Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
1. Role players
Role of Government
Local Government
Development control and role of public
Innovation in policy
2. Role of Government
Involved in development and planning of facilities from earliest times for the following reasons:
Govern the safety of travellers
Avoidance of damage of roads by vehicles
Provide maintenance of roads
Finance of road construction and maintenance
Regulation of monopolies
The above is enforced through legislation. During early 1800s government got involved.
Proper planning of facilities did not take place. Earliest attempts by governments to plan
transportation facilities were related to military requirements. (Roman Empires roads: All roads
lead to Rome.)
Government plans and co-ordinates the construction and maintenance of national roads and
related facilities.
In motivating the necessity of a new road-facility, predictions can be made of the benefits that
flow from transport schemes in terms of the hypothetical savings to travellers, etc. These values
are then compared to the costs of undertaking the project.
2.5 Funding
Central government's Department of Finance distributes funds. They determine which projects
are more important, allocates funds accordingly. Spending takes place through public tender.
3. Local of Government
Local Government is rather similar to Central Government in its approach to planning and
funding of facilities. Funds are divided according to the importance of the projects. Funding is
also applied through public tender. Maintenance can be done by council (departmental) or in
combination with contractors.
1 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 14 Transportation Planning)
Notice is (normally) given of any new facilities to be developed; public have the opportunity to
comment:- directly by letter, or through public forum; or at council meetings through
representatives.
In South Africa only residential streets are privately developed as part of a residential suburb.
The developer (private company) has to submit detailed plans of the intended development.
The following criteria will apply:
The minimum standards must be according to the applicable standards for the type of
development, and as specified by the local authority.
The proposed development must adhere to the structure plan and policies (if any is in
existence).
Representatives of the city engineer will attend all site meeting and will pay regular
inspection-visits to the site.
Estimates of the expected traffic must be forecasted to ensure that access routes and streets
will be sufficient.
Appropriate access routes to existing routes must be provided without causing an upset to
the average traffic-flow.
Visibility and safety measures at intersections must adhere to standards.
The need for public transport for the new development must be estimated at the planning
stage and sufficient turn-arounds and stops must be provided; parallel services must be
prevented as far as possible (e.g. a bus service where a light rail station exists, or where a
well-established taxi-service exists).
Land- and ecological-factors must be considered.
5. Innovation in Policy
Authorities have over the years realised that certain facilities can be better managed when done
so by private enterprise. The advantages of privatisation are:
A reduced financial burden on the taxpayer.
A shared responsibility on the maintenance of the facility.
Local authorities have also realised that business forces dictate that land-use zoning has to be
adapted to allow for small business to be established where the need for such businesses exist.
It means that residential sites can be changed to accommodate offices and other types of
business that does not generate any disturbance to the surrounding residents. Examples are:
Streets changed into walkways or shopping boulevards (Church Street, Pretoria)
Businesses are allowed to establish in residential areas (along Pretorius, Schoeman and
Duncan Streets in Pretoria).
2 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 14 Transportation Planning)
6. Route determination
1. For the highway to serve its function of allowing convenient, continuous, free-flowing
traffic operation, locate it where it can best meet the major traffic desire lines and be as
direct as possible.
2. Keep grades and curvature to the minimum necessary to satisfy the service
requirements.
3. Avoid sudden changes in sight distance, especially near junctions.
4. Avoid having a sharp horizontal curve on or adjacent to a pronounced vertical curve.
5. In urban areas site the highway through undeveloped or blighted areas, along the edges
of large parklands and, in general, away from highly developed, expensive land areas.
6. In urban areas locate the highway as close as possible to the principal parking terminals.
7. In rural areas locate as much as possible of the new highway on existing ones, so as to
minimize the use of farmland and reduce total initial and maintenance costs.
8. Locate along the edges of properties rather than through the middle, so as to cause the
minimum interference to cultivation and avoid the need for subway construction.
9. Avoid the destruction or removal of man-made culture.
10. Keep the highway away from cemeteries, places of worship, hospitals, schools and
playgrounds.
11. The effect of the proposed highway on existing or future utilities above, on or under the
ground should be considered. Avoid expensive relocation of these utilities.
12. Never have two roads intersecting near a bend or at the top or bottom of a hill.
13. In the case of a motorway, the need for an interchange with another road may dictate an
alignment that will intersect the other highway at a place, at an angle and in terrain that
will best permit the interchange to be constructed.
14. Avoid intersections at-grade with railway lines. If possible have the highway pass over
the railway where it goes into a cutting.
15. Seek favourable sites for river crossings. Preferably at right-angles to the stream
centreline.
16. Do not have a bridge located on or adjacent to a highway curve.
17. Avoid the need for deep cuttings and expensive tunnel construction.
18. Avoid locations where rock is close to the surface, avoid expensive excavation.
19. In hilly terrain, be aware of the possibilities of landslides.
20. To minimize drainage problems, select a location on high ground in contrast to one in a
valley.
21. Avoid bogs, marshes and other low-lying lands subject to flooding.
22. Locate the highway on soil which will require the least pavement thickness above it.
23. Locate the highway adjacent to sources of pavement materials.
24. When the needs of all other factors have been satisfied, the best location is the one
which results in the minimum total cost of earthworks. For the minimum quantities of
excavation should be so balanced with the quantities of embankment as to require a
minimum of haulage with little need for overhaul.
25. In hilly terrain the highway should cross ridges at their lowest points. (This usually
results in cheaper construction as well as more economical vehicle operating costs.)
Avoid creating severe breaks in the natural skyline.
26. In hilly country also, select a location subject to sunlight and avoid areas where snow and
ice will accumulate.
27. Avoid the unnecessary and expensive destruction of wooded areas. If intrusion is
unavoidable, the road should be on a curve where possible so as to preserve an
unbroken background.
28. Avoid ground subject to mining subsidence.
29. Avoid placing the highway at right-angles to the natural drainage channels.
30. To relieve the monotony of driving on a long straight road it is an advantage to site it so
as to give a view of some prominent feature ahead.
3 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 14 Transportation Planning)
2. Parking:
Problems and traffic congestion may be alleviated in a new major route if it can be
located as close as possible to existing/potential parking areas.
Introduction
Transport, in its broadest sense is concerned with all aspects of the movement of
people and goods by any means, over any distance for any reason.
Transportation Planning is the process of making decisions related to the future of
the transportation system.
It is also a technical and/or political process of identifying problems and issues and
taking transport-related steps designed to overcome those problems.
Its purpose is to resolve transport issues and problems in accordance with the goals
and objectives of the community.
4 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 14 Transportation Planning)
5 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 14 Transportation Planning)
6 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 14 Transportation Planning)
Provisions make states responsible for defining air quality regions and submission of
state implementation plans (SIPs)
Under the Act, four (4) levels of nonattainment are designated for ozone
(hydrocarbon) concentrations:
Moderate,
Serious,
Severe, and
Extreme
7 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 14 Transportation Planning)
Activities involved in a typical transportation planning study are given in Figure 14.7
8 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 14 Transportation Planning)
14.6 Summary
9 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 1 Introduction to Transportation Engineering)
1.1 Introduction
The motivation for public and private investment in transportation systems have been
on the bases of:
military,
political, and
economic
Familirise yourself with these objectives and constraints.
These are the kinds of transportations which are distinguished in terms of their
physical characteristics, for example;highway, rail, air, and water transportation
(Refer to Table 1.1)
The descriptions of the modes focus on their effectiveness in providing transportation
service, their costs, and the specialised markets they serve.
Effectiveness is described in terms of the accessibility of the mode, the level of
mobility it provides, and its productivity.
Refer to Page 7 and study the descriptions and characteristics of the above-
mentioned modes.
10 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 1 Introduction to Transportation Engineering)
It is the provision of physical facilities and the devising of operating strategies for
them.
Refer to Figure 1.13 for the illustration.
11 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 1 Introduction to Transportation Engineering)
12 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 4 Geometric Design)
EXERCISES
(a) Determine the passing sight distance for the vehicle with an average speed of 70 km/h with
the perception time of 3 sec.
(b) Determine the design stopping sight distance on a road which has a design speed of
80 km/h, friction factor of 0.3 and downgrade slope of 5.65%. (Do it yourself)
SOLUTION (a)
1 000 m / km
54.4 km / h 70.4 km / h
v1 v 2 3 600 s / h
d1 t r . 3 s = 52.000 m
2 2
1 000 m / km
d2 v 2 .t 2 70.4 km / h 10 s = 195.556 m
3 600 s / h
2 2
d4 .d 2 195.556 m = 130.371 m
3 3
PSD d1 d2 d3 d4
PSD = = 432.827 m
SAY = 440 m*
*always round-off to the next ten
SOLUTION (b)
13 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 4 Geometric Design)
Solution
L 300
Stake value (SV)/Peg dist. at BVC = Peg at P.I. = 10150 = 10 000 m
2 2
L 300
Stake value (SV)/Peg dist. at EVC = Peg at P.I. = 10150 = 10 300 m
2 2
L 300
Tangent Level/elevation at BVC = Level at P.I. g1 = 151.50 0.01 = 150.00 m
2 2
L 300
Tangent Level/elevation at EVC = Level at P.I. g2 = 151.50 0.06 = 160.50 m
2 2
14 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 4 Geometric Design)
OR
OR
Offset
Offset @ SV 10 025 m
rx 2
Offset =
2
where r = 2
g g1
L
x = Dist. from BVC to the SV in question
r
0.06 0.01 0.000167
300
x = (10 025 10 000) = 25 m
Offset =
0.000167 25 0.052 0.05
2
Offset @ SV 10 050 m
Offset =
0.000167 50 0.208 0.21
2
15 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 4 Geometric Design)
OR
rx 2
Final Level @ 10 025 = y 0 g1x
2
Final Level @ 10 025 = 150.00 0.01 (10 025 10 000)
0.000167 25 2
2
Final Level @ 10 025 = 150.302 m
163.00
161.00
159.00
Profile Elevation (m)
157.00
155.00
153.00
151.00
149.00
9950
9975
10000
10025
10050
10075
10100
10125
10150
10175
10200
10225
10250
10275
10300
10325
10350
Peg Distance (m )
16 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 4 Geometric Design)
At low point, g (slope) = 0 [it shall be from BVC towards P.I. (sag curve))
g = g1 + rx = 0
g1 = 0.025
r
g2 g1 0.01 (0.025) 0.0001944
L 180
g 0.025
x 1 128.6 m
r 0.0001944
180
SV @ BVC = 10 000 9 910 m
2
SV of low point = SV @ BVC + x = 9 910 + 128.6 = 10 039 m
Level of BVC:
17 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 4 Geometric Design)
Horizontal Alignment
EXAMPLE in Table 4.3 on page 79
Given
R = 500 m
Chords (cx) are at 20 m intervals
Deflection angle = 15
Chainage at Tangent-to-curve (TC)/Beginning of Horizontal Curve (BHC) = 1725 m
Solution
= 15 = 0.261799 rad
180
Length of circular curve (L) = R.rad = 500 x 0.261799 = 130.900 m
x 15
dx 0.0150
2 R rad 2 x500 rad
18 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 4 Geometric Design)
Given
R = 450 m
Chords (cx) are at 20 m intervals (+20 points)
Deflection angle = 17
Chainage at Tangent-to-curve (TC)/Beginning of Horizontal Curve (BHC) = 2240 m
Solution
= 17 = 0.296706 rad
x 20
dx 0.0222
2 R rad 2 x450 rad
When attempting to fit a horizontal alignment to a particular situation the following guidelines
should be borne in mind;
A generous, flowing alignment in one plane is not compatible with small and frequent
breaks in the other.
