C H A P T E R S I X

Buffers: Principles and Practice1

Vincent S. Stoll and John S. Blanchard

Contents
1. Introduction 43
2. Theory 44
3. Buffer Selection 45
4. Buffer Preparation 48
5. Volatile Buffers 49
6. Broad-Range Buffers 50
7. Recipes for Buffer Stock Solutions 50
References 56

1. Introduction
The necessity for maintaining a stable pH when studying enzymes is
well established (Good and Izawa, this series; Johnson and Metzler, this
series). Biochemical processes can be severely affected by minute changes in
hydrogen ion concentrations. At the same time, many protons may be
consumed or released during an enzymatic reaction. It has become increas-
ingly important to find buffers to stabilize hydrogen ion concentrations
while not interfering with the function of the enzyme being studied. The
development of a series of N-substituted taurine and glycine buffers by
Good et al. (1966) has provided buffers in the physiologically relevant range
(6.110.4) of most enzymes, which have limited side effects with most
enzymes (Good et al., 1966). It has been found that these buffers are
nontoxic to cells at 50 mM concentrations and in some cases much higher
(Ferguson et al., 1980).

Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York

1
Reprinted from Methods in Enzymology, Volume 182 (Academic Press, 1990)

Methods in Enzymology, Volume 463 Copyright # 1990 by Academic Press

ISSN 0076-6879, DOI: 10.1016/S0076-6879(09)63006-8 All rights reserved.

43
44 Vincent S. Stoll and John S. Blanchard

2. Theory
The observation that partially neutralized solutions of weak acids or
weak bases are resistant to pH changes on the addition of small amounts of
strong acid or strong base leads to the concept of buffering (Perrin and
Dempsey, 1974). Buffers consist of an acid and its conjugate base, such as
carbonate and bicarbonate, or acetate and acetic acid. The quality of a buffer
is dependent on its buffering capacity (resistance to change in pH by
addition of strong acid or base), and its ability to maintain a stable pH
upon dilution or addition of neutral salts. Because of the following equili-
bria, additions of small amounts of strong acid or strong base result in the
removal of only small amounts of the weakly acidic or basic species;
therefore, there is little change in the pH:
HAacid H A conjugate base 6:1
Bbase H BH conjugate acid 6:2
The pH of a solution of a weak acid or base may be calculated from the
HendersonHasselbalch equation:
basic species
pH pKa0 log 6:3
acidic species
The pKa of a buffer is that pH where the concentrations of basic and
acidic species are equal, and in this basic form the equation is accurate
between the pH range of 311. Below pH 3 and above pH 11 the
concentrations of the ionic species of water must be included in the
equation (Perrin and Dempsey, 1974). Since the pH range of interest here
is generally in the pH 311 range, this will be ignored.
From the HendersonHasselbalch equation an expression for buffer
capacity may be deduced. If at some concentration of buffer, c, the sum
[A] [HA] is constant, then the amount of strong acid or base needed to
cause a small change in pH is given by the relationship:
( )
dB Ka0 cH  K
H 
w
2:303 6:4
dpH Ka0 H 2 H
In this equation, Kw refers to the ionic product of water, and the second
and third terms are only significant below pH 3 or above pH 11. In the pH
range of interest (pH 311), this equation yields the following expression:
2:303c
bmax 0:576c; 6:5
4
which represents a maximum value for d[B]/dpH when pH pKa. The
buffer capacity of any buffer is dependent on the concentration, c, and may
Buffers: Principles and Practice 45

0.025

b
0.015

0.005
1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
pH

Figure 6.1 Buffer capacity (b) versus DpH over the range  1 pH unit of the pKa for
HEPES (0.05 M). Points calculated using Eq. (6.5), and data from Perrin and Dempsey
(1974).

be calculated over a buffer range of  1 pH unit around the pK to determine

the buffer capacity, as shown in Fig. 6.1 for one of the Good buffers,
HEPES. It can be seen that the buffer capacity is greatest at its pK, and
drops off quickly 1 pH unit on either side of the pK. In practice, buffers
should not be used beyond these values.

