Introduction to deepwater system sediments and their classification

Mialls (1999) statement that "At the very least, classifications represent way
stations on the road to perfect understanding; at best, they offer a common
language for description and interpretation" is a mantra to the sections below
that describe and classify deepwater sediments and the models that explain
their deposition.

Dott and Bourgeois (1983) dismayed at the explosion of fluvial models,

argued that this proliferation defeats the whole purpose of the conceptual
model by encouraging excessive pigeonholing, which obscures rather than
reveals whatever unity may exist among the variants. The same could be
said of deepwater sediments. Though deepwater sedimentary classifications
are changing rapidly (Shanmugam, 2000) and proliferating, this web site
argues that a consensus is developing amid the various schemes. The intent
is that these models be used as a guide to the interpretation and the
prediction of the continuity of each unique set of deepwater sedimentary rocks
and sediments. The solution is to consider the origins of the deepwater
sediment you are examining and describe them carefully and in detail. This
should be from the perspective of process driven models, with classifications
being used as needed and modified to meet the specifics of the situation!
Remember to always define your terms!

Deepwater Sedimentary end members of subaqueous density flows;

namely non-cohesive density flow sediments (including turbidites),
mass transport debrites (MTD) and pelagic drape and/or condensed
sequences.
Data sources for the interpretation of deepwater sediments collectively
include:-

Outcrops
Cores
WellLogs
Seismic Data
Flume and Computer Simulation Experiments

The common characteristic of early classifications of deepwater systems was

tied to the occurrence of beds of sandstone in which the sediment grain size
fines upward.beds with this texture became known as deepwater turbidites
(Kuenen, 1957). This was based on recognition that deposition from a waning
turbidity current had a matching decrease in grain size. Later this vertical
change in fabric became known as the Bouma sequence (Shanmugam,
2000). It is now recognized that while not every deepwater
sedimentary cycle has the fabric of the
Bouma sequence turbidite(Shanmugam, 2000), process driven
interrelationships exist between most deepwater sediment facies and their
associated geometries. Many excellent examples of these process driven
interrelationships exist. One example that has caught the attention of
stratigraphers is the Carboniferous Ross Sandstone of Co. Clare, Ireland.
Pyles and Bouroullec (2006) recognize that this section exposes an ascending
order of interrelated mudstone sheets and slumps, linked debrites
andmudstone sheets, and non-cohesive density flow sandy turbidite lobes.

The above illustration by Peter Haughton demonstrates the evolving

interrelationship between the various sub-aqueous density flows and their
transportation of sediment. The diagram demonstrates how cohesive flows
change to non cohesive flows while passing through transitional hybrid flows.
The sediment from these different flows are co-genetic and slurry flows
accumulates as a mix both cohesive and non-cohesive material. To conclude
the sediment transportation evolves from cohesive flows to non cohesive high
to low density turbidity currents. The above diagram simplifies the
classification of Mulder & Alexander (2001) below.
The classification of Mulder & Alexander (2001), seen in the illustration above,
captures the interrelationships of subaqueous density flows and subdivides
them into cohesive flows and frictional flows. This is "based on the cohesivity
of the particles, flow duration, sediment concentration and particle-support
mechanism".

Cohesive flows have matrix strength and are divided by grain size into:

Debris flows
Mud flows:
o clay-rich
o Silty mud

Frictional flows composed of a combination of grains and water in which the

space between grains is filled by water. These flows are subdivided into:

Hyperconcentrated density flows (sandy debris flows, some basal

inverse grading, no normal grading, bedforms not preserved)
Concentrated density flows (erosional base, scours & flutes, normal
grading, lower bed massive with local inverse grading)
Turbidity flows (subdivided on the basis of duration):
o Surges
o Surge-like flows (Bouma sequences)
o Quasisteady current

This classification scheme of sedimentary density flows assumes that any flow
may change in type both down and across flow and with time at any one point.
The strength and weakness of the classification is the spectrum of
representative sediments involved, making it general, interpretative and
qualitative.
Building from the concept of process driven interrelationships the interpretive
models consideredcognize that there is a strong association
between turbidites, mass transport debrites (MTD) and pelagic drape
and/or condensed sequences. These models are used as a first pass guide to
the character of the observations made in the field or lab. These models are
then modified to meet the chf ones observations, rather than vice versa.

