Piping

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FLUOR DANIEL PIPING HYDRAULICS AND SPECIFICATION

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TABLE OF CONTENTS DATE 07-95
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 PIPE SIZING AND SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES

2.1 PIPE SIZING
2.1.1 Pressure Drop Criteria
2.1.2 Velocity Limitations
2.1.3 Economic Pipe Diameter
2.1.4 Acceptable Line Sizes
2.1.5 Design Criteria Considerations
2.1.6 General Pipe Data
2.1.7 Special Cases
2.2 PIPE SPECIFICATION
2.2.1 Specifying Piping Design Conditions
2.2.2 Design Pressure
2.2.3 Design Temperature
2.2.4 Special Design Condition Considerations
2.2.5 Other Piping Specification Parameters
2.2.6 Piping Identification
2.2.7 Piping Layout
2.2.8 Piping Characteristics Data
2.3 CONTROL VALVE DESIGN BASIS
3.0 SINGLE PHASE FLOW

3.1 SINGLE-PHASE LIQUID FLOW
3.2 SINGLE-PHASE GAS FLOW
3.3 STEAM FLOW
4.0 TWO-PHASE (GAS-LIQUID) FLOW

4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 TWO-PHASE FLOW REGIMES
4.3 RECOMMENDED DESIGN GUIDELINES
4.3.1 Recommended Methods
4.3.2 General Design Guidelines
4.3.3 Special Cases
4.4 REFERENCES
5.0 THREE-PHASE (GAS-LIQUID-SOLID) FLOW

5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 DESCRIPTION OF EXISTING THREE-PHASE FLOW SYSTEMS
5.3 PROPOSED SIZING PROCEDURE
5.4 ADDITIONAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
5.5 REFERENCES
6.0 NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID FLOW
7.0 SLURRY (LIQUID-SOLID) FLOW

7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.1.1 Non-Newtonian Behavior
7.1.2 Particle Settling
7.1.3 Erosion
7.1.4 Slippage
7.1.5 Design Procedure
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7.2 TEST DATA REQUIRED

7.2.1 Viscosity
7.2.2 Minimum Transport Velocity
7.2.3 Erosion/Corrosion
7.2.4 Restart
7.3 DESIGN VELOCITY AND LINE SIZING
7.4 PRESSURE GRADIENT
7.4.1 Line Friction Pressure Loss
7.4.2 Fittings Pressure Loss
7.5 HEAT TRANSFER
7.5.1 Turbulent Flow
7.5.2 Laminar Flow
7.6 SLURRY TRANSPORT
7.6.1 Slurry Preparation
7.6.2 Solids Grinding
7.6.3 Slurry Mixing
7.6.4 Slurry Pumping
7.6.5 Slurry Piping
7.7 INSTRUMENTATION
7.7.1 Major Considerations
7.7.2 Types
7.8 SUPPORT MATERIAL
7.8.1 Glossary
7.8.2 Nomenclature
7.9 REFERENCES
7.10 APPENDIX
7.10.1 Appendix 1: Sample Method
8.0 PNEUMATIC CONVEYING - SEPARATE COVER

8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 GAS SOLIDS FLOW THEORY
8.2.1 General
8.2.2 Vertical Upwards Flow
8.2.3 Horizontal Flow
8.2.4 Material Characteristics
8.2.5 Design Calculation Methods
8.3 TYPES OF PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS
8.3.1 Dilute Phase Systems
8.3.2 Dense Phase Systems
8.4 SYSTEM SELECTION AND DESIGN
8.4.1 System Type
8.4.2 Pipeline Design
8.4.3 Mode of Operation
8.4.4 Solids Feeder
8.4.5 Air Mover
8.4.6 Gas-Solid Separation Equipment
8.4.7 Solids Storage
8.4.8 Factors Affecting System Design
8.5 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS IN PNEUMATIC CONVEYING
8.5.1 Introduction
8.5.2 Dust Explosions - General
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8.5.3 Sizing of Vents - Basic Methods

8.5.4 Factors Affecting Estimation of Vent Size
8.5.5 Venting Considerations for Pneumatic Conveying Equipment
8.5.6 Control of Ignition
8.5.7 Inerting
8.6 REFERENCES, CODES AND STANDARDS
8.7 APPENDICES
8.8 INDEXES TO FIGURES AND TABLES
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PNEUMATIC CONVEYING DATE 08-94
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2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0 PNEUMATIC CONVEYING
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Pneumatic conveying is widely used in the process industries for the handling of dry bulk
solid materials, in powdered, granular or pelletized form.
Pneumatic Conveying vs. Mechanical Systems
Advantages over Mechanical
Fewer moving parts