3. Buffer Selection
There are many factors that must be considered when choosing a buffer.
When studying an enzyme one must consider the pH optimum of the enzyme,
nonspecific buffer effects on the enzyme, and interactions with substrates or
metals. When purifying a protein, cost becomes an important consideration, as
does the compatibility of the buffer with different purification techniques.
Table 6.1 lists a wide variety of buffers covering a broad pH range.
Determining the pH optimum of a protein is a first step in determining the
best buffer to employ (Blanchard, this series). Since the buffering capacity is
maximal at the pK, buffers should be used close to this value. When determin-
ing the pH optimum for an enzyme, it is useful to use a series of related buffers
that span a wide pH range. Once an optimal pH has been approximated,
different buffers within this pH range can be examined for specific buffer effects.
The Good buffers have been shown to be relatively free of side effects.
However, inorganic buffers do have a high potential for specific buffer
effects. Many enzymes are inhibited by phosphate buffer, including car-
boxypeptidase, urease, as well as many kinases and dehydrogenases
(Blanchard, this series). Borate buffers can form covalent complexes with
mono- and oligosaccharides, the ribose moieties of nucleic acids, pyridine
nucleotides, and other gem-diols. Tris and other primary amine buffers may
form Schiff base adducts with aldehydes and ketones.
46 Vincent S. Stoll and John S. Blanchard

Table 6.1 Selected buffers and their pK values at 25  C

Trivial name Buffer name pKa dpKa/dt

Phosphate (pK1) 2.15 0.0044
Malate (pK1) 3.40
Formate 3.75 0.0
Succinate (pK1) 4.21  0.0018
Citrate (pK2) 4.76  0.0016
Acetate 4.76 0.0002
Malate 5.13
Pyridine 5.23  0.014
Succinate (pK2) 5.64 0.0
MES 2-(N-Morpholino) 6.10  0.011
ethanesulfonic acid
Cacodylate Dimethylarsinic acid 6.27
Dimethylglutarate 3,3-Dimethylglutarate (pK2) 6.34 0.0060
Carbonate (pK1) 6.35  0.0055
Citrate (pK3) 6.40 0.0
BisTris [Bis(2-hydroxyethyl)imino]tris 6.46 0.0
(hydroxymethyl)methane
ADA N-2-Acetamidoiminodiacetic 6.59  0.011
acid
Pyrophosphate 6.60
EDPS (pK1) N,N 0 -Bis(3-sulfopropyl) 6.65
ethylenediamine
BisTris propane 1,3-Bis[tris(hydroxymethyl) 6.80
methylamino]propane
PIPES Piperazine-N,N 0 -bis(2- 6.76  0.0085
ethanesulfonic acid)
ACES N-2-Acetamido-2- 6.78  0.020
hydroxyethanesulfonic acid
MOPSO 3-(N-Morpholino)-2- 6.95  0.015
hydroxypropanesulfonic acid
Imidazole 6.95  0.020
BES N,N-Bis-(2-hydroxyethyl)-2- 7.09  0.016
aminoethanesulfonic acid
MOPS 3-(N-Morpholino) 7.20 0.015
propanesulfonic acid
Phosphate (pK2) 7.20  0.0028
EMTA 3,6-Endomethylene-1,2,3,6- 7.23
tetrahydrophthalic acid
TES 2-[Tris(hydroxymethyl) 7.40  0.020
methylamino]ethanesulfonic
acid
x
Buffers: Principles and Practice 47

Table 6.1 (continued)

Trivial name Buffer name pKa dpKa/dt

HEPES N-2-Hydroxyethylpiperazine- 7.48  0.014
N 0 -2-ethanesulfonic acid
DIPSO 3-[N-Bis(hydroxyethyl)amino]- 7.60  0.015
2-hydroxypropanesulfonic
acid
TEA Triethanolamine 7.76  0.020
POPSO Piperazine-N,N 0 -bis(2- 7.85  0.013
hydroxypropanesulfonic acid)
EPPS, HEPPS N-2-Hydroxyethylpiperazine- 8.00
N 0 -3-propanesulfonic acid
Tris Tris(hydroxymethyl) 8.06  0.028
aminomethane
Tricine N-[Tris(hydroxymethyl)methyl] 8.05  0.021
glycine
Glycinamide 8.06  0.029
PIPPS 1,4-Bis(3-sulfopropyl)piperazine 8.10
Glycylglycine 8.25  0.025
Bicine N,N-Bis(2-hydroxyethyl)glycine 8.26  0.018
TAPS 3-{[Tris(hydroxymethyl)methyl] 8.40 0.018
amino}propanesulfonic acid
Morpholine 8.49
PIBS 1,4-Bis(4-sulfobutyl)piperazine 8.60
AES 2-Aminoethylsulfonic acid, 9.06  0.022
taurine
Borate 9.23  0.008
Ammonia 9.25  0.031
Ethanolamine 9.50  0.029
CHES Cyclohexylaminoethanesulfonic 9.55 0.029
acid
Glycine (pK2) 9.78  0.025
EDPS N,N 0 -Bis(3-sulfopropyl) 9.80
ethylenediamine
APS 3-Aminopropanesulfonic acid 9.89
Carbonate (pK2) 10.33  0.009
CAPS 3-(Cyclohexylamino) 10.40 0.032
propanesulfonic acid
Piperidine 11.12
Phosphate (pK3) 12.33  0.026

