VISCOSITY AND THE

MECHANISMS OF MOMENTUM
TRANSPORT
 motionless
Stationary plate U=0

t=0

t=2
t1

Moving plate
Ux

F
Y = the direction change in Ux and momentum transfer

x = direction of velocity of Ux
Shear force is applied to top plate at point B. By shear force we mean a
force that is applied tangentially and parallel to a surface
fluid molecules are arranged in layers. When the upper plate starts
moving, the fluid layer just touching the top plate starts moving the same
velocity. Then the next layer starts moving and so on.
Initially at rest, time t=0, lower plate is set in
motion in the positive x direction at constant
velocity
Time proceed: the fluid gains momentum, and
ultimate the linear steady-state velocity
Force apply to lower plate to maintain at velocity U
Internal friction resistance in the fluid
Fluid between the
Friction between plate fluid and the plate plates begin moves
No slip condition:
A F needed along the plate to hold it stationary
Consider a pair of large parallel plates, each one with area A, separated by
a distance Y. In the space between them is a fluid (gas or liquid). When the
final state (steady state) has been attained, a constant force F is required to
maintain the motion of the lower plate.
Stationary plate

Moving plate

At constant velocity, V

Fluid gains momentum

F/A = shear stress = yx (magnitude to the flux )
Steady state:
dUx/dy constant
Viscosity =constant
Area = constant
Force = constant
When bottom plate is pulled in x direction with
force F, the must be same force on top plate :
equal in an in opposite direction
Thus, it may be said that F/A is proportional
to v/h for a Newtonian fluid.
 Shear rate @ velocity gradient

yx= y refers to the direction of momentum transfer

X = direction of velocity

The interpretation of as the momentum flux is that x directed momentum flows

from higher value to lower value in y direction.
- Sheering force per unit area = Newtons law of viscosity
- Flux of x-momentum in the positive y direction, where the term "flux"
means "flow per unit area."
- All gases and all liquids with molecular weight of less than about 5000
(Newtonian fluids)
- Polymeric liquids, suspensions, pastes, slurries, and other complex fluids
(non-Newtonian fluids)
In the neighborhood of the moving solid surface at
y = 0 the fluid acquires a certain amount of x-
momentum. This fluid, in turn, imparts momentum to
the adjacent layer of liquid, causing it to remain in
motion in the x direction. Hence x-momentum is
being transmitted through the fluid in the
positive y direction.

Therefore yx may also be interpreted as the flux of x-

momentum in the positive y direction, where the
term "flux" means "flow per unit area." This
interpretation is consistent with the molecular picture
of momentum transport and the kinetic theories of
gases and liquids..
The idea in the preceding paragraph may be
paraphrased by saying that momentum goes
"downhill" from a region of high velocity to a
region of low velocity-just as a sled goes
downhill from a region of high elevation to a
region of low elevation.

The velocity gradient can therefore be thought of

as a "driving force" for momentum transport.
The SI unit of viscosity is kg/m.s or Pa.s.
In CGS unit is g/cm.s and is commonly known as
poise (P). where 1 P = 0.1 kg/m.s.
The unit poise is also used with the prefix centi-,
which refers to one-hundredth of a poise, i.e. 1 cP
= 0.01 P. The viscosity of air at 25oC is 0.018
cP, water at 25oC is 1 cP and for many polymer
melts it may range from 1000 to 100,000 cP, thus
showing a long range of viscosity.
Unit for = N/m2 (Pa)
Velocity gradient (dvx)=m/s
 PROBLEMS
Two parallel plates are 10 cm apart. The
bottom plate is stationary. The fluid
between the plates is water which has a
viscosity of 0.001 kgm-1s-1. Calculate the
momentum flux or force per unit area
necessary to maintain a plate in motion at
a velocity of 30 cms-1. answer: 0.003Nm-2
If water is replaced with a fluid of
viscosity 10cP, and if the momentum flux
remains 0.003Nm-2, find new velocity of
the bottom plate. -0.03ms-1
There are two plates some distance apart.
Between the plate , water used is 24oC. The
lower plate being pulled at a constant velocity at
0.4 m/s faster relative to the top plate . How far
apart should the two plates be place so that the
shear stress = 0.3 N/m2. Calculate the shear
rate.
The distance between two parallel plates is
0.00914m and the lower plate is pulled at a
constant velocity 0.366 m/s faster relative to the
top plate. The fluid filled between the plates is
glycerol at 293K having viscosity 1.069kg/m.s.
Calculate the shear stress and shear rate.
A plate moves at 2 m/s with a shearing force
of 3.5 N/m2. The distance between moving
plate and fixed plate is 0.08 mm. Determine
viscosity of fluid between plates.
PROBLEMS
A Newtonian fluid with a viscosity of 0.001 kgm-
1s-1 is placed between two large parallel plates.

