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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Enhanced Student Learning of Chemistry in a Computer-Assisted Environment,
by Granville Wrensford, Associate Professor and
Chair Department of Natural Sciences and
Louise Wrensford, Associate Professor, Department of Natural Sciences, ASU ....1
An Investigation into the Social and Economic Events Leading to the Creation of
Various Tax Laws,
by Charlotte Atteberry, Senior Accounting and Management Major, ASU ..........42
Alcohol and Marijuana Among Young Adolescents: Role of Parental Bond and
Deviant Peer Association,
by George Thomas, Assistant Professor of Criminal Justice
and Michael E. Orok, Professor and Chairman of History,
Political Science and Public Administration, ASU .............................................135
EDITORIAL BOARD
Associate Editors
Kathaleena Monds, Assist. Professor of Business Administration
George Thomas, Assist. Professor of Criminal Justice
Editors
John Culbreath, Dean, College of Education
Rani George, Assist. Professor, College of Education
Cynthia Hoke, Director, Public Information
Walter Kimbrough, Vice President, Student Affairs
Joshua Murfree, Assoc. Professor/Chairman, Psychology, Sociology & Social
Work
Abiodun Ojemakinde, Dean, College of Business Administration
Ganiyu Oladunjoye, Assoc. Professor/Chairman, Business Information Systems
Zephyrinus Okonkwo, Assoc. Professor/Chairman, Mathematics and Computer
Science
Teresa Merriweather Orok, Assoc. V.P. Institutional Research, Planning &
Outreach
Claude Perkins, Assoc. V. P. for Academic Affairs/Dean of the Graduate School
David Roberts, Professor, English and Modern Languages
Production Staff
Joe West
Research/Editorial Assistant
Emmanuel Freeman
Editorial Assistant
Secretary
Carolyn Mansfield
When I was first asked to lead the effort of editing and producing two major
University publications, including this Monograph as part of the Universitys
centennial, I had some reservations. I have written and published papers and
edited a journal, but I had never managed a project of this historical significance
and magnitude, therefore, I spent several days contemplating the appropriate
format and structure for the publications. Fortunately, my initial meeting with
President Portia Holmes Shields yielded some very insightful information and
after that discussion, I was prepared to plunge directly into what I have come to
label as one of the most rewarding projects of my professional life.
Articles in this issue cover a wide range of academic areas, utilizing applied
research in some cases. I hope that this document helps to shed some light on
some academic or policy area and helps someone in understanding the role and
importance of research in informing, teaching and learning.
I thank Dr. Shields for her support of this very worthwhile effort. Thanks to the
members of the editorial board for their diligence and dedication. I also
appreciate the professional input that I received from the Office of Institutional
Research, Planning and Outreach; Marsha Aaron and the staff in the Public
Information Office. I acknowledge the support of anyone who has contributed to
the successful publication of this Monograph.
Michael E. Orok
Student
Learning of
Chemistry in
a Computer-
Description of Paper for Conference Program:
A computer-assisted environment was created in General and Organic Chemistry
courses. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) was used in conjunction with peer
tutoring and instructor-led help sessions to provide varied instructional modes of
teaching and learning. The four-year study (1999-2002) shows enhanced student
performance in General and Organic Chemistry after these tools were integrated into
the learning environment.
Abstract
This study focuses on the implementation of instructional tools (computer-assisted
instruction, peer tutoring, and instructor-led help sessions) in General and Organic Chemistry
courses, and the evaluation of student outcomes over the past four years using 1998 as the
baseline year, when these instructional aids were not utilized. The data show progressive and
significant improvement in student performance over the course of the study. The percentage
of students receiving a grade of C or better increased from 27% in 1998 to 67% in 2002 in
General Chemistry. In Organic Chemistry, the percentage of students receiving C or better
increased from 31% in 1998 to 61% in 2002. Of the students responding to a course survey,
most perceived the additional course tools to be beneficial in understanding the subject matter
for the course.
Introduction
Over the past decade, reform documents such as the National Science Education
Standards have promoted systemic changes to the way science courses are taught in
order to provide students with a high quality science education and to enhance student
learning. This has been fueled by studies that suggest that the traditional modes of
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to increase the number of students successfully
completing the General and Organic Chemistry courses without decreasing the course
content, by implementing computer-assisted instruction, peer tutors and instructor-led
help sessions as instructional tools that could be utilized by students to enhance
learning. Prior to 1999, these courses were delivered in the traditional lecture format.
During 1999-2002, the courses were revised to include computer-assisted instruction,
peer tutors and a weekly instructor-led help session. To measure the effectiveness of the
added components, the passing rates and students use of the resources were monitored.
Methods
Class Description and Demographics
General Chemistry. The General Chemistry course, CHEM1211, is a study in basic
chemistry concepts that include matter stoichiometry, atomic and molecular structure,
solution chemistry and chemical equilibrium. This General Chemistry course is the first
required for students interested in pursuing degrees in math, biology, chemistry, pre-
engineering and technology. The majority of students take this course in their freshman
Peer Tutors
Peer tutors were made available for both courses. The tutors were selected from
outstanding students who had recently completed the course and had obtained a B (80-
89) or A (90) in the general chemistry sequence courses, CHEM1211 and CHEM1212.
The tutors were available at various hours during the week. Tutors schedules and
location were posted and given to students during the second week of class. Students
who did poorly on the first exams were encouraged by the instructor to work with a
tutor. The use of peer tutors was monitored.
Technology Integration
Technology integration began with the introduction of chemistry software that
provided drill and practice exercises in general chemistry and organic chemistry
concepts. With the adoption of WebCT by the University System of Georgia, the
capabilities of WebCT were utilized to provide a computer-assisted environment in
Students Attitudes
CHEM1211, Fall 2001. Twenty-eight students returned surveys (Table 6). When
questioned on the on-line component of the course, on a scale of 1(strongly agree) to 5
(strongly disagree) student results were positive. Students found the computer assisted
instructional tools improved their learning (mean score=1.94); access to their grade
information and performance measures such as quizzes prompted them to take action
(mean score=1.96); and found the WebCT format preferable to other web-based
courses (mean score=2.11) (50% had experience with other web-based courses). When
asked if too much time was spent on learning the technology, the mean score was 3.59
(1=strongly agree and 5=strongly disagree). This indicated a neutral to slight
Discussion
Although there was no statistical correlation of computer usage to student
performance, for organic chemistry, the survey responses indicated that students
perceive the on-line resources to be beneficial.
One of the most important lessons learned was that the use of the course materials
on a voluntary basis resulted in poor utilization of resources, even when students were
doing poorly in the class. Maximum utilization resulted when the instructor provided
specific activities and assignments that required students to use resources.
It is evident that the varied classroom environment helped students learning. The
number of students completing the courses successfully increased and the student
Table 1.
Student Survey Items
Have you had previous experience with a course that had a Web site?
Have you had previous experience with a course that used WebCT?
How would you rate your expertise with computer technology?
How often did you use the course Web site?
From what location did you most often access the course Web site?
I have found the Web format used in this course preferable to other web-based courses.
The computer-assisted instructional tools available for the class were valuable and improved
my learning.
It is important to have experience using the latest technology applied to my field of study.
Access to my grade information and performance measures such as quizzes, prompted me to
take action (such as visiting my instructor or tutor).
Which component of the course was least useful to you?
Which component of the course did you find most beneficial?
I spent too much time learning technology.
In general, I am very satisfied with my overall experience with the course.
If a choice exists, Id prefer a course with a Web component to one without.
Instructor-led sessions were helpful in understanding the subject matter.
Peer tutors were helpful in understanding the subject matter.
Table 2.
Mean ACS Toledo Exam Scores, General Chemistry
1998 1999 2001 2002
N=76 N=78 N=56 N=55
Mean Score 28.6 30.2 25.4 27.7
Standard Deviation 7.17 7.13 7.12 7.09
American Chemical Society Data1 31.5 7.12
1
Data obtained from the ACS DivCHED Examination Institute Website, collected in 1998-1999.
2000 data not available
Class Pass % 31 41 44 58 61
1Students utilizing CAI an average of three times per week or more
ND-Not Determined
Fall 2002
Table 6.
Student Survey Responses, General Chemistry
Statement Mean Response
Fall 2001 Fall 2002
N=28 N=38
I have found the Web format used in this course
preferable to other web-based courses. 2.11 2.05
Table 7.
Utilization of Peer Tutors
Table 7.
Utilization of Peer Tutors
Table 7.
Utilization of Peer Tutors
References
Bradley, A. Z. et al. (2002). Journal of Chemistry Education, 79 (4), 514-519.
Carpi, A. (2001). Journal of Chemistry Education, 78, 1709.
Donavan, W.J. and Nakhleh, M.B. (2001). Journal of Chemistry Education, 975-980.
Hall, R.W., Butler, Leslie G., McGuire, Saundra Y., McGlynn, Sean P., Lyon, Gary L.,
Reese, Ron L., et al. (2001). Journal of Chemistry Education, 78, 1704-1708.
Kogut, L. S. (1996). Journal of Chemistry Education, 73, 218.
Lazarowitz, R. (1988). Science Education, 72, 475-487.
Moog, R. S. and Farrell, J. J. (1997). Chemistry: A guided inquiry. New York: Wiley.
Nurrenbern, S. C. and Robinson, W.R. (1997). Journal of Chemistry Education, 74, 623-
624.
Paulson, D.R. (1999). Journal of Chemistry Education, 76, 1136-1140.
Silberman, M. Active Learning. Allyn and Bacon: Boston.
Whitnell, R.M., et.al. (1994) Journal of Chemistry Education, 71, 721-727.
Wink, D. J. (2000). NSF Web Site Links on Instructional Technology and Education.
Journal of Chemistry Education, 77, 25.
Wright, J.C. et al. (1998). Journal of Chemistry Education, 75, 986-992.
Yarnell, A., (2002). Focusing on reform. Chemical & Engineering News, 80, 43.
References
Bradley, A. Z. et al. (2002). Journal of Chemistry Education, 79 (4), 514-519.
Carpi, A. (2001). Journal of Chemistry Education, 78, 1709.
Donavan, W.J. and Nakhleh, M.B. (2001). Journal of Chemistry Education, 975-980.
Hall, R.W., Butler, Leslie G., McGuire, Saundra Y., McGlynn, Sean P., Lyon, Gary L.,
Reese, Ron L., et al. (2001). Journal of Chemistry Education, 78, 1704-1708.
Kogut, L. S. (1996). Journal of Chemistry Education, 73, 218.
Lazarowitz, R. (1988). Science Education, 72, 475-487.
Moog, R. S. and Farrell, J. J. (1997). Chemistry: A guided inquiry. New York: Wiley.
Nurrenbern, S. C. and Robinson, W.R. (1997). Journal of Chemistry Education, 74, 623-
624.
Paulson, D.R. (1999). Journal of Chemistry Education, 76, 1136-1140.
Silberman, M. Active Learning. Allyn and Bacon: Boston.