Vertical curves should coincide with horizontal curves with respect to both position and
length.
The length of the vertical curve should be slightly less than that of the horizontal curve,
and should be fully contained within the horizontal curve. This is particularly important in
the case of crest vertical curves.
Long tangent - short curve alignments should be avoided.
Compound curves where a short curve follows a long flat curve mislead the driver and
should be avoided.
Loss of sight of the road due to the roller coaster effect of a series of vertical curves on a
straight horizontal alignment is highly undesirable.
Horizontal curves should not be introduced just beyond a crest.
A sag vertical curve on a long straight road alignment has the tendency to appear as a
sharp break in the profile.
19 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
8.1 Introduction
Traffic engineering is that phase of engineering which deals with the planning and geometric design
of streets, highways and abutting lands, and traffic operation thereon, as their use is related to the
safe, convenient and economic transportation of persons and goods.
The functional effectiveness of a road is measured in terms of its ability to assist and accommodate
the traffic with both safety and efficiency. The basic classification system of roads consists of the
following four (4) components:
Residential: A residential street functions only to serve a local residential community and
does not connect any higher classified roadways.
Local: The primary functions of a local street or roadway is to serve the adjacent property
by providing the initial access to the highway network. These facilities are characterised by
short trip lengths, low speeds and small traffic volumes. The design of the networks should be
directed toward eliminating through traffic from these facilities.
Collector: Collectors are intended to serve as the connection link for local streets and highways
and to provide intra-neighbourhood transportation. The traffic characteristics generally consist
of relatively moderate trip lengths and moderate speeds and volumes. Access to collectors
should be restricted to local streets and highways and major traffic generators. Collectors
should penetrate neighbourhoods without forming a continuous network, thus discouraging
through traffic which is better served by arterials.
Arterials: Arterial streets and highways are intended to serve moderate to large traffic volumes
travelling relatively long distances. Requirements for speed and level of service are usually
quite high. Access to arterials should be well controlled and, in general, limited to collector
streets and highways. Arterials are used to surround neighbourhoods and connect widely
separated rural and suburban communities. The arterial system should form a continuous
network designed for a free flow of through traffic.
20 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
The measurement of road traffic volumes is one of the most basic functions of route planning and
management. Road traffic counts and surveys are carried out to establish and quantify these
volumes of traffic on roadways for the purposes of functional effectiveness, efficiency, safety,
planning, design and management. Before any road scheme is contemplated, a traffic survey of
some kind or other should be carried out to gather information regarding the nature and intensity of
the traffic expected. This survey should provide the data on which the proposed road layout can be
based, and failure to obtain this information may result in the inability of the road to handle the
volume of traffic. The design of new routes or improvements to existing routes should be based on
projected traffic volumes.
Counts normally provide estimates of the movement, whilst the survey provides simplicity
because it classifies and analyses the traffic patterns. Existing traffic situations are often used to
ascertain and forecast the future conditions. Different types of counts and surveys exist, and
include:
8.2.1 Introduction
Vehicle flows are conducted to collect data on the number of vehicles that passes a point on a
roadway facility during a specified time period. Traffic counts are carried out in different ways and
periods. Irrespective of how the counts were conducted, it is customary to require estimates of flow
for typical days within a year to obtain the annual average daily traffic (AADT) flows. AADT is
simply the average of 24-hour counts collected every day in the year. Hence, it is advisable to
collect such traffic flow data continuously for a year or more. AADT is derived from the average
daily traffic (ADT), which is the average of 24-hour counts collected over a number of days greater
than 1 but less than a year.
Sometimes counts are classified under the peak hour volume (PHV), which is the maximum
number of vehicles that pass a point on a roadway facility during a period of 60 consecutive
minutes. An hourly volume expanded from a counter taken in a period shorter than 60 minutes is
referred to as an hourly flow rate. The typical one is the peak hourly flow rate which is 4 minutes
the peak 15-minute count. Traffic flows may be counted either manually (physical counting by
human beings) or by automatic means (counting by means of machines). These traffic counting
methodologies are non-interventionalist, that is they do not affect the traffic flow being measured.
Manual counts are measured by manual observation. In manual counting, an observer counts the
traffic that flows past a survey point. These counts are typically used to gather data for
determination of vehicle classification, turning movements, direction of travel, pedestrian
movements, or vehicle occupancy. Manual counts are typically used when:
21 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
Irrespective of the limited period of counting, counts should be taken at the busiest time of the year
or else the figures should be adjusted to take account of this seasonal fluctuation, because traffic
flows vary from one month to another. Traffic counts during a Monday morning rush hour and a
Friday evening rush may show exponentially high volumes and are not normally used in the
analysis; therefore, counts are usually conducted on Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday.
Manual counts are typically used to gather data about the following:
o vehicle classifications,
o turning movements,
o direction of travel,
o pedestrian movements, and
o vehicle occupancy.
The number of people needed to collect data depends on the length of the count period, type(s) of
data being collected, number of lanes being observed, and traffic volume. Observers can manually
record data using any of three (3) methods. From least to most expensive, they are tally sheets,
mechanical counting boards, and electronic counting boards.
Tally sheets:
It is a form such as the one shown in Table 8.1 where the observer record tick marks in the
appropriate spaces provided typically using a five-bar-gate counting technique (see Figure 8.1).
Traffic flow can also be recorded using either a tally counter (see Figure 8.2), and then
transferring the information to the tally sheet. For different directions of movement, the volumes
of the different categories of vehicles should be noted.
22 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
Figure 8.3: An example of a mechanical count board (Source: Technology News, 2004)
Prepare. Determine the type of equipment to use, the field procedures to follow, and the
number of observers required. Label and organise tally sheets. Each sheet should include
information about the location, time and date of observation, and weather conditions (where
necessary).
Select observer location(s). Observers (data collectors) should be positioned where they
have a clear view of traffic and are safely away from the edge of the roadway.
Record observations on site.
23 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
Location:_____________________________________________________________________________
TIME DIRECTION:
DURATION
TRAFFIC TYPE TOTAL
RIGHT STRAIGHT LEFT
PASSENGER CARS
MOTORCYCLES
DELIVERY VANS
:
BUSES
T RUCKS
TOTAL
DIRECTION:
TIME TRAFFIC TYPE TOTAL
RIGHT STRAIGHT LEFT
PASSENGER CARS
MOTORCYCLES
DELIVERY VANS
:
BUSES
T RUCKS
TOTAL
DIRECTION:
TIME TRAFFIC TYPE TOTAL
RIGHT STRAIGHT LEFT
PASSENGER CARS
MOTORCYCLES
DELIVERY VANS
:
BUSES
T RUCKS
TOTAL
DIRECTION:
TIME TRAFFIC TYPE TOTAL
RIGHT STRAIGHT LEFT
PASSENGER CARS
MOTORCYCLES
DELIVERY VANS
:
BUSES
T RUCKS
TOTAL
24 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
Automatic counters mechanically measure the volume of traffic that flows past a survey point.
Automatic counting methods are used to gather large amounts of traffic data over an extended
period of time. These counts are typically used to gather data for determination of vehicle hourly
patterns, daily or seasonal variations, and pattern and growth trends, or annual traffic estimates.
Counts are generally collected for 1-hour intervals in 24-hour periods. Automatic counts are
recorded using one of three (3) methods, namely, portable counters, permanent counters, and
video tape.
Portable counters:
Portable counting is a form of manual observation. They consist of automatic recorders
connected to pneumatic road tubes. They are typically used to collect the same kind of data
collected in manual counts, but for longer periods, usually 24 hours. Pneumatic tubes are used
to conduct this method of automatic counts. Automatic counters normally use a pressure tube
or an inductive loop which is fixed across the road at the census point. This pressure tube is
compressed each time the axle of a vehicle traverses it. This event transmits a pulse along the
length of the tube, which is counted and hence the vehicular flow can be estimated. The
counter mechanism estimates the flows by counting the number of impulses and then dividing
them by a value equivalent to the most common number of axles per vehicle. A sketch of a
typical automatic traffic counter (ATC) installation is shown in Figures 8.5.
