Villarroel Categories

Notes on Categories
Rafael Villarroel Flores

rafael@matem.unam.mx
18th August 2004

ii
Contents
I Basic Definitions 1
1 Categories 3
1.1 Definition and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Small Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Subcategories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Special Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Special Morphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 Functors 15
2.2 Contravariant Functors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Isomorphism of Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Types of Functors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Natural Transformations 23
3.2 The Functor Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3 Equivalence of Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.4 The Yoneda Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
II Limits 31
4 Limits and Colimits 33
4.1 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2 Colimits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3 More Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.4 Limit and Colimit as Functors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.5 Preservation of Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
iii
iv Contents
5 Universals and Adjoints 43

5.1 Universals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.2 Adjoint Functors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6 More on Limits 49
6.1 Limits in a Functor Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.2 Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.3 Ends in a Functor Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.4 Iterated Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.5 Coends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
III Extras 65
7 Abelian Categories 67
7.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.2 Chain Complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.3 Exact Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.4 Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.5 Split Chain Complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.6 Exact Functors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8 Appendix: Calculations 75
8.1 The Grothendieck Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Bibliography 77
Part I
Basic Definitions
1
1
Categories
1.1 Definition and Examples

In this section we provide the definition of category and many examples of categories
which may already be familiar to the reader.
1.1 Definition. A category C consists of

1. A class obj C, whose elements are called objects.
2. A set homC (A, B) for every pair of objects A, B, whose elements are called mor-
phisms, or maps from A to B. We can call them also C-maps.
3. For every triad of objects A, B, C, a function (called composition)
homC (A, B) homC (B, C) homC (A, C) (1.1)
whose value at (f, g) will be denoted by g f.

4. For every object A, a distinguished element 1C
A homC (A, A), called identity on
A.
They have to satisfy the following conditions:
(a) For every pair of objects A, B and for every f homC (A, B), we must have f1C
A =
1C
B f = f.
(b) For every A, B, C, D obj D and f homC (A, B), g homC (B, C) and h
homC (C, D) we have that h (g f) = (h g) f.
3
4 Chapter 1. Categories
An identity 1C
A is usually denoted by 1A if the category C is clear from the context. If
A and B are objects in the category C, then f : A B will mean that f is an element of
homC (A, B). In that case, we say that A is the domain of f and that B is the codomain of
f, and we write A = dom f, B = cod f.
An element of obj C will be called a C-object, similarly a morphism in C will be called

a C-morphism.
We note that we always consider different hom sets to be disjoint. That is, if f, g are
morphisms in a category C such that f = g, with f homC (A, B), g homC (C, D), then
we must have that A = C, B = D.
Our first example is the prototype of all categories.
Example 1.1
The category Set of sets, such that obj Set is the class of all sets and homSet (A, B) is the set of all
maps from A to B. Composition is the usual composition of maps, and for a set X, the identity
1X is the identity map. Then clearly the conditions (a) and (b) of the definition of categories are
satisfied.
In the following examples of categories, the objects are sets with some extra struc-
ture, and morphisms are maps which preserve that structure. Those categories are called
concrete, in them, the compositions are given by the usual composition of maps, and the
identities are the identity maps. Since the usual composition is associative and the identity
map is a neutral element under composition, in order to prove that we have a category
one only has to check that the composition of two morphisms is a morphism, and that the
identity map is a morphism.
Examples from Algebra
Examples 1.2
1. The category Grp of all groups, where we have that obj Grp is the class of all groups and
homGrp (A, B) is the set of group homomorphisms from A to B.
2. Fixing a group G, we have the category GSet, where obj GSet is the class of (left) G-sets
and homGSet (X, Y) is the set of equivariant maps.
3. The category Ab of all abelian groups, such that obj Ab is the class of all abelian groups
and homAb (A, B) is the set of group homomorphisms from A to B.
4. The category Rng of rings, such that obj Rng is the class of all rings, homRng (A, B) is the
set of ring homomorphisms from A to B.
1.1. Definition and Examples 5
5. The category Ring of rings with unit, such that obj Ring is the class of all rings with unit
and homRing (A, B) is the set of all ring homomorphisms from A to B such that f(1) = 1.
6. The category R-mod, where R is a ring, such that obj R-mod is the class of all left modules
over R and homR-mod (A, B) is the set of R-linear morphisms from A to B. We similarly
have a category mod-R of right R-modules. Note that if R is in fact a field, then R-mod is
the category of vector spaces over R, and the morphisms in this particular case are linear
transformations.
7. The category R-alg of R-algebras, such that obj R-alg is the class of all algebras over R and
homR-alg (A, B) is the set of morphisms of R-algebras from A to B.
Examples from Topology
Examples 1.3
1. The category Top of topological spaces, such that obj Top is the class of all topological
spaces and homTop (X, Y) is the set of continuous maps from X to Y.
2. The category Top of pointed topological spaces, such that obj Top is the class of
all pairs (X, x0 ), where X is a topological space and x0 is a point in X. We put
homTop (X, x0 ), (Y, y0 ) as the set of continuous maps from X to Y such that f(x0 ) = y0 .
3. The category Haus of Hausdorff topological spaces, such that obj Haus is the class of all
Hausdorff topological spaces and homHaus (X, Y) is the set of all continuous maps from X
to Y.
4. The category Metric of metric spaces, such that obj Metric is the class of all metric spaces
and homMetric (X, Y) is the set of all continuous maps (satisfying an - definition) from X to
Y.
Examples from Combinatorics
Examples 1.4
1. The category Poset, with class of objects the class of partially ordered sets and
homPoset (P, Q) is the set of monotone maps from P to Q.
2. The category Graph where obj Graph is the class of all graphs, and for G1 , G2 obj Graph,
we have that homGraph (G1 , G2 ) is the set of functions from G1 to G2 that preserve adjacency.
3. The category DirGraph where obj DirGraph is the class of all directed graphs, and for
G1 , G2 obj Graph, we have that homGraph (G1 , G2 ) is the set of functions f such that
whenever a b is and edge in G1 , then f(a) f(b) is an edge in G2 .
4. The category SimplComplex, with class of objects the class of abstract simplicial complexes
and homSimplComplex (K, L) is the set of simplicial maps from K to L.
At this point, we should now provide examples of categories which are not concrete. In
the following examples, either the objects are not sets with structure or the hom sets are
not composed by maps between sets.
Examples 1.5
1. We define a category mod where obj mod consists of pairs (R, M) where R is a ring and M
is a left R-module. A morphism (R, M) (S, N) in mod is a pair of maps (, f), where
: R S is a morphism of rings and f : M N is an additive map such that f(rm) =
(r)f(m) for all r R, m M. We define composition as ( 0 , f 0 ) (, f) = ( 0 , f f 0 ),
which can be checked it is well-defined, and 1(R,M) = (1R , 1M ).
2. Consider the category Toph, where the class of objects is the class of topological spaces and
the set homToph (X, Y) is the set of homotopy classes of continuous maps from X to Y. The
composition of homotopy classes is defined to be the class of the composition of arbitrary
representatives. This is well defined, since homotopy of maps is an equivalence relation
preserved by composition. See [ML98, page 52]. We set 1TophX as the homotopy class of the
identity map X X. The properties of homotopy let us check the conditions for a category.
3. Let Rel be a category such that obj Rel = obj Set, and for sets X, Y, we have that
homRel (X, Y) is the set of relations from X to Y. If R : X Y and S : Y Z, then SR : X Z
is given by
S R = { (x, z) X Z | there is y Y with (x, y) R, (y, z) S } . (1.2)
We put 1X = { (x, x) | x X }. It is straightforward to check that we have just defined a

category.
We will have plenty of more examples in the next section.
Exercises 1.1
1. Let C be a category, and A obj C. If h homC (A, A) has the property that h f = f for every
f homC (A, A), then h = 1CA .
1.2 Small Categories

1.2 Definition. A category C is small if obj C is a set.
1.2. Small Categories 7
All the categories defined in the previous section are not small, hence they are called large.
Consider the following examples of small categories:
Examples 1.6
1. The empty category 0, with no objects (hence, no morphisms).
2. The category 1 such that obj 1 = {} (a set with one element), and hom1 (, ) = {1 }. The
composition is then uniquely defined. The composition is uniquely defined if it is going to
satisfy (a) from Definition 1.1.
3. The category 2 with obj 2 = {, 0 } and one non-identity map 0 . Again, the composi-
tion can only be defined in one way in order form 2 to be a category.
/
4. Similarly, we can define a small category by means of the diagrams , , or
/
/
/ . In every case, each dot represents a different object in the category being defined,
and the arrows are the only non-trivial morphisms.
5. Let G be a group. We define a category G by obj G = {}, homG (, ) = G, composition
equal to the group multiplication and 1 = identity element of G. We say that G is the
category associated to the group G.
6. Let P be a preordered set, that is, a set with a reflexive and transitive relation denoted by .
We define a category P by putting obj P = P, and

(x y) if x y
homP (x, y) =
if x 6 y
The composition will be given by (y z) (x y) = (x z), and 1x = (x x). We say

that P is the category associated to the preordered set P.
In particular, if n 0, we will use [n] to denote the category associated to the subposet
{0, 1, . . . , n} of N {0} with the usual order relation.
7. Let X be a topological space, then we can define a category X with obj X = X, and
homX (x, y) the set of homotopy classes of continuous maps (paths) : [0, 1] X with
(0) = x, 1 = y. The composition is defined in representatives as the usual concatenation
of paths and the identity 1x is the class of the constant path with value x.
1.3 Definition. A discrete category is a category in which all the morphisms are identities.
There can be discrete large categories, but usually this definition will be of use to us
when we consider any set X as a small discrete category.
1.3 Constructions
We show now some ways of forming new categories from old ones.
1.4 Definition. Let C be a category and A obj C. We define the comma category A C, where
obj A C is the class of all morphisms in C with domain A. If f : A B, f 0 : A B 0
obj A C, then homAC (f, f 0 ) is the set of C-morphisms : B B 0 such that f = f 0 .
Using diagrams, this last statement is equivalent to saying that the following diagram:
f ppp
8B
ppp
A NNN (1.3)
NNN
f0 & 0
B
commutes.
It is entirely possible that the same C-morphism makes commute two different dia-
grams of the form 1.3. However, as noted after Definition 1.1, we must consider them as
two different A C-morphisms.
Example 1.7
As an example of a comma category, let be a topological space with just one point. Then
Top consists of maps of the form X, which can be identified with X together with a
choice of a basepoint (the image of ). And the morphisms in Top are continuous maps that
preserve the basepoint. Hence, in some sense, Top can be identified with the category Top .
1.5 Definition. Similarly, if C be a category and A obj C, we define a comma category C A, where
obj C A is the class of all morphisms in C with codomain A. If h : B A, h 0 : B 0
A obj C A, then homCA (h, h 0 ) is the set of C-morphisms : B B 0 that make
the following diagram commute:
B NNNh
NNN
&

pp p8 A (1.4)
ppph 0
B0
1.3. Constructions 9
1.6 Definition. Let C be a category. The opposite category Cop has as objects the same class of objects
as C, the hom sets are defined by homCop (A, B) = homC (B, A), the composition g f
in Cop is defined to be equal to the composition f g in C, and the identities are the
same as in C.
Example 1.8
op /
It is straightforward that .
/
=

1.7 Definition. Let C and D be categories. The product category C D has as objects the pairs
(A, A 0 ) with A obj C, A 0 obj D, the morphisms from (A, A 0 ) to (B, B 0 ) are pairs
of morphisms (f, f 0 ) with f : A B in C and f 0 : A 0 B 0 , composition is defined
componentwise, and 1(A,A 0 ) = (1A , 1A 0 ).
Example 1.9
For example, if G1 , G2 are groups, the category associated to the direct product of groups
G1 G2 is the product category G1 G2
More generally, for any set of n-categories C1 , . . . , Cn , we can define a category C1

Cn . We will denote the product C C with n factors as Cn .
1.8 Definition. Let C be a category such that there is an equivalence relation ' defined on each
homC (A, B) for any pair of objects A, B in C, with the property that if f, f 0
homC (A, B) with f ' f 0 and g : A 0 A, h : B B 0 are maps, then hfg ' hf 0 g.
(In this case ' is called a congruence in C). Then there is a quotient category C/'
with the objects the same objects as in C, the hom sets are the equivalence classes un-
der the relation ', the composition is defined by composition of representatives, and
for any A obj(C/') = obj C, the identity on A is the class of 1A in homC (A, A).
Example 1.5.2 is an instance of this definition.