Compact layout in product section
Multiple pickups/discharges
Completely enclosed
Heat/cool/dry/blend
Disadvantages
Low efficiency
High velocity attrits and erodes
Inert or dry gas needed to prevent explosions or moisture pickup
There are two broad types of systems, dilute phase and dense phase.
Dense Phase vs. Dilute Phase
Advantages of Dense Over Dilute Phase
Reduced wear from abrasive products

Reduced breakage for friable products
Reduced skins and fines for polymers
Disadvantages
Requires multiple systems for multiple pickups
Pneumatic conveying systems have a variety of applications including unloading of

stockpiles, feeding raw materials to process units and transferring product to or from
storage bins.
This manual is intended to provide a guide towards establishing a logical basis for the
preliminary selection and specification of a conveying system, and to enable informed
evaluation of alternative tenders by conveying system vendors.
A valuable published work on the subject is the "Pneumatic Conveying Design Guide" by
David Mills. It contains an exhaustive treatment of conveyer design and a wealth of
experimental data. This document has drawn upon Mills' work and other published
and
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unpublished data. A few selected articles are listed at the end of this manual and provide
additional insight into the design and operation of pneumatic conveying systems.
Stokes' Law states that the terminal velocity of a particle falling through a fluid is
determined by the particle density, diameter, shape, and fluid properties such as density
and viscosity. Translated into pneumatic conveying terms, a flowing gas will drag
particles with it above a gas velocity which is characteristic of the solid particle and gas
physical properties, and particle shape. This characteristic gas velocity is known as the
saltation velocity. Particles traveling above the saltation velocity are suspended in
stream flow with the gas, or are entrained in the gas stream. System pressure drop is
the sum of the energy losses in the system. These losses are described by an energy
balance, and include terms for gas acceleration, solids acceleration, gas friction loss,
solids friction loss, and static losses in vertical flow. In pneumatic conveying systems,
this energy balance describes a two-phase compressible flow system, and is therefore
usually a trial-and-error calculation procedure. All available procedures are
approximations, have dependence upon average solids material characteristics, which
can vary widely, making design calculations difficult to make with certainty.
Inexperienced engineers should apply these methods with caution. The approaches
presented in this manual will yield suitably conservative estimates, but must be verified
by either direct experience with the material in question, or laboratory tests.
8.2 GAS-SOLIDS FLOW THEORY
8.2.1 General
An appreciation of the nature of two-phase gas-solid flow within an enclosed duct

is needed to understand the flow regimes in pneumatic conveying. A pneumatic
conveying system is generally made up of sections of straight pipe, some of
which are vertically oriented and normally carry solid material in an upward
direction, and some which are horizontally oriented and provide for flow in lateral,
horizontal directions.
There is a distinct difference in the flow and transport characteristics of gas-solid

systems between vertical and horizontal flow. This can be seen in the analyses
presented below. It is also recognizable in plant operations in the form of line
vibrations which may occur at too high a solids loading or too low a gas flow rate.
8.2.2 Vertical Upward Flow
The phase diagram in vertical conveying is illustrated in Figure 8-1. It consists of

a plot of pressure drop per unit length versus superficial gas velocity, with the
specific solid flow rate as a parameter, and is most conveniently drawn on log-log
coordinate paper. Such a phase diagram is specific for a given conveying fluid
density and viscosity, for a given pipe size and for a given density and particle
size of the conveyed material. Representation on such a plot indicates the
bounds within which a vertical conveying line may operate and the attendant
pressure drop and required gas rate. The curve for the empty pipe represents a
lower bound; the dilute suspension "fluidization" curve represents another
boundary (essentially the free fall or terminal velocity of the largest particle in the
material to be conveyed), and the available pressure drop represents an
upper
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Figure 8-1
VERTICAL CONVEYING PHASE DIAGRAM
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bound. Within this area vertical pneumatic conveying may be carried out, with
the following main types of flow being identified:
Dilute Phase Flow - At low solid-gas ratios the particles are carried
upwards in the flowing gas steam as a uniform suspension.
Dense Phase Flow - Occurs at higher solid-gas ratios and may be either
slugging or non-slugging. Heavy/coarse particles tend to be carried
upward as a series of slugs. Small/light particles may be transported
upward without slugging but with a large amount of internal recirculation
occurring.
Moving Bed Flow - The product is transported upwards as a packed