The turbidites & other frictional flows (Mulder & Alexander, 2001)
Hyperconcentrated density flows
The turbulent fluid motion of these hyperconcentrated flows is interpreted to
have maintained high sediment concentrations of over 25% their volume,
often in the form of sand and gravel sized particles. The fluid had no cohesion
but grain-to-grain interaction supported and transported the sediment load. As
the flow waned the sediment no longer supported and accumulated as sandy
debris flows that are often sorted. These deposits show some basal inverse
grading but no normal grading. Cross beds, and other bedforms, tend not to
be preserved while composition varies between massive coarse silt, sand,
and/or gravel.

Gravity drives these flows, whose velocity and character were a response to
the steepness of the slope that the flow crossed. Unless the slopes were
steep these flows had short transport distances and when the slope became
gentler the sediment tended to freeze in place as grain-to-grain interaction
took over. Hydroplaning may have prevented erosion.
The deposits that Lowe, 1982 illustrates above as being deposited from high
density turbidity currents match the Mulder & Alexander's (2001) concentrated
density flow deposits explained below.

Concentrated density flow

These flows are defined on the basis of the turbulent fluid motion of the flow
that supported from 10% to 25% sand sized particles. As this flow waned so
the sandy debris flows illustrated above accumulated. The basal surface to
these deposits is erosional and is often expressed as scours and flutes.
These surfaces are evidence of rapid currents that moved down steep slopes
both eroding and inhibiting the frictional interaction of grain-to-grain motion.
So long as water was entrained between the grains the freezing of the
sediment was prevented. As a slope decreased the sediment froze into place
and the coarse bed load was deposited producing combinations of normal
grading, and/or massive bedding with local inverse grading.

Turbidity flows
Even though they acknowledge that all natural sediment density flows are
unsteady Mulder & Alexander (2001) subdivided these on the basis of
duration of steady trubulent flow. These are:

Shortduration surges
Surge-like flows in which the behaviour of the head of the flos the
deposit (Bouma sequences or turbidites)
Quasi-steady currents in which tour of the head of the flow is not as
importthin the body of the flow

The turbidites
Few geologists have considered the term turbidite with as much attention to
detail, or with as much enthusiasm, as Ganapathy Shanmugam. Whether
geologists agree or disagree with Shanmugams (2000) poey still are likely
confused as to how to proceed with classifying their own deepwater systems.

This web site uses the term turbidite as Kuenen (1957) first used it to
represent a deposit from a turbidity current. This supports the published work
of Kuenens student Bouma; the geologist who detailed the mans land of the
Annot Sandstone outcrops of SE France and established the first vertical
facies model of turbidites (Bouma,1962). This stratigraphic section has
become the type model for the "Boumasequence.
Since the Bouma paper of 1962 it has been demonstrated the turbidite deposit
is a member of an evolutionary trend of vertically associated sediments that
accumulate from debris flows, hyperconcentrated to concentrated density
flows, and turbidity flows (Mulder & Alexander, 2001). As Parsons et al (2003)
observe, Gravity-driven motions produced from turbulent suspensions are an
important sediment-transport process in the modern ocean and the deposits
that result from them constitute a significant portion of the sedimentary
record.One of these deposits are turbidites. For instance on the continental
margin of the Southwest Orphan basin in the Labrador Sea, sediment moves
under gravity as cohesionless debris flows that are transformed basinward
into fluids moving under gravity in the form of high-density turbidity currents
(Tripsanas & Pipers, 2006). In this latter case no hemipelagic deposits were
found to separate the sand-gravel unit from the mud flow and the seismic data
suggests that the mud-flow deposit was initiated by slope failure.

