5 for the spirit burners containing ethanol and propanol
Data:

Quantity Methanol Ethanol Propanol


Mass of water 100g 100g 100g
Starting mass of burner 256.06g 255.67g 254.77g
Starting temperature of water 21C 21C 21C
Final temperature of water 45C 44C 43C
Calculate temp of water 24C 23C 22C
Final mass of burner 254.98g 254.90g 254.13g
Change in mass 1.08g 0.77g 0.64g
Surroundings (water) System (methanol)
M=100g M= 1.08g
C= 4.18 mm(CH3OH) = 32.042g
t= +24
h= MCT
h = 100 x 4.18 x 24 ***when you cross the line, change the
=+10032 J sign!!
-10032 J
h per gram = h mass of fuel

h per gram = 10032 1.08


= 9288.8 per gram

h per mole = h/g x mm


= 9288.8 x 32.042
= 297634.5778 J
= 298kJ per mole

Surroundings (water) System (ethanol)


M=100g M= 0.77g
C= 4.18 mm(C2H6O) = 46.068g
t= +23
h= MCT
h = 100 x 4.18 x 2 ***when you cross the line, change the
=+9614 J sign!!
-9614 J
h per gram = h mass of fuel

h per gram = 9614 0.77


= 12485.71429 per gram

h per mole = h/g x mm


= 12485.71429 x 46.068
= 5751918 J
= 575kJ per mole
Surroundings (water) System (propanol)
M=100g M= 0.64g
C= 4.18 mm(C3H7OH) = 60.094g
t= +22
h= MCT ***when you cross the line, change the
h = 100 x 4.18 x 22 sign!!
=+9196 J -9196 J

h per gram = h mass of fuel

h per gram = 9196 0.64


= 14368.75 per gram

h per mole = h/g x mm


= 14368.75 x 60.0950
= 863475.6625 J
= 863kJ per mole

Summary Methanol Ethanol Propanol


h/g 9.29kJ 12.49kJ 14.37kJ
h/mole (prac) 298kJ 575kJ 863kJ
h/mole (theory) 725kJ 1364kJ 2016kJ
Conclusion:

Therefore the longer the chain length the greater h


3.9 identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C1 to C8

Number of C atoms Prefix Method to remember


1 Meth MEth (only 1 me)
2 Eth kEiTH had 2 hands
3 Prop Propeller has 3 blades
4 But 4 tires on a bute ute
5 Pent Penthouse (5 rooms)
6 Hex Hexagonal =6
7 Hept Heptagon= 7
8 Oct Octopus= 8 legs
General Formula: CnHn + OH
Functional Group: OH
The format is:
Where the OH is located, number of carbons, number of OHs
Examples:
2 butanol

Has 4 carbons
The 2 out the front represents that the OH is off the second carbon
And the ol represents 1 OH

2 Pentanol

Has 5 carbons
The 2 out the front represents that the OH is on the second carbon
And the ol represents 1 OH

4.Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of energy


4.1 explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons
The more active metal will displace a less active metal in solution
Example: Zn(s) + Cu(aq) Zn(aq) + Cu(s)
This is because the more active metal (zinc) looses electrons and the less active metal (copper)
gains electrons. Zinc releases electrons from its outer shell, forming zinc ions and going into
solution. The electrons are accepted by the copper ions (in solution) so they become solid
copper atoms.
4.a. perform a first-hand investigation to identify the conditions under which a galvanic cell is
produced
Aim: to identify the conditions under which a galvanic cell is produced
Apparatus:

safety glasses
2x 250mL beakers
digital multimeter
2x connecting leads with alligator clips
steel wool
2x zinc electrodes
copper electrode
0.1M zinc sulphate solution
0.1M copper sulphate solution
0.1M potassium nitrate solution
paper towel
Safety:

wear safety glasses


be careful of shattered glass
be cautious of chemicals
Procedure:
1. Set up Daniell cell as shown below, ensuring the multimeter is set to DC volts
2. ** in this cell ensure the wire from the zinc connects to the negative terminal
3. The salt bridge should consist of paper towel soaked in KNO3 solution
4. Record the potential difference for this cell
5. Remove the salt bridge and record the potential difference
6. Rinsing the glassware and using a new salt bridge create a second zinc sulphate half-cell
and then connect the two identical half cells
7. Record the potential difference
EQUATIONS:

Zn(s) Zn2+ + 2e-


Cu2+ + 2e- Cu(s)
Zn(s) + Cu2+ + 2e- Zn2+ + 2e- + Cu(s)
Zn(s) + Cu2+ - Zn2+ + Cu(s)
Results:

CELL 1 CELL 2
Potential difference 1.05V 0.5V
Conclusion:
There is a difference in potential with less potential because the half-cells are now unable to
remain electrically neutral. As the negative nitrates flow to replace the lost electrons while the
potassium ions balance the arrival of electrons.
4.2 identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals
to the relative activity of metals
The greater the difference in activity between the two metals (i.e. one getting displaced and
one getting deposited) the more vigorous the displacement reaction. The more active metal
replaces the least active metal in solution.
4.b. perform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand information to measure the
difference in potential of different combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution
&
4. d. solve problems and analyse information to calculate the potential requirement of
named electrochemical processes using tables of standard potentials and half-equations
Aim: To measure the difference in potential of different combinations of metals in an
electrolyte solution and then to compare these measured differences in potential with
calculated theoretical potential differences
Apparatus:

Safety glasses
Digital multimeter
2x connecting leads
150ml beaker + Zn electrode + 1 mol L-1 ZnSO4
150mL beaker + Cu electrode + 1 mol L-1 CuSO4
150mL beaker + Pb electrode + 1 mol L-1 Pb(NO3)2 ***LABEL TOXIC***
Safety:

Lead nitrate is highly toxic, care must be taken to avoid contact with skin
Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus using two beakers filled with metallic salt solutions, a salt bridge
and two metal electrodes connected to a digital multimeter. Each trial will require a
fresh salt bridge
2. For each test record the polarity of the electrodes, the net voltage (Enet)
3. Test the Zinc (anode) and Copper (cathode) as trial 1
4. Test the Zinc (anode) and Lead (cathode) as trial 2
5. Test the Lead (anode) and Copper (cathode) as trial 3
Results:
Raw results

Trial Beaker 1 Beaker 2 Anode/Cathode Potential Difference


1 Zn + 1 mol L-1 ZnSO4 Cu + 1 mol L-1 CuSO4 ZINC / COPPER 1.08V
2 Zn + 1 mol L-1 ZnSO4 Pb + 1 mol L-1 Pb(NO3)2 ZINC / LEAD 0.60V
3 Cu +1 mol L-1 CuSO4 Pb + 1 mol L-1 Pb(NO3)2 LEAD / COPPER 0.47V

Reaction equations

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3


The oxidation half equation including Eox
Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e- Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e- Pb(s) Pb2+(aq) + 2e-
**+0.76v** **+0.76v** **+0.13v**
The reduction half equation including Ered
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s) Pb2+(aq) + 2e- Pb(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)
**0.52v** **-0.13v** **0.34v**
Net ionic equation with calculate Enet
Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s)Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq) Zn(s) + Pb2+(aq) Pb(s) + Zn2+(aq) Pb(s) + Cu2+(aq)Pb2+(aq) + Cu(s)
**1.10v** **0.63v** **0.47v**

Comparison of theoretical and measured Enet

{[(theoretical experimental) theoretical] x 100}


TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 TRIAL 3
2% 7% 0%

Conclusion:

There are some small differences in the Enet produced between these cells, this occurs due to
the differences in each substances standard reduction potential. When comparing between the
theoretical and measured Enet values there were small inconsistencies, this may be due to not
being at standard temperature and pressure, having high voltage loss due to resistance and
contamination.
4.3 account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of
electrons
The oxidation state is the number assigned to a species (atom, ion etc) according to a set of
rules.
Summary of the rules:

The oxidation states equals the change on a substance


The change on atoms and molecules is zero
For Ions and Polyatomic ions the oxidation state is equal to the charge on the ion
For hydrogen not in the elemental form the oxidation state is always +1
o Except when combined with metals hydrogen is -1
For oxygen not in elemental state the oxidation state is always -2
o Except when in a peroxide, oxygen is -1
If a substance oxidises (loses electrons), its oxidation state increases.
If a substance reduces (gains electrons), its oxidation state decreases.
Reduction Oxidation

Oxidation State
4.c. gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a dry cell or lead-acid
cell and evaluate it in comparison to one of the following:
- button cell
- fuel cell
- vanadium redox cell
- lithium cell
- liquid junction photovoltaic device (eg the Gratzel cell)
in terms of:
- chemistry
- cost and practicality
- impact on society
- environmental impact
Dry Cell:

Alkaline battery

Chemistry:

Steel case lined with Magnesium Dioxide + Carbon


(Cathode),
Porous paper separates the cathode and the anode,
yet still allows the passage of ions,
powdered Zinc is within the centre of the battery
(anode).
Electrolyte (sodium hydroxide +water) allows ions
to be in solution, which allows them to move and
complete the circuit.
The brass pin in the centre acts as an electron
collector and conductor
1. Electrons are attracted to the positive terminal,
and must flow to the brass pin and through the
external circuit before entering into the
cathode and being distributed

Cost and Practicality Societal impacts Environmental impacts


- Cheap - Allowed the development - Leaked magnesium forms
- Portable (small + of portable electronic magnesium oxide and
lightweight) equipment (eg clocks & small amounts of zinc
- Safe radios) ions which arent too
- Available in many sizes - Short-shelf life (thrown toxic
away soon) - Sodium hydroxide
- Voltage doesnt last long however is a strong base
and very corrosive
- Not rechargeable
Fuel Cell:

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)

Chemistry:

Stacks of plates (flow field plates) covered in tiny


channels (to ensure even contact with surface
catalyst) and coated with platinum
oxygen from the external atmosphere is pumped
into one side of the plate(cathode) and hydrogen
is fed into the other side(anode)
As the hydrogen comes into contact with the
plates, the platinum causes the proton and
electron to split, the proton can move through the
membrane (attracted to O22). The electron cannot
pass through and must go around the plate and
through an external circuit to re-join the proton on
the other side of the membrane forming H2O as a
waste

Cost and Practicality Societal impacts Environmental impacts


- Expensive (platinum) - Explosive hydrogen - Waste product is water
- Lightweight and portable - Must have storage space - Reusable
- Works at a low for hydrogen - Very environmentally
temperature 80C - Light, and can power an friendly
- Can power cars entire car
- High power low weight

4.4 describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions


A galvanic cell is a redox reaction in which the reactants are physically separated so that the
transferred electrons can be passed through a circuit.
The more active metal becomes the anode and releases electrons (therefore oxidising or acting
as a reductant), the electrons flow through the external wire and to the cathode (therefore
reducing or acting as an oxidant)
4.5 outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron flow
The construction of a galvanic cell
involves placing two electrodes in two
separate electrolyte solutions. These
electrodes are then connected using a
wire that runs through an external
circuit (this allows the power to be
utilised). A salt bridge connects the
two electrolytes providing a complete
circuit and balancing the
electronegative charges.