Whitnell, R.M., et.al. (1994) Journal of Chemistry Education, 71, 721-727.
Wink, D. J. (2000). NSF Web Site Links on Instructional Technology and Education.
Journal of Chemistry Education, 77, 25.
Wright, J.C. et al. (1998). Journal of Chemistry Education, 75, 986-992.
Yarnell, A., (2002). Focusing on reform. Chemical & Engineering News, 80, 43.
References
Bradley, A. Z. et al. (2002). Journal of Chemistry Education, 79 (4), 514-519.
Carpi, A. (2001). Journal of Chemistry Education, 78, 1709.
Donavan, W.J. and Nakhleh, M.B. (2001). Journal of Chemistry Education, 975-980.
Hall, R.W., Butler, Leslie G., McGuire, Saundra Y., McGlynn, Sean P., Lyon, Gary L.,
Reese, Ron L., et al. (2001). Journal of Chemistry Education, 78, 1704-1708.
Kogut, L. S. (1996). Journal of Chemistry Education, 73, 218.
Lazarowitz, R. (1988). Science Education, 72, 475-487.
Moog, R. S. and Farrell, J. J. (1997). Chemistry: A guided inquiry. New York: Wiley.
Nurrenbern, S. C. and Robinson, W.R. (1997). Journal of Chemistry Education, 74, 623-
624.
Paulson, D.R. (1999). Journal of Chemistry Education, 76, 1136-1140.
Silberman, M. Active Learning. Allyn and Bacon: Boston.
Whitnell, R.M., et.al. (1994) Journal of Chemistry Education, 71, 721-727.
Wink, D. J. (2000). NSF Web Site Links on Instructional Technology and Education.
Journal of Chemistry Education, 77, 25.
Wright, J.C. et al. (1998). Journal of Chemistry Education, 75, 986-992.
Yarnell, A., (2002). Focusing on reform. Chemical & Engineering News, 80, 43.
Innovative
Pedagogy in
Mathematics
: The
Changing
Abstract. Since their introduction in the mid 1980s, graphing calculators continue to have a
profound impact on the teaching and learning of mathematics in the United States and many
other countries. Graphing calculators are affecting the curriculum in a positive sense and are
creating more opportunities for mathematics teachers to include more realistic examples and
applications and introduce topics and concepts that were once inaccessible to students. In this
paper, we present a brief history of this revolution, give examples using graphing calculators,
and discuss current trends and future implications on the use of hand-held-technology in
mathematics education.
1. Introduction
Throughout the ages, mathematicians, engineers, and scientists have used various
technologies available to improve our standard of living and study the world around us.
In addition to playing an ever-increasing role in our daily lives, technology facilitates
the study of nature and its powerful forces. It also helps us to predict when and where
In 1972, the HP-35, the one single product that forever changed the whole image
of the computer industry, (Stine 1984) was born, and it ushered in the beginning of
the end for the slide-rule. The HP-35 was the first hand-held electronic calculator ever
to perform logarithmic and trigonometric functions; it was the first scientific calculator.
After its introduction, the market for pocket calculators exploded. Dozens of
manufacturers and hundreds of different models of pocket calculators began to appear
around the world during that period. Most of the models were standard four-operation
units. In the field of scientific calculator technology, Texas Instruments remains the
leader.
Casio invented the first graphing calculator (Casio FX7000) with powerful built-in,
computer-like graphing software (Demana and Waits 1992). The graphing calculators
introduction in 1986 started a revolution in the teaching and learning of mathematics
in the United States and many other countries around the world. Texas Instruments
saw the potential of this revolution and quickly introduced the TI-81, which was more
user-friendly and had more features than the Casio graphing calculator at that time.
With the introduction of the TI-81, followed by more powerful graphing calculators:
TI-82, TI-83, TI-85, TI-86, etc., Texas Instruments became the dominant player in the
graphing calculators market. Today it continues to be one of the dominant players, if
not the dominant player, and its calculators are very popular with educators in the
teaching and learning of mathematics. Casio, Sharp, and Hewlett-Packard are
important players in this revolution, and they have all introduced powerful graphing
calculators for the education market and the general public.
2. Graphing Calculators
There are many powerful graphing calculators on the market today and many of
them can provide the same learning experiences provided by the calculators used in the
examples of this paper. For the examples in this section, we use the TI-86 graphing
calculator, which is used extensively for instruction in introductory
mathematics classes (algebra, trigonometry, calculus, linear algebra,
differential equations, etc.) at colleges and universities in the United
States and other countries.
The TI-86 (shown left) has the capabilities to graph functions, polar,
parametric, and differential equations in up to 7 different graphing styles.
Its powerful features include finding derivatives, integrals, minimums,
maximums, and roots of equations numerically.
Graphing calculators are valuable tools for visualizing mathematical
equations and principles, verifying solutions to equations, exploring mathematical
ideas, and developing mathematical models. The combination of knowledge of
mathematics and the use of graphing calculators allow us to explore mathematics more
easily and in greater depth.
The mathematics content that is taught today has evolved over time as
mathematicians updated the curriculum and used the tools available to facilitate
teaching and learning mathematics. One recent example is what the scientific
calculator did to the kind of computation that was taught after it was introduced in the
1970s. It significantly changed some of the mathematics curriculum in most countries
and made other mathematics course content, say at the university level, obsolete. This
trend has continued to the present and it will continue in the future as technology
continues to influence pedagogical decisions and course content. However, not all
mathematics will change in response to technology. For example, there is the
mathematics that consists of conceptual understanding, reasoning, theorems and proofs,
applications, and problem solving, which will continue to be very important in learning
and understanding mathematics.
Technology has an impact on both content and teaching. It causes changes in the
mathematics we teach and provides significant pedagogical enhancement to the
teaching and learning of mathematics. As a pedagogical tool, a graphing calculator
provides the means of viewing a problem multiple ways (multiple representations of
functions or solutions to a problem). One can view it analytically with paper-and-
pencil approach, visually using a graph, or numerically using a table.
The calculator broadens our problem solving horizons. It allows us to solve more
complex and realistic problems, and use concepts from advanced courses in solving
3. Using a numerical approach with the TI-86, one gets the required solution as
shown in the Figure 2(b) above, where the table feature is used.
With the graphing calculator, even if it is not possible to algebraically solve a given
equation, one can solve it graphically or numerically to get excellent approximate
solutions, accurate to desirable digits of accuracy. For example, the equation
x 2
2
e + x + x + 2 5 = 0 cannot be solved algebraically. However, we can use the TI-86
to find an approximate solution as shown in Figure 3.
The authors of this paper believe in a balanced approach, which is practiced by
many successful users of technology in enhancing the teaching and learning of
mathematics. By balance, we mean the appropriate use of paper-and-pencil and
calculator techniques on a regular basis, where they complement each other. One
method of achieving balance is to have students routinely employ each of the following
three strategies (Waits and Demana 1994).
Solve problems using paper-and-pencil techniques and then support/verify the
results using technology.
Solve problems using technology and then confirm/verify the results using paper-
and-pencil techniques.
Solve problems that require them to choose whether it is most appropriate to use
paper-and-pencil techniques, calculator techniques, or a combination of both.
Another way of achieving a balanced approach is to use paper-and-pencil
More Examples
Example 1. This example involves regression analysis. Consider the following table
containing orbital periods and mean distances of planets from the sun (Giordano, Weir,
and Fox 2003).
Planet Period (days) Mean distance
(millions of miles)
T R
Mercury 88.0 36.00
Venus 224.7 67.25
Earth 365.3 93.00
Mars 687.0 141.75
Jupiter 4331.8 483.80
Saturn 10,760.0 887.97
Uranus 30,684.0 1764.50
Neptune 60,188.3 2791.05
Pluto 90,466.8 3653.90
Table 1. Orbital periods and mean distances of planets from the sun.
Using the regression capability of the TI-86, we get the results in Figure 4(a). It
shows plots of the points in Table 1 and the graph of the regression equation
T = 0.4043 R1.50164 , which was obtained from the TI-86. For the sake of comparison, the
values of T obtained from the regression equation using the corresponding values of R
are shown in Figure 4 (b). Figure 4 clearly shows that the regression equation closely
fits the data.
The data satisfy Keplers Third Law: T = c R3 / 2, where T is the period (days), R is the
mean distance to the sun, and c is a positive constant. Johannes Kepler was a German
astronomer who became director of the Prague Observatory in 1601 after the death of
his mentor, Tycho Brahe. He used the data collected by Brahe and him over a period
of about 13 years to formulate his three laws of planetary motion.
Figure 4. (a) Plot of the data in Table 1 with corresponding regression equation.
(b) Values of T obtained from the regression equation.
Example 2 (another regression example). The logistic model has been shown to yield
reasonably good predictions for the behavior of populations of yeast cells, bacteria and
protozoans (the most primitive form of animal life), when grown under suitable
laboratory conditions. In this spirit, consider the following table, which is based on
results obtained from actual experiment (Fulford, Forrester, and Jones 1997). A plot of
the data in Table 2 with graph of corresponding regression equation obtained from the
TI-86 is shown in Figure 5. The resulting regression model for predicting the number
of yeast cells is the logistic equation N = 658.984
+ 0.0136 .
0.547t
( 1 + 71.365e )
Time Number of
in hours yeast cells
t N
0 10
2 29
4 71
6 175
8 351
10 513 Figure 5. Plot of the Data in Table 2 and graph of
12 584 the corresponding regression equation.
14 641
16 651
18 662
Table 2. Growth of yeast cells.
(a) (b)
Figure 6. (a) The fox and rabbit populations for 30 years (starting with 10 foxes and 50
rabbits. (b) A phase plane solution of the problem, where stable equilibrium
solution is obtained by starting with 10 foxes and 50 rabbits.
A significant leap in the evolution of hand-held technology for the teaching and
learning of mathematics occurred in 1996 with the introduction of the TI-92. It
ushered in a new generation of powerful hand-held computers for mathematics
education. Algebraic calculators can perform symbolic manipulations; they can
simplify expressions, differentiate, integrate, plot functions, solve equations, manipulate
matrices, and perform many other operations. These calculators contained built-in
computer algebra system (CAS).
(a) Graphical exploration using Trace (b) Numerical exploration with Table
4. Remarks
We begin by stating the following two quotes in order to emphasize the importance
of understanding and thinking in mathematics education:
I dont know whats the matter with people: they dont learn by understanding; they
learn by some other way by rote, or something. Their knowledge is so fragile!
Richard Feynman
(He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965.)
If one learns by memory, and does not think, all remains dark.
Confucius
Ball, Guy. (1997). Texas Instruments Cal-Tech, Worlds First Pocket Electronic Calculator.
http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Park/7227/caltech.html
Demana, F., & Waits, B. K. (1992). A computer for all students, The Mathematics
Teacher, 84 (2).
Demana, F. and Waits, B. K. (1994). Graphing Calculator Intensive Calculus: A First Step
in Calculus Reform for All Students. Preparing for New Calculus, edited by A. Solow,
MAA Notes No. 36, Mathematical Association of America, Washington, DC.