Mass-transport deposits (MTD) and debrites

Mass transport deposits have grouped as cohesive flows that include debris
flows and clay-rich and silty mud flows by Mulder & Alexander (2001).
Outcrops of these mass transport deposits record both subaerial and
submarine depositional settings. Their downslope deepwater margin setting is
described below.
One of the objectives of this web site is to help the user develop techniques to
characterize potential and actual hydrocarbon reservoirs within these
sediment complexes. Martinsen, and Posamentier, (2006) suggest to do this
one should establish the deepwater stratigraphic architecture, its timing and
tie to well and seismic data. Their basic approach examines age relationships,
and characterizes the geometry, and the lithology of these sediments. They
note that the processes that are responsible for the character of deepwater
systems grade into one another as continuous spectrum down the
subaqueous slope. These include

Creep
Sliding
Slumping
Debris flow
Fall of material
All are controlled by fluid turbulence and gravitationally driven
mechanisms.
Nearly all-subaqueous slopes are unstable and down slope sediment
movement is commonly expressed as mass transport complexes that vary in
scale from cubic meters to several thousand cubic kilometers. Relative drops
in sea level have often initiated large-scale margin collapse. This is often
followed by confined chanalization down slope and then the cycle ends with
unconfined fill that probably represents flushed shallow shelf sediments.
Submarine fans in the Pyrenees (Pickering, and Bayliss, 2006) provide an
example of this with Eocene mass-transport complexes (MTCs) confined to
channels across them as they are transported to the basin-floor. Similarly on
the Nile Fan, each of the large MTDs has a headwall scarp at the shelf edge
or on the upper slope that forms a wide sloping corridor down which the
sediment moves. Channels systems appear to occupy these evacuation
corridors immediately after most of these distinct mass failure episodes
(Newton et al 2006). Here and at other locations extensive deep-water mass
transport deposits currently tend collect on slopes and basin settings. They
form sheets, mounds lobes, and channel fills often 150 m or more in thickness
(Posamentier & Martinsen, 2006). Their internal character includes
heterogeneous deposits of mudstones to matrix-supported conglomerates
with the chaotic, and slumped fabrics (Nilsen, et al, 2006).

Debris flows and leveed channels tend to build out from canyon mouths
directly onto the basin plain. Currently in offshore West Africa, large
Pleistocene aprons have formed with multiple leveed channel systems and
associated debris flows. Avulsing channels and associated levees emerging
from the canyon mouth occur and sidewall failures and rotational slips have
produced debris flows in all stages of development (Sutton and Mitchum,
2006). Sheet deposits seaward and onlapping the apron deposits often show
gravitational instability and a range of deformationprocesses. These form
small-scale soft-sediment deformation structures (convolutelamination, dishes
and pipes), intensely dewatered intervals and the development of low velocity
slope creep' bodies. These fabrics occur in the Early Permian deepwater
deposits of the Tanqua area in South Africa (Wild et al, 2006).

The stacked deposits of co-genetic turbidity currents indicate other evidence

of slope instability and debris flows are common to many down slope
fan systems. These occur particularly downdip in relatively distal and lateral
fan fringe settings, bypassing sandier mid-fan sections (Haughton et al, 2006).
This sediment association is a response to erosion on unstable, tectonically
controlled slopes or intrafan erosion during incision of the inner fan.

Posamentier and Martinsen (2006) indicate that mass transport units are
commonly amalgamated. So much so that surfaces between successive mass
transport deposits may be difficult to recognize. Never the less they identify
two distinct mass transport end members: 1) those formed by coherent and
commonly discrete blocks that moved along relatively smooth
decollement surfaces, and, 2) those with a less coherent, disrupted fabric
scoured into the lower surface with linear grooves that may diverge down-
system. Blocks imbedded at the base of the flow mass and dragged across
the underlying substrate form these groves. Posamentier and Martinsen
(2006) intimate that the upper bounding surface of the latter often has
irregular to hummocky relief, bounded laterally by steep to gentle flanks. In
some instances the termini of the mass transport lobes exhibit extensive low-
angle thrust faults associated with compression. This is supported by Butler et
als, (2006) recognition that submarine mass transport complexes on the
modern sea floor often display complex rugosity on their upper surfaces,
defined by features interpreted to be rafted blocks, pressure ridges, detached
faults and folds.

Pelagic drape
As authors that include Loutit & Kennett, (1981), Leckie et al (1990), Galloway
(1989) and others have recognized, condensed sections accumulate as
drapes ofhemipelagic and pelagic mud rich in organic material over lowstand
and
Figure showing how the lowstand systems tract autocyclic fan of a
downslope basin floor fan can be enveloped by pelagic drape associated with
a maximum flooding surface. Note the commonly autocyclic character of
the cycles that terminate inshales and the transgressive surface over which a
condensedsequence accumulates.