Permanent counters:
Permanent counters are sometimes built into the pavement and used for long-term counts. The
equipment is expensive, hence this method is not cost-effective, and relatively few authorities
have access to it. The counts could be performed everyday for a year or more. The data
collected may be used to monitor and evaluate traffic volumes and trends over a long period of
time.
25 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
Video tape:
Observers can record data by videotaping traffic. Traffic volumes can be counted by viewing
videotapes recorded with a camera at a collection site. A digital clock in the video image can
prove useful in noting time intervals. Video taping is not a cost effective option in most
situations. Few authorities have access to this equipment.
Advantages
-Little labour is required and measurements can be made for long periods.
Disadvantages
-Counters do not classify the vehicles in different groups and therefore the results are generally
supplemented by a sample manual count.
-Difficulties may occur in finding suitable sites for the equipment to prevent wilful and deliberate
damage.
The three (3) steps to a traffic volume study using automatic counting equipment are:
Prepare. Coordinate data activities with appropriate state and local officials. For example,
you may need to coordinate traffic control activities. Assemble and inspect tools, supplies,
and equipment. Test all equipment.
Deploy and calibrate data collection equipment. Provide traffic control to protect workers in
lanes of traffic. After the equipment is placed, make sure it is functioning properly. Secure it in
place.
Check data and retrieve equipment.
EXAMPLE 8.1
The 24-hr traffic counts conducted on a certain collector road are indicated in Table 8.2.
Provide the client with detailed information of the traffic analysis by answering the questions below:
(a) Present the combined traffic pattern for each day for the seven-day (7) period of the week in a
graphical form and describe the scenarios of the Monday and Friday traffic patterns.
(b) Determine the average passenger cars per day and calculate the total number of vehicles over
a two-year period, i.e. average annual daily traffic over two years.
26 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
SOLUTION
(a) Presentation of the combined traffic pattern for each day for the seven-day (7) period of the
week in a graphical form.
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
Days
Traffic counts during a Monday morning rush hour and a Friday evening rush may show
exponentially high volumes and are not normally used in the analysis; therefore, the counts
conducted on Tuesday, Wednesday, and/or Thursday should be the ones used in the analysis.
The Monday traffic pattern may be that most travellers were coming back from home to their
place of residence close to their work, where as the Friday traffic pattern was that most
travellers were going home for the weekend.
(b) Average passenger cars per day and AADT over two years.
162 105 97 119 170 95 120 868
Average passenger cars per day = = = 124 pc/h
7 7
ADDT over two years = 124 vehs / day 365 days / yr 2 yrs = 90 520 vehs
8.3.1 Introduction
When planning a new or improved road or road system, it is necessary to know the distribution and
performance of the traffic on existing roads. In almost all planning studies, measurements of traffic
flows and speeds are needed. The speed of traffic can be measured in four (4) distinctive ways:
27 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
This speed can be used to measure the average speed of vehicles passing a point (e.g. at a speed
trap) over a specified time period. Spot speeds are used to assess the need for traffic
management or control measures along a link. The uses of spot speeds are to:
a) Measure the effect on traffic flow constrictions, different road configurations etc. For example
it can be used to determine whether speeds increase after introducing parking restrictions,
one way systems etc.
b) Determine enforceable speed limits.
c) Verify speeds used in the geometric design of new or improved facilities.
This speed measures the speed of a vehicle over a given distance rather than at a discrete single
location.
This speed is the average speed maintained over a given route while the vehicle is in motion. Thus
in determining the running speed, the times en route when the vehicles are at rest are excluded in
the calculations. Normally only the average running speed and the standard deviations are the
variables determined. Running speed is used to:
a) Determine the speed value used for the purpose of the capacity determinations.
b) Measure the level of service offered by the roadway section.
c) Estimate the value of roadway alterations and assessing priorities for improvement in
economic studies.
This speed is obtained by dividing the total distance by the total time taken to get from one end to
the other. Journey speed is used for:
Both running and journey speeds may be calculated by including and excluding stationary
periods as necessary. The advantages of this method are:
May be used with high traffic volume (it is less accurate with very low flows).
Economical in manpower - a small team of observers with one or two cars can collect reliable
data over considerable lengths of roadway in a relatively short period of time.
Other important information can be collected at the same time, for instance journey times and
speeds, delays, congestive conditions, etc.
The moving observer method used to determine the Mean Journey Speed:
This method involves an observer car being driven over the designated route at a safe speed
both with and against the traffic stream being analysed. That section with relatively uniform
traffic flow conditions is selected of length L. In each case, the journey time of the observer car
is noted along with the flow of the traffic stream relative to it. When travelling against the flow,
the relative flow is calculated based on the number of vehicles met. When travelling with the
stream, the relative flow is given by the number of vehicles overtaking the observer car minus
28 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
the number it overtakes. Based on these observations, the flow, qi and average travel time, t of
that particular stream can be calculated as follows:
Nj Fi Si
Traffic flow: qi veh/hour (8.1)
Ti Tj
Average time: t Ti
Fi Si min (8.2)
qi
L
Space mean speed: Xs km/min (8.3)
t
qi = traffic flow (veh/hr)
t = average travel time (min)
Xs = space mean speed (km/hr)
Nj = the number of vehicles moving in direction "j" met by test vehicle when moving in the
opposite direction "i"
Fi = the number of vehicles moving in direction "i" which overtake the test vehicle when it is
moving in direction "i".
Si = the number of vehicles moving in direction "i" which are passed by the test vehicle when
moving in direction "i".
Ti = this is the travel time of the test vehicle through the section when moving in the direction
"i" (opposite direction is called "j", hence Tj).
EXAMPLE 8.2
The following observations were made by an observer travelling both with and against a traffic
stream (see Table 8.3). The section length of the roadway over which the observations were
made was 2.159 km. Calculate the volume of traffic, its average journey time and speed.
29 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
SOLUTION:
Nj Fi Si 83.80 2.10
Traffic flow: qi 25.69 veh / min
Ti Tj 1.53 1.65
But traffic flow is never expressed in veh/min and it must therefore be converted to veh/hr, and
it is = 1 542 veh/hr
Average time: t Ti
Fi Si 1.53 2.10 = 1.61 min
qi 25.69
L 2.159
Space mean speed: Xs 1.34 km / min
t 1.61
Again, speed is not expressed in km/min but km/hr and therefore it must be converted, and it is
= 80.40 km/hr
Delays/queuing surveys can be carried out separately at particular locations or in conjunction with
studies determining running and journey speeds. These surveys pinpoint locations where
conditions are unsatisfactory in terms of delay times and queuing lengths and should determine the
reasons for and extent of those delays.
There are two (2) forms of delays, namely fixed and operational delays. Fixed delays occur mostly
at roadway intersections, while operational delays are a primary reflection of the interacting effects
of traffic on the roadway. The former is literally the result of some fixed roadway condition, and
hence it can occur irrespective of whether the roadway is crowned or not. Typical roadway fixtures
causing this type of delay are traffic signals, railway crossings, traffic circles and stop signs.
8.5.1 Introduction
The terms traffic flow and traffic volume are used interchangeably to define the number of vehicles
that pass a given point on the roadway in a given period of time. The type of traffic volume data
collected at any given time and location depends upon the use to which the data will be put. For
example, the extent of the new construction or improvement proposed and its location with respect
to similar roads in the area. In rural areas, for instance in the case of a reconstruction of a short
length of the existing alignment, the anticipated volume of traffic along the new section could be
determined by counting the traffic using the existing road and allowing for the normal growth of
traffic over the design period. If the scheme involves an entirely new road, then it is likely that
traffic would be drawn from other roads in the area and the traffic surveys must then embrace all
these alternatives routes. Similarly the method of collecting the data is dependent upon its usage.
30 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
Cordon counts: - these counts are conducted when vehicle accumulation pattern within an
area is needed.
Screen line counts:- these counts are conducted when changes in traffic flow from one area to
other needs to be evaluated.
Intersection counts:- these counts are conducted when turning movements are needed.
Pedestrian volume counts:- these counts are needed when pedestrian demand needs to be
evaluated.
Periodic volume counts:- these counts are conducted when traffic volume characteristics are
needed, these are, continuous, control and coverage counts.
Periodic counts should be adjusted for corrections and the following factors are useful in this
regard:
Hourly expansion factor (HEF) = Total volume for 24-hr period divide by volume for particular month.
Daily expansion factor (DEF) = Average total volume for week divide by average volume for
particular day.
Monthly expansion factor (MEF) = Average annual daily traffic divide by average daily traffic for
particular month.
EXAMPLE 8.3
Truck adjustment factors are needed when volume counts are made by checking the number of
axles. Consider the information in Table 8.4 which is from the automatic method, the axle weight
analyser (AWA). This is where the axles are weighed and total number of axles is counted. The
AWA is suitable for use in design of pavements. This kind of counting is very expensive.
SOLUTION
Vehicles of different sizes have different operating characteristics. Besides being heavier, thus
exerting greater loads on the road pavement, trucks and buses are slower and consequently
impose a grater traffic effect on the road than passenger cars. The overall effect of one truck on
certain aspects of traffic operation is thus equivalent to several passenger car units.
It is thus practice to select a unit, called the equivalent vehicular unit (e.v.u.), and to express all
traffic in terms of this unit by the use of appropriate multiplying factors. For the structural design of
national roads in SA, for example, the unit in TRH4 (1996) is a single axle load of 80 kN or 8 000 kg
or 8 ton.
31 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
o The overall effect of one truck on certain aspects of traffic operation is thus equivalent to
several passenger car units.
o Since of the different operating characteristics, different weightings must be given to allow for
the effects within the traffic stream.
o As a result the percentages of the different classes within the traffic flow should be determined
in order that the equivalent vehicular unit which is number of passenger car units can be
calculated.
EXAMPLE 8.4
Determine the e.v.u. rating of a two-lane road in rolling terrain with an AADT count of 2 000
vehicles of which 10% are heavy vehicles.