The distance between the plates is 4 mm. The

lower plate is pulled in the positive x-direction
with a force of 0.5 N, while the upper plate is
pulled in the negative x-direction with a force of 2
N. Each plate has an area of 2.5 m2. If the
velocity of the lower plate is 0.1 m/s, calculate:
a) The steady state momentum flux
b) The velocity of the upper plate. Answer:-0.3m/s
GENERALIZATION OF NEWTON'S
LAW OF VISCOSITY
In Fig. 1.2-1 is shown a small cube-shaped volume
element within the flow field, each face having unit
area. The center of the volume element is at the
position x, y, z.
Cut the volume perpendicular to each of the three
(shaded) surface

There will be two contributions to the force: that

associated with the pressure, and that associated
with the viscous forces.
The pressure force will always be perpendicular
to the exposed surface.
Hence in (a) the force per unit area on the shaded
surface will be a vector px - that is, the pressure
(a scalar) multiplied by the unit vector x in the x
direction.
Similarly, the force on the shaded surface in (b)
will be py and in (c) the force will be pz.
The pressure forces will be exerted when
the fluid is stationary as well as when it is
in motion.
Force / area (x) exerted on the shaded area
Each of force (which are vectors) has component
sclars eg: (xx, xy, xz)
viscous forces- when there are velocity
gradient within the fluid
This tabulation is a summary of the forces per
unit area (stresses) exerted within a fluid,
both by the thermodynamic pressure and the
viscous stresses. Sometimes we will find it
convenient to have a symbol that includes both
types of stresses, and so we define the molecular
stresses as follows:
FORCE EXERTED BY FLUID ON SOLID
SURFACE

Normal stress
(The stress, xx) =p + xx
yy =p + yy

zz =p + zz
Shear stress
xy =xy

yz =yz Two subscript=tensor

One subscript = vector

= viscous stress tensor (with component ij)

= molecular stress tensor (with component ij)
 as the viscous stress tensor (with components ij)
as the molecular stress tensor (with components ij )
So, generalization for Newton's law of viscosity:
Conclusion: two coefficients characterizing the
fluid: the viscosity and the dilatational viscosity
K. Usually, in solving fluid dynamics problems, it
is not necessary to know K. If the fluid is a gas,
we often assume it to act as an ideal monoatomic
gas, for which K is identically zero. If the fluid is
a liquid, we often assume that it is
incompressible, and for incompressible liquids
( .v) = 0, and therefore the term containing K is
discarded anyway. The dilational viscosity is
important in describing sound absorption in
polyatomic gases and in describing the fluid
dynamics of liquids containing gas bubble.
CONVECTIVE MOMENTUM TRANSPORT

Momentum can be transported by the bulk flow

of the fluid, and this process is called convective
transport.
Momentum transport = molecular transport +
convective transport
 At the center of the cube (located at x, y, z) the
fluid velocity vector is v. The volume rate of flow
across the shaded unit area in (a) is vx. This fluid
carries with it momentum v per unit volume.
Hence the momentum flux across the shaded
area is vxv; note that this is the momentum flux
from the region of lesser x to the region of greater
x.
Momentum= m x v
momentum m v
v
volume V
kg.m kg m
momentum
s m3 s
 momentum m v kg m m
v v v
volume V m3 s s
kg.m kg m
momentum
s m3 s
vxvy is the convective flux of y-momentum
across a surface perpendicular to the x
direction.
the combined momentum flux, which is the sum of
the molecular momentum flux and the
convective momentum flux:

Keep in mind that the contribution p contains no

velocity, only the pressure; the combination vv
contains the density and products of the velocity
components; and the contribution contains the
viscosity and, for a Newtonian fluid, is linear in the
velocity gradients.
PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
DEPENDENCE OF VISCOSITY
How to estimate viscosity of gas & liquid.
Experimental but sometime experimental data
are lacking and there is not time to obtain them.
The viscosity can be estimated by empirical
methods - a corresponding-states correlation
The plot in Fig. 1.3-1 gives a global view of the
pressure and temperature dependence of
viscosity. The reduced viscosity r = /c is
plotted versus the reduced temperature Tr= T/Tc
for various values of the reduced pressure pr =
p/pc.
The viscosity of a gas at low density
increases with increasing temperature,
whereas the viscosity of a liquid decreases
with increasing temperature.
c may be estimated in one of the following ways:
(i) if a value of viscosity is known at a given
reduced pressure and temperature, preferably at
conditions near to those of interest, then c can
be calculated from c = /r
(ii) if critical p-V-T data are available, then c
may be estimated from these empirical relations:

estimation of viscosities of mixtures

EXAMPLE
PROBLEMS