Buffer complexation with metals may present additional problems. In this

respect, inorganic buffers can prove problematic in that they may remove, by
chelation, metals essential to enzymatic activity (e.g., Mg2 for kinases,
48 Vincent S. Stoll and John S. Blanchard

Cu2 or Fe2 for hydroxylases). Release of protons upon chelation or precip-

itation of metalbuffer complexes may also be a potential problem. Where
metal chelation presents a problem, the Good buffers are useful since they have
been shown to have low metal-binding capabilities (Good et al., 1966).
Once a suitable buffer has been found (noninteracting, with an appro-
priate pK ), a concentration should be chosen. Since high ionic strength may
decrease enzyme activity, the buffer concentration should be as low as
possible (Blanchard, this series). A reasonable way to determine how low
a concentration may be used is to examine the properties (reaction rate or
protein stability) at a low (1020 mM) concentration of buffer. The pH
prior to, and an adequate time after, addition of protein should not vary
more than  0.05 pH. If the pH changes too drastically (greater than  0.1
pH unit), then the buffer concentration should be raised to 50 mM. In cases
where protons are consumed or released stoichiometrically with substrate
utilization, pH stability becomes increasingly important.
Buffers may be made up in stock solutions, then diluted for use. When
stock solutions are made, it should be done close to the working tempera-
ture, and in glass bottles (plastic bottles can leach UV-absorbing material)
(Perrin and Dempsey, 1974). Buffers have temperature-sensitive pK values,
particularly amine buffers. The carboxylic acid buffers are generally the least
sensitive to temperature, and the Good buffers have only a small inverse
temperature dependence on pK. The effects of dilution of stock solutions,
or addition of salts, on pH should be checked by measurement of the pH
after addition of all components.
Choosing a buffer for protein purification requires some special con-
siderations. Large amounts of buffer will be needed for centrifugation,
chromatographic separations, and dialysis, which makes cost a concern.
Tris and many inorganic buffers are widely used since they are relatively
inexpensive. Although buffers like Tris are inexpensive, and have been
widely used in protein purification, they do have disadvantages. Tris is a
poor buffer below pH 7.5 and its pK is temperature dependent (a solution
made up to pH 8.06 at 25  C will have a pH of 8.85 at 0  C). Many primary
amine buffers such as Tris and glycine (Bradford, 1976) will interfere with
the Bradford dye-binding protein assay. Some of the Good buffers, HEPES,
EPPS, and Bicine, give false-positive colors with Lowry assay.
Spectroscopic measurement of enzyme rates is a commonly applied
method. It may be important to use a buffer that does not absorb appreciably
in the spectral region of interest. The Good buffers, and most buffers listed
in Table 6.1, can be used above 240 nm.

4. Buffer Preparation
Once a suitable buffer has been chosen it must be dissolved and titrated to
the desired pH. Before titrating a buffer solution, the pH meter must be
calibrated. Calibration should be done using commercially available pH
Buffers: Principles and Practice 49

standards, bracketing the desired pH. If monovalent cations interfere, or are

being investigated, then titration with tetramethylammonium hydroxide can
be done to avoid mineral cations. Similarly, the substitution of the most
commonly used counteranion, chloride, with other anions such as acetate,
sulfate, or glutamate, may have significant effects on enzyme activity or
proteinDNA interactions (Leirmo et al., 1987). Stock solutions should be
made with quality water (deionized and double-distilled, preferably) and
filtered through a sterile ultrafiltration system (0.22 mm) to prevent bacterial
or fungal growth, especially with solutions in the pH 68 range. To prevent
heavy metals from interfering, EDTA (10100 mM) may be added to chelate
any contaminating metals.