SOLUTION
8.6.1 Introduction
These surveys involve the understanding of travel patterns over a wider area. The origin and
destination (O-D) surveys satisfies this process. The O-D surveys obtain information concerning
the place of origin and any intended intermediate stops within the survey area. The origin of the
journey is in this instance the last fixed point of call before entering the area covered by the survey,
and the destination is the next point of call after leaving the area.
Even for some improvement works of existing roads in urban areas the result can be a
considerable redistribution of traffic pattern, and in these circumstances, the survey would normally
take the form of an O-D. Survey stations must be established on all the main roads entering and
leaving the area concerned. The five (5) main methods of carrying out the O-D surveys are as
follows:
roadside interview;
giving postcards to drivers;
noting registration numbers;
placing tags on vehicles; and
selective interview.
32 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
Design traffic volumes for a future date are derived from knowledge of current traffic and estimates
of future traffic. There are two values of current traffic and three forms of future traffic to consider.
This is the number of vehicles that would use the new or improved facility if it were opened at the
time the initial measurements were taken. In urban areas current traffic can be determined by traffic
counts or existing counts on existing roadways likely to be affected, and/or from roadside
interviews, origin and destination surveys, and studies.
On low volume rural highways classified volume counts may be adequate. Knowledge of the area
is also essential to estimate the effect of the new facility. On high volume rural roads through
smaller urban areas a combination of classified counts and roadside interviews is required. For
major highways in large urban areas information can best be obtained from comprehensive
transport demand studies.
(i) Normal traffic growth - this is the increase in traffic volume due to the normal general increase
in numbers and usage of motor vehicles.
33 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
(ii) Generated traffic - this refers to future motor vehicle trips excluding public transport trips that
would not occur at all were it not for the new or improved road. There are three types of
generated traffic;
# Induced traffic is the traffic which did not previously exist in any form and which results
entirely from the new or improved facility. It is apparent that the maximum induced traffic
occurs where the maximum attraction occurs.
# Converted traffic - this traffic is created as a result of changes in the usual method of
travel. A new road facility may now be so attractive that people who used to travel by bus
or train may now use private vehicles. Therefore it is dependent upon convenience and
economy (perceived).
# Shifted traffic - where trips were previously made to entirely different destinations but
changed as a result of the attractiveness of the new highway e.g. access to shopping
centres.
In summary, generated traffic can be attributed to the convenience, attractiveness of, and better
accessibility provided by the new roadway.
(iii) Development traffic - this is traffic that occurs due to development alongside the new facility
over and above that which would normally have occurred.
SOLUTION
1
1
AADT f f b 8950 20082000
Percentage growth in traffic: p 1 1 = 6.40%
AADT b 5450
Estimated traffic, 2012: AADT f AADT b 1 p 89501 6.4%
f b 20122008
= 11 471 vehs/day
34 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
8.8 Exercises
a) A civil engineering technician carried out the traffic demand study and found out that a
certain freeway was carrying 10 000 vehicles per day. After the calculations and analysis it
was also discovered that in 5 years time, the same freeway was expected to carry at least
15 000 vehicles per day. Calculate the exponential growth rate and determine the expected
traffic flow after 5 years as well.
b) The starting point in defining a traffic survey is to decide what question has to be answered
and choose the type of survey accordingly. There are a number of survey methodologies
available to help understand traffic movement. The 24-hour traffic survey indicated in the
table on the next page was conducted during a certain busy period of the year.
Refer to the passenger car traffic information provided in the traffic surveys table above and
determine:
c) The starting point in defining a traffic survey is to decide what question has to be answered
and choose the type of survey accordingly. There are a number of survey methodologies
available to help understand traffic movement. The 24-hour traffic survey indicated in the
figure below was conducted during a certain busy period of the year, while traffic information
from Road 1 at point D is presented in the table on the next page.
35 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
Refer to the traffic count information in the figure on the previous page and the table above,
and answer the questions that follow.
Indicate the total morning (AM) and afternoon (PM) peak traffic per category in a barchart
format.
Which peak period had more traffic and by what percentage?
d) The information presented in the table below was obtained from a certain traffic count study.
e) Traffic counts are conducted on road networks to assess among others, the current average
annual daily traffic (AADT), average daily traffic (ADT), and weekly traffic for a particular
road. The counts can be done up to one year using permanent data collection equipments,
however removable equipment can be used to conduct surveys for periods of seven days
as well. The table below presents the collected traffic data from a certain busy main road,
both counted in 12 and 24 hours respectively.
36 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
The increase/decrease in traffic (in percentage) of both the light and heavy vehicles from
the 12-hour to the 24-hour counting.
The total traffic per direction and time duration, and
Indicate the seven-day traffic for the 12-hour light vehicles data if the extrapolation factor
to convert to a 24-hour count was 1.75.
AADT f 15 000
Ln Ln
p AADT b 10 000 8.1%
f b 5
ii. The expected traffic flow after 5 years is determined as follows:
Total passenger car traffic for the 7-day period = 1 377 (North = 736 & South = 641)
total average annual daily traffic (AADT), based on the assumption that growth rate was
constant:
duration period in years for the expected traffic of 78 897 passenger cars per year, based on the
2.06% growth rate per annum:
37 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
Indication of the total morning (AM) and afternoon (PM) peak traffic per category in a bar chart
format:
300
239
250
200
150
100 52 58
36 35
50
0
Motorbikes Passenger Cars Heavy Vehicles
Traffic com position
AM PM
Indication of the peak period per traffic composition per time with the most traffic by percentage:
Traffic Time
Percentage indication
composition AM PM
52 36
Motorbikes 36 52 100 30.8% 31% , PM was more by 31%
52
470 239
Passenger Cars 239 470 100 49.1% 49% , PM was more by 49%
470
58 35
Heavy Vehicles 35 58 100 39.7% 40% , PM was more by 40%
58
1
1
AADT f f b 10 000 20062004
p 1 1 10.5%
AADT b 8 189
38 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
The increase/decrease in traffic (in percentage) of both the light and heavy vehicles from the 12-
hour to the 24-hour counting
T RAFFIC
EASTERN BOUND WESTERN BOUND
COMPOSITION
Light 1711 1230 2632 2003
vehicles 100 = 39.1% 100 = 31.4%
1230 2003
Heavy 113 180 273 210
vehicles 100 = 37.2% (decrease) 100 = 30%
180 210
MAIN ROAD
T RAFFIC
EASTERN BOUND WESTERN BOUND
COMPOSITION
12 hrs 24 hrs 12 hrs 24 hrs
Light vehicles 1 230 1 711 2 003 2 632
Heavy vehicles 180 113 210 273
TOTALS 1 410 1 824 2 213 2 905
Indicate the seven-day traffic for the 12-hour light vehicles data if the extrapolation factor to convert
to a 24-hour count was 1.75
Acknowledgements and appreciation is given to all the authors and editors of the consulted and referenced material(s),
which helped in various ways to enhance the quality of this work, which in the end ensured that the subject
Transportation Engineering II at S3 level for the National Diploma (Engineering: Civil) is presented comprehensively and
with dignity. Hopefully the students will earn and learn. Once more, thanks to you all the greats, keep on educating the
nation with your out-of-this-world research.
8.10.1 Committee of State Road Transport (CSRA). 1988. Technical Recommendations for
Highways 17 (TRH17)Geometric design of rural roads. Department of Transport.
Pretoria, South Africa.
8.10.2 Leduc, G. 2008. Road traffic data: Collection methods and applications. Technical
Notes. European Commissions Joint Research Centre. Seville, Spain.
39 of 74
LECTURE 6: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 1) ROAD TRAFFIC COUNTS AND SURVEYS
8.10.3 OFlaherty, C.A. 1974. Highways and traffic, Volume 1, Edward Arnold publishers,
London, United Kingdom.
8.10.5 Rodrigue, J-P., Comtois, C and Slack, B. 2009. The geography of transport systems.
Second Edition. Routledge Publishing. New York, United States of America.
8.10.6 Rogers, M. 2008. Highway Engineering. Second Edition, Blackwell publishing, Oxford.
United Kingdom.
8.10.7 Slinn, M., Matthews, P. and Guest, P. 1998. Traffic engineering design principles and
practice, Arnold publishers. London, United Kingdom.
8.10.8 Technology News. 2004. Traffic data collection methods you can count on. Iowa State
University Library, November December 2004.
www.intrans.iastate.edu/LTAP/Tech_News/2004/index.htm (Accessed 9 February 2010).
8.10.10 Wardrop, J.G. and Charlesworth, G. 1954. A method of estimating speed and flow of
traffic from a moving vehicle. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE),
Engineering Divisions, Paper No. 5925, Vol 3, No. 1, pp 158171, February.
40 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
Study objectives
Describe the concept traffic flow theory
Describe the traffic flow models to trace the evolution for flow states over time
Illustrate graphically the relationship between the traffic flow models
Describe the movements of flow conditions in the traffic stream
Analyse traffic data by means of a number of statistical techniques
Use shock wave analysis to map space-time regions
Use the probability theory of Poisson distribution to express the probability of a number of
events occurring in a fixed period of time
Compile a brief design report to describe the interactions among vehicles and infrastructure,
discussing techniques for collection and analysis of traffic flow data and justify your
solutions
9.1 Introduction
Traffic flow theory provides the basic concepts and theories that form the foundation for the
understanding a variety of traffic flow characteristics and the associated analytical techniques. It
seeks to convey a conceptual understanding of different traffic processes through the development
of mathematical models of these processes. Traffic flow theory is intended to provide
understanding of phenomena related to the movement of individual vehicles along a roadway as
they interact with neighbouring vehicles. It is the consequences of such interactions that determine
the fundamental characteristics of roadways, such as their capacity and their ability to sustain
various levels of traffic flow.
The descriptors of significance in traffic flow theory are speed and the density or concentration,
which describe the quality of service experienced by the stream; and the flow or volume, which
measures the quantity of the stream and the demand on the roadway facility. Traffic flow theory is
concerned with three major characteristics, namely speed, time intervals, and distance intervals,
between moving vehicles.