column, with very little internal circulation.
The transition from dilute phase to dense phase conveying is not always clear,
particularly when dealing with materials of wide particle size distribution in which
the largest particles might slowly accumulate at a bend near the bottom of a
vertical line (if the velocity is only sufficient to carry up the fines in dilute phase
flow) until they form a slug, bridging the pipe, and are then blown up momentarily
as another slug begins to accumulate at the bottom. Such operation might go
undetected if the slugs form rapidly enough or if the total line pressure drop is
large enough to overshadow the fluctuation it would cause in the discharge
pressure of the air mover.
Ideally the transition from dilute to slugging dense phase vertical flow for a
uniform particle size material would appear as illustrated in Figure 8-1 where W1,
W2 etc., represent increasing specific solid flux rates in units of mass flowrate
times the total pipe cross sectional area. At some high gas velocity represented
by Point A, the introduction of solids at a rate W2 results in a pressure drop
greater than that necessary to push the gas alone through the pipe. As the gas
velocity is lowered, the pressure drop decreases, following a path nearly parallel
to that of the curve for the empty pipe. When the velocity has decreased to
around Point B there is a slower decline in pressure drop with further reductions
in gas velocity. This is a consequence of the slowing down of the particles and
of the resulting increase in the density of the suspension in the pipe. The
particles travel up the pipe at a lower velocity than the gas. This velocity
difference, or "slip", is related to their free fall or terminal velocity in the gas
medium. If gas were passing up the pipe at a superficial velocity equal to the
particle's free fall or terminal velocity then the particle could (theoretically) be
held in suspension, moving neither upward nor downward. Thus, as the
superficial velocity is reduced from Point A to Point B, the particles slow down
significantly. Since the net mass flowrate W, remains constant, the flowing
density or holdup must increase. This increased particle holdup, or inventory, or
suspension density, is reflected in the pressure drop; the frictional pressure drop
becomes negligible at low velocity, but the holdup or inventory pressure drop
increases, and predominates as the superficial velocity decreases from Point B
to Point C.
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As the suspension density increases, the distance between particles decreases.

When, as illustrated in Figure 8-2, this distance decreases to the point where a
downstream particle gets into the wake of its following neighbor, it drops into this
wake and falls, touching its upstream neighbor, and thus effectively presents a
larger binary to the flowing gas stream. The stream cannot support this larger
particle and hence the entire suspension collapses to the bottom of the pipe.
The velocity at which this collapse of the dilute suspension occurs is referred to
as the choking velocity. Choking velocity, as illustrated in Figure 8-1 is a function
of the solid flowrate W; the greater the mass flowrate the higher the velocity
needed to maintain the particles sufficiently distant from each other to avoid
precipitating the choking condition.
If choking occurs while a continuous feed of solids is maintained at a rate W1, the
solids build up, starting at the lower end of the vertical pipe, until the inventory
reaches a point where slug flow (dense phase) becomes the steady state mode.
This sequence of events is illustrated schematically in Figure 8-3.
No good correlations for dense phase flow in vertical pipes exist (especially for
"dune" type flow), although the Particulate Solids Research Institute (PSRI) is
investigating this area.
8.2.3 Horizontal Flow
The phase diagram for horizontal conveying is more complex than that described
for vertical conveying, because it is dependent on the deaeration characteristics
of the solids being conveyed. In a vertical pipe when the solids slow down or
approach choking, they cannot fall to rest; they can only fall head-on into the
oncoming gas stream. In a horizontal pipe when the solids slow down, they can
sink to the bottom of the conveying line and either remain there as stationary
solids, still pushed along by the conveying gas as an aerated mass, or be
pushed through the pipe as deaerated slugs. As particles drop out, a layer of
material builds up, which moves in wave or "dune" flow along the bottom of the
conveying pipe, with particles in stream flow in the gas stream above the salted
layer. As velocities drop lower, the dunes fill the pipe forming pistons. Since gas
density decreases and therefore velocity increases as the gas flows through the
conveying system, it is possible to transition from dense to dilute phase flow in
the system. The flow regime is dependent upon the solids flowrate, the gas
velocity and the solids' deaeration characteristic. The pressure drop per unit
length of pipe length differs depending upon the mode of the conveying, whether
as a dilute suspension, a dense aerated mass, or slug flow.
The various types of flow regimes as well as pipeline pressure drop versus air
velocity for horizontal and vertical pipe are shown in Figure 8-4A. Additionally,
Figure 8-4B presents five modes of gas-solids flow in horizontal pipes.
Consider first a simple situation involving conveying a relatively coarse material