1.4 Subcategories
1.9 Definition. Let C, C 0 be categories. We say that C 0 is a subcategory of C if obj C 0 is a subclass of

obj C, homC 0 (A, B) is a subset of homC (A, B) for all A, B in obj C 0 , the compositions
in C 0 are defined and are restrictions of the corresponding compositions in C, and the
identity morphisms in C 0 are the ones that are so in C.
If C 0 is a subcategory of C and we have that homC 0 (A, B) = homC (A, B) for all A, B
in obj C, we say that C 0 is a full subcategory.
As a trivial example, note that any category is a (full) subcategory of itself.
Examples 1.10
1. The category Set is a subcategory of the category Rel, since every map of sets is in particular
a relation. But it is not a full subcategory, since it is clear that not every relation is a set
map.
2. The category Ab is a full subcategory of Grp, since every morphism of groups between
abelian groups is a morphism of abelian groups.
3. The category Ring is a subcategory of Rng but not a full subcategory, since for two rings
with unity R, S, the constant map R S sending all R to the zero element in S is a morphism
in Rng but not in Ring.
4. The category Haus is a full subcategory of the category Top.
5. Neither of the categories Grp, Ring is a subcategory of the other.
Given a category C, a full subcategory is completely determined by its class of objects.

In this way, we can easily define, for example, the category FinSet, which is the full sub-
category of Set where the class of objects is the class of all finite sets. For any concrete
category C, we define then a category FinC.
And we can speak of the categories of finitely generated groups, of torsion abelian
groups, of noetherian rings, of finite-dimensional vector spaces, of compact Hausdorff
topological spaces, and so on. In each case, we first set an ambient category, and then we
specify the objects of the full subcategory.
1.10 Definition. We will denote with the full subcategory of Poset such that obj =
{ [n] | n N {0} }.
1.5. Special Objects 11
1.5 Special Objects

We now start studying specific properties that an object in a fixed category could have or
not have.
1.11 Definition. Let C be a category. We say that A obj C is an initial object if homC (A, C) has
exactly one element for each C obj C. We say that B obj C is a final object if
homC (C, B) has exactly one element for each C obj C. Finally, an object which is
both an initial and a final object is called a zero object.
Examples 1.11
1. In Set, the empty set is the only initial object, and the final objects are exactly the sets with
only one element. A similar situation happens in Top. In particular, there are no zero
objects either in Set or Top.
2. In Grp, the trivial group is a zero object.
3. If P is a category coming from a preordered set P as in example 6 of 1.6, an initial object in
P corresponds to a minimum element of P and a final object in P with a maximum element
of P.
1.12 Definition. Let C be a category with a zero object. Then in any homC (A, B) there is a well-defined
zero morphism, 0 : A B which is the composition A 0 B. It can be shown
that the zero morphism is independent of the choice of the zero object.
Example 1.12
If G1 , G2 obj Grp, the zero morphism in homGrp (G1 , G2 ) is the homomorphism that sends
every element of G1 to the identity.
Exercises 1.2
1. Let C be a category with a zero object 0. If 0 0 is another zero object, the compositions A
0 B and A 0 0 B are equal.
2. Give an example of a category that has neither an initial object nor a final object.
1.6 Special Morphisms

And now we start studying specific properties that morphisms in a fixed category could
have or not have.
1.13 Definition. Let f : A B be a morphism in a category C. We say that f is an isomorphism if there

is a C-morphism h : B A such that h f = 1A and f h = 1B . In this case, we say
that A and B are isomorphic, and we write A = B.
For example, in the category Set, a morphism f : A B is an isomorphism exactly

when it is bijective. Hence in a concrete category, a necessary condition for a morphism
to be an isomorphism is that it is bijective.
In our algebraic examples of categories (Examples 1.2), the isomorphisms are exactly
the bijective morphisms.
In Top and Haus isomorphisms are called homeomorphisms. It is well known, how-
ever, that it is possible to have a continuous and bijective map f : X Y without X and
Y be homeomorphic. A morphism f : (X, x0 ) (Y, y0 ) in Top is an isomorphism if and
only if f : X Y is a homeomorphism. An isomorphism in Metric is called an isometry.
Finally, note that in our examples from combinatorics (examples 1.4), in general we
need more that a bijective morphism to have an isomorphism.
1.14 Definition. Let f : A B be a morphism in a category C. Then

1. f is monic if fg1 = fg2 implies g1 = g2 , for any object C and any g1 , g2 : C A.
2. f is epic if h1 f = h2 f implies h1 = h2 , for any object D and any h1 , h2 : B D.
It is easy to see that in a concrete category C, an injective map f : A B is necessarily

monic. For if g1 , g2: C A are two C-morphisms, then g1 (c) 6= g2 (c) for some c C
implies that f g1 (c) 6= f g2 (c) . Similarly, surjective maps are epic.
1.15 Definition. Let C be a category, and A an object in C. We define a preorder (reflexive and transitive
relation) in the class of monics with codomain A by declaring f g if there is a k such
that f = g k. We write f g if f g and g f. (It then follows that k is an
isomorphism). The relation is an equivalence relation and its equivalence classes are
called the subobjects of A. Similarly, define now a preorder in the class of epics having
domain A by f g if there is a k such that f = k g, and f g if f g and g f.
The equivalence classes of are then called the quotient objects of A.
1.6. Special Morphisms 13
Exercises 1.3
1. Isomorphism is an equivalence relation on the class obj C.
2. If f : A B is an isomorphism in a category C, the map h in Definition 1.13 is unique.
3. Any two initial objects in a category C are isomorphic.
2
Functors
2.1 Definition. Let C and D be categories. A functor F from C to D, denoted F : C D, is composed

of
1. A map (which we denote by F) from obj C to obj D,

2. For every A, B obj C, a map (also denoted by F) from the set homC (A, B) to the
set homD (FA, FB)
that satisfy
(a) F(g f) = F(g) F(f) for every pair of morphisms f, g C such that g f is defined,
(b) F(1A ) = 1FA for every A obj C.
So, a functor is a map on objects which preserves compositions and identities. Note that
we sometimes omit the parenthesis, and write FA for the image of the object A obj D,
and similarly for the images of the morphisms.
For our examples, let us begin with general constructions.
Examples 2.1
15
16 Chapter 2. Functors
1. For every category C, we have the identity functor 1C : C C, such that 1C A = A for
every A obj C, and 1C f = f for every morphism in C.
2. If C 0 is a subcategory of C, there is an inclusion functor C 0 C, which sends every object
and every morphism to itself.
3. For any two categories C, D and object B in D, we have a constant functor FB : C D
given by FB (A) = B, FB (f) = 1B , for all objects A and morphisms f in C.
4. If C and D are categories, there is a projection functor pC : C D C, sending an object
(A, A 0 ) of the product to A, and a morphism (f, f 0 ) to f.
5. For any category C, we have the diagonal functor : C C C defined by (C) = (C, C)
and (f) = (f, f).
6. For any comma category A C, there is a functor F : A C C, sending the object f : A B
to B, and a morphism in A C to itself. And similarly, there is a functor from C A C,
7. If ' is a congruence in C (see Definition 1.8), there is a quotient functor C C/', sending
each object to itself and each morphism to its equivalence class.
The next examples are so important that deserve a box by themselves.
Example 2.2
If C is a concrete category, there is a functor C Set, sending an object A in C, which is a set
with structure, to its underlying set. A morphism in C is sent to the map between the underlying
sets. In other words, we just forget about the structure in objects of C, hence this functor is a
forgetful functor.
Similarly, we have a forgetful functor Rng Ab, given by retaining the additive structure in a
ring and forgetting the product, and forgetful functors R-alg Rng, R-alg R-mod.
Example 2.3
Let C be any category, and A C a fixed object. Then there is a functor C Set, denoted as
homC (A, ), defined on objects by B 7 homC (A, B), and on a C-morphism like f : B B 0 , by
f : h 7 f h.
Sometimes the hom sets have extra structure, for example, if A and B are abelian groups, then
homAb (A, B) has an structure of an abelian group and the map f is an abelian group map.
Hence in this case we get a functor homAb (A, ) : Ab Ab.
We could even go further in another direction: for any category C, there is a functor
homC : Cop C Set, sending (A, B) homC (A, B) and sending the pair (, ), that is a
morphism from (A, B) to (A 0 , B 0 ), to the set map homC (, ) : homC (A, B) homC (A 0 , B 0 )
with correspondece rule h 7 h (remember that , being in Cop , goes from A 0 to A when
considered in C.)
We now define particular functors, classified by area.

Functors in Algebra
Examples 2.4
0
1. We define a functor F : Grp Ab. For a group G, consider G be its commutator subgroup,
and the quotient G/G 0 , which is an abelian group, so we put FG = G/G 0 . If f : G H
is a group homomorphism, then f(G 0 ) is a subgroup of H 0 , so a map f : G/G 0 H/H 0 is
induced. We define F(f) = f, it is then straightforward to check it is indeed a functor.
2. The functor U : Ring Grp such that U(R) = the group of invertible elements in R, and if
f : R S is a ring homomorphism, then U(f) : U(R) U(S) is defined as U(f) = f|U(R) .
3. Let : R S be a morphism of rings. Then we have a functor # : S-mod R-mod defined
the following way: Let N be an S-module. Then # N has as abelian group the same N, and
the action of r is: rn = (r)n, where in the right side we have the action of S. Furthermore,
# (f) = f.
4. Fix a ring R. Then we have a functor F : Grp R-alg, that sends a group to its group
algebra with coefficients in R.
Functors in Topology
Examples 2.5
1. There is a functor Metric Haus, sending each metric space (X, d) to the associated
topological space, which is always Hausdorff.
2. We have the so called loop functor : Top Top , whose value at (X, x0 ) is the pair
(X, x0 ), cx0 , where (X, x0 ) = { f : [0, 1] X | f(0) = f(1) = x0 }, with the compact-
open topology, and cx0 is the constant map with value x0 . If : (X, x0 ) (Y, y0 ) is a map
in Top , then ()(f) = f.
3. There is the reduced suspension functor : Top Top , whose value at (X, x0 ) is com-
posed by the topological space given by the quotient (X[0, 1])/(X{0}X{1}{x0 }[0, 1])
with the base point being the corresponding to the collapsed subspace.
Functors in Combinatorics
Examples 2.6
1. There is a functor K : Poset SimplComplex, defined on P as the complex with simplices
the totally ordered subsets of P P. An order preserving map f : P P 0 induces a simplicial
map K(f) : K(P) K(P 0 ), given by K(f)({x0 , . . . , xn }) = {f(x0 ), . . . , f(xn )}.
2. We have a functor : Graph SimplComplex, such that for a graph G, we define (G)
as the simplicial complex with simplices the vertices of complete subgraphs of G. Since any
map in Graph, say f : G G 0 , sends complete subgraphs to complete subgraphs, we have
a well defined simplicial map (f) : (G) (G).
3. We have a functor Graph Graph sending each graph G to its dual graph G . This works
since a graph map f : G G 0 induces a map in the duals f : G (G 0 ) .
But by far the most interesting examples are the functors that cross the boundaries of an
area of study.
Examples 2.7
1. We have a functor F : Grp Poset, that sends a group G to the set of subgroups of G,
partially ordered by containment. A morphism of groups f : G H sends subgroups to
subgroups preserving containment, so F(f) is defined.
2. There is a functor 1 : Top Grp, that sends a pointed topological space to its fundamen-
tal group, and a pointed continuous maps to a homomorphism between the corresponding
groups.
3. Fixing a ring R, for each n N {0} there is a functor Hn (, R) : Top R-mod, called n-th
homology.
4. There is a functor SimplComplex Top, called the geometric realization functor.
Next, let us consider examples that involve small categories.
Examples 2.8
1. If C is a discrete category, a functor F : C D is a collection of D-objects, indexed by the
objects of C.
/
2. If C is the category , a functor F : C D can be identified with a diagram in D of

the form
A
f /B
g (2.1)

C

/
similarly, if C is now the category or / , then a functor F : C D can be
/

identified with
A
f /
f or A g
/B (2.2)

B
g
/C
respectively
3. Let G1 , G2 be groups, and G1 G2 the corresponding associated categories. Then a functor
F : G1 G2 corresponds to a homomorphism G1 G2 .
4. Let G is a group and G be its associated category. Then a functor F : G Set corresponds
g
to a choice of a set X (the value of F()), together with a collection of maps {g = F(
) : X X}gG such that the group operation corresponds to composition, and the neutral
element to the identity map. This is exactly the same as having an structure of G-set on X.
Hence, for any category C, it seems natural to define a G-object as a functor F : G C.
Having defined the concept of functors, we define some more categories.
Examples 2.9
1. Functors can be composed, this is, if we have categories C1 , C2 and C3 , and functors
F1 : C1 C2 and F2 : C2 C3 , then there is a functor F2 F1 : C1 C3 , defined as
the composition of the corresponding maps on objects and on morphisms. Moreover, this
composition is associative. This, together with the identity functor for any category C allow
us to define the category SCat, with objects the small categories and the set of morphisms
between two categories C and D is the collection of functors between C and D. Since a
functor C D is determined by a map obj C obj D and both obj C, obj D are sets, so
is homSCat (C, D). Hence the restriction to small categories is in order to have that the hom
sets are, precisely, sets.
2. Let F : C D be a functor, and A a fixed object of D. We define the category A F, with
objects the pairs { (B, f) | B obj C, f homD (A, FB) }. A morphism from (B, f) to (B 0 , f 0 )
is a C-morphism : B B 0 such that the diagram
f oo7
FB
oo o
o
A OOO F() (2.3)
OOO
f0 ' 0
FB
commutes. In other words, A C is just A 1C . We similarly could define a category F A.
And then we can define more functors.
2.2 Definition. Given a functor F : C D, and A a fixed object of D, we have a projection functors
F A C, defined on objects sending (B, f) to B, and on morphisms by sending
: (B, f) (B 0 , f 0 ) to .
We similarly have a projection functor F A C.

