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1. Fossil Fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene for the production of
other substances
1.1. Construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions as they are
encountered
1.2. Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some fractions, from
the refining of petroleum
Ethylene (ethene):
Is an important raw material for production of synthetic carbon compounds
Doesnt naturally occur in petroleum or natural gas, can be obtained
Obtaining from petroleum Obtaining from natural gas
Step 1 Fractional distillation (produces fractions) Thermal (steam) cracking produces
ethylene
(heating fraction very high temperatures in
the absence of air)
Step 2 Various alkanes, synthesised ethylene (cracking)
Equations: Zeolite catalyst
CH(g) 4CH(g)=CH(g) + CH(g) CH(g) CH(g)= CH(g) + H(g)
Examples:
CH=CH(g) + H(s) CH-CH CH=CH(g) + HCl(g) CH-
CHCl(l)
Ethylene + hydrogen Ethane ethylene + hydrochloric acid Chloroethane
1.a. identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the reactivitys of
appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water
Aim: To plan and perform an experiment to compare the reactivitys of alkanes and the
corresponding alkenes with bromine water
Chemicals:
Bromine water
o Corrosive
o Harmful Use small quantities
o Volatile of these chemicals
Cyclohexane & Cyclohexene to reduce the risks
o Organic hydrocarbons that are toxic to the
environment
Special apparatus:
Fume Cupboard
o Removes dangerous & toxic fumes
Magnetic stirrer
o Prevents contact with bromine (dangerous)
Outline of procedure:
** wear safety glasses, avoid skin contact and do NOT pollute the environment
1. Prepare a test tube with 10mL cyclohexane and label it as 1
2. Prepare a second clean test tube with 10mL cyclohexene and label it as 2
3. Add one drop of bromine water to test tube 1, and shake test tube laterally
4. Observe if bromine water discolours
5. Decide if the test is positive (discolouration in one layer) or negative (no colour change)
** the chemicals WILL form layers due to differences in density
Results:
Cyclohexane:
o After stirring the brown layer has moved from the lower (aqueous) layer to the
upper organic layer because bromine dissolves better in cyclohexane (non-polar)
than water (polar)
Cyclohexene:
o During stirring the two layers are thoroughly mixed and the brown colour begins
to fade. After stirring the aqueous & organic layers are colourless, bromine +
cyclohexane is less dense than water so that layer is at the top
Conclusion:
Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes because it is simpler to break a non-polar
carbon-carbon bond then a a polar carbon-hydrogen bond
1.4 identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made
Monomers: small molecule, which when many join together form polymers
can accommodate the additional bonds needed
Polymers: large molecule, with a large number of identical monomers joined together
**The monomers must have a structure that
Synthetic Polymers:
o Polyethylene, PVC, PET, polyester, nylon and rayon. (synthetic polymers
in some cases have replaced wood, cotton, paper, wool and more)
POLYMERISATION: is a chemical process by which monomers become linked to form polymers
with the assistance of heat, pressure and metal catalysts
Ethylene serves as a monomer to produce polyethylene as well as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and
polystyrene.
catalyst
n... CH=CH ~~(- CH-CH-)~~
**n is any large number used to represent other links in the chain
1.5 identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term
Addition polymerisation: the process by which monomers simply add to the growing polymer
chain, this requires an initiator to get the reaction started. There must be Carbon=Carbon
double bonds in the monomer.
**All atoms present in the monomer are present in the polymer
Stages in the production of polyethylene:
1. Initiation: A chemical called an initiator (organic peroxide) starts the reaction by opening
the double bond of the ethylene monomers. This forms an ethylene free radical. (has an
unpaired outer shell electron so is very active)
2. Propagation: The monomers to join to form a chain
3. Termination: As free radical ethylene chains combine a complete polyethylene molecule
is formed and the process stops. (is terminated)
Polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene and Teflon are well known synthetic
polymers formed by addition polymerisation
Thermoplastics are plastics that become soft and flexible when heated but on
cooling become harder again
Examples: polyethylene, polystyrene, PVC
They tend to consist of many long chains with weak intermolecular forces
between chains. Heating allows the chains to rearranged
Thermosetting plastics:
Thermosetting plastics are hard plastics that cannot be softened by heating after
the plastic has been formed
Examples: Bakelite, epoxy resins
In these plastics there is a significant amount of cross-linking in the form of
covalent bonds between chains
Elastomers:
Elastomers are polymers that can be stretched by applying some force but revert
to their original shape after the distorting force is over
Examples: vulcanised natural rubber, synthetic rubbers
It stretches and contracts due to overlapping chains and a degree of crosslinking
1.6 Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a commercially and
industrially important polymer
Ethylene is useful as its a starting material for addition polymerisation because it contains a
double bond and readily undergoes addition polymerisation
Stages in Production of polyethylene:
Liquid polyethylene is heated in the presence of a catalyst, the ethylene molecules join
together to form a large chain or polymer called polyethylene.