Feynman, Richard P. (1985). Surely Youre Joking, Mr. Feynman!, W.W. Norton &
Company, Inc.
Fulford, G., Forrester, P., and Jones, A. (1997). Modelling With Differential and Difference
Equations, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Giordano F. R., Weir, M. D., and Fox, W. P. (2003). A First Course in Mathematical
Modeling, 3rd Edition, Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA.
Stine, G. Harry. (1984). The Untold Story of the Computer Revolution Bits, Bytes,
Bauds, and Brains, Arbor House Pub Co, New York
Waits, B. K. and Demana, F. (1994). The Calculator and Computer Precalculus Project
(PC): What Have We Learned in Ten Years? In Impact of Calculators on
Mathematics Instruction, edited by George Bright, Hersholt. C. Waxman, & Susan
E. Williams, Lanham, Maryland, University Press of America. 91-110.
Vijayan K. Pillai
INTRODUCTION
Gottfredson and Hirschis A General Theory of Crime (1990) has generated, over
the years, significant discussion, debate and research relative to their central thesis in
METHODOLOGY
The data for this study were obtained in a 1995 survey of African-American male
and female students attending a middle-sized, upper midwestern university (approximate
size: 12,000) during the winter semester (January 9 through May 12). The survey
documented students perceptions about their home, school, religious, community, and
social life while growing. The survey also ascertained students perceptions of their
personality while teenagers. The survey, further, obtained self-reported information on
the extent of their own personal involvement, as well as their friends involvement, in
delinquent activity as teenagers. Finally, the survey obtained information about
students perceptions regarding their current church involvement and religious
commitment.
A stratified random sampling method was utilized in obtaining the sample
population. Six hundred (600) students were randomly chosen for the study. Our
methods included creating a primary sample group (400 students were selected to be
participants in the study), and a secondary sample group (200 additional students
were selected as replacements for primary group members who, for one reason or
another, may fall out of the primary pool of participants). The sample pool consisted of
300 males (separately and randomly selected, and of which 100 were replacements),
and 300 females (separately randomly selected, and of which 100 were replacements).
Primary sample pool members were initially contacted by letter informing them of their
selection to be participants in the research project. Follow-up contacts with these
principal sample pool members were made by telephone. Employing strategies that
involved setting up organized survey sessions in the universitys 15 residential
dormitories, meeting with and surveying sample participants in their homes, having
participants personally pick up surveys for completion and later return, and enlisting a
number of faculty colleagues to distribute surveys to the student sample pool who
registered in their courses. Some 184 usable surveys (46% of the 400 targeted) were
returned.
The sample of African-American students was drawn from a pool of 888 registered
African-American students attending classes in the winter semester of 1995 (based on
the data provided to the principle investigator by university officials, during the winter
semester, 1995). The university adopts an open admissions policy, attracting many
students with below-college-level skills. The university operates, however, an ambitious
and active network of academic support services for its students, including academic
tutoring, skill development services, and other academic development support. The
sample was largely urban in background. More than half of the students surveyed came
from the largest metropolitan area in the state (a city that has routinely ranked in the
top 5 of the largest U.S. cities over the last several censuses).
Self-Control Measures
RESULTS
Our analysis begins with an examination of the effects of Gottfredson and Hirschis
impulsivity, simple tasks, risk seeking, physical activities, self-centeredness, and temper
dimensions on two types of delinquent behavior self-reported property and person
offenses (see Table 1).
Dependent Variable
Independent Variable
R2 .200***
P=.001****
P=.01***
P=.05**
P=.10*
Table 2. Unstandardized Regression Coeffients (bs) for the Effects of Six Dimensions of
Self-Control on Drug and Status Offenses: African-American College Students Attending
An Upper Midwestern University, Winter, 1995
Dependent Variable
Independent Variable
R2 .187**** .113
P=.001****
P=.01***
P=.05**
P=.10*
Table 2 examines the effects of Gottfredson and Hirschis impulsivity, simple tasks,
risk seeking, physical activities, self-centeredness, and temper dimensions on self-
reported drug and status offenses. Impulsivity is a significant predictor of drug, but not
status offenses. Risk seeking is a significant predictor of status offenses, but not drug
offenses. These are the only two significant relationships with our two indicators of
delinquency (drug and status offenses), among the measures of self-control. Two of the
self-control coefficients show an inverse relationship with self-reported drug and status
offenses. Gender is an extremely significant predictor of drug offenses, while not a
significant predictor of status offenses. Females in the study, further, show a
considerably lower predisposition to engage in drug use, but they engage in status
crimes. The R2 values for the drug offenses are significant, yet modest. Much remains
unexplained about the reasons for youthful age drug use. The R2 value for status offense
is not significant and even more modest.
DISCUSSION
Our analysis at this point is very preliminary. Since this research was exploratory,
we essentially wanted to emphasize the literature on the topic of self-control, and
perform an analysis, which we will use for subsequently developing a more precise
model for assessing Gottfredson and Hirschis theory of self-control. Nevertheless, we
are struck by some very definite findings in regard to Gottfredson and Hirschis work in
proposing their theory of self-control.
For example, the operationalization of self-control developed by Grasmick et al.
(1993), based on their careful reading of Gottfredson and Hirschis (1990) proposed the
theory of self-control as a measure for studying several dimensions of self-control.
Three of the six scales recorded reliabilities of at least .75, with simple tasks registering
a reliability of .82 in our analysis. The remaining three registered respective reliabilities
of .62 and higher. While these scales can certainly be improved upon, they,
nevertheless, demonstrate a fairly credible measure for the concept of self-control. We
generally believe, therefore, that Grasmick et al.s (1993) self-control measure, is
statistically relevant.
REFERENCES
Arneklev, Bruce J., Harold G. Grasmick, Charles R. Tittle, and Robert J. Bursik, Jr.
(1993). Low Self-Control and Imprudent Behavior, Journal of Quantitative
Barlow, Hugh D. (1991). Explaining Crimes and Analogous Acts, or the Unrestrained
Will Grab at Pleasure Whenever They Can, Journal of Criminal Law &
Criminology 82: 229-42.
Benson, Michael L., and Elizabeth Moore. (1992). Are White-Collar and Common
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Faculty Advisor:
Dr. Kathaleena Edward Monds
into the
Social and
Economic
Events
Abstract - No new taxes! People often complain about paying too much in income taxes.
Though many believe that tax laws and their amendments are the creation and absolute
responsibility of local, state, and federal politicians, few stop to realize the social and economic
events that contribute to new tax laws and amendments to existing tax laws. An investigation
into the laws and the social and/or economic events that brought about their creation or
amendment, as well as the assessment of the average Americans awareness of tax law history
was the basis of this research. A survey was conducted in a small university. Out of those
surveyed, (of which 56% were students) an average of 45% were not sure if social events
affect tax laws or not, an average of 38% were aware of economic events effects on tax laws,
and an average of 40% were aware of how and why tax laws are created. A regression of
0.002834603 was found between social events and tax laws and a regression of 0.284851439
between economic events and tax laws.
Introduction
Most Americans are unclear about the laws and their causes within the current
federal income tax system. But when asked why, they cannot indicate just one tax or
just one tax law that really bothers them. They only know that taxes of all kinds seem
to continue to increase with no individual benefits in return. Few are aware or even
interested in the reasoning behind new tax reforms.
There are many tax laws that have been implemented, and more are added every
day. While researchers have identified various tax laws, they seldom identify the social
Literature Review
Income taxes did not even exist during the first century of the United States of
America. Our countrys federal government survived on only the income derived from
tariffs and excise and property taxes (The Century Foundation, 2002). From The Civil
War until 1894 income tax was unheard of. In 1913, personal income taxes only
applied to the extremely wealthy. This meant that at least 90 percent of Americas
population was not even required to file taxes (The Century Foundation, 2002). By
1940 everyone was required to file income tax returns to fund the war. But after World
War II ended, the necessity for the added income no longer existed.
Throughout Americas history, tax laws seem to have been created without any
reasoning. Often social events were so important that the focus was on the actual event
and not the effects it had on other aspects of daily life. Their effects on changes in the
tax laws and the creation of new tax laws often went unnoticed.
Social Events
During the Civil War, the North did impose a temporary income tax. Temporary
was defined as a tax to serve a sole purpose and then to be terminated. After the
Economic Events
The 16th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was passed and signed into law in
October of 1913 by Woodrow Wilson. What brought about this need for income
taxation? Grand fortunes gained through industry, that had been made during the prior
time had many populist reformers demanding fairer treatment. And thus the system of
taxation was born, although the only required participants were the extremely wealthy.
The Great Depression was another factor of tax law reform. With the country almost in
financial ruin, tax laws had to be adjusted to ease the burden on taxpayers in order to
assist in the recovery of the entire country. After the recovery, economic events
stabilized until the mid-1970s when America went into a recession. The inflation rate
was almost out of control, and taxpayers again needed federal assistance in the form of
income tax relief. The tax laws were amended to match inflation and again ease the
burden. After the recession subsided, inflation no longer increased the federal
governments revenues, but it did increase its expenditures; thus, Congress felt pressure
to enact tax increases whenever the additional revenues were required. However,
because of political obstacles, the federal governments deficits continued to rise. This
led to the continuous implementations of several recovery acts over the next two
decades.
These recovery acts included The Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981, which
reduced income tax rates between 23-30 percent over the next three years. It required
tax brackets to be adjusted to match the inflation that created the higher incomes
without the higher spending abilities (The Century Foundation, 2002). The Economic
Tax Laws
During 1894 Congress enacted an extremely progressive income tax that was
declared unconstitutional in 1895 (The Century Foundation, 2002). In 1913 the 16th
Amendment gave Congress the power to levy the personal income tax. Americas
personal income tax laws (or codes as they are now called) had little change until 1981.
In that year, Ronald Reagan enacted the Economic Recovery Tax Act (ERTA). In
1986 the Tax Reform Act (TRA) reduced the tax rates even more, so that the highest
bracket became only 28 percent (The Century Foundation, 2002). In 1997, tax credits
were created to help people who could not afford college tuition (Quinn, 2000). But
this also made many taxpayers subject to the individual Alternative Minimum Tax
(AMT) (Mares touts tax simplification, 1998). The IRS Restructuring and Reform Act
of 1998 shifted the burden of proof from taxpayers to the IRS (Knight, 1999). It also
included a confidentiality provision for CPAs and their clients (Firore, 1998).
Still the deficit remained enormous and it became the focus of attention for many
politicians. Few Americans understand, agree with, or wish to be held responsible for
the deficit. Thus, the deficit has had a great impact on the income tax rates and laws
and will continue to do so in the future. Currently the highest bracket rate is 39.6
percent (The Century Foundation, 2002). The cause for the increase this time was not
a war as in the past, but the leadership decisions of two presidents who were determined
to reduce Americas huge deficit by raising the tax rates (The Century Foundation,
2002). In conclusion, through the investigation into the causes of the history of
American tax laws, it has been found that tax laws have been greatly influenced by
social events and economic events. While many citizens complain about the amount of
taxes that must be paid, the reasons for many of the increases are very well founded.