Exercises 2.1
1. Give an example of a category C and a functor F : C C such that F(C) = C for all C obj C,
but F 6= 1C .
2. If we have functors F : C D and F 0 : C 0 D 0 , then we can define a functor (F, F 0 ) : C C 0
D D 0 , which in objects is (F, F 0 )(C) = F(C), F 0 (C) .
2.2 Contravariant Functors
The reader would have probably noted that if we fix the second variable in the definition
of the hom functor (Example 2.3), we get a functor Cop Set. This situation deserves a
definition.
2.3 Definition. Let C an D be categories. A contravariant functor F : C D is a functor Cop D.

That is, F consists of a map from obj C to obj D, and for every A, B obj C, maps
from homC (A, B) to homD (FB, FA) such that F(gf) = F(f)F(g) for every morphisms
f, g C such that g f is defined, and F(1A ) = 1FA for every A obj C.
The most important examples of a contravariant functor is the following: Let C be a

category, and choose B obj C. We get a contravariant functor hom(, B) : C Set, such
that hom(, B)(A) = hom(A, B), and if f : A C, then
hom(, B)f : hom(C, B) hom(A, B) (2.4)
is given by g 7 g f. We will denote hom(, B)f by f .
Example 2.10
We single out one particular case of the previous note. If R is a ring, for any left R-module M
one has that homR-mod (M, R) = M has a natural structure of a right R-module, furthermore, if
: M N is a morphism in R-mod, then : N M is a morphism in mod-R. Hence we
obtain a contravariant functor R-mod mod-R. On the other hand, if M is a right R-module,
then hommod-R (M, R) has a natural structure of left module, and hence in this case we get a
contravariant functor mod-R R-mod.
2.3. Isomorphism of Categories 21
In this context, the functors defined in section 2.1 are called covariant functors.
Note that the composition of two contravariant functors is a covariant functor. In

particular, composition of the contravariant functors described in Example 2.10 results in
a (covariant) functor R-mod R-mod.
2.3 Isomorphism of Categories

2.4 Definition. Let C and D be categories. We say that C is isomorphic to D, if there are functors
D.
F : C D and F 0 : D C such that F 0 F = 1C and F F 0 = 1D . We write then C =
Examples 2.11
1. The categories Z-mod and Ab are isomorphic.
2. If R is commutative, R-mod and mod-R are isomorphic.
3. The categories Top and Top are isomorphic.
We can then see that a category is concrete if and only if it is isomorphic to a subcategory
of Set.
Exercises 2.2
C.
1. For any category C, (Cop )op =
D C.
2. For any categories C and D, C D =
Cop Dop .
3. For any categories C and D, (C D)op =
C (D E)
4. For any categories C, D and E, (C D) E =
F A.
5. If C and D are categories and F : C D is a functor, show that (A F)op =
6. If C and D are categories and F : C D is a functor, show that if f is an isomorphism in C, then
F(f) is an isomorphism in D. If A is an initial object in C, is F(A) an initial object in D?
7. Give an example of a category C such that C is isomorphic to Cop , and another example when
they are not isomorphic.
2.4 Types of Functors
2.5 Definition. Let F : C D be a functor. We say that F is

1. faithful, if for each A, B obj C, the map F : homC (A, B) homD (FA, FB) is
injective.
2. full, if for each A, B obj C, the map F : homC (A, B) homD (FA, FB) is surjec-
tive.
We note that a subcategory C 0 of C is full if and only if the inclusion functor of C 0 on C

is full.
A category C is concrete if and only if there is a faithful functor F : C Set.
Exercises 2.3
FB, then A =
1. Let F : C D be a full and faithful functor. If A, B obj C are such that FA = B.
3
Natural Transformations
3.1 Definition. Let C and D be categories, and F, F 0 : C D be two functors. A natural transforma-
tion from F to F 0 , denoted : F F 0 , is a collection of D-maps A : FA F 0 A, one
for each A obj C, such that the following diagram commutes for every morphism
f : A B in the category C
A FA
A
/ F 0A
f F(f) F 0 (f) (3.1)

B FB
B
/ F 0B
If : F F 0 is a natural transformation, we call the D-morphism A the component of

corresponding to A obj C.
Examples 3.1

1. Let F : R-mod R-mod be the functor M 7 hommod-R homR-mod (M, R), R considered at
the end of section 2.2. We define a natural transformation from the identity functor to
F. Let M be an object in R-mod, then we define M : M hommod-R (M , R) as m 7 m, b
23
24 Chapter 3. Natural Transformations
b : M R is defined as m()
where m b = (m). We must then check commutativity of
M
M
/ hommod-R (M , R)
f hommod-R (f ,R) (3.2)

N
N
/ hommod-R (N , R)
which follows, since for any m M we have that f(m)

[ =m b f : N R.
2. There is a natural isomorphism from the functor : Top Grp to the composition
1 H
of the functors Top Top Ab Grp, given by the Hurewicz homomorphism
(X,x0 ) : (X, x0 ) H1 (X).
Examples 3.2
1. Let I be a discrete category, and two functors F, F 0 : I C given by the collections of
C-objects {Fi }iobj I , {Fi0 }iobj I respectively. A natural transformation : F F 0 is just a
collection of C-morphisms { : Fi Fi0 }iobj I .
/
2. Let I be the category , and two functors F, F 0 : I C be represented by the diagrams:

A
f /B A0
f0 / B0
g g0 (3.3)

C C0
respectively. A natural transformation from F to F 0 is a collection of three C-morphisms

: A A 0 , : B B 0 and : C C 0 such that the following diagram commutes:
f
/B
AA
A BB
AA BB
AA BB
g
BB
A
CA A0 / B0 (3.4)
AA f0
AA
A g0
AA

C0
/
3. Now let I be the category / , and two functors F, F 0 : I C be represented by the
diagrams:
f / f0 /
A /B A0 / B0 (3.5)
g g0
3.2. The Functor Category 25
A natural transformation from F to F 0 is then a pair of D-morphisms : A A 0 , : B B 0

such that the following squares commute:
A
f /B A
g
/B
(3.6)
g0
A0
f0
/ B0 A0 / B0
Exercises 3.1
1. Let C and D be categories. For each C obj C, define C : D C D as C (D) = (C, D), and
for a D-map f : D D 0 , define C (f) as (1C , f). Show that C is a functor. Then, from a C-map
: C C 0 , define a suitable natural transformation f : C C 0 .
3.2 The Functor Category
3.2 Proposition. Let F and G be functors C D

1. We have that 1F = {1FA }Aobj C is a natural transformation from F to F, called the
identity natural transformation on F.
2. Let : F1 F2 , : F2 F3 be natural transformations, where F1 , F2 and F3 are
functors C D. Then we can define a natural transformation by setting
( )A = A A . This is called the composition of the natural transformations
, .
Now suppose we have C and D be categories with C small, and let F, F 0 be functors
C D. We note that a natural transformation : F F 0 is determined by a map
: obj C Cobj C homD (FC, F 0 C). (3.7)
Since both obj C and Cobj C homD (FC, F 0 C) are sets, we obtain that the class of all natu-
ral transformations from F to F 0 is actually a set.
Then Proposition 3.2 and this remarks allows us to introduce a new category.
3.3 Definition. Let C and D be categories with C small. We define a functor category DC with objects
the functors from C to D, and the morphisms from a functor F : C D to F 0 : C D,
the natural transformations from F to F 0 . The identity and composition given by
Proposition 3.2.
3.4 Definition. Remember the category from Definition 1.10. If C is any category, then the category
op
of simplicial objects in C is the category C( ) .
3.5 Definition. Let C and I be categories with I small. We have a diagonal functor : C CI , given
on objects by (C) = FC , where FC : I C is the constant functor of Example 2.1.3.
The set of natural transformations from one functor to another will then be denoted
by homDC (F, F 0 ). It will be needed in contexts different that those of functor categories.
3.6 Proposition. Let C be a small category,

1. Let S : D E be a functor. Then there is a functor SC : DC EC , given on objects
by SC (F) = S F, and if : F F 0 is a morphism in DC , then SC () = S : S F
S F 0 is given by (S)A = S(A ).
2. Let C 0 be a small category, and T : C 0 C be a functor. Then there is a functor
0
T : DC DC , given on objects by T (F) = F T , and if : F F 0 is a morphism
C
in D , then T () = T is given by (T )C = T C .
3.7 Proposition. Let C and I be small categories and D be an arbitrary category. Then the categories
DCI and (DI )C are isomorphic.
Proof. Step 1. We define a functor : DCI (DI )C . For S : C I D, let (S) be the
SI
(C I)I
composition C DI , where is the functor of Exercise 3.2.1.
Step 2. We define a functor : (DI )C DCI . Let T : C DI . We define (T ) as the

(T ,1I ) ev
composition C I DI I
D, where ev is the evaluation functor of Exercise 3.2.2.
3.3. Equivalence of Categories 27
Step 3. We check the composition . For S : C I D, we have that ( )(S) =

ev (SI , 1I ). Evaluating at (C, i) obj C I, we obtain
[ev (SI , 1I )](C, i) = ev (SI )(C), i

(3.8)
= [(SI )(C)](i) (3.9)
= (S C )(i) = S(C, i) (3.10)
and so ( )(S) = S.
Step 4. We check the composition . For T : C DI , we have that ( )(T ) =

I
ev (T , 1I ) . Evaluating at C obj C, we get
I
[ ev (T , 1I ) ](C) = ev (T , 1I ) C : I D (3.11)
and evaluating this at i obj I, we get

[ ev (T , 1I ) C ](i) = ev (T , 1I ) (C, i) (3.12)

= ev T (C), i = T (C)(i) (3.13)
hence ( )(T ) = T .
Step 5. We leave as an exercise to prove that and are the corresponding identity
functors.
Exercises 3.2
1. For categories C and D, with D small, we get a functor : C (C D)D , C 7 C , where C is
as in Exercise 3.1.1.
2. For categories C and D, with C small, we have an evaluation functor ev : DC C D, defined
on objects by ev(F, C) = F(C).
3. Complete the proof of Proposition 3.7.1
op
(Cop )D =
4. If D is small, then C(D ) = (CD )op .
C
5. Does the map obj DE obj(EC )D given by S 7 SC from Proposition 3.6.1 define a functor?
3.3 Equivalence of Categories

3.8 Definition. Let F, F 0 be functors C D, and : F F 0 a natural transformation. If all compo-

nents A are isomorphisms, we say that the functors F and F 0 are naturally isomorphic.
We denote this as F = F 0.
Natural isomorphism arise frequently in the following way: one observes an isomorphism
FA = F 0 A which is defined independently of the object A. One then says that the isomor-
phism is natural on A.
Note that if C is a small category, then two functors F, F 0 : C D are naturally iso-
morphic if and only if there are isomorphic objects in the functor category DC .
3.9 Definition. Let C and D be categories. We say that C is equivalent to D, if there are functors
1C and F F 0 =
F : C D and F 0 : D C such that F 0 F = 1D .
3.4 The Yoneda Lemma
3.10 Definition. Let C be a category. We say that a functor F : C Set is representable if there is
homC (A, ).
A obj C such that F =
3.11 Theorem. (Yoneda Lemma) Let C be any category, F : C Set a functor, and A obj C. Then
there is a bijection FA homSetC homC (A, ), F .
Proof. Given a A, we define a natural transformation (a) : homC (A, ) F. Its

component at B obj C is (a)B : homC (A, B) FB sending f 7 F(f)(a). To see that
(a) is actually a natural transformation, we check commutativity of the diagram:
(a)B
B homC (A, B) / FB
homC (A,) F() (3.14)

(a)B 0
B0 homC (A, B 0 ) / FB 0

And that follows, since evaluating at f homC (A, B) it comes down to F F(f)(a) =
F( f)(a). Hence we have defined a set map : FA homC (A, ). For the inverse, we
propose the map homC (A, ) FA given by : A (1A ). We now show that both maps
are actually inverses to each other.
3.4. The Yoneda Lemma 29
First, given a FA, we have that (a)A (1A ) = F(1A )(a) = 1FA (a) = a.