4.6 define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to describe galvanic cells
Electrode: Divide which carries electricity into and out of the electrolyte
Anode: The negatively charged electrode. This is where oxidation takes place
Cathode: The positively charged electrode. This is where reduction takes place
Electrolyte: A conducting solution containing the same metal as the electrode
Conditions:

Two half cells containing an electrode in an electrolyte solution


While connecting 2 electrodes which allows electron flow
Salt bridge connecting 2 electrolytes which allows ions to travel and equalise change
5. Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials
Background:

-Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons, but the same number of
protons

-Isotopes are written in the following form:


A
ZM

A= Atomic mass (no. of nucleons)

Z= Atomic number (no. of protons) M= element symbol

-Nucleons represent protons and neutrons

-Radioactive isotypes can emmit three types of radiation

- The time for the radioactivity level from a given amount of radioactive isotope to be halved
is called its half-life
5.1 distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under
which a nucleus is unstable
Stable and Radioactive Isotopes:
- In a stable isotype nucleus, the protons and neutrons are in a low energy level and do not
emmit radiation
- Radioactive isotopes are unstable. They emit radiation as they spontaneously release
energy. This is called radioactive decay
- The stability depends on two conditions:
Atomic Number: All nuclei with an atomic number greater than 83 are radioactive
Proton-Neutron Ratio: The ratio of protons to neutrons determines whether an atom
will be stable or not. Anything outside the ratios below is radioactive
Z > 20 the stable ratio of protons to neutrons is 1:1
Z arorund 30 the stable ratio 1:1.3
Z around 80 the stable ratio is 1:1.5
This graph shows different radioactive isotyopes and how they occur

Region A: (Neutron: Proton ratio too high):


-Problem: Too many neutrons, too few protons
-Solution: Change neutron into a proton by
particle emission. Neutron converts to proton and
electron is given off -
eg 0N +1P + -1 , 6C -1 + 7N
1 1 0 14 0 14

Region B: (Neutron: Proton ratio too low)


-Problem: Too few neutrons/ too many
protons
-Solution: proton decay change a proton into
neutron called positron emission or positive
decay
-eg 1+1P 0-1 N + 0+1 , 3819K 0+1 + 3818Ar

Region C: (Atomic no. >82)

-Problem: too many nucleons-Solution: loose nucleons by particle emissions


- particle = Helium nucleus -
eg. 93892U 42He + 23490Th
Alternate Solution: Electron Capture
Electron capture is a type of radioactive decay where the nucleus of an atom absorbs an
electron and converts a proton into a neutron . This process reduces the atomic number by 1
and emits gamma radiation and a neutrino.
1
+1P + 0-1e 10N
eg 20180Hg + 0-1 e 20179 Au
GAMMA RADIATION: ( radiation/ energy)
Accompanies most forms of radiation decay. The gamma rays carry off excess energy from the
newly formed daughter nucleus

5.2.describe how transuranic elements are produced


Nuclear transformation or transmission is the change of one element into another, this
involves a change in nuclear composition
Transuranic elements:

Transuranic elements are elements with atomic numbers greater than Uranium
(the largest naturally occurring isotope Z = 92)
So all transuranic elements are artificially produced by either neutron
bombardment or fusion reactions
Neutron Bombardment:
o Achieved in a nuclear reactor
o A target is bombarded with neutrons to produce a radioactive species with
extra neutrons in the nucleus
o This target (isotope) is unstable as it has too many neutrons. As a result it
undergoes particle emission
o Eg 23892U + 10N 23992U 23993Np + 0-1e
Fusion Reactions:
o Achieved in an accelerator
o This can be used to produce larger transuranic elements
o Positive particles (helium or carbon nuclei) are fired at a heavy nucleus (ie
uranium). The particles must be fired at very high speeds to vercome the
positive force of repulsion
o Eg 23892U +126C 24698 Cf + 4(10n)
5. a.process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of elements
1) Ununhexium
(a) Element 116
(b) Synthesised in December 2000, by the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
(Dubna Russia)
(c) Produced by the fusion of Currium 248 and Calcium 48
2) Ununpentium
(a) Element 115
(b) Synthesised in February 2004, by the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
(Dubna Russia) and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (California
US)
(c) Produced by the fusion of Americium 243 and Calcium 48
3) Ununoctium
(a) Element 118
(b) Synthesised in February 2002, by the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
(Dubna Russia) and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (California
US)
(c) Produced by the fusion of Californium 249 with Calcium 48
(d) Heaviest atom known to man