Although tax rates increase, the deductions and credits allowed also increase. In the
case of special circumstances, such as the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and
Enron, additional provisions are also included. Even though it is not possible to please
the entire population at the same time, the tax laws have been implemented in the
fairest possible manner.
Methodology
The Tax History Information survey was administered to collect data on the
awareness of the social and economic events that cause tax laws to be created or
The survey was completed in a small university. Of those surveyed 72% were ages
18-25, with the remainder over the age of 26. Gender was almost evenly distributed,
and 78% of those surveyed had some college education. Fifty-six percent (56%) of all
participants were students.
Figure 2 Ages
Social Events
The majority of respondents totally agree that social events have an effect on tax
laws. Consequently, neither the Vietnam War nor September 11, 2001, both social
events, were viewed as having affected tax laws. However, on questions two through
four, the majority of respondents neither agree nor disagree.
1: Social events have an effect on tax laws; 2: Income taxes were created by the Civil War; 3: Income tax was
imposed on all social classes in 1940 due to WWII; 4: The Vietnam War affected tax laws; 5: September 11,
2002 affected tax laws.
Figure 6 Social Events
1: The economy has an effect on tax laws; 2: The Great Depression affected tax laws; 3: A recession would have
an effect on tax laws; 4: The growth of the population affects tax laws; 5: The average age of the population affects
tax laws; Figure 7 Economic Events Question
Figure 7 Economic Events
Tax Laws
The Federal deficit was caused by inefficient spending received the majority of
positive responses. Individual tax laws being unfair was equally distributed between
those who disagree somewhat, those who neither agree nor disagree, and those who
agree somewhat. Of all five (5) tax law questions, Question 5 received the majority of
totally disagree responses. The majority of those surveyed believe that individual
income tax laws are unfair. This portion of the survey was to assess the general beliefs
about the individual income tax laws and the federal income tax system.
Conclusion
Conclusions revealed, through regression analysis, that economic events are
perceived to have more of an impact on tax laws than do social events. Regression was
measured between the responses to Social events have an effect on tax laws. and
The Federal deficit was caused by inefficient spending. and between The economy
has an effect on tax laws. and The Federal deficit was caused by inefficient spending.
Further Research
This research looked at the effects of social events and economic events on
American tax laws. Further research might look at the effects of E-commerce on tax
laws. The European Union is trying to make it so that non-EU vendors utilizing E-
commerce would have to collect and pay a value added tax (Firore, 2002). This may
affect American companies and individuals purchasing decisions. It may further
include global tax laws, which could also have an effect on Americas deficit.
References
[4] Girard, Bryan, Tax reform alters ESOP landscape; CPAs can help clients maximize
new plan features, Journal of Accountancy, 2002
[5] Knight, Ray A., shifting the burden of proof, Journal of Accountancy, 1999
[7] Quinn, Jane Bryant, Tax Credits Seldom Benefit Neediest Students, Los Angeles
Business Journal, 2000
[8] Rosen, Ellen, Estate Tax Repeal and the New Tax Law: Good and Bad News, Los
Angeles Business Journal, 2001
[9] Taylor, George, Big changes, big benefits: making sense of the new pension reform
laws, Journal of Accountancy, 2002
[10] U.S.Treasury press releases, Treasury and IRS issue home sale exclusion rules for
those affected by the September 11th terrorist attacks, August 22, 2002, from
http://www.ustreas.gov/press/releases/po3368.htm
Conceptual Framework
Our model posits that marital status is related to sentencing outcomes. Two
perspectives may explain the variability of marital effects across sentencing outcomes.
The first and possibly more common perspective gives consistent judicial leniency to
married defendants; the second perspective gives consistent judicial severity to married
defendants. In general, the first perspective reflects the social control theory as
suggested by Daly (1987) which postulates an inverse relationship between informal
(family/kin ties) and a formal (state) control. According to this inverse relationship,
the more tied one is to the normative social order such as familial relations, the more
likely one is to be perceived as respectable or law-abiding, the less likely formal social
control will be. Daly (1987) suggests that although the precise features of defendants
familial relations (or, in this case, marital status) vary, court officials draw a sharp
distinction between defendants with familial responsibilities and those without such
responsibilities. Daly used the terms familied and non-familied respectively to
describe defendants responsibilities.
Previous research has documented the relationship between marital status and court
sentencing. Using interviews and observations in their study of court practices, Daly
(1986, 1987) and Eaton (1983) demonstrated that familied defendants are more likely to
be granted leniency from the court than non-familied defendants. Daly points out that
among the non-familied defendants, judges may be lenient in sentencing if the
defendant is a strong authority figure in the household, has a good employment
record, or, in general, has strong family ties (Daly, 1987:155). Daly also suggests that
the criminal courts response to non-familied defendants is identical to that of juvenile
courts; that is, defendants tied to the normative social order via family or employment
are less likely to face formal social control. Implication: because court personnel assume
familied defendants to have greater informal social control in their lives than non-
familied defendants, that personnel perceives familied defendants as better probation
Results
The results of the Analysis of Variance are presented in Tables 1, 2 and 3. The data
show a significant discriminatory practice and bias against divorced/separated, as well as
longer sentences in seven of the 14 offenses examined. These offenses include burglary
II, robbery, larceny, kidnapping, rape, escape and other collapsed violent offenses. Also,
of the 14 offenses shown on Table 1, divorced/separated defendants received a longer
average sentence in four. These include burglary I, murder I, weapons, and arson.
six non-violent offenses examined, married defendants were sentenced longer in three:
bogus-cheek-card, forgery and other collapsed non-violent offenses. Results also show
that while divorced/separated defendants were sentenced longer in two of the offenses,
embezzlement and sex offenses, single defendants were sentenced longer only in one,
fraud.
Finally, Table 3 shows the average sentence length or the defendants sentenced for
four drug-related offenses. Here, the pattern of judiciary discriminatory practices and
bias against divorced/separated is not only clear but appears consistent for drug offenses.
Discussion
The results from this paper reveal a significant disparity in sentencing outcomes
based on marital status. In a nutshell, this paper has revealed a significant
discriminatory practice and bias against familied defendants, as opposed to non-familied
defendants. As shown in Table 1, of the 14 violent offenses examined, married
defendants (both males and females) received a longer average prison sentence for
seven offenses. Divorced/separated received longer average sentences in four of the 14
offenses sentence severity. Single defendants were sentenced longer in three offenses
only.
A similar pattern of relatively more severe sentences for familied defendants is also
found for non-violent offenders where married defendants received a longer average
sentence in three of the six offenses. Divorced/separated defendants received longer
sentences in two offenses, and single defendants received a longer average sentence for
one offense only. In drug-related offenses, divorced/separated defendants received
longer average sentences for all four drug-related offenses examined.
The findings may prompt at least four crucial questions: (1) Why were the familied
(married) defendants sentenced more harshly than were single ones? (2) Why were
divorced/separated defendants sentenced more harshly, especially in drug-related
offenses, than single and married defendants? and (3) Overall, why were single
defendants sentenced less harshly than married and divorced/separated defendants? (4)
Is the Oklahoma judiciary conveying any underlying message to married and
divorced/separated people contemplating criminal activities? For married defendants,
the harsh sentences could reflect the need to preserve cultural strongholds. As a
respectable social institution assigned significant social functions, marriage appears to
invoke protectiveness from the Oklahoma judiciary. Therefore, they could rationalize
their severe and harsh treatment of married defendants as a deterrent from criminal
behavior. If so, the courts may have overlooked the possibility that longer sentences for
married defendants may actually have the unintended effect, among others, of breaking
up families and, additionally, punishing innocent family members such as children.
The harsh discriminatory treatment against divorced/separated defendants may be
attributable to perception of their social status as non-conforming. All available sources
indicate that divorce and separation today no longer carry the social stigma they did 20
to 50 years ago (Strong, 1989). Even so, there is no question that divorced and
separated individuals are still perceived and treated somewhat differently by some social
institutions. Evidently, the judiciary is one such social institution which perceives and
treats such defendants differently. Divorced and separated defendants who face criminal
Conclusion
This study, which examined the variability of sentencing outcomes based on three
levels of marital status, has clearly revealed a family-based injustice. It has clearly
shown that family-based variability is apparent in the sentencing of married,
divorced/separated, and single defendants. Given these findings, the prevalent
assumption that familied defendants are less likely to be sentenced severely is far from
confirmed. Familied defendants are, in fact, clear recipients of severe and punitive
sentences. Sentencing is even more severe for divorced/separated defendants convicted
for drug-related offenses.
Finally, it is particularly important to point out that our analyses demonstrate clearly
that individuals who are single are given lenient sentences a finding which is rather
puzzling and contrary to previous research. Caution, however, must be applied in
interpreting the meanings of these findings. As a note of caution, we remind readers
about the limitations of our analyses. For example, more information about the
proportion of single defendants with marital or familial ties, and other responsibilities,
could provide additional evidence about the nature of the relationship between marital
References
Bickle, Gayle S., and Peterson, Ruth D. 1991. The Impact of Gender Based Family
Roles on Criminal Sentencing. Social Problem Vol.38.No.3, August 1991.
Daly, Kathleen. 1987a. Discrimination in Criminal Courts: Family, Gender and the
Problem of Equal Treatment. Social Forces 66:152-175.
Daly, Kathleen. 1989.Neither Conflict Nor Labeling Nor Paternalism will Surfice:
Intersection of Race, Ethnicity, Gender and Family in Criminal Court Decision.
Crime and Delinquency 35: 136-168.
and
Perceptions
of HIV/AIDS
Risk and the
Motivation
to Use
Abstract. Social scientists have argued increasingly that knowledge, perception and
HIV/AIDS risk behaviors are important mechanisms for understanding the motivation for
condom use. In this research I develop a model of condom use to prevent sexually transmitted
diseases (STD) and partners HIV status. I used randomly sampled data from a university in
southwest Georgia to investigate the relationship between a partners HIV status - as
measured by chances of getting infected with HIV - and the odds of using condoms as
protection from infection by STDs. The analyses indicated that knowledge and perception of
HIV/AIDS risks are associated with the odds of using condoms to protect against STDs. The
results also indicated that students who consider their chances of getting HIV from their HIV
positive partners as low or none are more likely to use condoms for prevention of sexually
transmitted diseases than those who consider their chances as medium or high.
INTRODUCTION
where y equals 1 if the respondent uses condoms to prevent STDs and birth control, X1
equals chances of partner getting AIDS, X1 is the chance that respondent had sexual
intercourse with partner who is HIV+ and is a set of individual characteristics with
the stochastic disturbance term.