Traffic streams are not uniform; they vary over both space and time. For this reason, measurement
of the variables of interest for traffic flow theory is in fact the sampling of a random variable.
Common types of traffic data includes flows or volumes, speeds, travel times, densities,
occupancies, headways, and gaps. Volume is simply the number of vehicles that pass a point on
the roadway in a specified period of time. Flow is defined as the rate at which a number of vehicles
per unit time pass a point on the roadway, and it is expressed in vehicles per hour. The reciprocal
of flow is the average time separation or headway of vehicles in the traffic stream and is measured
in seconds. Headways are measured between common points (for example, front bumper) on
successive vehicles; time gaps are measured from the rear of the lead vehicle and the front of the
following vehicle.
41 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
The speed of a vehicle defined as the distance it travels per unit of time, and is measured in
kilometres per hour. The reciprocal of speed is the rate of travel and is measured in minutes per
kilometres. Two measures of average speed commonly used in traffic analysis are, time-mean
speed and space-mean speed. Time-mean speed is the arithmetic mean of the speed of vehicles
passing a point during a given time interval, while space-mean speed is the arithmetic mean of the
speed of those vehicles occupying a given length of road at a given instant.
ut
u i
.(Equation A)
n
where u t time-mean speed
ui individual speed measurements
n sample size
EXAMPLE 9.1
Determine the time-mean and space-mean speeds for a roadway with the spot speeds, 50; 40; 60;
54; and 45 km/h.
Therefore, u t
u i
50 40 60 54 45
49.8 km/h
n 5
42 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
Traffic flow models describe the relationship among traffic states such as speed, flow and density.
These models are often classified as microscopic and macroscopic.
Figure 9.1 presents two vehicles are in the same lane in a traffic stream: a follower i and its leader
i+1. It can be seen that vehicle i has a certain space headway hsi to its predecessor (it is expressed
in metres), composed of the distance called the space gap gsi to this leader and its own length li.
By taking as mentioned before, the rear bumper as a vehicles position, the space headway
hsi x i 1x i . The space gap is thus measured from a vehicles front bumper to its leaders rear
bumper.
Figure 9.1: Two consecutive vehicles (a follower i at position xi and a leader i+1) in the same
lane in a traffic stream. The follower has a certain space headway hsi to its leader,
equal to the sum of the vehicles space gap gsi and its length li.
q uk .(Equation D)
where q flow (expressed as vehicles per hour)
u speed (expressed as kilometres per hour)
k density (expressed as vehicles per kilometre)
43 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
Because flow is the product of speed and density, it is equal to zero when one or both of these
parameters is/are zero. It is also possible to deduce that flow is maximised at some critical
combination of speed and density.
u
u u f f k .(Equation E)
k j
k j
k k j u .(Equation F)
uf
where u mean speed at density k
u f free-flow speed
um speed when density is at maximum
k j jam density
k m density when speed is at maximum
44 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
When substituting Equation (E) into (D), the equation for the flow-density model shown below is
yielded.
u
q u f .k f k 2 .(Equation G)
k j
k j
q k j .u u 2 .(Equation H)
uf
45 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
dq
0
dk
u
u f f .2k 0
kj
kj
k
2
kj
k0 .(Equation I)
2
Therefore, density corresponding to maximum flow is half the jam density. Once k 0 is
determined, derivation for maximum flow, qmax can be done. Substituting Equation (I) in Equation
(G), then:
2
u k j
kj
qmax u f . f .
2 kj 2
kj kj
qmax uf . uf .
2 4
u f .k j
qmax .(Equation J)
4
Thus the maximum flow is one fourth the product of free-flow and jam density. Finally to get the
speed at maximum flow, u 0 , Equation (I) is substituted in Equation (E), and solving yields:
uf k j
u0 u f .
kj 2
uf
u0 .(Equation K)
2
46 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
9.3.2.5 Examples
EXAMPLE 9.2
Determine the maximum speed and maximum density from the graphic representation shown
below.
EXAMPLE 9.3
Free-flow speed of a lane of a road is 120 km/h and the jam density is 80 veh/h. Prove that the
maximum flow will be 2 400 veh/h and what is the other term for maximum flow?
kj uf
From above: km and um
2 2
80 120
km 40 veh/km um 60 km/h
2 2
47 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
EXAMPLE 9.4
Calculate the mean speed if free-flow speed is 80 km/h, maximum flow is 1 800 veh/h, and flow is
1 200 veh/h.
q u q
Substitute k into Equation (E): u u f f
u k j u
u q
u2 u uf f 0
kj
Replace the variables with values and solve:
80 1 200
u 2 80u 0
90
u2 80u 1 067 0 (Quadratic equation, factorise as follows:)
Therefore;
b b 2 4ac
u
2a
80 802 4 1 1 067
u
2 1
80 2 132 80 2 132
u OR u
2 2
u = 63.1 km/h OR u = 16.9 km/h
EXAMPLE 9.5
The flow-density relationship, q 60uln u 250u , is assumed for a certain roadway link.
Determine the free-flow speed, the speed at maximum flow, the maximum flow, and the density at
maximum flow.
48 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
To determine speed at maximum flow, differentiate q with respect to u and put it equal to zero.
190
u qmax e 60
23.7 km/h
In order to calculate the density at maximum flow, the fundamental relation, q = uk is utilised as
follows:
1 424
k qmax 61 veh/km
23.7
Shock waves that occur in traffic flow are very similar to the waves produced by dropping stones in
water. A shock wave propagates along a line of vehicles in response to changing conditions at the
front of the line. Shock waves can be generated by collisions, sudden increases in speed caused
by entering free flow conditions, or by a number of other means. Basically, a shock wave exists
whenever the traffic conditions change. The equation that is used to estimate the propagation
velocity of shock waves is given below.
qb q a
Usw .(Equation L)
kb ka
where Usw propagation speed of shock wave (km/h)
qb flow prior to change in conditions (veh/h)
qa flow after change in conditions (veh/h)
k b traffic density prior to change in conditions (veh/km)
k a traffic density after change in conditions (veh/km)
For example, assume that an accident has occurred and that the flow after the accident is reduced
to zero. Initially, the flow was several vehicles per hour. Also, the density is much greater after the
accident. Substituting these values into the shock wave equation yields a negative (-) propagation
speed. This means that the shock wave is travelling against the traffic. If you could look down on
this accident, you would see a wave front, at which vehicles began to slow from their initial speed,
passing from vehicle to vehicle back up the traffic stream. The first car would notice the accident
first, followed an instant later by the second car. Each vehicle begins slowing after its driver
recognises that the preceding vehicle is slowing.
49 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
EXAMPLE 9.6
Traffic stream on a certain road was of flow 800 veh/h, and the density was of 20 veh/km which
travelled at an average speed of 40 km/h. A fully-loaded slow moving delivery van with a speed of
10.6 km/h entered the stream and travelled for a distance of 1.8 km. Drivers tried to overtake this
vehicle but failed; even the taxi drivers did not get it right that time, then a platoon of density of
90 veh/km formed behind it and flow dropped. How many vehicles were in the platoon when this
slow moving vehicle left the road?
ii) A shockwave was formed at the rear of the platoon which travelled at a speed of:
qb qa 954 800
Usw 2.2 km/h
kb ka 90 20
This indicates that the rear of the platoon is moving
forward with a speed of 2.2 km/h, while the front is
moving at a speed of 10.6 km/h
iii) The length of the platoon therefore grew at a rate (relative speed) of:
ur ub usw 10.6 2.2 8.4 km/h
(relative speed is travel speed subtract wave speed)
iv) The time spend by the slow moving vehicle on the road was:
Dis tan ce travelled 1.8
0.17 h = 10.2 min
Speed 10.6
v) Length of the platoon Lp, (not a standing queue) was:
The slow moving vehicle required 0.17 hours for the 1.8 km trip so that at the end of trip, the
length of the platoon is: 8.4 0.17 1.43 km
vi) The rate at which the queue grew, in units of vehicles per hour was:
qb q a
Usw
kb ka
qa k aUsw qb k bUsw 800 (20 2.2) 954 (90 2.2) 756 veh/h
vii) The number of vehicles in the platoon when the slow moving vehicle left the road was:
No of vehicles Lp k b
1.43 km 90 veh / km
= 129 vehs
OR
50 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
EXAMPLE 9.7
A 24 km/h school zone is in effect from 7:30 to 9:30. Traffic measurements taken on 31 March
2010 showed that at precisely 09:00 the conditions presented in the figure below prevailed. How
long did it take for the 5 km platoon to disappear and what was the speed of the shockwave that
commenced at the moment when the platoon dissipated completely?
51 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
The reciprocal of flow is the average time separation headway of vehicles in the traffic stream and
measured in seconds. Headways are measured between common points on successive vehicles.
The maximum flow rate is the reciprocal of the minimum average headway that can be attained
under a given set of conditions.
When the arrival of vehicles at a particular point on the roadway is detailed, the distribution maybe
either the number of vehicles arriving in a time interval (the counting distribution) or the time interval
between the arrivals of successive vehicles (gap distribution).
The Poisson process has found very important applications in the theory of traffic flow because of
its simplicity, especially if traffic flows are low and random. However, when traffic tends to become
congested and start to form platoons, the random hypothesis breaks down and the Poisson
distribution becomes invalid.
The Poisson distribution is a discrete probability that expresses the probability of a number of
events occurring in a fixed period of time if these events occur with a known average rate and
independently of the time since the last event.