Then, given homSetC homC (A, ), F , we want to show that (A (1A )) = . Let
B obj C. We use commutativity of
A homC (A, A)
A
/ FA
f homC (A,f) F(f) (3.15)

B homC (A, B)
B
/ FB

since A (1A ) B (f) = F(f) A (1A ) = F(f) A (1A ) = B homC (A, f) (1A ) =
B (f). This finishes the proof.
Keeping the hypothesis of the Yoneda Lemma, if A 0 is a C-object, then applying said
Lemma to F = homC (A 0 , ), we get a bijection between the set homC (A 0 , A), and the
set of natural transformations from homC (A, ) and homC (A 0 , ). We even have the
following:
3.12 Corollary. Let A and A 0 be C-objects. Then the functors homC (A, ) and homC (A 0 , ) are
naturally isomorphic if and only if A and A 0 are isomorphic.
Proof. We apply the Yoneda Lemma with F = homC (A 0 , ).
Let FA = homC (A 0 , A) an isomorphism. As in the proof of the Yoneda Lemma,

we have a natural transformation () with component at B obj B being the map
()B : homC (A, B) homC (A 0 , B) which sends f 7 f . This is a bijection for every
B obj C (its inverse is (1 )B ), so the functors mentioned are naturally isomorphic.
Now, let : homC (A, ) homC (A 0 , ) be a natural isomorphism. Let = A (1A ),

we will show that is an isomorphism. Consider the following diagram:
A 0
A0 homC (A, A 0 ) / homC (A 0 , A 0 )
(3.16)

A homC (A, A)
A
/ homC (A 0 , A)
Since A 0 is a bijection, there is an f : A A 0 such that A 0 (f) = 1A 0 . The diagram (3.16)

then says that A ( f) = . But also A (1A ) = , so that f = 1A .
To prove now that f = 1A 0 , we consider the diagram
A homC (A, A)
A
/ homC (A 0 , A)
f f f (3.17)
A 0
A0 homC (A, A 0 ) / homC (A 0 , A 0 )
since evaluating at 1A , we get that f = A 0 (f) = 1A 0 .
Exercises 3.3
1. A contravariant functor F from C to Set is defined to be representable if there is B obj C such
homC (, B). State and prove a Yoneda Lemma for contravariant functors.
that F =
2. Let C be any category, and consider the functor homC : Cop C Set of Example 2.3. Using
Proposition 3.7, to that functor corresponds a functor Cop SetC . Show that this last functor
full, faithful, and injective in objects. (Note that this, together with Exercise 2.3.1, gives another
way to prove Corollary 3.12).
Part II
Limits
31
4
Limits and Colimits
In this chapter, I will always denote a small category. And, for a functor F : I C and
i obj I, we will denote the object F(i) by Fi .
4.1 Limits
4.1 Definition. Let F : I C be a functor and Y an object in C.

1. A source from Y to F is a collection of C-maps {i : Y Fi }, one for each i obj I.
2. A natural source from Y to F is a source from Y to F such that the following diagram
commutes for all objects i, j in I and maps m : i j.
Y
;;;
i ;; j
;; (4.1)
F(m)
Fi / Fj
Examples 4.1
1. If A is an initial object in C, then for each C obj C there is a unique map C : A C.
The collection of maps {C }Cobj C is a natural source from A to 1C .
33
34 Chapter 4. Limits and Colimits
2. If the category I is discrete, then any source is a natural source.

3. If I is the category , we saw that a functor F : I C can be identified with a diagram
/
in C
A
f (4.2)

B
g
/C
A natural source from Y to F may be identified with a pair of morphisms : Y A,
: Y B making commute the following square:
Y

/A
f (4.3)

B
g
/C
/
4. Let I be the category / . A natural source to the functor F : I C
f /
A g
/B. (4.4)
can be identified with a map k : Y A such that f k = g k.
4.2 Definition. Let F : I C be a functor. A limiting source of F is a natural source from some C-
object Y to F, say {i : Y Fi }, such that for any other natural source {i0 : Y 0 Fi }
there is a unique C-morphism M : Y 0 Y such that the diagram
Y 0 ;_ _ _ _ _ _/ Y
M
;;
;; (4.5)
0i ;;
i
Fi
commutes for all i obj I. In this case, we say that X is a limit of F.
Note that any two limits of F are isomorphic. This limit is sometimes called inverse limit
or projective limit.
Examples 4.2
1. Let p be a prime. The ring of p-adic integers Zp can be defined formally as the set of
sums of the form r0 + r1 p + r2 p2 + , with 0 ri < p, and with the natural1 sum and
multiplication.
4.2. Colimits 35
A functor F : Nop Ab is determined by a collection of abelian groups F(n) = An , one for

each n N and morphisms Am An whenever n m. Let An = Z/pn and Am An
be determined by 1 7 1. We claim that lim F = Zp . We have maps n : Zp Z/pn
defined by r0 + r1 p + r2 p2 + 7 r0 + r1 p + r2 p2 + + rn1 pn1 , and they make
the corresponding diagram commute. If we have a collection of maps 0n : X Z/pn
that make commute diagram 2 , then we can define a map X Zp the following way:
By commutativity, given x X we can find integers ri such that 0 ri < p and such
that 0n (x) = r0 + r1 p + r2 p2 + + rn1 pn1 for all n N. Define the map X Zp as
x r0 + r1 p + r2 p2 + . This has the commutativity and uniqueness properties required
for the limit.
Exercises 4.1
1. Let F : I C be a functor, {i : Y Fi } a natural source, and : Y 0 Y a C-map. Then
{i : Y 0 Fi } is a natural source.
2. Let F : I C be a functor, {i : Y Fi } a limiting source, and , : Y 0 Y C-maps such that
i = i for all i obj I. Then = .
3. Let F : I C be a functor, {i : Y Fi } a limiting source, {i0 : Y 0 Fi } a natural source and
M : Y 0 Y a C-map such that i M = i0 for all i obj I. Show that {i0 : Y 0 Fi } is a limiting
source if and only if M is an isomorphism.
4.2 Colimits
4.3 Definition. Let F : I C be a functor and X an object in C.

1. A sink from F to X is a collection of C-maps i : Fi X, one for each i obj I.
2. A sink from F to X is natural if the following diagram commutes for all objects i, j
in I and maps m : i j.
F(m)
Fi ; / Fj
;;
;; (4.6)
i ;;
j

X
In other words, a sink from F to X is just a collection of objects in the comma category
F X, indexed by obj I. If we denote by the projection functor F X I, a natural sink
can be identified with a functor : I F X such that = 1I . Another way that we
can think of a sink from F to X is as a natural transformation from F to (X).
Examples 4.3
1. If B is a final object in C, then for each C obj C there is a unique map C : C B, thus
we get a sink from 1C to B. The uniqueness of the maps going to B shows that the sink is
natural.
2. If the category I is discrete, then any sink is a natural sink.
/
3. Let I be the category category , and the functor F : I C be represented by the

diagram
A
f /B
g (4.7)

C
A natural sink from F to X may be identified with a pair of morphisms : B X, : C X
making commute the following square:
A
f /B
g (4.8)

C

/X
/
4. Let I be the category / , and F be the functor:
f /
A g
/B. (4.9)
Then a natural source from the functor F : I C to X can be identified with a map l : B X
such that l f = l g.
4.4 Definition. Let F : I C be a functor. A limiting sink for F is a natural sink from F to some
C-object X, say {i : Fi X}, such that for any other natural sink {i0 : Fi X 0 }, there
is a unique map M : X X 0 such that the diagram
Fi
;;; 0
i ;; i
;; (4.10)

X _ _ _ _ _ _/ X 0
M
4.2. Colimits 37
commutes for all i obj I. In this case, we say that X is a colimit of F, and we denote
it by colim F.
Note that any two colimits of F are isomorphic.
The colimit is also sometimes called direct limit or inductive limit, in which case it is
denoted as lim F.

A functor F : I C is called an I-diagram in C.
Examples 4.4
1. Let F : I Set be a functor. Let U = { (i, x) | i I, x F(i) }. Then
colim F = U/, where
is the equivalence relation generated by (i, x) i 0 , F(m)(x) , where m : i i 0 is a
morphism of I.
2. We show that any module M is the colimit of its finitely generated submodules. For any
finitely generated submodule N we have an inclusion map N : N M. They commute
with all inclusions N1 N2 , so we have a natural sink. Suppose now that we have a module
X and maps 0N : N X, one for each finitely generated submodule N, forming another
natural sink. We need to define an f : M X. Let m M, and define f(m) = 0N (m), where
N is any finitely generated submodule containing m. This is well defined by commutativity,
and it is a module homomorphism with the desired properties.
3. Let N be the partially ordered set of positive integers where we set n m whenever n|m.
Let N be the category associated to such poset. We define a functor F : N Ab by F(n) =
Z/n and if n m, we set F(n) F(m) to be determined by 1 m n
. One has then to prove
that F is actually a functor. We claim then colim F = Q/Z. We have maps n : Z/n Q/Z
defined by 1 7 n1 , and they form a natural sink from F to Q/Z. Now, if we have another
natural sink from F 0n : Z/n X then we can define a map Q/Z X by qp 7 0q (p), that
makes the corresponding diagram commute and it is unique with respect to such property.
4. We have a functor I : I SCat by sending i to I i. We calculate colim I . For
i obj I, let i : I i I be the projection functor of Definition 2.2. Then the i form a
limiting cone for I , hence colim I = I. (See [BK72, XI, 2.3])
Exercises 4.2
1. Let C be a small category, and C obj C. Show that the colimit of the functor homC (C, ) : C
Set is the one-point set.
4.3 More Examples
Some particular cases of limits and colimits have special names, we consider them here.
Examples 4.5
1. If I is a discrete category, then a functor F : I C can be identified with a collection
{F
`i }iobj I of objects in C. Then the colimit of F is called the coproduct` of the Fi , denoted
Fi . However, if the set I is finite, say I = {1, . . . , n} we denote Q Fi as F1 t t Fn .
Dually, the limit of F is called the product of the Fi and is denoted Fi . It is denoted as
F1 Fn if I is finite.
2. There is only one functor 0 C, and its colimit is an initial object in C. Dually, its limit is
a final object in C.
3. Considering the identity functor 1C : C C, we have that lim 1C exists if and only if C has
a final object (which is then lim 1C ). Similarly, colim 1C exists if and only if C has an initial
object.