The process is terminated when two free radical polymers react to form a covalent
bond. (CHAIN TERMINATING REACTION)
Two forms of polyethylene, low density polyethylene (LDPE) and high density polyethylene
(HDPE). The difference in properties between the two forms are dependent on the degree of
branching of the polymer chains.
In LDPE the degree of branching is much greater which reduces the dispersion forces
between strands. This results in soft, flexible, low density plastics with lower melting
points.
HDPE has fewer branches which means the polymer chains can pack closer together. As
a result there are greater dispersion forces between the molecules. This gives it strength
and toughness but makes it less flexible.
The degree of branching is dependent on the conditions and catalysts in the manufacturing
process.
Production and Uses of LDPE
Production of LDPE is initiated with an organic peroxide catalyst. This produces free radicals
which attacks the double bonds in ethylene. This causes one of the double bonds to break and a
covalent bond is formed between the carbons and the radical. This resulting molecule is also a
radical which will attack another ethylene. This process continues and is a CHAIN
PROPAGATING REACTION. (The molecules can backbite which causes branching density)
Properties: Tough, flexible, non-conductor, transparent, non-reactive and reasonably
strong
Uses: Glad Wrap, Plastic bags and insulation for wires
Most synthetic polymers produced today are derived from fossil fuels. However these
are rapidly being used up
Biomass is an organic material derived from living organism eg crops trees & animal
dung. It can be used to produce biopolymers
Biopolymers are polymers formed from biomass for example, cellulose, starch, wool,
hair, silk and DNA
2.2 explain what is meant by a condensation polymer
A condensation polymer is a long chain formed when molecules join together and release other
small molecules as a by-product eg. Water. Condensation polymerisation involves a reaction
between two different functional groups in which a molecule of water is eliminated (one or
more atoms is lost from each monomer) and the two functional groups become linked
together. This is classified as a substitution reaction.
Condensation polymers include natural (cellulose, starch, wool and silk) and synthetic (nylon,
kevlar)
2.3 describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed
A condensation polymerisation reaction involves a monomer with a hydroxide (OH) group
reacting with a monomer that has a hydrogen (H) atom. During this reaction the OH and H are
strongly attracted to each other, and as a result break away from their original monomers and
form a water molecule. This leaves bonds opportunities available for the two monomers. The
two
ring
***Note: When drawing glucose
CH0 CH0 + H0
2.a) a. use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources and
analyse progress in the recent development and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis
should name the specific enzyme(s) used or organism used to synthesise the material and an
evaluation of the use or potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties
Polyhydroxyalkanoates
Polyhydroxalkanoates are produced by bacteria
(Alcaligenes eutrphus). These bacteria are grown in
fermentation vats and fed a by-product of sugar
production (molasses). Extraction of the plastic
involves breaking down the bacterias cell wall and
separating it from the cell debris.
Advantages Disadvantages
Melted easily- moulded Expensive to produce
and shaped
Similar properties to Uneconomical as other
polypropene (Low plastics are so cheap to
density, heat resistant, manufacture
chemically inert
3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable resources such
as plants
3.1 describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a catalyst in
this process and the catalyst used
Industrially: Ethanol vapour is heater over a ceramic catalyst at 350C
Catalyst
CHOH(g) CH(g) + HO(g)
reactions because they
involve the removal of
known as dehydration
**These reactions are
HSO
CHOH(g) CH(g) + HO(g)
The concentrated HSO uses the HO; as a result more HO is
produced, which is also produced at a faster rate
3.a. process information from secondary sources such as molecular model kits, digital
technologies or computer simulations to model:
- the addition of water to ethylene
- the dehydration of ethanol
http://www.easychem.com.au/production-of-materials/renewable-ethanol/modelling-
dehydration-and-hydration
3.2 describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol and
identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used
Dilute
HSO
CH(g) + HO(g) CHOH(g)
Concentrated sulfuric acid is used as a catalyst. A catalyst is required to convert the ethanol,
which is in a stable state, to ethylene, which is reactive, at a lower temperature than otherwise
would be required.
3.3 describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and non-polar
substances
The hydroxyl (OH) end of the molecule is polar and therefore acts as a solvent for polar
substances by forming dipole-dipole forces with the solute. Hydrogen bonds can also be formed
with molecules containing H, O, N or Fl e.g. water. This makes them soluble in ethanol.
The alkyl (CHCH) end of the molecule is non-polar and therefore acts as a solvent for non-
polar substances by forming dispersion forces with the solute e.g. oils, hydrocarbons and resins.