Explanatory Variables
In this analysis, I considered two types of self-evaluation of partners risk of HIV
infection. For each type, perceptions of HIV infection as measured by self-evaluation of
getting HIV from partner and self-evaluation of getting AIDS from a partner who is
HIV positive, was considered.
Other Covariates. Drawing from prior research, I control for demographic variables
marital status, age, place of residence prior to attending college and classification.
Marital status is measured never married (reference group) and other because
preliminary analysis suggested that there are fewer students that were married, separated
or divorced. Age is measured as a continuous variable in single years; place of residence
is measured as city and town or countryside.
Students educational characteristics include their major course of study and
classification. Major is categorized into four groups: Nursing and Biology; Psychology
and Sociology; Education and other; and Business and Economics. Classification is
measured as a dummy variable with freshmen and sophomores coded 1 others (Juniors
and higher) coded as 0.
Measures of sexual and HIV behavior are also included. For HIV behavior, I
measure whether individuals tested for HIV and create dichotomous measure of HIV
test, blood donation and other settings. Further, number of lifetime sexual partners and
age at first sexual intercourse are measures that are frequently used in HIV analysis.
This analysis begins with a description of respondents characteristics and HIV risks
by condom use. Because the dependent is binary indicating the use and non-use of
condom to prevent STD infection, I employed logistic regression model to estimate the
odds and net associations of self-evaluations and self-evaluation of partners HIV risk.
Prior to analysis, the data were screened for missing elements and outliers. Initial
multiple regression was estimated to calculate Mahalanobis Distance and to evaluate
multicollinearity among four discrete and continuous covariates. The results of the
analysis suggests that multicollinearity was not violated because the tolerance statistics
of the four variables were greater than 1. I then used Explore to examine the cases that
exceeded the chi square criteria of 2 (6) = 22.458 at p = .001. Case numbers that
exceed the chi square value were deleted from the analysis.
Descriptive Analysis
I began with descriptive data about the students level of knowledge about
HIV/AIDS, presented in Table 1. Table 1 contains various summary statistics such as
percentage, means and standard deviation distribution of the sample. For example, the
average age of the respondents, the age at first sexual intercourse, and the number of
lifetime partners are 22 years, 16.19 years and 5.27 respectively. In contrast, the
standard deviation for age (5.7) and the number of lifetime partners are more than
twice the standard deviation of age at first intercourse (2.2). This suggests a wider
dispersion or greater heterogeneity in the ages and number of lifetime partners of the
respondents.
Knowledge, Sexual Behavior and HIV Testing. Fundamental issues related to the
Discussion
The analyses indicate that the nature of perception of HIV risk and knowledge are
related to the odds of using condom to protect against STDs. The full model (model 4)
indicates that the factors promoting changes in sexual behavior include the chances of
getting AIDS from partner who is HIV positive, the chances of getting AIDS from
partner, marital status, place of prior residence and age at first sexual intercourse.
Testing for HIV also matters: those who test for HIV are more likely to modify their
sexual behavior by using condoms to protect themselves against STDs.
An examination of the relationship between testing for HIV and knowledge of
Conclusion
Randomly sampled data from a Historically Black College were used to investigate
the relationship between partners HIV status - as measured by chances of getting
infected with HIV - and the odds of using a condom to protect infection of STDs.
Findings from this study show that partners HIV status is strongly associated with the
odds of using condoms to protect against STDs. For example, controlling for students
characteristics, students who indicate HIV awareness and perceive HIV as a risk are
more likely to use condoms as a measure of prevention.
To determine why partners HIV status is associated with condom use, I controlled
for student characteristics. Individual students evaluation of partners HIV status
exhibited significant association with condom use. The results indicated that students
who consider their chances as none or low of getting HIV from their partners who are
HIV positive arae more likely to use condoms for prevention of sexually transmitted
diseases than those who consider their chances as medium or high.
These results provide important initial descriptive and analytical steps in our
understanding of the process of condom use among a section of the student population
that is considered to be at risk of HIV infection. In addition, this research explored the
links between HIV testing and students knowledge, perceptions and a broad array of
social and behavioral factors on the motivation of condom use. In short, this study
provides an important step toward a better understanding of the relationship between
college students motivation to use condoms, HIV-related knowledge and self-
assessment of partners HIV status in an increasingly high-risk group in the United
States in the 21st century.
n
Among
Middle
and High
Abstract
The present study used data from the School Crime Supplement of the 1995 National
Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). The goal of the study was to examine the rates of
violent and property crime victimization among middle and high school students. The results of
the study show that there is a higher rate of property victimization than violent victimization,
with boys reporting more victimization than girls. Almost half of the students report that
marijuana was easily available in schools and 40% reported that there was gang activity in and
around the schools. An important finding is that electronic surveillance measures were not
effective in reducing student victimization.
Prevalence of Victimization
The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) defines victimization as direct
personal experience of threats or harm. Property crime is the illegal taking of or
damaging property, including cash, and personal belongings. Examples of property crime
include burglary, theft, robbery, and vandalism. Often the victim is not present when
property crime occurs. Violent crime on the other hand involve contact between the
victim and the offender. Violent crime includes rape, sexual assault, robbery and assault
(both aggravated and simple). Since the NCVS is based on interviews with victims,
murder is not included under violent crime (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1998).
Every year the National Center for Education Statistics publishes a report titled
Indicators of School Crime and Safety. Results from two of the most recent reports
are given next. This adds some current perspective on the problem of youth violence
and victimization From July 1, 1997, through June 30, 1998; there were 60 school-
associated violent deaths in the United States (NCES, 2001). The rates for the same
period in 1998-1999 were slightly lower, 47 school-associated violent deaths (NCES,
2002). The 2003 report is not yet available to the public.
Victimization rates for all age groups in 2001 were the lowest recorded since 1973,
when the NCVS began collecting data. In 2001, the violent crime rate fell 10% from
the previous year, and the property crime rate fell six percent for the same period.
However during the same period, significant differences were found across age groups.
In 2001 as well as 2000, violent victimizations rates were the highest for 16-19-year-
olds, followed by 12-15-year-olds (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2003).
Property crime victimization rates are much higher for juveniles than for adults.
The crime information from the NCVS for 1996-97 and the National Incident-Based
Reporting System (NIBRS) for 1997 shows that one out of every six juveniles aged 12-
17 was a victim of a property crime each year (1996-97). Property crime victimization
rates were particularly high for African-American juveniles and juveniles living in
Predictors of Victimization
Almost all victimization studies have found that boys were more often victimized
than girls (NIE, 1978; Rubel, 1978, Bastian & Taylor, 1991). Baker, Mednick and
Carothers (1989) examined the trends in victimization among high school students in
the Los Angeles Unified School District. Gender and ethnicity were found to be
strongly associated with student-reported victimization, with males reporting more
victimization than females and blacks reporting more victimization than either whites
or Hispanics.
Another important predictor of student victimization is the characteristics of
schools. According to Gottfredson and Gottfredson (1985), academically oriented
schools in general report less teacher and student victimizations, but students in those
schools reported more theft. Research has shown that school climate is also related to
the incidence of school misbehavior and victimization. Schools with positive climate
have less disorder and problems (Gottfredson & Gottfredson, 1983, 1985; NIE, 1978).
Patterson (1992) reported that school climates and environments were found to
determine the overall risks of victimization in schools, with the heterogeneity of
student populations (both in terms of ethnic origins and SES) increasing the amount of
risks.
Schools with better school administration had less teacher and student
victimization. Large schools with limited resources were also found to have more
problems (Gottfredson and Gottfredson, 1985). Other researchers have also found that
larger institutions tend to increase student misbehavior (Haller, 1992). Weishew and
Peng (1993) examined the variables predicting students problem behaviors using the
data from the administrator, teacher, parent, and student levels of the 1988 National
Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS: 88). In general they found that schools which
had high-achieving students, drug-free environments, structured environments, positive
climates, and involved parents had fewer behavior problems.
Garalfo, Siegel, and Laub (1987) used the interviewer narratives of the National
Crime Survey (NCS) victimization data to study school-related victimizations among
adolescents. They found that about half of the victimizations were school-related
occurred in a school building or elsewhere on school property (including on a school
bus). Kingery, Pruitt and Hurley (1992) examined victimization in two settings: while
at school or on a school bus, and while outside school supervision. Victimization was
related to drug use, with users being victimized more than nonusers, both at school and
outside school. Violence was more common among the younger adolescents, while drug
use was more prevalent among the older adolescents. However, when there was
violence among the older adolescents it was found to be more serious and often related
to drug use. NCES reported an increase in the use of marijuana among students in
Method
Data Source
The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), administered for the Bureau of
Justice Statistics by the Bureau of the Census, is the nations primary source of
information on crime victimization and victims of crime. The NCVS samples consist of
about 55,000 households selected using a stratified, multi-stage cluster design (Kaufman
et al. 2000). The National Center for Education Statistics and the Bureau of Justice
Statistics co-designed a School Crime Supplement to the NCVS in order to collect
additional information about school-related victimizations on a national level. Data for
this study come from the 1995 National Crime Victimization Surveys supplement on
school crime (Kaufman et al. 2000).
All NCVS households in which there were 12-19-year-olds who attended a school
6 months prior to the survey were eligible to participate in the School Crime Survey.
This survey was conducted for a six-month period beginning in January 1995 and
extending through June 1995. The total eligible sample for the 1995 School Crime
Survey was 15,785. Of this sample, 77.5% participated in the survey (N=12,235). The
SCS asks students questions about their experiences with and perceptions of crime and
violence that occurred inside their school, on school grounds, or on their way to or
from school. Questions were also asked about students perceptions of school rules,
presence of weapons and gangs in schools, attitudinal questions relating to fear of
victimization, and avoidance behavior in school (Kaufman et al. 2000).
Research Objectives
The major objective of the present study is to examine the prevalence of
victimization, both property and violent, among middle and high school students. The
second objective of this study is to investigate the relationship between study variables
and victimization among middle and high school students. The final objective of the
study is to find out if avoidance measures taken by students have an effect on student
victimization.
Measures
Dependent variable: The victimization variable was created using Incident 1 of the
Results
The frequencies for the study variables are given in Table 1. The sample for the
Discussion
As seen in previous studies, students reported higher rates of property victimization
compared to violent victimization. However, although the rates of violent victimization
are lower, we cannot underestimate the traumatic effects on students. The most
disturbing result in the study is the fact that almost half the students in the sample
reported that marijuana was easily available in the schools. One out of five students
surveyed reported that there was gang activity in and around their schools. The
presence of gangs and the availability of marijuana elevate the levels of both property
and violent victimization in schools. Further, the presence of drugs and gangs will affect
the academic climate of schools. Victimization inhibits student learning in general and
particularly exposes students who may already be at risk for school failure to physical
and emotional harm. It is therefore very important for schools to implement drug abuse
resistance education programs such as D.A.R.E and gang resistance education and
training programs such as G.R.E.A.T.
Although there were no significant grade differences in violent victimization,
middle school students reported more victimization than high school students.