Unfortunately sedimentary drapes exist that have other origins than those
associated with the maximum water depths of a sea
level transgression and/or high stands. These other drapes are connected
to autocyclic migration of the sand prone sections away from the axis of
the deepwater fans, their channels, overbank fill and levees. For this reason
the fine grained portions of homopycnal, hyperpycnal and hypopycnal
sediment plumes (Bates, 1953); storm winnowed shelf sediment; glacially
rafted material, pelagic fauna, and air born dust may dominate the
depositional setting instead of the coarser potion of the fan driven deposition.
From a stratigraphic perspective the fines that mark the passive phase of
an autocyclicevent look very similar in character to the fine-grained portion of
the deepwatercycles and so be misinterpreted to be connected with the
transgressive phase of aparasequence. However these autocyclic drapes
are allostratigraphic in character and most have limited distribution within the
internal variability of a fan or slump. Never the less, when they extend over a
good portion of the fan complex, they can be used as stratigraphic markers.
Even then, though the fine sediments match the pelagic drape
described above, they often lack their condensed character and the
associated microfaunas, glauconite, phosphorite and siderite, organic debris,
and radioactive elements . Also because of their common lithologic character
these may be mistakenly correlated with the other high frequency
local events referred to above and without care their local character may be
unrecognized. A mix of high frequency seismic tied to well data may help
resolve this problem of miscorrelation.
Click on highlighted Deepwater Gallery for access to a complete index to
images, maps, diagrams and photographs of deepwater geology including the
geology of Co Clare or access this gallery using the pull down menu on the
header bar above.

Cited References
Bouma, A. H., 1962, "Sedimentology of some flysch deposits, a graphic
approach to facies interpretation", pp 168; Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Butler, Rob, Adriana Del Pino Sanchez, Bill McCaffrey, Joris Eggenhuisen,
Peter Haughton, Simon Barker, Bill Hakes, and Gillian Apps, 2006,
"Dynamic formationof Rugosity on Mass Transport Complexes
Implications for Emplacement Dynamics" , SEPM Research Symposium:
The Significance of Mass Transport Deposits in Deepwater Environments II,
AAPG Annual Convention, April 9-12, 2006 Technical Program

Dott. R.H., JR., and Bourgeois, J., 1983, "Hummocky stratification:

significance of its variable bedding sequences": reply to discussion by
R.G. Walker et al.: Geological Society of America, Bulletin, v. 94, p. 1245
1251.

Csato, I., C. G. St. C. Kendall, 2001, "Modeling of stratigraphic

architectural patterns in extensional settings Toward a conceptual
model", Computers and Geosciences.
Dott and Bourgeois (1983)

Galloway, W.E., 1989. "Genetic stratigraphic sequences

in basin analysis". I. Architecture and genesis of flooding-surface bounded
depositional units.

Haughton, Peter, Chris Davis, and William McCaffrey, 2006, "Facies

Prediction inturbidite Fan Systems Nature and Significance of Linked
Debrites' in Sand-Rich Versus Mixed Sand-Mud Systems" Recent
Advances in Siliciclastic Facies Models: Implications for Reservoir
Characterization II (SEPM), AAPG Annual Convention, April 9-12, 2006
Technical Program

Kuenen, Ph H, 1957, "Sole markings of graded graywacke beds", Journal

of Geology, 54, 120-147

Leckie, D.A., Singh, C., Goodarzi, F., and Wall, J.H., 1990, "Organic-rich,
radioactive marine shale: a case study of a shallow-water condensed
section, Cretaceous Shaftesbury formation, Alberta, Canada": Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology, v. 60, p. 101-117.
Loutit, Tom S., and James P. Kennett, (1981), "New Zealand and Australian
Cenozoic Sedimentary cycles and Global Sea-Level Changes", Bull Am
Association of Petroleum Geologists, Vol. 65 Pages 1586 1601

Lowe, D.R. (1982) "Sediment gravity flows: II. Depositional models with
special reference to the deposits of high-density turbidity currents". J.
Sed. Petrol., 52, 279-297.