Examples of ethanol as a solvent: cough medicine, perfumes, and varnishes
3.4 outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable resource
incomplete combustion
ethanol ie. Some water
combustion us less for
Molar heat of combustion of ethanol:
likely to undergo
Molar heat of
CHOH(l) + 3O(g) 2CO(g) + 3HO(l)
Molar heat of combustion of petrol (CH)
5470kJ per mole of petrol are released or 47.9kJ per gram
3.c. process information from secondary sources to
summarise the use of ethanol as an alternative car fuel, evaluating the success of current
usage
3.8 assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of its use
Combustion of ethanol:
CHOH(l) + 3O(g) 2CO(g) + 3HO(l)
Ethanol as a Fuel
Advantages Disadvantages
A renewable resource Large areas of land required for production of raw
materials
Produce fewer pollutants High cost of distillation
Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (carbon Molar heat of combustion is less, therefore some
monoxide as combustion is more complete) water condense which stays in the engine and leads to
corrosion
Toxic additives used in petrol to help complete Modification of engines to stainless steel is needed
combustion do not need to be used because of OH which is more expensive
group
Spills are more easily biodegraded or diluted to non- Spills are difficult to contain and recover as water
toxic concentrations blends with ethanol
3.d. solve problems, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to carry out the fermentation
of glucose and monitor mass changes
Aim: to plan an investigation that monitors the changes in mass occurring during fermentation
Apparatus:
Safety glasses
Spirit burner filled with alcohol (methanol, ethanol, propanol)
Thermometer
100mL conical flask
retort stand, bosshead, clamp
100mL measuring cylinder
electric balance
Safety:
Has 4 carbons
The 2 out the front represents that the OH is off the second carbon
And the ol represents 1 OH
2 Pentanol
Has 5 carbons
The 2 out the front represents that the OH is on the second carbon
And the ol represents 1 OH
safety glasses
2x 250mL beakers
digital multimeter
2x connecting leads with alligator clips
steel wool
2x zinc electrodes
copper electrode
0.1M zinc sulphate solution
0.1M copper sulphate solution
0.1M potassium nitrate solution
paper towel
Safety:
CELL 1 CELL 2
Potential difference 1.05V 0.5V
Conclusion:
There is a difference in potential with less potential because the half-cells are now unable to
remain electrically neutral. As the negative nitrates flow to replace the lost electrons while the
potassium ions balance the arrival of electrons.
4.2 identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals
to the relative activity of metals
The greater the difference in activity between the two metals (i.e. one getting displaced and
one getting deposited) the more vigorous the displacement reaction. The more active metal
replaces the least active metal in solution.
4.b. perform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand information to measure the
difference in potential of different combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution
&
4. d. solve problems and analyse information to calculate the potential requirement of
named electrochemical processes using tables of standard potentials and half-equations
Aim: To measure the difference in potential of different combinations of metals in an
electrolyte solution and then to compare these measured differences in potential with
calculated theoretical potential differences
Apparatus:
Safety glasses
Digital multimeter
2x connecting leads
150ml beaker + Zn electrode + 1 mol L-1 ZnSO4
150mL beaker + Cu electrode + 1 mol L-1 CuSO4
150mL beaker + Pb electrode + 1 mol L-1 Pb(NO3)2 ***LABEL TOXIC***
Safety:
Lead nitrate is highly toxic, care must be taken to avoid contact with skin
Procedure:
1. Set up the apparatus using two beakers filled with metallic salt solutions, a salt bridge
and two metal electrodes connected to a digital multimeter. Each trial will require a
fresh salt bridge
2. For each test record the polarity of the electrodes, the net voltage (Enet)
3. Test the Zinc (anode) and Copper (cathode) as trial 1
4. Test the Zinc (anode) and Lead (cathode) as trial 2
5. Test the Lead (anode) and Copper (cathode) as trial 3
Results:
Raw results
Reaction equations
Conclusion:
There are some small differences in the Enet produced between these cells, this occurs due to
the differences in each substances standard reduction potential. When comparing between the
theoretical and measured Enet values there were small inconsistencies, this may be due to not
being at standard temperature and pressure, having high voltage loss due to resistance and
contamination.
4.3 account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of
electrons
The oxidation state is the number assigned to a species (atom, ion etc) according to a set of
rules.