Therefore it is important to teach middle school students anger management and
conflict resolution strategies. Students in urban and public schools experience more
victimization, especially violent victimization. This calls for more counselors and
security officers in public schools.
Due to the escalation of violence in schools in the past decade, more and more
schools are investing in electronic school surveillance measures. However, the results of
the study show that such measures did not reduce student victimization. For example,
the use of metal detectors only prevents the entry of weapons, however physical fights
and verbal violence can still occur inside the school. Increasing student support services
such as counseling, anger management and mentoring may be a better investment than
high-tech surveillance equipment.
Measuring Erickanjackson@yahoo.com,
Junior, Business Information Systems Major
Department of Business Information Systems &
how Education
Albany State University
504 College Drive
Albany, GA 31075 USA
technology Faculty Advisor: Dr. Kathaleena Edward Monds
courses and
computers
are evolving
ABSTRACT
Technology has changed the way we live, work and learn. Students in K-12 have become
increasingly bombarded with new technology tools in the classroom. The technology skills that
students in grade schools acquire early on, may affect their understanding and use of
technology later in life. Not only will students become more computer literate and functional,
but they will also obtain skills that will help them in other classes.
The research study explored the various types of technology tools, technology courses, and
technology funding available in grades K-12. The Computer and Technology Courses Survey
was administered to 75 % students and 25% teachers. Strong correlations were found
between technology funding with technology courses (.827), and technology courses with
technology tools (.963). Most believe that technology funding should come from donations to
aid curriculum development and that these funds should be used to improve existing courses;
with Microsoft Office being the technology tool of choice.
Introduction
The computer technology and computer courses that are available in grade schools
will have an impact on students in the future. Additionally, computers and computer
courses should be up-to-date with the current trends in technology. Students in grades
K-12 need to learn how to solve technological problems in creative ways and
understand the nature of technology. Learning the concepts of technology is necessary
for children of all age groups. When schools decide what technological courses and
technologies to bring within the schools, they should consider the students interests,
opinions, and needs (Becker & Manunsaiyat, 2002). Understanding the pupils
knowledge and attitudes toward technology is necessary for effective teaching in
technology.
Technology Tools
To improve elementary students understanding of science and mathematics, some
schools are integrating technology with these subjects. Design Technology is shapes
and images on the computer that improve daily classroom subjects and activities by
capturing students attention. Many elementary school teachers are required to create a
division centered on Design Technology that illustrate connections among various
subject matter in their classrooms. Additionally, research that examines the effect of
implementing Design Technology based on students learning, attitudes, dispositions,
and their personal growth is now a requirement and must be conducted by all teachers
(Koch & Burghardt, 2002).
Many Teacher Education programs have added Design Technology for the
preparation of various courses. The everyday uses of technology within the classroom
give students just a hint of the technology available today. While students are learning
about other subjects such as math and science, they can also learn how to use the
Technology Courses
A study by Arroyo examined the effects of extended use of computers on reading
achievement. The study population consisted of 75 seventh-grade students at the J. N.
Thorp Elementary School located in a primarily low-income area of South Chicago,
Illinois. Fifteen of the 75 students were subjected to a rigorous computer-assisted
training program. Another 15 randomly selected students received no computer
instruction and served as a control group. The reading subtest of the Iowa Tests of Basic
Skills (ITBS) served as the pre- and post-test. The outcome showed that students who
utilized computers experienced a considerable escalation in reading achievement
(Arroyo, 1992). Using technology to support instruction improved student outcomes in
language arts, math, social studies, and science, according to a 1995 review of more
than 130 academic studies (Bialo and Sivin-Kachala, 1995).
As some writings suggest, computers have a major influence on children of all ages.
Gaining in-depth knowledge about childrens use of computer technologies can aid in
enhancing their ability to learn technology. A study by Liu explored the use of
interactive multimedia by three-to five-year-olds. An assessment of adolescents voice
communications and body expressions, their mouse utilization, their body movement,
their approach to multimedia, and remarks and observations from teachers have proved
that multimedia technology could retain childrens attention for longer time frames.
Even though this was the first time that the children had interaction with technology,
they grasped the technology with eagerness, enthusiasm, and little difficulty. Giving
children the freedom to learn new things about the program and providing the use of
developmentally appropriate materials assisted in keeping children fascinated with
technology (Liu. 1996).
Bialo & Sivins research reflects factors that determine the effectiveness of
technology-based instruction. The effects of microcomputers on student achievement
are discussed in the first section of the study. Computer-assisted training and
conventional instructional techniques were compared in this research, as well as,
student attainment to software design, implementation resolutions, and learner
Technology Funding
Strategies and guidelines for implementation of educational technologies within
the curriculum must be created before all affiliates within the learning community can
have reasonable access and use of the technology. In order to provide students with a
better understanding of technology, technological uses, and technological concepts,
financial support and professional development must be provided to have successful
execution of technology into the curriculum (Bell & Ramirez, 1997).
In conclusion, technology tools, technology courses, and technology funding are
variables that affect students, teachers, and school systems. The impact that various
computers and technology courses have on students in grades K-12 is tremendous. In
order to expand students interaction with technology in the classrooms, schools may
provide students with current computer equipment. This analysis will provide
information pertaining to the current technologies and computer courses implemented
within schools and identify ways in which the technology curriculum is funded.
Methodology
The Computer and Technology Courses Survey (CTC) was administered to collect
data on the following three variables: Technology Tools, Technology Courses, and
Technology Funding. The survey is a 15-question survey on a 5-point Likert Scale.
In addition to collecting information on the three variables, demographic information
was collected from each respondent. The survey was created by the researcher.
Research was done in order to find a survey instrument that was appropriate for the
study, however in order to ensure that all variables were considered, the researcher
created the CTC Survey.
The population for the study included students and teachers within the Dougherty
County School district. The survey was administered in the Fall 2002 semester. The
researcher hand-delivered the surveys to the technology classrooms at the K-12 level
and dispersed the survey to the students who were in those classes. The survey took
between three to five minutes to complete. The model shown in Figure 1.0 is used as a
graphical interpretation of the research variables in the study.
Arroyo, C. (1992). What is the effect of extensive use of computers on the reading
achievement scores of seventh grade students? Chicago, IL (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 353 544)
Becker, K. H., & Maunsaiyat. (2002). Thai Students Attitudes and Concepts of
Technology. Journal of Technology Education, Vol 13, No. 2
Bell, R., & Ramirez, R. (1997). Ensuring equitable use of education technology.
Pathways to School Improvement [Online]. Available:
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/technlgy/te400.htm
Bialo, E., & Sivin, J. (1990). Report on the effectiveness of microcomputers in schools.
Washington, DC, Software Publishers Association. (ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED 327 177)
Koch, J., & Burghardt, M. D. (2002). Design Technology in the Elementary School-A
Study of Teacher Action Research. Journal of Technology Education. Vol 13, No 2
Liu, Min. (1996). An Exploratory Study of How Pre-Kindergarten Children Use the
Interactive Multimedia Technology: Implications for Multimedia Software Design.
Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, Vol 7, No. 1/2, 71-92
CF4 Using
Real Time
and Salary
options for
the
ABSTRACT
With new Information Technology comes the fear that unless you invest in technology, you
will be left behind (Dumestre, 1999). In the field of Information Technology, there is an
increasing mismatch between employer requirements and workers skills. As a result, the skills
mismatch hypothesis relies on the notion that technology is not leading to the replacement of
workers, however, individuals using the Internet, spreadsheets, and word processing programs
have a better chance of obtaining employment than those individuals who have no knowledge of
these programs.
Information Technology (IT) job demands by corporations are at an all-time high. While
the demands are high, finding qualified employees with the necessary skills is difficult. IT skills
that are in demand range from understanding the Systems Development Life Cycle to
understanding business programming with C++. Qualified IT professionals have the privilege of
demanding higher salaries.
This research attempts to investigate the various skills currently expected of the IT graduate.
The study also attempts to focus on the IT jobs that are in demand by industries locally and
globally. Finally, steps were taken to list IT salaries that parallel the respective IT jobs.
The study population was 56% female and 36% male. A majority of the population
believed that computers are valuable. In addition, tests were performed to examine the
relationship between Information Technology Skills, Information Technology Jobs, and
Competitive Salary. This study revealed a relationship between those items.
Introduction
In todays society, it is important to understand the components of Information
Technology (IT). If a person does not acquire some knowledge of Information
Technology, he or she will likely miss out on available opportunities. It is not enough
Literature Review
Employment
Other research examines skills required for individuals pursuing careers in Information
Technology. To obtain a precise match between worker skills and job skills required for
the job has always been difficult. In some cases, employers intense hiring requirements
led individuals to gain more education than required. Consequently, that ceated an
oversupply of well-educated workers (Handel, 1997). According to Braverman, skill
content of most jobs was declining even as individuals educational attainment
Salary
Having qualified IT skills puts a professional in a position where he or she can
demand higher salaries. However, within most job markets, shifts in requirements and
skills are often used as means for measuring salary options for individuals. Competitive
salaries are offered to individuals with higher skills. Economists studying large growth in
wage inequality concluded that the rising payoff to education reflected an imbalance in
the supply and demand for skilled labor due to technological advances. Therefore, it is
imperative that individuals maintain technical competance in order to remain
competitive for promotion (Zmud, et. al, 1986).
In conclusion, the ideas presented in this study provide insight into Information
Technology Skills for Technical Professions. Based on research, a model was created to
investigate the relationship between Information Technology Skills, Information
Technology Jobs, and Competitive Salary.
The Technical Career Survey was administered to collect data on understanding
Information Technology skills and obtaining employment with a competitive salary.
The survey has 22 questions on a five-point Likert scale. In addition to collecting data
on the three variables, demographic data were also collected. The survey was created
by the researcher. Research was done in order to find a survey instrument that was
appropriate for the study; however, in order to ensure that all variables were considered,
the researcher created the Technical Career Survey.
The population for the study included individuals who hold technical positions
Figure 1.0
Information Technology Model
Figure 4.0
Figure 6.0 highlighted questions that dealt with obtaining employment. Out of the
questions asked, two resulted in having the same number of respondents. On the
contrary, those respondents definitely believed that it is important for individuals to
obtain certification for their jobs but disagreed with the notion that older IT
professionals should be forced to retire at a certain age, which had values of 22 and is
denoted as OE1 and OE5.
References
Braverman, Harry. Labour and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the
Twentieth Century. New York & London: Monthly Review Press, 1974. Pp. xiv+465.
Zmud, R. W., Boynton, A. C., and Jacobs, G. C. (1986). The Information Economy: A
New Perspective for Effective Information Systems Management. Database, 16, (1),
17-23.
Parental
Supervision
on
Adolescents
This research was partially supported by the ASU Title III program.
Abstract
The present study investigates the role of parental supervision on adolescents school
misbehavior and marijuana misuse. The analysis is based on a sample of 2,262 eighth-graders
from schools in the south-central region of the United States. The study found that parental
supervision is a protective factor which insulates adolescents from deviant behaviors.