5. Volatile Buffers
In certain cases, it is necessary to remove a buffer quickly and
completely. Volatile buffers make it possible to remove components that
may interfere in subsequent procedures. Volatile buffers are useful in elec-
trophoresis, ion-exchange chromatography, and digestion of proteins fol-
lowed by separation of peptides or amino acids. Most of the volatile buffers
(Table 6.2) are transparent in the lower UV range except for the buffers

Table 6.2 Types of systems for use as volatile buffersa

System pH range
87 ml glacial acetic acid 25 ml 88% HCOOH in 11 l 1.9
25 ml 88% HCOOH in 1 l 2.1
Pyridineformic acid 2.33.5
Trimethylamineformic acid 3.05.0
Triethylamineformic (or acetic) acid 36
5 ml pyridine 100 ml glacial acetic acid in 1 l 3.1
5 ml pyridine 50 ml glacial acetic acid in 1 l 3.5
Trimethylamineacetic acid 4.06.0
25 ml pyridine 25 ml glacial acetic acid in 1 l 4.7
Collidineacetic acid 5.57.0
100 ml pyridine 4 ml glacial acetic acid in 1 l 6.5
TriethanolamineHCl 6.88.8
Ammoniaformic (or acetic) acid 7.010.0
TrimethylamineCO2 712
TriethylamineCO2 712
24 g NH4HCO3 in 1 l 7.9
Ammonium carbonateammonia 8.010.5
EthanolamineHCl 8.510.5
20 g (NH4)2CO3 in 1 l 8.9
a
From Perrin and Dempsey (1974).
50 Vincent S. Stoll and John S. Blanchard

containing pyridine (Perrin and Dempsey, 1974). An important consider-

ation is interference in amino acid analysis (i.e., reactions with ninhydrin).
Most volatile buffers will not interfere with ninhydrin if the concentrations
are not too high (e.g., triethanolamine less than 0.1 M does not interfere).

6. Broad-Range Buffers
There may be occasions where a single buffer system is desired that can
span a wide pH range of perhaps 5 or more pH units. One method would be
a mixture of buffers that sufficiently covers the pH range of interest. This
may lead to nonspecific buffer interactions for which corrections must be
made. Another common approach is to use a series of structurally related
buffers that have evenly spaced pK values such that each pK is separated by
approximately  1 pH unit (the limit of buffering capacity). The Good
buffers are ideal for this approach since they are structurally related and have
relatively evenly spaced pK values. As the pH passes the pK of one buffer it
becomes nonparticipatory and therefore has no further function. These
nonparticipating buffer components may show nonspecific buffer effects
as well as raising the ionic strength with potential deleterious effects.
A detailed description of buffer mixtures which provide a wide range of
buffering capacity with constant ionic strength is available (Ellis and
Morrison, this series).

7. Recipes for Buffer Stock Solutions

1. GlycineHCl buffer (Sorensen, 1909a,b) stock solutions
 A: 0.2 M solution of glycine (15.01 g in 1000 ml)
 B: 0.2 M HCl
50 ml of A x ml of B, diluted to a total of 200 ml:

x pH x pH
5.0 3.6 16.8 2.8
6.4 3.4 24.2 2.6
8.2 3.2 32.4

2. Citrate buffer (Lillie, 1948) stock solutions

 A: 0.1 M solution of citric acid (21.01 g in 1000 ml)
 B: 0.1 M solution of sodium citrate (29.41 g C6H5O7Na3  2H2O in
1000 ml)
x ml of A y ml of B, diluted to a total of 100 ml:
Buffers: Principles and Practice 51

x y pH
46.5 3.5 3.0
43.7 6.3 3.2
40.0 10.0 3.4
37.0 13.0 3.6
35.0 15.0 3.8
33.0 17.0 4.0
31.5 18.5 4.2
28.0 22.0 4.4
25.5 24.5 4.6
23.0 27.0 4.8
20.5 29.5 5.0
18.0 32.0 5.2
16.0 34.0 5.4
13.7 36.3 5.6
11.8 38.2 5.8
9.5 41.5 6.0
7.2 42.8 6.2