For a traffic flow that is random, the probability of precisely n vehicles arriving at a given location on
the roadway in any time interval t is obtained from the Poisson distribution shown below:
Pn
t n e t .(Equation M)
n!
where P(n) = probability of having n vehicles arriving in time interval t
= mean arrival rate in time interval t
t = duration of time interval over which vehicles are observed
e = base of the natural logarithm (e = 2.718)
n = number of incident vehicles
This distribution is referred to as the counting distribution, as it relates to the number of vehicles
arriving during a given time interval. However, when describing headway distributions (the intervals
between arriving vehicles), the negative exponential distribution is most often used. The negative
exponential distribution can be obtained from the Poisson distribution if it is assumed that no
vehicles arrive in a given interval t, in which case the headway must be equal to or exceed t (that is,
the probability of having no vehicles arrive in a time interval t is equivalent to the probability of a
headway h). Thus, taking Equation L and assuming n equals zero (no cars arriving in interval t),
P0 Pheadway t
t 0 e t e t .(Equation N)
1
The mean arrival rate q is the reciprocal of the mean headway, which can be estimated based on
observed headways on site.
52 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
EXAMPLE 9.8
Traffic flows are collected along an uncongested roadway in 60-seconds intervals over a
15-minutes period as shown in the table below.
If it is assumed that all traffic arrivals are Poisson distributed, and continue at the same rate as
observed for the 15-minutes period above, estimate the probability that 7 or more vehicles will
arrive in each of the next three 1-minute intervals?
P0
4.92 e 4.92
0
= 0.0073 P1
4.92 e 4.92
1
= 0.0359 P2
4.92 e 4.92
2
= 0.0883
0! 1! 2!
P3
4.92 e 4.92
3
= 0.1449 P4
4.92 e
4 4.92
= 0.1782 P5
4.92 e 4.92
5
= 0.1754
3! 4! 5!
P6
4.92 e 4.92
6
= 0.1438
6!
From the summation of the six evaluations above, the probability of arrival of 06 vehicles is
obtained.
6
Thus, Pn 6 P(n) =0.0073+0.0359+0.0883+0.1449+0.1782+0.1754+0.1438 = 0.7738
n 0
So 1 minus the above value gives the probability that 7 or more vehicles will arrive in any given
time interval.
The probability that 7 or more vehicles will arrive within any given 60-seconds time interval is thus
shown to be 22.62%. The probability that 7 or more vehicles will arrive within three successive time
intervals is simply the product of the three probabilities, that is,
53 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
EXAMPLE 9.9
A vehicle reverses out onto a main road that has an average flow rate of 90 veh/h. The driver does
not look out for oncoming traffic. If the total reaction plus braking time required by an oncoming
driver to stop safely is 5 seconds, estimate the probability that an oncoming driver travelling along
the main road will collide with the reversing car.
EXAMPLE 9.10
At a given location on a road, vehicles arrive at a flow rate of 30 veh/min. How many vehicles
arrives between 6 and 12 seconds?
9.6 Exercises
(a) Given that the relationship between speed and concentration (density) obtained from actual
data is u = 54.5 0.24k, determine, jam density, free-flow speed, maximum flow, and
sketch the model in question.
0.768
(b) Given, s , where s is the spacing in kilometers and u is the speed in kilometers per
96 u
hour, derive these relationships; speed-density (u-k), speed-flow (u-q), flow-density (q-k),
and estimate the capacity (that is, maximum flow, qm) of the roadway as well.
(c) For the data of Question (b) above, plot spacing in meters versus headway in seconds.
(d) The relationship, q 171u 44uln u applies to a particular urban freeway, calculate
maximum flow, maximum speed, maximum density, and free-flow speed.
54 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
(e) The speed-density relationship for a particular freeway lane was found to be,
u 4.2 0.0041k 150 . Given that the speed is in kilometers per hour and concentration
2
(density) is in vehicles per hour, determine free-flow speed, jam-density, lane capacity, and
speed at capacity.
188
(f) Given the following speed-density relationship, u 48 ln , determine jam-density,
k
and capacity of the shock wave between conditions ua = 96 km/h and ub = 64 km/h.
(g) Consider a traffic stream with the characteristics; flow is 1 200 veh/h, speed is 10 km/h and
density is 120 veh/km. A truck exited the traffic stream 10 minutes after slowing down.
Vehicles at the front of the platoon were then released to a speed of 20 km/h and had a
density of 70 veh/km. Calculate the amount of time it took the 10 km/h platoon to disappear
if the speed of the shockwave at the rear of the platoon is 2.1 km/h.
(h) Assume the approach conditions of Question (g) above, were flow = 1 000 veh/h and
density = 25 veh/km, and calculate the speed of the shock wave that commenced at the
instant when the 10 km/h platoon was totally eliminated.
(i) Consider the traffic stream at a fixed point on the road, which has the characteristics, speed
is 40 km/h and density is 10 veh/km. Estimate the probability that vehicles will pass that
fixed point in 10 s.
(j) At any given location on a road, assuming that vehicle arrivals are Poisson distributed,
vehicles are counted in intervals of 15 s. Fifty such counts are taken, and it is noted that no
vehicles arrive in 7.5 of these 50 intervals. In how many of these 50 intervals will 3 vehicles
arrive?
(a) Determination of jam density, free-flow speed, maximum flow, and sketch of the model
in question from u = 54.5 0.24k:
55 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
Sketch of the model (speed-density) from the information determined in (a) to (c)
above
(b) Derivation of the relationships; speed-density (u-k), speed-flow (u-q), flow-density (q-k),
and estimation of the capacity (that is, maximum flow, qm) of the roadway from the
0.768
expression s , where s = spacing (km), and u = speed (km/h):
96 u
The reciprocal of density (k) is the average distance separation or spacing of vehicles in the
traffic stream and is measured in metres (m).
Speed-density (u-k):
1
s k
96 u
k 0.768
96
k 1.302u
0.768
k = 125 1.302u or u = 96 0.768k.................(1) (uk)
Speed-flow (u-q):
q q
q uk k , 125 1.302u , q = 125u 1.302u2(2) (qu)
u u
Flow-density (q-k):
From Equation (1): u 96 0.768k
q q
q uk u , 96 0.768k
k k
q = 96k 0.768k2...(3) (q k)
qm = 3 001 veh/h
56 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
(c) Plotting of spacing (m) versus headway (s) for data in Question (b):
0.768
Given the expression: s
96 u
From, s
0.768 1
, since s , then k
96 u
96 u k 0.768
The reciprocal of flow (q) is the average time separation headway of vehicles in the traffic
stream and measured in seconds (s).
h
1
, then from q uk , and from k
96 u ,
q 0.768
q u
96 u 96u u
2
therefore h
0.768
,
0.768 0.768 96u u 2
Therefore using the equations for spacing (m) and headway (s), the table below can be
established. The only variable in the spacing and headway equations is speed (u), choose
any interval to determine, spacing and headway.
0.768 0.768
h 0.00089 h 3.2 s/veh and s 0.0089 km 8.9 m/veh
96(10) (100) 2
96 10
57 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
(d) Calculation of maximum flow, maximum speed, maximum density, and free-flow speed
from, q 171u 44uln u :
(e) Determination of free-flow speed, jam-density, lane capacity, and speed at capacity
from u 4.2 0.0041k 150 :
2
kj = 182 veh/km
58 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
q uk
qm k 0.0041k 150 4.2
2
For qm, kj should be at km, therefore:
kj
182
km
91 veh/km
2 2
qm 91 0.004191 150 4.2
2
qm = 917 veh/h
(f) Determination of jam-density, and capacity of the shock wave between conditions u a =
188
96 km/h and ub = 64 km/h for u 48 ln :
k
Jam density (kj):
188
For kj, u = 0 u 48 ln 0 (1)
k
188
48 ln 0; kj = 188 veh/km
k
188 188
q uk but u 48 ln , q uk 48 ln
k k
q 48k ln 188k 1
To find density at maximum flow, differentiate with
respect to k and equate it to zero:
188k 2
dq
48 ln 188k 1 48k 1
0
dk 188k
188 1
48 ln 48k 0
k k
188
48ln 1 0 but 48 0
k
188
ln 1
k
188 188 188
e ; km = 70 veh/km
k e 2.718
59 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
188
Capacity of the shock wave: qm 4870 ln = 3 320 veh/h
70
Given, ua 96 km / h and ub 64 km / h
188 188u
From Equation (1): k U and q ku U
e 48 e 48
18896 2443
For u a 96 km / h , qa
96 48 =2 443 veh/h, k a 96 = 26 veh/km
e
18864 3172
For ub 64 km / h , qb
64 =3 172 veh/h, k b 64 = 50 veh/km
e 48
qb qa 3172 2443
Therefore, speed of shock wave: USW = 30.4 km/h
kb ka 50 26
(g) Calculation of the time it took the 10 km/h platoon to disappear for the speed of the
shockwave at the rear of the platoon which was 2.1 km/h for the conditions:
o traffic stream; q = 1 200 veh/h, u = 10 km/h, and k = 120 veh/km,
o truck exited the traffic stream 10 minutes after slowing down, and
o vehicles at the front of the platoon were released u = 20 km/h and had k = 70 veh/km.
The release conditions imply a flow (q) of: qb uk 20 km / h70 veh / km = 1 400
veh/h
At the end of 10 min or 0.167 h, the platoon had grown to a length of:
L 7.9 km / h0.167 h = 1.32 km
(h) Refer to Question (g) data, and q = 1 000 veh/h and k = 25 veh/km. Calculation of the
speed of the shock wave that commenced at the instant when the 10 km/h platoon was
totally eliminated.
After the last platoon vehicle was released, a shock wave commenced between (A) the
approach conditions behind this last vehicles and (B) the release conditions in front of it. The
speed of the shock wave was:
qb qa 1400 1000
USW = 8.9 km/h
kb ka 70 25
60 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
(i) Estimation of the probability that vehicles of u = 40 km/h and k = 10 veh/km) will pass the
fixed point in 10 seconds is calculated as follows:
400 veh / h
Main flow, q uk 40 10 400 veh / h , 0.111 veh / s
3600 s / h
P0 Pheadway t e t
Pheadway 10 e 0.11110 0.330
Pheadway 10 1 Pheadway 10
Pheadway 10 1 0.330
Pheadway 10 0.670
There is thus a 67% chance that vehicles will pass the fixed point.
t = 15 s
7.5
P(0) 0.15
50
( t ) n e t
P(n)
n!