4. If I is the category , a limit of a functor F : I C is called the pullback of the
/

/
corresponding diagram. Dually, if I is the category , a limit of a functor F : I C is

called the pushout of the corresponding diagram.
/
5. Now let I be the category / . The limit of the functor F : I C
f /
A g
/B. (4.11)
can be identified (see Example 4.1) with a certain C-map K A, and it is called the
equalizer of f and g. Dually, the colimit of F can be identified with certain map B C and
is called the coequalizer of f and g.
6. An important special case of the last construction is the following: Let C be a category with
a zero object 0, and f : A B a morphism in C. Then we define the cokernel of f, denoted
coker f as the coequalizer of f and 0 : A B. Also we define the kernel of f, ker f, as the
equalizer of f and 0.
Exercises 4.3
`
1. A sink from F : I C to X can be identified with a C-morphism Fi X.
iobj I

2. If B is a final object in a category C with finite products, then C B = C for all objects C in C.
3. If C is a category with finite products and C, D are objects in C, then C D = D C.
4.4. Limit and Colimit as Functors 39
CDE =
4. If C is a category with finite products and C, D, E are objects in C, then (CD)E =
C (D E).
5. Coequalizers are epics.
6. If C is a category with finite products and C is an object in C, then we get a functor C : C
C, sending A 7 C A.
4.4 Limit and Colimit as Functors
4.5 Definition. We say that the category C is cocomplete if colim F exists for any functor F : I C and
any I a small category, and that C is complete if lim F exists for any functor F : I C
and any I a small category.
Remember that a sink from F to X can be identified with a natural transformation from F
to (X). With this viewpoint, we obtain the following result: if colim F exists, then any
natural transformation from F to (X) induces a unique map colim F X such that the
following diagram in CI commutes:
F:
:::
:: (4.12)
:
(colim F) _ _ _ / (X)
Similarly, if lim F exists, then any natural transformation from (Y) to F induces a map
Y lim F such that the following diagram commutes:
(Y) _ _ _ _/ (lim F)
::
::
:: (4.13)
:
F
Hence, if C is cocomplete and I is small, we obtain a functor colim : CI C, defined

on the object F to be colim F, and if : F F 0 is a natural transformation, we get a map
colim : colim F colim F 0 induced by the natural transformation F F 0 (colim F 0 ).
The map colim is also characterized as the only D-map that makes the following square
commute:
Fi
i
/ F0
i
i i0 (4.14)
colim
colim F _ _ _ _ _/ colim F 0
for all i obj I.
Similarly if C is complete and I is small, we can define a functor lim : CI C, sending

F to lim F, and if F F 0 is a natural transformation, we get a map lim F lim F 0 induced
by the natural transformation (lim F) F F 0 .
Another useful remark is that if T : C D is a functor, and A obj C, then the

composition
(A) T
I C
D (4.15)

that is T (A) , is equal to (T A).
Exercises 4.4
`
1. Let
` C be a cocomplete category and I be a small category. Form the coproducts : XY F(X),
` where `
`Xobj C F(X), : X Y varies
` over all`I-morphisms.
` Using 4.14, construct maps
F() : F(X) X F(X) and 1F(X) : F(X) X F(X). Show that the coequal-
izer of these two maps is colim F.
4.5 Preservation of Limits
Let F : I C, T : C D be functors, and Y an object in C. If {i : Y Fi } is a source

from Y to F, then {T i : T (Y) T (Fi )} is a source from T (Y) to T F. Furthermore, if the
original source is natural, then the resulting source is natural as well.
Suppose then that {i : Y Fi } is a limiting source, that is, Y = lim F. Since {T i }

is a natural source from T (Y) to T F, by the definition of limit there is a unique map
M : T (lim F) lim(T F) making the following triangle commute for all i obj I.
T (lim F) _ _ _/ lim(T F)
M
::
::
:
T i :: (4.16)

T F
The following definition considers the case in which the map M is an isomorphism.
4.5. Preservation of Limits 41
4.6 Definition. We say that the functor T : C D preserves limits, if for any functor F : I C and
limiting source {i : Y Fi } from Y to F, then {T i : T (Y) T (Fi )} is a limiting
source from T (Y) to T F.
Theorem 5.6 will give a condition on F that ensures preservation of limits.

5
Universals and Adjoints
5.1 Universals
5.1 Definition. Let C and D be categories, F : C D be a functor, and B obj D. Then a universal
from B to F is a pair (U, u) where U obj C and u : B FU is a D-map, such that if
h : B FU 0 is any D-map with U 0 obj C, then there is a unique C-map m : U U 0
such that the following diagram commutes:
u oo7
FU U
o
ooo
B OOO F(m) m (5.1)
OOO
h '

FU 0 U0
That is, any map of the form h : B FU 0 can be factored through u. Also, it intuitively
means that in order to go out of U to U 0 in C it is enough to go from B to FU 0 in D. And
it also means that (U, u) is an initial object in the comma category B F.
Examples 5.1
1. Consider the forgetful functor F : Ab Set and X obj Set. Then a universal from X to F
is the pair (ZX, u), where ZX is the free abelian group with base X and u is the inclusion
u : X F(ZX). Clearly, if A is an abelian group, and if
h : X FA (5.2)
43
44 Chapter 5. Universals and Adjoints
is a map of sets, then there is a unique map of abelian groups
m : ZX A (5.3)
that makes the following diagram commute:
F(ZX)
u n7
ZX
nnnn
n
X QQQ F(m) m (5.4)
QQQ
h
Q(
FA A
That is, in order to define a homomorphism from ZX to the abelian group A, it is enough
to define a set map from X to the set FA, the underlying set of the group A.
2. Let I be an small category, C an arbitrary category, and : C CI the diagonal functor. If
F obj CI , a CI -map u : F (U), with U obj C is the same as a natural sink from F to
U. We have that (U, u) is a universal from F to precisely when the sink is limiting. The
diagram then looks like:
(U) U
o
u oo7
ooo
F OOO (m) m (5.5)
OOO
h
'
(U 0 ) U0
With the setup of Definition 5.1, if (U, u) and (U 0 , u 0 ) are universals from B to F, then
there is a unique C-isomorphism m : U U 0 such that u 0 = F(h) u.
5.2 Definition. Let C and D be categories, F : C D be a functor, and A obj D. Then a universal
from F to A is a pair (V, v) where V obj C and v : FV A is a D-map, such that if
k : FV 0 A is any D-map with V 0 obj C, then there is a unique C-map m : V 0 V
such that the following diagram commutes:
FV 0 OO k V 0
OOO
O'
oo7 A
F(m) m (5.6)

ooovo
FV V
5.2. Adjoint Functors 45
5.2 Adjoint Functors
5.3 Definition. Let C and D be categories, and T : C D, S : D C be functors. We say that S is

left adjoint to T if for all A obj D, B obj C we have a bijective map A,B from
homC (SA, B) to homD (A, T B) which is natural in A and B. We denote this as S a T ,
and the map is called the adjugant of the adjunction S a T .
In other words, this means that for any A obj D, the functors homC (SA, ) and
homD (A, T ) are naturally isomorphic, and that for any B obj C, the contravariant
functors homC (S, B) and homD (, T B) are naturally isomorphic, that is, the following
diagram commutes for all A obj D and all maps f : B B 0 in C
A,B
B homC (SA, B) / homD (A, T B)
f f (T f) (5.7)
A,B 0
B0 homC (SA, B 0 ) / hom(A, T B 0 )
and the following diagram commutes for all B obj C and all maps g : A A 0 in D
A,B
A homC (SA, B) / hom(A, T B)
O O
g (Sg) g (5.8)
A 0 ,B
A0 hom(SA 0 , B) / hom(A 0 , T B)
Example 5.2
I
Let C be a cocomplete category. Then for any small category I we have that colim : C C is
left adjoint to the diagonal functor : C CI . And if C is a complete category, we have that
lim : CI C is right adjoint to the diagonal.
Now, as in the situation of Definition 5.3, suppose that S and T are functors such that
S a T . For each object A of D, let A : A T SA be A = A,SA (1SA ). It can be proven
that the collection of maps = {A } gives a natural transformation 1 T S. Similarly,
for each B obj C, let B = 1T B,B (1T B ) : ST B B, then = {A } can be shown to be a
natural transformation ST 1.
5.4 Definition. If S and T are functors such that S a T , the natural transformation described in the
previous paragraph is called the unit of the adjunction S a T . The natural transfor-
mation is called the counit.
5.5 Proposition. If S and T are functors such that S a T with unit : 1 T S and counit : ST 1,
then the compositions:
S S
S ST S S, (5.9)
T T
T T ST T (5.10)
are equal to the respective identities. Conversely, let S : D C and T : C D be

functors such that there are natural transformations : 1 T S, : ST 1 such that
the compositions 5.9 are equal to the identity. Then S a T , and is the unit of the
adjunction and the counit. The adjugant A,B can be obtained as follows: A,B (h)
is the composition
B Th
B T SB T A (5.11)
5.6 Theorem. Let C and D be categories, and T : C D, S : D C be functors such that S a T .

Then
1. S preserves all colimits.
2. T preserves all limits.
Proof. We show that T preserves all limits. Let F : I C be a functor with limiting source
{i : X Fi }, we need to show that {T i : T X T Fi } is a limiting source. Let {i : Z T Fi }
be a natural source, we want to show there is a unique D-morphism M : Z T X that
makes the following diagram commute
Z ;_ _ _ _ _ _/ T X
M
;;
;; (5.12)
i ;;
T i
T Fi
Consider the adjunction map Z,Fi : homC (SZ, Fi ) homD (Z, T Fi ). We get maps 1
Z,Fi (i ) : SZ
Fi , we want to show they form a natural source. Let m : i j be an I-morphism, we want
to prove that the diagram
SZ
1 ;;; 1 (j )
Z,F (i ) ;; Z,Fi

i
; (5.13)
F(m) ;

Fi / Fj
5.2. Adjoint Functors 47
is commutative. But this follows from the commutativity of the diagram

Z,Fi
i Fi homC (SZ, Fi ) / homD (Z, T Fi )
m F(m) F(m) T F(m) (5.14)

Z,Fj
j Fj homC (SZ, Fj ) / homD (Z, T Fj )
since j = T F(m) i . We obtain then that there is a unique map M 0 : SZ X making the
diagram
SZ;_ _ _ _ _ _/ X
M0
;;
;; (5.15)
1
;
; i
Z,Fi (i )
Fi
commute for all i obj I. From the adjunction map Z,X : homC (SZ, X) homD (Z, T X),
let M = Z,X (M 0 ), we want now to prove that the diagram (5.12) commutes for each
i obj I. This follows from commutativity of the diagram
Z,X
X homC (SZ, X) / homD (Z, T X)
i (i ) (T i ) (5.16)
Z,Fi
Fi homC (SZ, Fi ) / homD (Z, T Fi )
and evaluating at M 0 in the upper left corner.

6
More on Limits
6.1 Limits in a Functor Category
6.1 Theorem. Let I, C be small categories, D be a cocomplete category, and T : I DC . Then the
functor T has a colimit, which can be calculated point-wise.
Proof. Step 1. We prove that for each C obj C, there is a functor I D defined in
objects by i 7 T (i)(C), which we will denote as T ()(C): Let m : i j be a map in I,
we need to define a D-map T (m)(C) : T (i)(C) T (j)(C). Then T (m) : T (i) T (j) is a
natural transformation of functors C D, we define T (m)(C) as the C-component of the
natural transformation T (m). Using the definition of natural transformation, it is clear
that it preserves compositions and so we have defined a functor T ()(C).
Step 2. We show there is a functor C D defined in objects as C coliml T (l)(C),

which we will denote as coliml T (l)(): Let f : C C 0 be a C-morphism, we want to
define a natural transformation T ()(f) : T ()(C) T ()(C 0 ) : I D. The i-component
of that is precisely T (i)(f). This is indeed a natural transformation, since given an I-map
m : i j, we get the following commutative diagram, using that T (m) : T (i) T (j) is a
natural transformation:
T (m)(C)
C T (i)(C) / T (j)(C)
f T (i)(f) T (j)(f) (6.1)

0
T (m)(C )
C0 T (i)(C 0 ) / T (j)(C 0 )
49
50 Chapter 6. More on Limits
which we can interpret as:

T (i)(f)
i T (i)(C) / T (i)(C 0 )
m T (m)(C) T (m)(C 0 ) (6.2)

T (j)(f)
j T (j)(C 0 ) / T (j)(C 0 )
Hence the natural transformation T ()(f) : T ()(C) T ()(C 0 ) induces a D-morphism

coliml T (l)(C) coliml T (l)(C 0 ), which we will denote as coliml T (l)(f).
For the record, we note that this morphism has the property of being the unique D-map
that makes the following diagram commute for all i obj I.
T (i)(f)
T (i)(C) / T (i)(C 0 )
C
i C
i
0 (6.3)
coliml T (l)(f)
coliml T (l)(C) / coliml T (l)(C 0 )
Step 3. We construct a sink i from T : I DC to the DC -object coliml T (l)(): We

define a collection of DC -morphisms T (i) coliml T (l)(), one for each i obj I. For
C obj C, we set the C-component of i as the map Ci of diagram (6.3). This is a natural
transformation, since the diagram:
C
C T (i)(C)
i
/ coliml T (l)(C)
f T (i)(f) coliml T (l)(f) (6.4)