5.3.describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced


Commercial radioisotopes are isotopes that are produced on a regular basis for medical
industrial or other uses. Many are produced by neutron bombardment which produces
neutron rich isotopes. Others are produced by fusion reactions, in particular
accelerators, which produce neutron different isotopes
5.4.identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation
Photographic Film:
Radiation has the same effect on film as light
The degree of darkening on the film increases with the length of exposure and
the intensity of the radiation
Geiger-Muller Tube:
Contains a gas (often Argon) that ionizes as radiation passes through
Consists of a sealed metal tube, filled with gas and with electrodes at either end.
The gas inside the tube is ionised (separated into positive ions and free electrons)
by radiation entering the tube
This causes a current to flow through the attached circuit which has a recording
device included
Thermo-luminescent Dosimeter (TLD):
Measures exposure to gamma radiation
Consists of a badge that contains crystals of inorganic salt that absorbs the
radiation, when these crystals are heated the energy they have gained from
radiation is released as light. The intensity of the light gives a measure of the
radiation received
Scintillation Counter:
Uses phosphorescent substances eg NaI to record radiation exposure
The electrons in these substances are energised (excited) by the radiation and
thus move to orbit in a higher energy level
When they return to their usual orbit they give out photons of light. The flashes
of light are changed to a pulse of electricity which can be recorded
5.5 identify one use of a named radioisotope:
-In industry
-In medicine
&
5.6 describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical radioisotopes are
used and explain their use in terms of their properties

Industry:
Cobalt-60:
Use: used in industry radiography to inspect metal parts and welds for defects
Function: Beams of radiation are directed at the object to be studied from a sealed
source of cobalt-60. Radiographic film on the opposite side of the metal is exposed
when it is struck by the gamma rays passing through the metal. The radiographic film
darkens when exposed to gamma rays. Therefore if sections of the film appear
darker more gamma rays have passed through the metal which indicates flaws or
cracks
Property suitable for application: It is an emitter of gamma rays which will penetrate
metal parts
Advantages: Cobalt-60 has a chemical half-life of 5.3years and is chemically inert.
This enable the equipment to have a long lifetime and not require regular
maintenance
Disadvantages: emits gamma radiation, workers must be protected
Medicine:
Technetium-99m:
Use: a cancer diagnostic tool (identifies tumour location)
Function: Technetium-99m is bonded to an organic compound and inserted into the
body. It is metastable (denoted by the m) this means that its nucleus is in an excited
state. It releases radiation which is then detected by imaging machinery and used to
to diagnose diseases and locate tumours
Property suitable for application: Can be changed into a number of oxidation states,
which allows for the production of a wide range of biologically active chemicals
-It can be bonded to an organic substance such as glucose and injected into the body
-emits low energy gamma rays
-short half-life of 6 hours
-quickly eliminated from the body
Advantages: It has a very short half-life of six hours and hence emits a minimal dose
within the patients tissues. It emits low energy gamma radiation that can be
detected by machinery yet does not damage cells to a great extent
Disadvantages: Due to its short half-life it must be continuously produced. Healthy
cells may also be killed or damaged
5.b.use available evidence to analyse benefits and problems associated with the use
of radioactive isotopes in identified industries and medicine
BENEFITS OF RADIOISOTOPES:
In industry:
Ability to make monitoring equipment that is more sensitive, precise and
reliable
More efficient processes
Achieves tasks that were previously impossible
In medicine:
Newer range of non-invasive diagnostic techniques that would previously
have been impossible on sensitive organs
Radiation therapy
PROBLEMS WITH RADIOISOPOES:
Nuclear reactors, which are the source of neutrons, produce considerable
amounts of nuclear waste, which we have no way of disposing safely and which
lasts for years
Storage of radioactive substances is difficult
Workers must be continually protected and advised any form of radiation
Doses of radiotherapy must be controlled carefully

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