Since
( t ) 0 e t
P(0) 0.15
0!
Therefore,
e t 0.15
t ln(0.15) 1.89712
1.89712
0.1265 veh/s
15
Therefore,
(0.1265 15)3 e ( 0.126515 ) 1.8975 e (1.8975)
3
P(3) 0.1707
3! 3 2 1
There is thus a 17.07% chance that 3 vehicles will arrive within any one interval.
Therefore, over the 50 counts taken, assuming that traffic is Poisson distributed, 3 cars
will arrive in just greater than 17 of these.
Acknowledgements and appreciation is given to all the authors and editors of the consulted and referenced material(s),
which helped in various ways to enhance the quality of this work, which in the end ensured that the subject
Transportation Engineering II at S3 level for the National Diploma (Engineering: Civil) is presented comprehensively and
with dignity. Hopefully the students will earn and learn. Once more, thanks to you all the greats, keep on educating the
nation with your out-of-this-world research.
9.8.1 Gazis, D.C. 2002. Traffic flow theory. Kluwer Academic Publishers, United States of
America.
9.8.2 Greenshields, B.D. 1935. A study of traffic capacity. In Highway Research Board
Proceedings, Vol. 14, pp 448-477.
61 of 74
LECTURE 7: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (Part 2) TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
9.8.3 Papacostas, C.S. and Prevedourous, P.D. 1993. Transportation Engineering and Planning,
2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, pp 127-161.
9.8.4 Rogers, M. 2008. Highway Engineering. Second Edition, Blackwell publishing, Oxford.
United Kingdom.
9.8.5 Van As, S.C. and Joubert, H.S. 1993. Traffic flow theory. 4th Edition, Viaed. University of
Pretoria. Pretoria, South Africa.
62 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 10 Capacity and Level of Service)
7.2 A. Definitions:
Capacity:
The maximum hourly rate at which vehicles or pedestrians:
with reasonable expectation
during a period in time
can travel past a point or through a uniform part of a lane or road
under prevailing road-, traffic- and control-conditions
Level of service:
A measure to describe the quality of the conditions of operation in a stream of traffic experienced
by motorists and passengers under those conditions.
Design speed:
The maximum safe speed that can be maintained on a section of road when design features dictate
the traffic conditions.
Operating speed:
The highest possible speed at which a vehicle can travel over a section of road in favourable
weather conditions and prevailing traffic conditions without having to exceed the design speed.
Peak-hour factor:
The relation of the volume of traffic during the peak-hour to the maximum rate of flow in a time-
interval within that peak-hour (always smaller than 1).
Example: Say 200 vehicles counted during the peak 15 minutes period of a peak-hour and 600
vehicles total during the peak-hour, then:
600
PHF 0,75
15
4 200
63 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 10 Capacity and Level of Service)
Irrespective of the urgency of construction or upgrading required on roads, the funds are (always)
very limited. The engineer and technologist are responsible for the proper utilisation of the
available capital funds. In order to construct the required type and size of facility, a proper
investigation has to be conducted to determine the needed level of service that will fulfil the need of
users
A variety of operational aspects are considered when the quality of service as represented by the
level of service. In the case of multi-lane roads, the density of vehicles is used to indicate the
different levels of service. This density is expressed in passenger vehicles per kilometre.
After the design-volume has been determined, then the width and number of lanes can be
calculated to answer to the required level of service.
Level of Service A
Free-flow, no hindrance from other users, freedom to choose speed and lane.
Level of Service B
Stable flow, but the presence of other road users is noticeable, choice of speed still possible but
less freedom to change lanes.
Level of Service C
Stable flow, choice of speed is limited by other users and lane changing must be done with care.
Level of Service D
Density is high with stable flow, speed lane changing seriously constricted. A small increase in flow
disrupts the stream of traffic.
Level of Service E
Condition of operation is close to capacity, speed is restricted but uniform, and changing of lanes is
very difficult and requires effort to create a gap. Flow is unstable.
Level of Service F
Flow is unnatural or interrupted. Vehicle arrivals exceed the road's abilities and rows with stop-go
conditions are created and can also develop at a bottleneck.
64 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 10 Capacity and Level of Service)
Road conditions
Terrain
Level, mildly sloped or mountainous.
Environment
Urban or peri-urban.
Lane width
Lanes with width less that 3,7 m has lower capacity.
Cross-sectional dimension
Any obstacle closer than 1,8 m is considered to be a restriction on the flow.
Additional lanes
Assistance-, speed changing-, turn-, climbing lanes, etc. (possibly also parking- and holding lanes
on highways)
Design speed
Design speeds lower than 110 km/h will restrict the capacity.
Slopes
Steep slopes have a detrimental effect on traffic, especially on heavy vehicles.
Traffic conditions
Buses
Variation in traffic.
Drivers
Skills and level of schooling.
Apart form the factors as mentioned for byways and multi-lane roads; the opportunity to pass other
vehicles is very important during traffic conditions on single-carriageway roads. The service rate of
flow on two-lane two-way traffic roads are influenced by the following:
Design speed
Maximum service rate of flow is affected in two ways by the design speed:
65 of 74
(Supplementary notes to Chapter 10 Capacity and Level of Service)
(Broken flow)
Traffic control equipment determines the capacity of urban roads.
66 of 74
LECTURE 9: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL
Purpose:
orderly traffic flow
maximum road safety
minimum transport costs
minimum delay
minimum number of stops
minimum waste of energy
maximum driver satisfaction
minimum impact on environment
Types of control:
traffic signals (robots)
road signs and/or
road markings
Four way-stops can be utilised at crossings with a high incidence of accidents and also as
temporary arrangement before a signal is to be erected.
Signal control:
The installation of traffic lights where it does not satisfy the situation can lead to disgruntled road
users, accumulated delay, disregard of lights, backup of traffic and an increase in the frequency of
the occurrence of accidents.
67 of 74
LECTURE 9: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL
DEFAULT METHOD 1
Design the signal setting for the peak period scenario shown below:
140
300
120
100
470
140
North-South
RT 200 x 1.75 = 350
LT 180 x 1.25 = 225
Straight 450 = 450
1025
South-North
RT 180 x 1.75 = 315
LT 280 x 1.25 = 350
Straight 940 = 940
1605
East-West
RT 100 x 1.75 = 175
LT 140 x 1.25 = 175
Straight 470 = 470
820
West-East
RT 120 x 1.75 = 210
LT 140 x 1.25 = 175
Straight 300 = 300
685
68 of 74
LECTURE 9: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL
NS: 1025
SN: 1605
NS: 1204
SN: 1886
69 of 74
LECTURE 9: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL
1 886
YS N 0.484
3 900
964
YE W 0.247
3 900
YT 0.731
Then:
1.5L 5 1.58 5
Co 63.197 sec
1 YT 1 0.731
0.484
GESN 72 47.7 sec
0.731
0.247
GEE W 72 24.3 sec
0.731
Then,
S-N: 47.7 = G + A 2
G + A = 47.7 + 2
Then: GS-N = 47.7 + 2 5 = 44.7 sec
E-W: 24.3 = G + A 2
G + A = 24.3 + 2
Then: GE-W = 24.3 + 2 5 = 21.3 sec
STEP 5: Summary:
NB: This method did not consider the right turns on their own, but looked at the whole directional
movement(s).
70 of 74
LECTURE 9: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL
DEFAULT METHOD 2
Design the signal setting for the peak period as shown on the diagram below:
Given:
Amber time = 5 seconds for both directions
Lost time = 9 seconds
Maximum capacity for RT = 1700 vphpgpl (vehicles per hour per group per lane)
TH = 1800 vphpgpl
TH & LT = 1650 vphpgpl
Phase A: (E-W & W-E) (Notice the Right-Turn is not catered for)
71 of 74
LECTURE 9: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL
Then:
1.5L 5 1.59 5
Co 45.122 sec
1 Y 1 0.59
0.18
GE Phase A x51 15.6 sec
0.59
0.31
GE Phase B x51 26.8 sec
0.59
0.10
GE Phase C x51 8.6 sec
0.59
But Effective Green time = Green time + Amber time 2
Then,
Phase A: 15.6 = G + A 2
G + A = 15.6 + 2
Then: GPhase A = 15.6 + 2 5 = 12.6 sec
Phase B: 26.8 = G + A 2
G + A = 26.8 + 2
Then: GPhase B = 26.8 + 2 5 = 23.8 sec
Phase C: 8.6 = G + A 2
G + A = 8.6 + 2
Then: GPhase C = 8.6 + 2 5 = 5.6 sec
72 of 74
LECTURE 9: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL
STEP 5: Summary:
73 of 74
LECTURE 9: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL
1. The product of right-turning vehicles and opposing traffic volume exceeds 50 000 during the
peak hour on a 2-lane highway, or 100 000 on a 4-lane highway.
2. Two or more vehicles are still waiting to turn right at the end of a phase.
3. There are more than 50 vehicles turning right during the peak hour and the approach
speeds are greater than 72 km/h.
4. There are 5 or more accidents associated with turning movements during a 12-month
period.
74 of 74
LECTURE 9: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL
Vine Street
Approach
speed 55
km/h
15.4 m
18.3 m
Vine Street 86 48
Approach (13) (4)
speed 55
km/h
588
100 (60)
(6)
500 75
(50) (5)
60 354
(6) (40)
100
550 (10)
(40)
50 160
(9) (20)
Figure 11.2 : Intersection with peak traffic volumes to use in step calculations.
75 of 74
LECTURE 9: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL
Solution of Step 1
Find the product of all right-turning and opposing vehicles for each approach:
The product for the North-bound direction is more than 100 000 (requirement for a 4-lane
highway). Therefore a separate right-turn-phase is suggested. All the other directions are less
than 100 000; no additional right-turn-phases are required.