3. Acetate buffer (Walpole, 1914) stock solutions

 A: 0.2 M solution of acetic acid (11.55 ml in 1000 ml)
 B: 0.2 M solution of sodium acetate (16.4 g of C2H3O2Na or 27.2 g
of C2H3O2Na  3H2O in 1000 ml)
x ml of A y ml of B, diluted to a total of 100 ml:

x y pH
46.3 3.7 3.6
44.0 6.0 3.8
41.0 9.0 4.0
36.8 13.2 4.2
30.5 19.5 4.4
25.5 24.5 4.6
14.8 35.2 5.0
10.5 39.5 5.2
8.8 41.2 5.4
4.8 45.2 5.6

4. Citratephosphate buffer (McIlvaine, 1921) stock solutions

 A: 0.1 M solution of citric acid (19.21 g in 1000 ml)
 B: 0.2 M solution of dibasic sodium phosphate (53.65 g of
Na2HPO4  7H2O or 71.7 g of Na2HPO4  12H2O in 1000 ml)
x ml of A y ml of B, diluted to a total of 100 ml:
52 Vincent S. Stoll and John S. Blanchard

x y pH
44.6 5.4 2.6
42.2 7.8 2.8
39.8 10.2 3.0
37.7 12.3 3.2
35.9 14.1 3.4
33.9 16.1 3.6
32.3 17.7 3.8
30.7 19.3 4.0
29.4 20.6 4.2
27.8 22.2 4.4
26.7 23.3 4.6
25.2 24.8 4.8
24.3 25.7 5.0
23.3 26.7 5.2
22.2 27.8 5.4
21.0 29.0 5.6
19.7 30.3 5.8
17.9 32.1 6.0
16.9 33.1 6.2
15.4 34.6 6.4
13.6 36.4 6.6
9.1 40.9 6.8
6.5 43.6 7.0
5. Succinate buffer (G. Gomori, unpublished observation) stock solutions
 A: 0.2 M solution of succinic acid (23.6 g in 1000 ml)
 B: 0.2 M NaOH
25 ml of A x ml of B, diluted to a total of 100 ml:

x pH x pH
7.5 3.8 26.7 5.0
10.0 4.0 30.3 5.2
13.3 4.2 34.2 5.4
16.7 4.4 37.5 5.6
20.0 4.6 40.7 5.8
23.5 4.8 43.5 6.0
6. Cacodylate buffer (Plumel, 1949) stock solutions
 A: 0.2 M solution of sodium cacodylate (42.8 g of Na(CH3)2AsO2 
3H2O in 1000 ml)
 B: 0.2 M NaOH
50 ml of A x ml of B, diluted to a total of 200 ml:
Buffers: Principles and Practice 53

x pH x pH
2.7 7.4 29.6 6.0
4.2 7.2 34.8 5.8
6.3 7.0 39.2 5.6
9.3 6.8 43.0 5.4
13.3 6.6 45.0 5.2
18.3 6.4 47.0 5.0
13.8 6.2
7. Phosphate buffer (Sorensen, 1909a,b) stock solutions
 A: 0.2 M solution of monobasic sodium phosphate (27.8 g in 1000 ml)
 B: 0.2 M solution of dibasic sodium phosphate (53.65 g of Na2HPO4
 7H2O or 71.7 g of Na2HPO4  12H2O in 1000 ml)
x ml of A y ml of B, diluted to a total of 200 ml:

x y pH x y pH
93.5 6.5 5.7 45.0 55.0 6.9
92.0 8.0 5.8 39.0 61.0 7.0
90.0 10.0 5.9 33.0 67.0 7.1
87.7 12.3 6.0 28.0 72.0 7.2
85.0 15.0 6.1 23.0 77.0 7.3
81.5 18.5 6.2 19.0 81.0 7.4
77.5 22.5 6.3 16.0 84.0 7.5
73.5 26.5 6.4 13.0 87.0 7.6
68.5 31.5 6.5 10.5 90.5 7.7
62.5 37.5 6.6 8.5 91.5 7.8
56.5 43.5 6.7 7.0 93.0 7.9
51.0 49.0 6.8 5.3 94.7 8.0