Adolescents with low parental supervision are more likely to associate with deviant peers,
which is a risk factor for adolescent problem behaviors. Policy implications for schools are also
discussed in the paper.
Research on Family
The family is a very critical sociological variable in the study of deviant behaviors.
The role of family is more widely visited in social control perspective than any other
theoretical framework in explaining adolescent deviant behaviors. Social control theory
suggests that adolescents bonding with conventional social institutions such as family,
school, and church inhibit deviant behavior (Reiss, 1951; Reckless, 1955; Hirschi,
1969). Hirschi (1969) proposed a social bond theory by operationalizing different
components of previous versions of social control theories. He proposed that
adolescents who are attached to conventional social institutions are less likely to
engage in delinquent activities.
Attachment or bonding is the key element of social bonding theory. Attachment is
defined as a psychological construct or as an indirect means of control. In other words,
attachment refers to the extent of close emotional ties adolescents have to others or a
tendency to identify with them so that an adolescent values their opinions. Hirschi
argued that adolescents who have close relationships with parents are less likely to
engage in activities, which will sever their emotional bond with parents. A wide range
of studies support this proposition (Thomas, 1994; Thomas & Orok 2002).
Parental Supervision
One of the criticisms with social bonding theory is that it undermines the role of
parental direct control which is often referred to as monitoring or supervision
(Cernkovich & Giordano, 1987; Rankin & Wells, 1990; Thomas, 1994; Jacobson &
Crockett, 2000). A warm and demanding parent is generally considered to be involved
in the concept of parental supervision. Parental monitoring does not mean the constant
physical presence of parents in their childrens lives. Roth and Brooks-Gunn (2000)
suggest that consistent, firm control and monitoring can occur from a distance. Parental
supervision is operationalized in terms of whether parents know where and with whom
their child associates when they are away from home. In a recent study, it was found
that if a parent can enhance communication with the child and increase the childs
awareness that they know where (they are) and who they are with, subsequently, a
childs risk behavior may be reduced (Webster, 2001).
Peer Influence
In addition to family, peers also have significant influence in the adolescent years.
The association between peer influence and deviance has been examined in
delinquency research within the differential association theoretical perspective. The
general proposition of the differential association theory is that definitions favorable
to deviant behaviors are learned while associating with others in intimate social
relations (Sutherland, 1947). Several studies found that association with deviant peers
is strongly correlated with delinquency, including substance abuse (Matsueda and
Heimer, 1987; Kaplan, Martin, and Robbins, 1984; White, Johnson and Horwitz, 1986;
Thomas & Orok, 2002).
The Oregon Learning Center developed a promising framework to integrate the
components of social bonding and differential association perspectives (Patterson &
Dishion, 1985; Patterson & Bank, 1989; Thomas, 1994). They found that weak and/or
ineffective family processes lead adolescents to associate with deviant peers. Based on this
framework, it is plausible to conclude that adolescents bond outside the family such as at
school or with peers will be determined by how well the family performs its role as an
agent of social control. In other words, if adolescents are properly supervised, they are
less likely to bond with deviant peers. Studies consistently show that associating with
deviant peers is one of the significant predictors of deviance (see Thomas, 1994 for more
details). Thomas (1994) found that parental supervision has direct as well as indirect
effects on deviant behaviors through associating with deviant peers.
The major aim of the present study is: (a) to evaluate the variation in parental
supervision by family structure, gender, and race/ethnicity; (b) to examine the
METHOD
Sample and Procedure
Data for this study come from a school-based study to investigate the relationship
between school experiences and adolescent substance abuse. The adolescents who
participated in this study were eighth-graders from a south-central school system. A
structured questionnaire which covered information about family, school, friends,
self-esteem, risk-taking behaviors, attitudes and behaviors concerning drug use was
developed and pre-tested before the actual administration of the survey (Robbins,
1993). The response rate was estimated at about 93 percent (N=2,262). The modal age
of the respondents was 14 years.
Measures
Dependent Variables: (1) School problems: is measured by asking the respondents
how many times have you skipped classes, argued or had fights with students, been
suspended from class, destroyed school property, or stolen anything less than $50 in the
past year (alpha 0.789).
(2) Marijuana misuse is measured by asking three questions regarding marijuana use
in their lifetime, in the past year, and in the past month (alpha 0.951). Twenty-nine
percent and 13 percent of adolescents reported alcohol and marijuana misuse
respectively in the past month.
Independent Variables: (1) Parental Supervision is measured using the following
two indicators: Does your mother know where you are when you are away from home?
Does your mother know who you are with when you are away from home? The above
indicators are measured on a five-point scale, yes, most of the time indicates a high
level of parental supervision and a score no, never indicates a low level of parental
supervision.
(2) Peer Influence: The following are the indicators of the construct called deviant
peers. About how many of your friends smoke marijuana? About how many of
your friends skip school at least once a month? About how many of your friends
shoplift? and About how many of your friends damage or destroy property that does
not belong to them? The responses to each of these indicators are measured on a
five-point scale ranging from none to all. The lowest score none indicates the
lowest association with deviant peers and all indicates the highest association with
deviant peers (alpha 0.907).
(3) Family structure consisted of two categories: living with both biological parents
and living with a single parent. Fifty-two percent of the respondents live with both
Analytical Procedure
The distribution of the school problems and marijuana misuse variables is skewed.
For example, about 83% of these respondents indicate no or only a few occasions of
marijuana use and 35% of adolescents reported no school misbehaviors. Therefore,
these variables were converted into dichotomous outcome variables. Chi-square and
logistic regression analyses were conducted to evaluate study objectives.
RESULTS
Logistic regression
Multivariate statistical tests can capture the true effect of parental supervision on
deviant behaviors while controlling for other important predictors of the study. Logistic
regression was used to estimate the effects of these predictors because school
misbehaviors and marijuana misuse are dichotomous outcome variables.
School Misbehaviors:
Logistic regression analysis supports the findings of the bivariate statistical analyses.
While controlling for all the study variables, parental supervision was found to be a
statistically significant predictor of adolescents school misbehavior. Compared to
adolescents with high parental supervision, adolescents with low parental supervision
were two times more likely to be involved in school misbehaviors. Also adolescents
who associate with deviant peers are 10 times more likely to engage in school
misbehaviors compared to adolescents who do not associate with deviant peers (see
Table 1). Males, non-whites and adolescents from single-parent families are more likely
to engage in school misbehaviors.
Marijuana Misuse: Table 1 also shows the results from the logistic regression
analyses in the prediction of adolescents marijuana misuse. Similar to school
misbehaviors, parental supervision predicts adolescents marijuana misuse. Adolescents
DISCUSSION
The present research found that parental supervision is a protective factor, which
insulates adolescents from deviant behaviors. Adolescents with low parental supervision
are more likely to engage in both school misbehaviors and marijuana use. This result is
consistent with previous research which showed that parental supervision inhibits
adolescents problem behaviors (Thomas, 1994, University of Maryland Medical News,
1999; Jacobson & Crockett, 2000). The present research also identified gender and
family structure as the predictors of parental supervision. This study found that there is
no major racial/ethnic difference in the level of parental supervision while controlling
family structure. Family structure is a significant predictor of parental supervision and
lower level of parental supervision is reported among adolescents from single-parent
families. Since a high percent of single-parent families existed among African-
Americans, there is an interaction between race and parental supervision.
Parental supervision insulates adolescents from deviant behaviors. It is found above
that parental supervision is lower among single-parent families. There is a greater
likelihood for adolescents from single-parental families to engage in deviant behaviors
than adolescents who live with both parents. Previous studies indicate that it is not
whether adolescents live with both parents but the quality of relationships that is more
important. In recent years, it is found that mentors/role models have a significant
impact on adolescents lives. Therefore, it is important to design programs such as after-
school programs, which provide an opportunity for adolescents to engage in activities
under adult supervision which will alleviate the negative effects of the absence of adult
role models.
Differential association theory proposes that deviant peer association is a risk factor
in adolescent years. The question is why adolescents associate with deviant peers.
Research on adolescence gives some evidence that lower parental supervision is
associated with higher level of peer association. The present data indicate that
adolescents with lower parental supervision are about 4 times more likely to associate
with deviant peers. This research also traces back to the crucial role of family in
adolescent years.
The policy implication of this research is that we need to design programs to
improve parental supervision. There is some evidence that too much supervision is
A Department of Mathematics
and Computer Science
Albany State University
Contribution
to the
Theory of
Neutral
Stochastic
Analysis of
the Roles of
the Wind
Instruments
in a
Traditional
ABSTRACT
One hundred years ago Dr. Joseph Holley put in place a vehicle to educate African-
Americans in southwest Georgia. Simultaneously, a new music idiom, born out of
African-American spirituals, blues, work songs and ragtime, called jazz was emerging in
America. Due primarily to the improvisational techniques utilized by the musicians,
jazz became this countrys true original art form. This article explores the option of
using an analysis of the roles of wind instruments in a traditional (early) New Orleans
Jazz band as a tool in teaching young musicians the art of jazz improvisation.
The cultural atmosphere which gave rise to this new music was born out of the
continued and accepted use of West African musical practices in New Orleans. The
musicians on the 1924 recording discussed in the article are Sidney Bechet, Louis
Armstrong (both recently from New Orleans, LA.) and Charles Irvis. When used as a
supplement to chord studies, scale studies, etc., the analysis will assist students in
learning jazz improvisation techniques.
Not unlike many other courses, teaching jazz improvisation is an attempt at tapping
into a students creative area of the brain. As instructors we want to empower our
students with as many tools as possible in an attempt to assist their creative endeavors.
References
Bechet, Sidney. 1978 Treat It Gentle New York, N.Y. Twayne Publishers Inc.
Porter and Ullman. 1989 Sidney Bechet and His Long Song. The Black Perspective in
Music. Vol. 16, No. 2. p. 214-25.
Wilson, Olly. 1974 The Significance of the Relationship Between Afro-American Music and
West African Music. The Black Perspective in Music. Spring Vol. 2, No. 1. p. 3-22.
Marijuana
Misuse
among
Young
Adolescents:
Role of
A Policy Analysis
Schools play a crucial role in the socialization and creation of a new generation of citizens
in every country. In the recent decades people in all spectrums of life are concerned about the
schools in our country because of the prevalence of violence and drug use across the schools.
Research indicates that drug use among students plays a significant role in the escalation of
violence in the schools. The National Educational Goals (1992) states, every school in
America will be free of drugs and violence and will offer a disciplined environment conducive
for learning. The recent Monitoring the Future studies reported that a significant majority of
school students responded they can easily get drugs, if they want (Johnston et al., 2000). It
is a decade since the declaration of the National Educational Goals, yet this national goal still
remains a myth.