Mixed traffic and non-through movements are converted to equivalent straight-through passenger
cars for signal timing analysis. The figures in Table 11.1 are used (Highway Capacity Manual).
Solution of Step 1
Using Table 11.1, calculate the total equivalent vehicles for every movement in every direction
(round answers up to nearest 1.0):
North-bound:
Left-turn: 50(1.4) + 9(1.4)(1.5) = 89 veh/h
Right-turn: 160(1.6) + 20(1.6)(1.5) = 304 veh/h
Straight-through: 550(1.0) + 40(1.0)(1.5) = 610 veh/h
Total = 1 003 veh/h
South-bound:
Left-turn: 48(1.4) + 4(1.4)(1.5) = 76 veh/h
Right-turn: 86(1.6) + 13(1.6)(1.5) = 169 veh/h
Straight-through: 588(1.0) + 60(1.0)(1.5) = 678 veh/h
Total = 923 veh/h
East-bound:
Left-turn: 100(1.4) + 6(1.4)(1.5) = 153 veh/h
Right-turn: 60(1.6) + 6(1.6)(1.5) = 111 veh/h
Straight-through: 500(1.0) + 50(1.0)(1.5) = 575 veh/h
Total = 839 veh/h
76 of 74
LECTURE 9: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL
West-bound:
Left-turn: 100(1.4) + 10(1.4)(1.5) = 161 veh/h
Right-turn: 75(1.6) + 5(1.6)(1.5) = 132 veh/h
Straight-through: 354(1.0) + 40(1.0)(1.5) = 414 veh/h
Total = 707 veh/h
7.11 C. SELECTION OF CRITICAL-LANE VOLUMES
The critical-lane volumes for each approach can now be determined.
The right-turn volumes are considered a separate movement if a right-turn bay is provided (as
shown in Figure 11.2). The equivalent straight-through and left-turn movements are combined and
distributed over the number of approach lanes. If this cannot be verified by a field study, then the
amount of traffic in the most heavily used lane in the approach (i.e. critical lane volume) can be
approximated as the total approach volume multiplied by a critical-lane factor.
Solution of Step 2
As calculated in Step 1, the north-bound right-turning passenger car equivalent was 304 vehicles.
The straight-through equivalent was 610 and left-turning equivalents 89. Combining the left-turn
and straight-through equivalents give 699 (610 + 89). As stated, the distribution in the 2-lanes is
equal, thus 699 2 = 349.5 350 (rounded up for practical reasons). Follow the same procedure
with the other approaches, and represent results in a small sketch.
364
364
111
77 of 74
LECTURE 9: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL
The critical-lane volumes are then determined for each phase of the traffic-signal timing plan (as
discussed in Solution of Step 1). Critical lanes must be selected for the north-south movement, the
east-west-movement and the right-turning phase. From Figure 11.3 it is clear that the vehicles per
hour going east is the largest number (364 veh/h), as is the number of vehicles going south
(377 veh/h) in the north-south-movement. The largest number for right-turning vehicles is 304
veh/h.
7.12 D. CALCULATION OF CHANGE INTERVAL
This interval is the yellow plus all-red times (the short period of time when all approaches have a
red signal). This interval is required to enable the intersection to be cleared of all vehicles before
conflicting traffic movements are given a signal indication that allows them to enter the intersection
(expressed in seconds). Formulas to calculate yellow and all-red times are:
V
YT t ....................................... Equation 11.1 : Yellow Time
2a 2g G
p
r
w l
AR ....................................... Equation 11.2 : All-red Time
V
YT = Yellow time (rounded to the nearest 0.5 second)
tp = Driver perception/reaction time; taken as 1.0 second
V= Speed of the vehicle in m/s
a= Deceleration rate for the vehicle; taken as 3.05 m/s2
G= Percent grade divided by 100
gr = Acceleration due to gravity; taken as 9.81 m/s2
AR = The all-red time
'w = Width of the cross street in metres
l= Length of the vehicle; taken as 6 metres
Typically, the yellow time is in the range of 3 to 5 seconds. Times periods that are longer or shorter
are not practical for the motorist (longer encourage motorists to keep on entering the intersection,
shorter times can place motorist in dilemma zone; i.e. to short to stop, and when entering
intersection will experience a red indication).
Solution of Step 3
For the Vine Street phasing (applying Equation 11.1 and Equation 11.2):
(5510003600)
YT 1.0 3.5 sec
2(3.05)
18.3 6 1.6 sec
AR
(5510003600)
The same calculations for Maple Street is done with a YT = 2.8 seconds and an AR = 1.9 seconds.
The YT is rounded up to 3.0 seconds.
78 of 74
LECTURE 9: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL
The yellow time for the right-turning phase is calculated using the same values as for the Vine
Street phasing; the result is 3.5 seconds. The all-red for the right-turning phase is the same as is
for the straight-through vehicles.
For the all-red times, Maple's 1.9 seconds and Vine's 1.6 seconds are both rounded up to 2.0
seconds (controllers can only handle 0.5 seconds as smallest interval).
7.13 E. CALCULATION OF MINIMUM CYCLE LENGTH
The cycle length is simply a summation of the individual phases. In practice, cycle lengths are kept
as short as possible, typically within the 40- to 6--second range. However, the more phases there
are, the longer the cycle and as long as 120 seconds, or more. This is quite exceptional and is
rarely found.
Webster (1958) developed an equation to calculate the optimum cycle length. He assumed that
vehicles arrive at an intersection on a random basis. He wanted to calculate a cycle length that will
provide the shortest vehicle delay. The optimum cycle-length equation is:
1.5LT 5 ......................................Equation 11.3 : Cycle Length
c
1.0in1 y i
Where c = cycle length (usually rounded up to nearest 5-second increment), LT = lost time
approximated as the total yellow and all-red times per cycle and yi = the ratio of the critical-lane
volume to the per-lane saturation flow for signal phase i.
Solution of Step 4
In Step 3 it was determined that the yellow times for intersection are 3.5 seconds for the Vine Street
phase, and 3.5 seconds for the Vine Street right-turning phase and 3.0 seconds for the Maple
Street phase. The summation of these values gives a total yellow time of 10.0 seconds. In the
same Step, it was determined that the all-red time for each of the three phases was 2.0 seconds; a
total all-red time of 6.0 seconds. The total time lost during the three phases is 16 seconds (10 + 6).
From Step 2 it was calculated that the critical lane volumes are 377 veh/h for the Vine Street phase,
305 veh/h for the Vine Street right-turning phase and 364 veh/h for the Maple Street phase. Using
these values in Equation 11.3 gives:
1.5(16) 5
c 69.14 sec
377 304 364
1.0
1800 1800 1800
Rounding this value up to the nearest 5-second increment gives a cycle length of 70 seconds.
7.14 F. ALLOCATION OF GREEN TIME
After the cycle length has been calculated, you now have to determine how much green time
should be allocated to each phase. Total cycle length is the sum of all green times plus lost time.
In other words, the cycle length minus the sum of yellow and all-red times (i.e. the approximated
lost time) will leave the total green time available for all phases. This total green time is divided
among the phases that comprise the cycle. The green time is normally distributed to each phase in
proportion to the ratio of critical-lane volume of the phase to critical-lane traffic (summation of the
critical-lane volumes of all phases). This green time allocation procedure is demonstrated by the
following step.
79 of 74
LECTURE 9: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL
Solution of Step 6
Lost time was found to be 16 seconds, therefore the total green time is 70 - 16 = 54 seconds.
Divide the green time as follows:
To calculate the minimum green time required for pedestrian movements, the time required by a
pedestrian to walk across the street must be determined. For signal timing purposes it is assumed
that pedestrians walk at a rate of 1.2 m/s (for older people a walking speed of 0.9 m/s is
appropriate). In addition to the crossing time, a pedestrian reaction time of 7.0 seconds is added to
the required green time. The equation we use to calculate the minimum pedestrian time is:
w
PGT 7 YT AR ....... Equation 11.4 : Minimum Pedestrian Green Time
PWS
PGT Pedestrian green time in seconds
w Width of the street in meters
PWS Pedestrian walking speed in m/s
YT The yellow time in seconds
AR The all-red time in seconds
Solution of Step 6
A pedestrian who wants to cross Maple Street, will do so while Vine Street has a green interval.
The minimum green time needed on Vine Street is (using Equation 11.4):
18.3
PGT 7 3.5 2.0 16.75 sec
1.2
But in Step 5 was determined that Vine Street has 20 seconds green time; thus there is enough
green time for pedestrians to cross the street. The minimum green time needed in Maple Street
(using Equation 11.4):
15.4
PGT 7 3.0 2.0 14.83 sec
1.2
From Step 5, Maple Street is assigned 19 seconds of green time, so again enough green time is
available to pedestrians to cross the street.
7.16 H. PREPARATION OF SIGNAL INDICATION SUMMARY
80 of 74
LECTURE 9: NOTES FOR TRAFFIC CONTROL
After pedestrian green time was evaluated, the calculation of interval times for each phase is
complete, and a signal indication summary can be prepared. The signal indication summary shows
the phases for each movement, at this time, the phases and cycle length can be finalised, and
conflict checks can be made. The signal indication summary is shown in the table below.
Table 11.3 : Signal Indication Summary : Vine and Maple Streets Intersection
Street Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
GT = 20s
Vine Street
YT = 3.5s RT = 20.5s RT = 24s
(through)
AR = 2.0s
GT = 15s
Vine Street
RT = 25.5s YT = 3.5s RT = 24s
(right-turn)
AR = 2.0s
GT = 19s
Maple Street
RT = 25.5s RT = 20.5s YT = 3.0s
(through)
AR = 2.0s
Note that the red times (RTs) presented in this summary equal to the summation of green time
(GT), yellow time (YT) and all-red times (AR) for this particular case.
81 of 74