Summary of the rules:
Oxidation State
4.c. gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a dry cell or lead-acid
cell and evaluate it in comparison to one of the following:
- button cell
- fuel cell
- vanadium redox cell
- lithium cell
- liquid junction photovoltaic device (eg the Gratzel cell)
in terms of:
- chemistry
- cost and practicality
- impact on society
- environmental impact
Dry Cell:
Alkaline battery
Chemistry:
Chemistry:
4.6 define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to describe galvanic cells
Electrode: Divide which carries electricity into and out of the electrolyte
Anode: The negatively charged electrode. This is where oxidation takes place
Cathode: The positively charged electrode. This is where reduction takes place
Electrolyte: A conducting solution containing the same metal as the electrode
Conditions:
-Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons, but the same number of
protons
- The time for the radioactivity level from a given amount of radioactive isotope to be halved
is called its half-life
5.1 distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under
which a nucleus is unstable
Stable and Radioactive Isotopes:
- In a stable isotype nucleus, the protons and neutrons are in a low energy level and do not
emmit radiation
- Radioactive isotopes are unstable. They emit radiation as they spontaneously release
energy. This is called radioactive decay
- The stability depends on two conditions:
Atomic Number: All nuclei with an atomic number greater than 83 are radioactive
Proton-Neutron Ratio: The ratio of protons to neutrons determines whether an atom
will be stable or not. Anything outside the ratios below is radioactive
Z > 20 the stable ratio of protons to neutrons is 1:1
Z arorund 30 the stable ratio 1:1.3
Z around 80 the stable ratio is 1:1.5
This graph shows different radioactive isotyopes and how they occur
Transuranic elements are elements with atomic numbers greater than Uranium
(the largest naturally occurring isotope Z = 92)
So all transuranic elements are artificially produced by either neutron
bombardment or fusion reactions
Neutron Bombardment:
o Achieved in a nuclear reactor
o A target is bombarded with neutrons to produce a radioactive species with
extra neutrons in the nucleus
o This target (isotope) is unstable as it has too many neutrons. As a result it
undergoes particle emission
o Eg 23892U + 10N 23992U 23993Np + 0-1e
Fusion Reactions:
o Achieved in an accelerator
o This can be used to produce larger transuranic elements
o Positive particles (helium or carbon nuclei) are fired at a heavy nucleus (ie
uranium). The particles must be fired at very high speeds to vercome the
positive force of repulsion
o Eg 23892U +126C 24698 Cf + 4(10n)
5. a.process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of elements
1) Ununhexium
(a) Element 116
(b) Synthesised in December 2000, by the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
(Dubna Russia)
(c) Produced by the fusion of Currium 248 and Calcium 48
2) Ununpentium
(a) Element 115
(b) Synthesised in February 2004, by the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
(Dubna Russia) and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (California
US)
(c) Produced by the fusion of Americium 243 and Calcium 48
3) Ununoctium
(a) Element 118
(b) Synthesised in February 2002, by the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research
(Dubna Russia) and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (California
US)
(c) Produced by the fusion of Californium 249 with Calcium 48
(d) Heaviest atom known to man
Industry:
Cobalt-60:
Use: used in industry radiography to inspect metal parts and welds for defects
Function: Beams of radiation are directed at the object to be studied from a sealed
source of cobalt-60. Radiographic film on the opposite side of the metal is exposed
when it is struck by the gamma rays passing through the metal. The radiographic film
darkens when exposed to gamma rays. Therefore if sections of the film appear
darker more gamma rays have passed through the metal which indicates flaws or
cracks
Property suitable for application: It is an emitter of gamma rays which will penetrate
metal parts
Advantages: Cobalt-60 has a chemical half-life of 5.3years and is chemically inert.
This enable the equipment to have a long lifetime and not require regular
maintenance
Disadvantages: emits gamma radiation, workers must be protected
Medicine:
Technetium-99m:
Use: a cancer diagnostic tool (identifies tumour location)
Function: Technetium-99m is bonded to an organic compound and inserted into the
body. It is metastable (denoted by the m) this means that its nucleus is in an excited
state. It releases radiation which is then detected by imaging machinery and used to
to diagnose diseases and locate tumours
Property suitable for application: Can be changed into a number of oxidation states,
which allows for the production of a wide range of biologically active chemicals
-It can be bonded to an organic substance such as glucose and injected into the body
-emits low energy gamma rays
-short half-life of 6 hours
-quickly eliminated from the body
Advantages: It has a very short half-life of six hours and hence emits a minimal dose
within the patients tissues. It emits low energy gamma radiation that can be
detected by machinery yet does not damage cells to a great extent
Disadvantages: Due to its short half-life it must be continuously produced. Healthy
cells may also be killed or damaged
5.b.use available evidence to analyse benefits and problems associated with the use
of radioactive isotopes in identified industries and medicine
BENEFITS OF RADIOISOTOPES:
In industry:
Ability to make monitoring equipment that is more sensitive, precise and
reliable
More efficient processes
Achieves tasks that were previously impossible
In medicine:
Newer range of non-invasive diagnostic techniques that would previously
have been impossible on sensitive organs
Radiation therapy
PROBLEMS WITH RADIOISOPOES:
Nuclear reactors, which are the source of neutrons, produce considerable
amounts of nuclear waste, which we have no way of disposing safely and which
lasts for years
Storage of radioactive substances is difficult
Workers must be continually protected and advised any form of radiation
Doses of radiotherapy must be controlled carefully