C
0
C0 T (i)(C 0 )
i
/ coliml T (l)(C 0 )
is diagram (6.3). So {i } is a sink.
Step 4. We show that {i } is a natural sink: Let m : i j be an I-morphism, we need to

show commutativity of
T (m)
T (i) / T (j)
99
99
9
i 99 j (6.5)

coliml T (l)()
which follows from commutativity of
T (m)(C)
T (i)(C) / T (j)(C)
99
99
C 9
9 C (6.6)
i 9 j
coliml T (l)(C)
6.1. Limits in a Functor Category 51
for each C obj C, since this is precisely the condition that defines the maps C
i .
Step 5. We show that the maps i : T (i) coliml T (l)() form a limiting sink, that is, the
functor coliml T (l)() : C D is the colimit of T : I DC . Let i0 : T (i) Z be a natural
sink. Evaluating at C obj C, we get a natural sink (i0 )C : T (i)(C) Z(C), and so we
obtain a map MC making the following diagram commute:
T (i)(C)
999 ( 0 )C
C
i
99 i (6.7)
99

coliml T (l)(C) _ _/ Z(C)
MC
We want to show that the MC are the components of a natural transformation coliml T (l)()
Z, that is, that the following diagram is commutative for all C-maps f : C C 0 .
C coliml T (l)(C)
MC
/ Z(C)
f coliml T (l)(f) Z(f) (6.8)

MC 0
C0 coliml T (l)(C 0 ) / Z(C 0 )
Since i0 : T (i) Z is a natural transformation, we have commutativity of
(i0 )C
C T (i)(C) / Z(C)
f T (i)(f) Z(f) (6.9)

(i0 )C
0
C0 T (i)(C 0 ) / Z(C 0 )
which combined with diagrams (6.3) and (6.7) results in the diagram of Figure 6.1.
From there, we get that both Z(f) MC and MC 0 coliml T (l)(f), when in the place of
the dotted arrow, make the following diagram commute for all C obj C:
T (i)(C)
99
C 99 Z(f)(i0 )C
i
99 (6.11)
9
coliml T (l)(C) _ _ / Z(C 0 )
By uniqueness, given that the Ci form a limiting sink, we have that Z(f) MC = MC 0
coliml T (l)(f), and hence we obtain the result.
6.2 Corollary. Suppose we have a functor S : C I D. We can interpret S as a functor with

parameter i.
coliml T (l)(C)
h hhhhphp4 pp
hC
hhhh ppppM p
i
hhhhhhh p
x p
h
C
/
T (i)(C) 0 C Z(C)
(i )
T (i)(f) Z(f) coliml T (l)(f) (6.10)
(i0 )C
0
T (i)(C 0 ) V / Z(C 0 )
VVVV
VVVV fNNNNNMC 0
VVVV NNN
VVVV NN
Ci
0
VV* N
coliml T (l)(C 0 )
Figure 6.1: Diagram
6.3 Corollary. If D is a complete category, C is aQsmall category and F1 , . . . , FnQare functorsQC D,

then we have a product functor, n i=1 Fj : C D, defined as ( F j )(A) = Fj (A),
for A obj C.
6.2 Ends
6.4 Definition. Let C and D be categories, and S, T be functors Cop C D. A dinatural transfor-
mation : S T is a collection of D-maps, A : S(A, A) T (A, A), indexed by the
objects of C, such that the following diagram commutes for every C-map f : A B.
S(A, A)
A
/ T (A, A)
S(f,1A )sss
s9 KK
KKT (1A ,f)
s KK
ss KK
ss K%
S(B, A) T (A, B) (6.12)
KK 9
KK sss
KK s s
K
S(1B ,f) KK ss
% ss T (f,1B )
S(B, B)
B
/ T (B, B)
Example 6.1
6.2. Ends 53
If : S T is a natural transformation, then {(C,C) } is a dinatural transformation. Consider

the following diagram:
(B,B)
S(B, B) / T (B, B)
dJJ t9
JJS(1B ,f) T (1B ,f) t t
JJ tt
JJ tt
J (B,A) tt
S(B, A) / T (B, A)

T (f,1B )

S(f,f) (6.13)

T (f,f)

S(f,1A )
S(A, B) (A,B)
/ T (A, B)
tt: eJJ
JJT (1A ,f)
tt JJ
t
ttS(1 JJ

tt A ,f) J
(A,A)
S(A, A) / T (A, A)
Then we have:
T (1A , f) (A,A) S(f, 1A ) = (A,B) S(1A , f) S(f, 1A ) (6.14)

= (A,B) S(f, f) (6.15)
= T (f, f) (B,A) (6.16)
= T (f, 1B ) T (1B , f) (B,A) (6.17)
= T (f, 1B ) (B,B) S(1B , f) (6.18)
6.5 Definition. A dinatural sink from a functor S : Cop C D to X obj D is a dinatural

transformation from the functor S to the constant functor Cop C D with value X.
In detail, it is a collection of D-maps C : S(C, C) X, indexed by the objects of C,
such that for every f : A B the following diagram
S(1B ,f)
S(B, A) / S(B, B)
S(f,1A ) B (6.19)

S(A, A)
A
/X
commutes.
Example 6.2
Let X obj Set fixed. For each A obj Set, we have a set map eA : homSet (A, X) A X,
given by evaluation, that is, eA (f, a) = f(a). The maps {eA } form a dinatural sink from the
functor homSet (, X) () : Setop Set Set to the set X, since for every set map : A B
the following square commutes:
homSet (B, X) A
1
/ homSet (B, X) B
1A B (6.20)

homSet (A, X) A
A
/X
6.6 Definition. A dinatural source from Y obj D to the functor S : Cop C D it is a collection of
D-maps {C : Y S(C, C)}Cobj C such that for every f : A B the following diagram
commutes
Y
B
/ S(B, B)
A S(f,1B ) (6.21)
S(1A ,f)
S(A, A) / S(A, B)
6.7 Definition. An end of a functor S : Cop C D is a dinatural source from an object Y to S, such
that for every dinatural source 0 from S to some object Y 0 there is a unique D-map
Y 0 Y such that the following diagram commutes.
Y 0 :_ _ _ _ _ _/ Y
M
::
:: (6.22)
C : :
C
0
S(C, C)
for every C obj C. We denote this as

Z
Y= S(C, C) (6.23)
C
and we also say that the dinatural source is ending.
Example 6.3
Let C be a small category, and F, F 0 : C D be two functors. We can then
R consider the func-
tor Cop C Set given by (A, B) 7 homD (FA, F 0 B). We claim that A homD (FA, F 0 A) =
homDC (F, F 0 ), the set of natural transformations from F to F 0 . Let C : homDC (F, F 0 )
homD (FC, F 0 C) be given by C () = C . Then is dinatural, since the condition of
6.2. Ends 55
square (6.21) says in this case
homDC (F, F 0 )
B
/ homD (FB, F 0 B)
A (Ff) (6.24)
(F 0 f)
homD (FA, F 0 A) / homD (FA, F 0 B)
which holds, since for homDC (F, F 0 ), we have that B F(f) = F 0 (f) A . If C 0
:Z
0
homD (FC, F C) is another dinatural source with Z a set, then for each z Z one gets a D-
map C0
(z) : FC F 0 C, and the collection {C0
(z)}Cobj C is a natural transformation F F 0 .
Hence we have a map M : Z homDC (F, F ) given by z 7 {C
0 0
(z)}Cobj C , which satisfies the
commutativity condition 6.22.
6.8 Theorem. Let : S S 0 be a natural transformation

R R between
R functors Cop C D with ends.
0
Then there is a unique D-map C C,C : C S C S such that the following diagram
commutes for every C obj C.
R
R R
S(C, C) _ _ _/ S 0 (C, C)
C
C C
C 0
C (6.25)
C,C
S(C, C) / S 0 (C, C)
R C C,C
Proof. The collection of compositions { C S S(C, C) S 0 (C, C)}Cobj C , is a di-
natural source, because of the diagram:
R B,B
S
B
/ S(B, B) / S 0 (B, B)
A S(f,1B )
S(1A ,f)
S(A, A) / S(A, B) S 0 (f,1B ) (6.26)
PPP
PPPA,B
A,A PPP
PPP
S(1A ,f) (
S 0 (A, A) / S 0 (A, B)
R
where the two trapezoids commute
R Rbecause of the naturality of . By definition of S 0 ,
there is a unique map M : S S 0 making the following triangle commute for all
C obj C,
R R
S _ _ _ _ _/ S 0
M
99
99
99 (6.27)
C 9
C
0
S 0 (C, C)
R
then let M = g.
Exercises 6.1
1. Let F : C D be a functor, and S : Cop C D be the functor that is the composition

of projection onto the second factor from Cop C, with F (that is, S(A, B) = F(B)). Then
R
C
S(C, C) = lim F.
2. Let S : Cop C D be a functor, {C : Y S(C, C)}Cobj C be a dinatural source, and : Y 0 Y
be a C-map. Then {C : Y 0 S(C, C)}Cobj C is a dinatural source.
3. Let S : Cop C D be a functor, {C : Y S(C, C)}Cobj C be an ending source, and , : Y 0
Y C-maps such that C = C for all C obj C. Then = .
6.3 Ends in a Functor Category
6.9 Theorem. Let C, E be small categories, D complete and T : Cop C DE be a functor. Then T
has an end, which can be calculated pointwise.
Proof. Step 1. We show that for each E obj E, there is a functor Cop C D, defined
on objects as (A, B) 7 T (A, B)(E). Let (, ) : (A, B) (A 0 , B 0 ) be a map in Cop C.
Then T (, ) : T (A, B) T (A 0 , B 0 ) is a natural transformation, so we define T (, )(E)
as the E-component of it.
R
Step 2. We show that there
R is a functor E D, defined on objects as E 7 C0 T (C, C)(E),
which we will denote as C T (C, C)(E): First, for an E-morphism f : E E , we want a
natural transformation T (, )(E) T (, )(E 0 ), that is, for each (A, B) obj Cop C,
6.3. Ends in a Functor Category 57
we need a map T (A, B)(E) T (A, B)(E 0 ). Let it be T (A, B)(f). We need to show it is
natural, that is
T (A,B)(f)
(A, B) T (A, B)(E) / T (A, B)(E 0 )
(,) T (,)(E 0 ) T (,)(E) (6.28)

0
T (A ,B )(f) 0
(A 0 , B 0 ) T (A 0 , B 0 )(E) / T (A 0 , B 0 )(E 0 )
but this follows from the diagram
T (,)(E)
E T (A, B)(E) / T (A 0 , B 0 )(E)
f T (A,B)(f) T (A 0 ,B 0 )(f) (6.29)

T (,)(E 0 )
E0 T (A, B)(E 0 ) / T (A 0 , B 0 )(E 0 )
We
R note that, byR Theorem 6.8, the
R natural transformation T (, )(f) induces a D-
map C T (C, C)(f) : C T (C, C)(E) C T (C, C)(E 0 ), which has the property of being the
unique map that makes the following diagram commute for all A obj C.
R
R T (C,C)(f) R
T (C, C)(E)
C
/ T (C, C)(E 0 )
C C
E
A E
0 (6.30)
A
T (A,A)(f)
T (A, A)(E) / T (A, A)(E 0 )
R
Step 3. We construct a dinatural source from the R DE -object C T (C, C)() to T . We
need to define a collection of DE -morphisms A : C T (C, C)() T (A, A), one for each
A obj C. We set E A as in diagram (6.30). That {A }Aobj C is a natural transformation
E
follows from that diagram. We now show that it is dinatural, that is, that for every C-map
f : A B the following square commutes:
R
T (C, C)()
B
/ T (B, B)
C
A T (f,1B ) (6.31)
T (1A ,f)
T (A, A) / T (A, B)
Evaluating at E, we get
R E
T (C, C)(E)
B
/ T (B, B)(E)
C
E
A
T (f,1B )(E) (6.32)
T (1A ,f)(E)
T (A, A)(E) / T (A, B)(E)
R
But this is precisely the condition that defines C T (C, C)(E), and so the diagram (6.31)
commutes.
0
Step 4. This dinatural source is an ending source. Let A : Z T (A, A) be a dinatural
E
source, with Z obj D . Evaluating at E, we obtain a map ME that makes the following
diagram commute:
ME R
Z(E) _ _/ C T (C, C)(E)
99
99
99 E (6.33)
0 E
(A ) 9 A
T (A, A)(E)
We want
R to show that the collection of maps {ME }Eobj E is a natural transformation
Z C T (C, C)(), that is,
R
E Z(E)
ME
/ T (C, C)(E)
C
R
f Z(f) T (C,C)(f) (6.34)