The widespread misuse of alcohol and other illegal substances among adolescents and its
consequences call for more research into the etiology of adolescent alcohol and marijuana
misuse. This study approaches alcohol and marijuana misuse among early adolescents in a
social control theoretical framework. Social control theory posits that identification with
conventional social institutions such as family, school, and church inhibit deviant behaviors
including substance misuse. The main objectives of this study are: (1) to examine the role of
Influence of Family
Hirschis (1969) social bonding theory has received wide empirical support in
delinquency research (Briar and Piliavin, 1965; Hindelang, 1973; Krohn and Massey,
1980; Wiatrowski, Griswold & Roberts, 1981; Wiatrowski and Anderson, 1987). An
inverse relationship between attachment to family (parents) and delinquency has been
consistently found in these empirical studies. Family is a primary agent of social control.
It is noted earlier that previous research found that family bond insulates adolescents
from deviance including substance misuse (Barnes & Farrell, 1992; Farrell & Barnes,
1993; Thomas, 1994; Thomas, Farrell & Barnes, 1997). Several studies have also found
an inverse relationship between ties to conventional institutions and adolescent
substance misuse (Newcomb and Bentler, 1988; Dull, 1984; Kandel, 1978; Kaplan,
Martin and Robbins, 1984; Thompson, Smith-DiJulio, & Mathew, 1982).
Peer influence
In addition to family, peers also have significant influence in the adolescent years.
The association between peer influence and deviance has been examined in
delinquency research within the differential association theoretical perspective. The
general proposition of the differential association theory is that definitions favorable
to deviant behaviors are learned while associating with others in intimate social
relations (Sutherland, 1947). Several studies found that association with deviant peers
METHODS
Sample and Procedure
Data for this study are based on eighth graders who participated in a school-based
study to investigate the relationship between school experiences and adolescent
substance abuse. These adolescents were from a south central school system. A
structured questionnaire which covered information about family, school, friends,
self-esteem, risk-taking behavior, attitudes and behavior concerning drug use was
developed and pre-tested before the actual administration of the survey. The
questionnaire was administered to the students in a classroom setting, but teachers were
not present during the survey administration. Students were assured that no school
personnel would see their completed questionnaires and told that the confidentiality
and anonymity of their responses would be maintained. Passive parental consents were
also obtained before the administration of the survey. The response rate was estimated
at about 93 percent (N=2262). The modal age of the respondents was fourteen years.
Alcohol Misuse: Table 3 indicates that gender and race has no statistical effect in the
prediction of adolescents alcohol misuse. Compared to adolescents from two-parent
families, adolescents from single parental families were one and one half times more
likely to misuse alcohol (p<0.05). After controlling for demographic characteristics and
deviant peer association, adolescents with low parental attachment were almost two-
times (odds-ratio=1.865) more likely to misuse alcohol (p<. 001). Deviant peer
association was found to be the most effective predictor of adolescents alcohol misuse
even after controlling for all other predictors of this study. In other words, adolescents
who associate with deviant peers are nine times more likely to misuse alcohol (odds-
ratio=8.69, p< .001).
Marijuana Misuse: Table 3 also indicates the results from the logistic regression analyses
in the prediction of adolescents marijuana misuse. Results show that there is no racial
or ethnic difference in eighth graders marijuana misuse after controlling for other
predictors in the model. However, there are gender and family structure differences in
the prediction of adolescents marijuana misuse. Male and adolescents from single-
parent families are more likely to misuse marijuana. Adolescents from single-parent
families are two times more likely to misuse marijuana compared to adolescents from
two parent families (p< .01). Low parental attachment and deviant peer association are
risk factors for adolescents marijuana misuse. Deviant peer association, like in alcohol
misuse, has a significant effect on adolescents marijuana misuse compared to parental
attachment.
DISCUSSION
While the statistics show that there are differences in alcohol misuse by race and
family structure and not by gender, the utilization of Hirschis (1969) Social Bonding
theory emphasizes intrafamilial relationships involving parental attachment and
association with deviant peers as being predictors of alcohol and or marijuana misuse.
Social bonding theory has been widely debated and accepted as having theoretical
validity; therefore the emphasis was to shed some light on other relevant variables and
not just focus on an analysis of intrafamilial relationships.
There is a tremendous amount of conflict in social science literature over the utility
of the pluralist framework in explaining the political and social behaviors of ethnic
minorities in the United States. As articulated by McClain and Stewart (1995), it is
reasonable to expect that racial differences and family structure account for the way in
which different racial groups (e.g. Latinos, Native Americans, and Asians) respond to
This article was previously published in the Journal of Public Affairs and Issues Volume
VI and is being reprinted with the permission of the Editor.
on Tools:
An
investigation
into the
Business
Student s
Utilization of
Introduction
While much has been discussed about the importance of information access and
exchange, little is known about which method of communication is best utilized among
students majoring in business. Local, state, and national initiatives have focused on the
need to increase access to information among under-represented populations, including
African-Americans, Native Americans, and Hispanic-Americans. But little is known
about whether these methods are working to the advantage of those under-served.
The Digital Divide emphasizes the need to educate, train, and put into the hands
of under-served groups, the tools necessary to improve their way of life by having access
to information. This initiative should ultimately impact their ability to use information
in a way that positively benefits them, their families, their communities, and ultimately
the world. Now that more and more under-represented business students have personal
computers or at least access to one, the focus has shifted from information divide to
information utilization.
Several questions remain unanswered. Have business students mastered the skills of
communication in order to secure employment, enter graduate school, establish the
Letter writing. Along with a working rsum, students should be equipped with
excellent letter-writing skills. Business students often have to generate letters of
interest, write statements of purpose, generate sample business proposals, and write
cover letters to supplement their rsum.
Letter writing goes beyond the business students ability to generate a document.
They must be able to generate spontaneous correspondence utilizing proper grammar.
The business administration student has to perfect dictation and transform the
information into a working document. The marketing student has to perfect persuasive
writing in order to obtain new clients and to market products. The management
student has to perfect proposal writing, customer satisfaction/complaint letters,
Oral communication skills. Ones ability to perfect public speaking has always made a
difference in the business world. Preparation, development, and delivery are the three
phases of oral presentations.
Preparation allows one to define the purpose of the speech and analyze the
audience. Development involves writing the speech in detail, with emphasis on oral
communication techniques: arousing interest, building credibility, and ending on a
positive note. Finally, delivery engages the speaker in the oral projection of his/her
developed speech.
The business student who serves in a leadership capacity with campus-based
organizations is often recruited to speak publicly on behalf of the business school. Such
experiences serve them well in perfecting oral communication. Others have few
opportunities to develop this skill.
Electronic-mail (e-mail). E-mail is the most useful Internet feature for business
students today. Course assignments are now being posted on e-mail accounts for
student access.
There are advantages and disadvantages of utilizing e-mail. One major advantage is
that e-mail supports the thrust toward a paperless society. E-mail also allows for
more expedient transfer/retrieval of assignments. Furthermore, e-mail provides a
method of time-stamping messages, which makes business students accountable for
timely assignments.
Although it is assumed that most, if not all, business students are computer literate,
it must be understood that they are not. One major disadvantage of e-mail is the
inability to reach those students who do not have an e-mail account, or those who have
one, but fail to check it on a consistent basis. The availability of e-mail has cut into
the academic time, making it difficult to separate academics from friendly chats. E-
mail, like other Internet features, leaves many business students apprehensive about
privacy and security issues (OBrien, 2000).
World Wide Web (WWW). Developed in the 1990s, the World Wide Web uses
Graphical User Interfaces (GUI) to make it easy for individuals to search, display
information, and save data.
The World Wide Web has become the centralized platform for selling products and
services among businesses and consumers. This is known as e-commerce. On the
wholesale side, businesses are able to place orders, establish new clients, and track
inventory and sales. This is known as business-to-business e-commerce, or simply b-to-
b. On the retail side, consumers are able to purchase products and services over the
Research and Presentation. Research and the presentation of research findings are key
to the business student curriculum. Business students are exposed early in the
curriculum on how to utilize Microsoft PowerPoint in making presentations. This
multi-media software application allows students to integrate text, graphics, video, and
sound into a single presentation (Shelly, Cashman, Sebok, 2000).
Business students must perfect the skills of information dissemination and
summarize their findings into a comprehensive slide presentation. These skills are
utilized in most businesses to conduct meetings and review project/program status.
These too are transferable, and if mastered, will prove beneficial.
Other technical tools. The business student who masters the above technical tools is
still met with the need to understand others. Many corporations are requiring that
business professionals utilize cellular phones, pagers, palm pilots, and electronic
organizers, all in an effort to be accessible and productive.
With the exception of cellular phones and pagers, not many business students have
mastered the use of these auxiliary tools. The average business student-turned-
professional who will have the opportunity to telecommute, or work away from a
conventional office, must understand how these tools work in making his/her job easier.
Summary
While much is written on the importance for preparing business students to be
effective communicators, little is known as to whether these students have mastered the
traditional and technical approaches of communication. As the World Wide Web
(WWW) widens the gap between the haves and have-nots, institutions which cater to
the business-minded learner must begin to place more emphasis on proper
communication techniques.
Empirical research should be conducted to identify which tools are being utilized
and which methods of teaching these tools are most effective for business students.
Data should be gathered on how students perceive the benefits of utilizing such tools.
In addition, further study is needed to determine the Human Computer Interaction
(HCI), factors that negatively impact utilization of such technical toolseye, neck,
and wrist strain just to name a few.
No longer should the business school be primarily responsible for developing
communication skills, but such skills should be gained in cross-functional disciplines.
The business curriculum should continue to require students to take public speaking,
along with a business communications course. In addition, schools should include
References
Anderson, P. L. (2000). Preparing Your Rsum for the Electronic Arena. GBEA
Journal, 18(1), 11-14.
Bovee, Courtland L. and Thill, John V. (2000a), Business Communication Today, 6th
edition, Prentice Hall, 36-37.
Bovee, Courtland L. and Thill, John V. (2000b), Business Communication Today, 6th
edition, Prentice Hall, 597-598.
Brown, H. F. III (2000), An analysis of distance education technologies for business
education curriculum delivery, GBEA Journal, 18(1), 1-3.
Edward, K. (1994). The development of a model of computer anxiety among at-risk
students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, 34-35.
OBrien, J. A. (2000) Introduction to Information Systems: An Networked Enterprise
Perspective, 2nd alternate edition, Irwin McGraw-Hill Publishing, Chapter 13.
Richey, R. (1992), Designing instruction for the adult learner, Kogan Page Limited,
41-42.
Shelly, G. B., Cashman, T.J., Sebok, S. L. (2000), Microsoft PowerPoint 2000:
Introductory Concepts and Techniques, International Thomson Publishing
Company, 1-10.
This article was previously published in The Georgia Business Education Association
Journal Volume 19, Number 1 and is being reprinted with the permission of the Editor.
Albany State University is also accredited by the National Council for the
Accreditation of Teacher education, the Georgia Department of Education, the
Association of Collegiate Business Schools and programs, the National League
of Nursing and approved by the Georgia Board of Nursing
Individual colleges and departments also hold membership in the regional and
national professional organizations associated with their respective disciplines.