8. Barbital buffer (Michaelis, 1930) stock solutions

 A: 0.2 M solution of sodium barbital (veronal) (41.2 g in 1000 ml)
 B: 0.2 M HCl
50 ml of A x ml of B, diluted to a total of 200 ml:

x pH x pH
1.5 9.2 22.5 7.8
2.5 9.0 27.5 7.6
4.0 8.8 32.5 7.4
6.0 8.6 39.0 7.2
9.0 8.4 43.0 7.0
2.7 8.2 45.0 6.8
17.5 8.0
54 Vincent S. Stoll and John S. Blanchard

Solutions more concentrated than 0.05 M may crystallize on standing,

especially in the cold.
9. Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (Tris) buffer (Hayaishi, this series)
stock solutions
 A: 0.2 M solution of tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (24.2 g in
1000 ml)
 B: 0.2 M HCl
50 ml of A x ml of B, diluted to a total of 200 ml:

x pH
5.0 9.0
8.1 8.8
12.2 8.6
16.5 8.4
21.9 8.4
26.8 8.0
32.5 7.8
38.4 7.6
41.4 7.4
44.2 7.2
10. Boric acidborax buffer (Holmes, 1943) stock solutions
 A: 0.2 M solution of boric acid (12.4 g in 1000 ml)
 B: 0.05 M solution of borax (19.05 g in 1000 ml; 0.2 M in terms of
sodium borate)
50 ml of A x ml of B, diluted to a total of 200 ml:

x pH x pH
2.0 7.6 22.5 8.7
3.1 7.8 30.0 8.8
4.9 8.0 42.5 8.9
7.3 8.2 59.0 9.0
11.5 8.4 83.0 9.1
17.5 8.6 115.0 9.2
11. 2-Amino-2-methyl-1,3-propanediol (Ammediol) buffer (Gomori,
1946) stock solutions
 A: 0.2 M solution of 2-amino-2-methyl-1,3-propanediol (21.03 g in
1000 ml)
 B: 0.2 M HCl
50 ml of A x ml of B, diluted to a total of 200 ml:
Buffers: Principles and Practice 55

x pH x pH
2.0 10.0 22.0 8.8
3.7 9.8 29.5 8.6
5.7 9.6 34.0 8.4
8.5 9.4 37.7 8.2
12.5 9.2 41.0 8.0
16.7 9.0 43.5 7.8
12. GlycineNaOH buffer (Sorensen, 1909a,b) stock solutions
 A: 0.2 M solution of glycine (15.01 g in 1000 ml)
 B: 0.2 M NaOH
50 ml of A x ml of B, diluted to a total of 200 ml:

x pH x pH
4.0 8.6 22.4 9.6
6.0 8.8 27.2 9.8
8.8 9.0 32.0 10.0
12.0 9.2 38.6 10.4
16.8 9.4 45.5 10.6
13. BoraxNaOH buffer (Clark and Lubs, 1917) stock solutions
 A: 0.05 M solution of borax (19.05 g in 1000 ml; 0.02 M in terms of
sodium borate)
 B: 0.2 M NaOH
50 ml of A x ml of B, diluted to a total of 200 ml:

x pH
0.0 9.28
7.0 9.35
11.0 9.4
17.6 9.5
23.0 9.6
29.0 9.7
34.0 9.8
38.6 9.9
43.0 10.0
46.0 10.1
14. Carbonatebicarbonate buffer (Delory and King, 1945) stock solutions
 A: 0.2 M solution of anhydrous sodium carbonate (21.2 g in
1000 ml)
 B: 0.2 M solution of sodium bicarbonate (16.8 g in 1000 ml)
x ml of A y ml of B, diluted to a total of 200 ml:
56 Vincent S. Stoll and John S. Blanchard

x y pH
4.0 46.0 9.2
7.5 42.5 9.3
9.5 40.5 9.4
13.0 37.0 9.5
16.0 34.0 9.6
19.5 30.5 9.7
22.0 28.0 9.8
25.0 25.0 9.9
27.5 22.5 10.0
30.0 20.0 10.1
33.0 17.0 10.2
35.5 14.5 10.3
38.5 11.5 10.4
40.5 9.5 10.5
42.5 7.5 10.6
45.0 5.0 10.7

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