C
ME 0 R
E0 Z(E 0 ) / 0
C T (C, C)(E )
0
Since A : Z T (A, A) is a natural transformation, we have commutativity of the small
rectangle in the following diagram:
R
T (C, C)(E)
C fMMM VVVV
MMM VVVV E
MMM VVAVVVV
ME MM VVVV
*
Z(E) 0 E / T (A, A)(E)
(A )
R
C T (C,C)(f) Z(f) T (A,A)(f) (6.35)
( 0 )E 0
Z(E 0 )
A
/ T (A, A)(E 0 )
q hh4
ME 0 qqq
q hh h hhhh
qq hhhhhE 0
R xqqq hhhh A
0
C T (C, C)(E )
The triangles are instances of (6.33), and the biggest trapezoid is (6.30). Commutativity of
the smallest
R trapezoid is not immediate, but it follows from the fact that both ME 0 Z(f)
and C T (C, C)(f) ME complete the following commutative triangle, when in place of
the dotted arrow: R
Z(E) _ _/ C T (C, C)(E 0 )
99
99
99 E 0 (6.36)
0 E
T (A,A)(f)(A ) 9 A
T (A, A)(E 0 )
6.4. Iterated Ends 59
6.4 Iterated Ends
6.10 Lemma. Consider the following diagram:
/
? ?
5
8
9
10
1 / 6
2 (6.37)
/
? ?
4 7
12 11
3 /
Suppose that all faces of the cube are commutative squares, except maybe the front
and back. Then
1. if the front face commutes, then 7 8 9 = 6 5 9,
2. if the back face commutes, then 11 2 1 = 11 3 4.
Proof. Exercise.
6.11 Lemma. Let C, E be small categories, D an arbitrary category, and T : Cop C Eop E D
be a functor. Let C,E : Y T (C, C, E, E) that is a dinatural source on C for E fixed,
and a dinatural source on E for C fixed. Then is also a dinatural source when T is
considered as a functor (C E)op (C E) D.
Proof. Let f : A B, h : E F be morphisms in C, E respectively. We must show

commutativity of the square:
B,F
Y / T (B, B, F, F)
A,E T (f,1B ,h,1F ) (6.38)
T (1A ,f,1E ,h)
T (A, A, E, E) / T (A, B, E, F)
Since C,E is dinatural in C, when the second variable is fixed we have commutativity of
the square
B,F
Y / T (B, B, F, F)
A,F T (f,1B ,1F ,1F ) (6.39)
T (1A ,f,1F ,1F )
T (A, A, F, F) / T (A, B, F, F)
and since C,E is dinatural in E, when the first variable is fixed we have commutativity of
the square
A,F
Y / T (A, A, F, F)
A,E T (1A ,1A ,h,1F ) (6.40)
T (1A ,1A ,1E ,h)
T (A, A, E, E) / T (A, A, E, F)
We have then
T (1A , f, 1E , h) A,E = T (1A , f, 1E , 1F ) T (1A , 1A , 1E , h) A,E (6.41)

= T (1A , f, 1E , 1F ) T (1A , 1A , h, 1F ) A,F (6.42)
= T (1A , 1B , h, 1F ) T (1A , f, 1F , 1F ) A,F (6.43)
= T (1A , 1B , h, 1F ) T (f, 1B , 1F , 1F ) B,F (6.44)
= T (f, 1B , h, 1F ) B,F (6.45)
6.12 Theorem. Let C, E be small categories, D complete and T : Cop C Eop E D be a functor.
Then there is an isomorphism
Z Z Z

T (C, C, E, E) T (C, C, E, E) (6.46)
(C,E) C E
where in the first integral we have interpreted T as a functor (C E)op (C E) D
Proof. For each (A, B) obj Cop C, we have the ending source (in E)
Z
A,B,E : T (A, B, E, E) T (A, B, E, E), (6.47)
E
and we also have the ending source in C:

Z Z Z

C : T (C, C, E, E) T (C, C, E, E). (6.48)
C E E
Hence we get a collection of maps C,E , indexed by the objects of C E, given by the
compositions:
Z Z Z
C C,C,E
C,E : T (C, C, E, E) T (C, C, E, E) T (C, C, E, E), (6.49)
C E E
which is a dinatural source in E by Exercise 6.1.2,

6.4. Iterated Ends 61
Let f : A B be a C-map, and consider the square
R R R
A
/

C E T (C, C, E, E) E T (A, A, E, E)
R
B E T (1A ,f,E,E) (6.50)
R R
T (f,1B ,E,E) R
T (B, B, E, E)
E
/ T (A, B, E, E)
E E
which commutes, since {C } is a dinatural source, and the square
R R A,E
/ T (A, A, E, E)

C E T (C, C, E, E)
B,E T (1A ,f,1E ,1E ) (6.51)
T (f,1B ,1E ,1E )
T (B, B, E, E) / T (A, B, E, E)
which we want to prove commutative. Consider the cubical diagram, that has as front
face the square (6.50) and as back face the square (6.51).
R R
/ T (A, A, E, E)

T (C, C, E, E) A,E
? A
C E

1RC R

A,A,E
E
T

R R B,E
R T (1A ,f,1E ,1E )
/

C E T (C, C, E, E)
A
E T (A, A, E, E) (6.52)

T (B, B, E, E) T (f,1B ,1E ,1E ) / T (A, B, E, E)
? R

A
B
E T (1A ,f,E,E)
B,B,E
A,B,E

R R R
/
E T (B, B, E, E) E T (A, B, E, E)
E T (f,1B ,E,E)
In this cube, the bottom and right faces commute by Theorem 6.8, and the top and left
faces do by definition of (6.49). By Lemma 6.10, the back face commutes, and so C,E
is a dinatural source in C. By Lemma 6.11, is a dinatural source in both variables.
We show now that is a limiting source. Let {C,E : Z T (C, C, E, E)} be a dinatural
source (inRboth variables). Since is a dinatural source for C fixed, there is a unique map
C : Z E T (C, C, E, E) that makes the following diagram commute
C R
Z 9_ _ _/ E T (C, C, E, E)
99
99
C,E 99 . (6.53)
C,C,E
T (C, C, E, E)
For f : A B, consider now the cubical diagram
A,E / T (A, A, E, E)
?Z C

A,A,E

1Z

B,E
R T (1A ,f,1E ,1E )
/ (6.54)
E T (A, A, E, E)
Z A

T (B, B, E, E) T (f,1B ,1E ,1E ) / T (A, B, E, E)
? R C
E T (1A ,f,1E ,1E )
B
B,B,E

A,B,E

R R R
T (B, B, E, E) /
E T (A, B, E, E)
E T (f,1B ,1E ,1E )
E
Bottom and right faces are the same of the cube (6.52), so they commute, and top and
left faces commute since they are instances of (6.53). Since the back face commutes by
dinaturality of , by Lemma 6.10 we have that
Z Z
A,B,E T (1A , f, 1E , 1E ) A = A,B,E T (f, 1B , 1E , 1E ) B (6.55)
E E
for all f : A B and E obj E. Since {A,B,E }Eobj E is an ending source, then
Z Z
T (1A , f, 1E , 1E ) A = T (f, 1B , 1E , 1E ) B (6.56)
E E
by Exercise
R R 6.1.3. Hence
{C } is a dinatural source, and so there is a unique map M : Z
C E T (C, C, E, E) that makes the following diagram commute
Z SYSYSYSYYYYYY
SSSS YYYYYYY
SSSS YYYYYYC,E
S YYYYYY
C SSSS YYYYYY
R ) YYYYY,
T (C, C, E, E) / T (C, C, E, E)
eee2
C,C,E
M E5
ee (6.57)
l l eeeeee
C llll

lll eeeeeeeeeC,E eeeeee
l l
R R lll eeeee
C E T (C, C, E, E)
which finishes the proof that {C,E } is and ending source.
Exercises 6.2
6.5. Coends 63
1. Prove Lemma 6.10.

2. Considering again the cube (6.37) from Lemma 6.10, if all faces commute except the bottom,
then 7 12 4 = 11 3 4.
6.5 Coends
6.13 Definition. A dinatural source from Y obj to a functor S : Cop C D is a dinatural trans-
formation from the constant functor Cop C D with value Y to S. In other words,
it is a collection of maps
Part III
Extras
65
7
Abelian Categories
7.1 Definition
7.1 Definition. The category C is an Ab-category if every set homC (A, B) has a structure of abelian
group in such a way that composition is distributive over the additive structure. That
is, for any maps f : A B, h1 , h2 : B C and k : C D, we have that k(h1 +h2 )f =
k h1 f + k h2 f.
A functor between Ab-categories F : C D is called additive if for each pair of objects
A, B obj C we have that F : homC (A, B) homD (FA, FB) is a group homomor-
phism.
Examples 7.1
1. The category Ab is an Ab-category, where we define, for f, h homAb (A, B) the sum f + h as
the map x 7 (f + h)(x) = f(x) + h(x). Similarly, R-mod is an Ab-category any ring R.
2. The definition of f + h as x 7 (f + h)(x) = f(x) + h(x) does not work in the category Rng,
since f + h does not preserve in general the product in rings.
3. Ab-categories with only one object, can be identified with rings. If R is a ring, denote by R
the associated Ab-category with one object . Then an additive functor F : R Ab can be
identified with an structure of left R-module on the abelian group F() = M, since F maps
r R to the abelian group map r : M M, m 7 rm.
7.2 Definition. An additive category is an Ab-category with a zero object, and a product for any pair
of objects.
67
68 Chapter 7. Abelian Categories
In an additive category, the zero morphism in hom(A, B) is precisely the zero element.
7.3 Definition. An abelian category C is an additive category such that

1. Every morphism in C has a kernel and a cokernel.
2. Every monic in C is the kernel of its cokernel.
3. Every epic in C is the cokernel of its kernel.
1 2
In an abelian category, monics and epics are usually called respectively monomor-
phisms and epimorphisms.
3 4
7.2 Chain Complexes

7.4 Definition. Let I be a category with obj I = Z and no morphisms but the identities. Let C be an
abelian category. Then the category CI is called the category of graded objects of C.
It can be identified with the category such that the objects are collections {Ci }iZ of
objects in C and a morphism {Ci } {Di } is a collection of maps {i : Ci Di }. We
denote this category as Gr(C).
7.5 Definition. If C is an abelian category, a chain complex C in C is a collection {Ci }iZ of objects
in C and maps (called differentials) {di : Ci Ci1 }iZ such that dn+1 dn = 0 for all
n Z. A chain map between the chain complexes C and C 0 is a collection of maps
i : Ci Ci0 such that the following diagram commutes for all n Z
Cn+1
dn+1
/ Cn
n+1 n
0
dn+1
0
Cn+1 / Cn0
1 FiXme: EXAMPLE: RING IS NOT ABELIAN

2 FiXme: If C is abelian, then CI is abelian
3 FiXme: EXAMPLES? MAYBE MACKEY FUNCTORS. IE THE CATEGORY OF MACKEY FUNCTORS
OVER A GROUP G IS ABELIAN

4 FiXme: Define the zero functor
7.3. Exact Sequences 69
7.6 Proposition. Chain complexes and chain maps in C form an abelian category which we denote
Ch(C).
Note that if F : C D is a functor, we can immediately define a functor Gr(C) Gr(D),

and if F is also additive, we can even define a functor Ch(C) Ch(D), which we also
denote by F. Also note that we have a forgetful functor Ch(C) Gr(C) and a functor
Gr(C) Ch(C) that sends a graded object to a complex with all differentials to be zero.
We usually have chain complexes in which Ci = 0 for i < 0, they are called positive
chain complexes. We could also have a complex for which Ci = 0 if i > 0, but if this
is the case, we call Ci = Ci and di : Ci Ci1 becomes di : Ci Ci+1 . We say
then that {Ci } is a cochain complex. The category of positive chain complexes is denoted
Ch0 (C) and the category of cochain complexes is denoted Ch0 (C).
5
7.3 Exact Sequences