Martinsen, Ole, and Henry W. Posamentier, 2006, The Character and

Genesis of Mass Transport Complexes II: Processes, Classification and
Insights from Outcrops, Recent Advances in Deepwater and Shelf
Siliciclastic Facies Models: Implications for Reservoir Characterization
(SEPM), AAPG Annual Convention, April 9-12, 2006 Technical Program

Miall, Andrew D. 1999, In Defense of Facies Classifications and Models,

Journal of Sedimentary Research, Vol. 69, No. 1, January, 1999, P. 25

Mulder, Thierry and Jan Alexander; 2001, The physical character of

subaqueous sedimentary density flows and their deposits;
Sedimentology: 48, 269-299

Nilson, C. Hans, Carlota Escutia, and John E. Damuth, 2006, "Variation of

Mass-Transport and turbidite Deposits in Different Continental Margin
Settings and Time Periods", SEPM Research Symposium: The Significance
of Mass Transport Deposits in Deepwater Environments AAPG Annual
Convention, April 9-12, 2006 Technical Program

Newton, C. Simon, R. Craig Shipp, Ahmed Farouk, Erik D. Scott, and Timothy
M. Farnham, 2006, "Significance of Large Quaternary Mass Transport
Deposits on Exploration and Development of the Nile Fan, Offshore
Egypt" SEPM Research Symposium: The Significance of Mass Transport
Deposits in Deepwater Environments AAPG Annual Convention, April 9-12,
2006 Technical Program

Nilsen, Tor H., Gary S. Steffens, and Joseph J. R. Studlick, 2006, "Mass
Transport Deposits in Deepwater Outcrops: Depositional Setting(s),
Types, and Recognition", SEPM Research Symposium: The Significance of
Mass Transport Deposits in Deepwater Environments II, AAPG Annual
Convention, April 9-12, 2006 Technical Program

Parsons, Jeffrey D., William J. Schweller, Charles W. Stelting, John B.

Southard, William J. Lyons, and John P. Grotzinger, 2003, "A Preliminary
Experimental Study of turbidite Fan Deposits": Reply: Journal of
Sedimentary Research,2003 73: 839-841

Pickering, Kevin, and Nicole Bayliss, 2006, "Mass-Transport Complexes

(MTCs), and Tectonic Control on Confined basin-Floor Submarine Fans,
Middle Eocene, South Spanish Pyrenees", SEPM Research Symposium:
The Significance of Mass Transport Deposits in Deepwater Environments II,
AAPG Annual Convention, April 9-12, 2006 Technical Program

Posamentier, Henry, and Ole Martinsen, 2006, "The Character and Genesis
of Mass Transport Complexes I: Geomorphology and Process
Sedimentology from 3-D Seismic Data", SEPM Research Symposium: The
Significance of Mass Transport Deposits in Deepwater Environments, AAPG
Annual Convention, April 9-12, 2006 Technical Program

Pyles, David, and Renaud Bouroullec, 2006 Processes and Facies

Associations in basin-Margin strata of Structurally Confined Submarine
Fans: Example from the Carboniferous Ross Sandstone, Ireland, Recent
Advances in Deepwater and Shelf Siliciclastic Facies Models: Implications for
Reservoir Characterization (SEPM) AAPG Annual Convention, April 9-12,
2006 Technical Program

Shanmugam, G., 2003, "A preliminary experimental study of turbidite fan

deposits":Discussion: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 73, p. 838-839.

Sutton, Jason P., and Robert M. Mitchum, 2006 Deepwater West Africa
Waterbottom Debris Flows Captured and Analyzed by 3-D Visualization
Techniques SEPM Research Symposium: The Significance of Mass
Transport Deposits in Deepwater Environments I AAPG Annual Convention,
April 9-12, 2006 Technical Program

Tripsanas, Efthymios K. and David J.W. Piper 2006, "formation of

Cohesionless Debris Flows and Turbidity Currents from Sediment
Failures: A Case Study from the Continental Margin of Southwest
Orphan basin, Labrador Sea", SEPM Research Symposium: The
Significance of Mass Transport Deposits in Deepwater Environments II, AAPG
Annual Convention, April 9-12, 2006 Technical Program
Wild, Richard, David Hodgson, Stephen Flint, and Willem Van der Merve,
2006,High-Resolution stratigraphy of Multiple, Vertically Stacked Slope
Channel Complexes, Tanqua Depocentre, Karoo basin, South Africa,
Recent Advances in Deepwater and Shelf Siliciclastic Facies Models:
Implications for Reservoir Characterization (SEPM) AAPG Annual
Convention, April 9-12, 2006 Technical Program