7.7 Definition. Let f : A B a morphism in the abelian category C. The image of f, denoted im f is
the subobject of B, ker(coker f). A sequence of maps in C
f g
A
B
C (7.1)
is called exact (at B) if ker g = im f. A sequence of maps is exact if it is exact at every
term. A short exact sequence in C is an exact sequence of the form
f g
0A C0
B (7.2)
A map of short exact sequences is composed of three maps , , in C such that the
following diagram commutes
0 / A1 g1
/ B1 f1
/ C1 /0

0 / A2 g2
/ B2 f2
/ C2 /0
Clearly the short exact sequences in C form a category which we will denote as Sh(C).
We similarly define a category LEHS(C) of long exact homology sequences, which
is the same as the category of exact positive chain complexes. Also we define the
category LECS(C) of long exact cohomology sequences, which are the exact cochain
complexes.
5 FiXme: Define chain homotopy equivalence

7.4 Homology
7.8 Definition. If C is a chain complex, we define the subobjects of Cn : Zn (C) = ker dn (n-cycles),
Bn (C) = im dn+1 (n-boundaries), and the subquotient Hn (C) = Zn (C)/Bn (C) (n-
homology). For a cochain complex C, we have the subobjects of Cn : Zn (C) = ker dn
(n-cocycles), Bn (C) = im dn1 (n-coboundaries), and the subquotient 6 Hn (C) =
Zn (C)/Bn (C) (n-cohomology)
Observe that C is exact at Cn precisely when Hn (C) = 0. Also we have that Zn , Bn , Hn

define functors Ch(C) C, and all together form functors Z , B , H : Ch(C) Gr(C).
7.9 Proposition. ([Wei94, page 7]) A sequence
0 C0
C
C 00 0 (7.3)
is exact in Ch(C) if and only if each sequence
0 Cn0 Cn00 0
Cn (7.4)
is exact in C.
7.5 Split Chain Complexes

7.10 Definition. We say that the chain complex C is split if there is a map s : C C of degree 1 such
that dsd = d.
7.11 Proposition. ([Web87, page 363]) Let C be a chain complex. The following conditions are equiva-
lent:
1. C is split,
2. For every n, both dn : Cn im dn is a split epimorphism and the inclusion

im dn Cn1 is a split monomorphism.
7 FiXme: put relationship with chain homotopy equivalence

7.5. Split Chain Complexes 71
3. For every n we can write

im dn+1 Hn (C) im dn
Cn =
so that dn becomes the map from im dn+1 Hn (C)im dn to im dn Hn1 (C)

im dn1 sending (a, b, c) to (c, 0, 0).
Proof. To prove 2 implies 3, let sn be a splitting of dn and sn0 be a splitting of the inclu-
sion. We have, using sn , that Cn = ker dn im dn . The map s 0 that gives the splitting of
n
the inclusion can then be restricted to give a splitting of the inclusion im dn+1 ker dn .
Then, we have the isomorphism
Cn im dn+1 Hn (C) im dn
x 7 (sn0 x sn0 sn dn x, x sn dn x, dn x)
and that it has inverse

im dn+1 Hn (C) im dn Cn
(a, b, c) 7 a + b sn0 (b) + sn (c)
We can then check that dn has the desired rule of correspondence.
To prove 3 implies 1, define sn (x, y, z) = (z, 0, 0).
7.12 Corollary. Let C be a chain complex. The following conditions are equivalent:
1. C is split and exact.
2. C is chain homotopy equivalent to the zero complex, that is, C ' 0.
Proof. Suppose that C is split and exact, then by 3 from the previous proposition, we have
that Cn = im dn+1 im dn , and the expression for the boundary is (a, c) 7 (c, 0). Define
tn : im dn+1 im dn im dn+2 im dn+1 by tn (a, c) = (0, a). It is immediate to check
that dt + td = 1. Now, if C ' 0, let t : Cn Cn+1 such that dt + td = 1. Composing on
the right with d, we get dtd = d, and so C is split. To check C is exact, take x Cn such
that dn x = 0. Hence, applying tn1 dn + dn+1 tn+1 = 1Cn to it, we get dn+1 tn+1 x = x,
that is, x is a boundary. Hence Hn (C) = 0.
7.13 Definition. If the chain complex C satisfies one of the conditions of the previous corollary, we say
it is contractible.
7.6 Exact Functors

7.14 Definition. Let F : C D be an additive covariant functor between abelian categories. Then F is
f g
called left exact if for any exact sequence of the form 0 A C, we have that
B
the following sequence is exact:
Ff Fg
0 FA FB FC. (7.5)
f g
Now, F is right exact if for any exact sequence of the form A C 0, the
B
following sequence is exact:
Ff Fg
FA FB FC 0. (7.6)
The functor is exact if it is both left and right exact.

A contravariant additive functor F : C D is left exact (right exact, exact) if the
corresponding covariant functor Cop D is left exact (right exact, exact). That is,
f g
the contravariant F is left exact if for any exact sequence A C 0 we have
B
Ff Fg
that 0 FA FB FC is exact, and it is right exact if for any exact sequence
f g Ff Fg
0A C we have that FA FB FC 0 is exact.
B
Let C be an abelian category and M be an object in C. Then we can consider the hom func-
tor homC (M, ) as taking values in the category Ab. Similarly, we have a contravariant
hom functor homC (, M) : C Ab. Both are clearly additive.
7.15 Theorem. ([Wei94, pages 2728]) Let C be an abelian category. Then for any object M in C we
have that both homC (M, ), homC (, M) : C Ab are left exact.
7.16 Theorem. ([Wei94, page 28]) Let C be an abelian category. A sequence in C

f g
A
B
C (7.7)
is exact if the sequence

f g
hom(M, A) hom(M, B) hom(M, C) (7.8)
is exact for every M obj C.
8 FiXme: GIVE PROOF

7.6. Exact Functors 73
7.17 Theorem. ([Wei94, page 51]) Let C and D be abelian categories, and R : C D, L : D C be
additive functors such that L a R. Then
1. L is right exact
2. R is left exact.
7.18 Definition. A non-empty small category I is called filtered if:
1. For every i, j obj I there is k obj I and morphisms i k, i j.

2. For every i, j obj I and every two morphisms u, v homI (i, j), there is k obj I
and a morphism w homI (j, k) such that wu = wv.
7.19 Theorem. ([Wei94, page 58]) If I is filtered, then both functors colim, lim : (R-mod)I R-mod
are exact
9 FiXme: NOW We could later include that Q IS FLAT, WHICH USES COR 2.6.17 IN WEIBEL.
8
Appendix: Calculations
8.1 The Grothendieck Group
A semigroup is a set S together with a commutative and associative binary operation on

S. A morphism f : S1 S2 of abelian semigroups is a map f : S1 S2 that preserves the
operation. We will use Abs to denote the category of abelian semigroups.
8.1 Definition. ([HS97, page 72]) Let S be an abelian semigroup. Then S S has an induced structure
of abelian semigroup. Define in S S the relation (a, b) (c, d) if and only if there is
u S such that a+d+u = b+c+u. This is an equivalence relation, and (SS)/ is an
abelian group, since [a, b]+[b, a] = [a+b, a+b] = [0, 0] = 0. This is the Grothendieck
group of S, denoted Gr(S). Note that we have a homomorphism i : S Gr(S). We
observe the following universal property of i: If A is an abelian group and f : S A
is a homomorphism, then there is f : Gr(S) A making commute the following
diagram
S
i / Gr(S)
z
z (8.1)
f
z f
|z
A
This universal property lets us verify that if E : Ab Abs is the forgetful functor, we
have that Gr a E
75
76 Chapter 8. Appendix: Calculations
Examples 8.1
1. If S is the semigroup of all G-sets under disjoint union, then Gr(S) is the additive group of
what is called the Burnside ring of G and is denoted (G),
2. If S is the semigroup of finitely generated kG-modules under direct sum, then Gr(S) is the
additive group of what is called the Green ring of G over k.
Bibliography
[BK72] A. K. Bousfield and D. M. Kan. Homotopy limits, completions and localizations.

Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1972. Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Vol. 304.
[HS97] P. J. Hilton and U. Stammbach. A course in homological algebra, volume 4 of
Graduate Texts in Mathematics. Springer-Verlag, New York, second edition,
1997.
[ML98] Saunders Mac Lane. Categories for the working mathematician, volume 5 of
Graduate Texts in Mathematics. Springer-Verlag, New York, second edition,
1998.
[Web87] Peter Webb. Subgroup complexes. In P. Fong, editor, The Arcata conference
on representations of finite groups, volume 47 of Proc. of Symposia in Pure
Mathematics, pages 349365, 1987.
[Wei94] Charles A. Weibel. An Introduction to Homological Algebra. Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1994.
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Notes on Categories

Rafael Villarroel Flores

18th August 2004

5 Universals and Adjoints 43

1.1 Definition and Examples

1.1 Definition. A category C consists of

homC (A, B) homC (B, C) homC (A, C) (1.1)

whose value at (f, g) will be denoted by g f.

An element of obj C will be called a C-object, similarly a morphism in C will be called

Our first example is the prototype of all categories.

Examples from Algebra

Examples from Topology

Examples from Combinatorics

S R = { (x, z) X Z | there is y Y with (x, y) R, (y, z) S } . (1.2)

We put 1X = { (x, x) | x X }. It is straightforward to check that we have just defined a

We will have plenty of more examples in the next section.

1.2 Small Categories

Consider the following examples of small categories:

The composition will be given by (y z) (x y) = (x z), and 1x = (x x). We say

More generally, for any set of n-categories C1 , . . . , Cn , we can define a category C1

Example 1.5.2 is an instance of this definition.

1.9 Definition. Let C, C 0 be categories. We say that C 0 is a subcategory of C if obj C 0 is a subclass of

As a trivial example, note that any category is a (full) subcategory of itself.

Given a category C, a full subcategory is completely determined by its class of objects.

1.5 Special Objects

1.6 Special Morphisms

1.13 Definition. Let f : A B be a morphism in a category C. We say that f is an isomorphism if there

For example, in the category Set, a morphism f : A B is an isomorphism exactly

1.14 Definition. Let f : A B be a morphism in a category C. Then

It is easy to see that in a concrete category C, an injective map f : A B is necessarily

2.1 Definition and Examples

2.1 Definition. Let C and D be categories. A functor F from C to D, denoted F : C D, is composed

1. A map (which we denote by F) from obj C to obj D,

For our examples, let us begin with general constructions.

The next examples are so important that deserve a box by themselves.

We now define particular functors, classified by area.

Next, let us consider examples that involve small categories.

Having defined the concept of functors, we define some more categories.

commutes. In other words, A C is just A 1C . We similarly could define a category F A.

And then we can define more functors.

We similarly have a projection functor F A C.

2.2 Contravariant Functors

2.3 Definition. Let C an D be categories. A contravariant functor F : C D is a functor Cop D.

The most important examples of a contravariant functor is the following: Let C be a

hom(, B)f : hom(C, B) hom(A, B) (2.4)

is given by g 7 g f. We will denote hom(, B)f by f .

Note that the composition of two contravariant functors is a covariant functor. In

2.3 Isomorphism of Categories

2.4 Types of Functors

2.5 Definition. Let F : C D be a functor. We say that F is

We note that a subcategory C 0 of C is full if and only if the inclusion functor of C 0 on C

A category C is concrete if and only if there is a faithful functor F : C Set.

3.1 Definition and Examples

f F(f) F 0 (f) (3.1)

If : F F 0 is a natural transformation, we call the D-morphism A the component of

f hommod-R (f ,R) (3.2)

which follows, since for any m M we have that f(m)

respectively. A natural transformation from F to F 0 is a collection of three C-morphisms

A natural transformation from F to F 0 is then a pair of D-morphisms : A A 0 , : B B 0

3.2 The Functor Category

3.2 Proposition. Let F and G be functors C D

: obj C Cobj C homD (FC, F 0 C). (3.7)

3.6 Proposition. Let C be a small category,

Step 2. We define a functor : (DI )C DCI . Let T : C DI . We define (T ) as the