of uniform particle size with air through a horizontal line; the corresponding phase
diagram, again on a log-log grid, is illustrated in Figure 8-4. The Curve AB
represents the pressure drop for the gas only and the accuracy and reliability of
prediction of the conveying pressure drop depends on the reliability in predicting
the Curve AB. If at some relatively high gas velocity solids are
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Figure 8-2
CHOKING VELOCITY PHENOMENA
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Figure 8-3
SCHEMATIC OF SOLID BUILD-UP FROM DILUTE TO DENSE PHASE
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Figure 8-4A
FLOW REGIMES & PRESSURE DROP FOR HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL PIPELINES
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Figure 8-4B
MODES OF COCURRENT GAS-SOLIDS FLOW IN HORIZONTAL PIPES
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Figure 8-4
HORIZONTAL CONVEYING PHASE DIAGRAM
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constantly introduced into the line at a rate W1, an increased pressure drop will
be necessary to propel the gas-solids mixture through the line, as represented by
Point C in Figure 8-4. As gas velocity is reduced, the flowing frictional resistance
decreases and the observed pressure drop decreases along the Curve CD.
However, as gas velocity decreases the particle velocities also decrease, until at
some sufficiently low gas velocity, represented by Point D, the particles "salt"
out, or settle out, on the bottom surface of the pipe. The velocity at which this
occurs is termed the "saltation velocity"; it is a function of the gas and solids
characteristics and also of the pipe size.
When dealing with relatively coarse and uniform particle sizes, saltation is
generally accompanied by a rapid filling up of the pipe to nearly half its cross
section. Thereafter, steady state conveying proceeds in the open space above
the salted layer. As gas velocity is further reduced, the salted layer becomes
deeper, thereby further restricting the pipe area and resulting in a rising pressure
drop as along Curve EF.
Comparing Figure 8-4 for horizontal flow, with Figure 8-1 for vertical flow, it
becomes evident that in the case of vertical flow the particle free fall or terminal
velocity represents an ultimate lower velocity limit below which essentially no
dilute phase vertical conveying can occur; in the case of horizontal flow there
must also exist some similar lower limit. The lower limit in horizontal conveying
must be the minimum velocity necessary to convey a single particle through the
pipe without having it salt out; i.e., the single-particle saltation velocity or the
saltation velocity at zero loading.
As applicable to pneumatic conveying, the effective single particle saltation

velocity is that velocity at which the particle will travel through the pipe,
occasionally hitting the walls, such that the contact is minimal and not normally
detectable. Measurement of single particle saltation velocities reveals that there
are several distinct velocity criteria applicable to concurrent fluid particle flow
when a particle is dropped into a stream flowing through a pipe:
a. The minimum velocity needed to move the particle, though without

transporting it an appreciable distance before it finally comes to rest
(presumably related to the particles' orientation in its most stable position
of rest).
b. The minimum velocity required to transport a particle by rolling or

bouncing along the bottom of the pipe.
c. The minimum velocity required to transport an injected particle, without

saltation, in fully suspended flow.
d. The minimum velocity required to pick up a particle from rest on the

bottom of the pipe and transport it.
e. The minimum velocity required to pick up a particle from a layer of

particles and transport it through the pipe.
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f. Conditions a to e correspond to increasing velocities in that order.

Practical considerations suggest that criteria c and e are the most
significant in horizontal conveying. In general, criterion e corresponds to
a superficial velocity 2 - 2 times that of criterion c. Criterion c is
considered to correspond to the single particle saltation velocity which,
as illustrated in Figure 8-4, represents the minimum conveying velocity in
horizontal pipes, analogous to the choking velocity in Figure 8-1.
The factor of 2 - 2 between criteria c and e is in agreement with

observations that when saltation occurs the pipe fills up nearly half full
(doubling the velocity in the space above the salted layer) before steady
state conveying is restored.
8.2.4 Material Characteristics
There are two primary considerations in determining the practicability of and the
design of pneumatic conveying system; first is the material's characteristics, and
second is the system's design parameters.
Material characteristics can vary widely in the same material in ways which can
significantly impact pneumatic conveying systems. Bulk or apparent density is
the uncompressed apparent density of the solids. True density is the actual
density of the material without void space in between the particles. Bulk density
includes the void space, which lowers the density of the powder when compared
to the solid itself. If the bulk density is variable (aeration is greater or lesser), the
feed rate into a pneumatic conveying system can vary greatly, particularly in
systems which are fed volumetrically. Feed rate variation can cause surging,
which if extreme could plug the system.
Particle size and distribution can also cause the bulk density to vary since fine
materials become aerated more readily, lowering the bulk density. Fine
materials may work in one conveying system, but not in another. For example,
fine materials may not perform well in piston type dense phase systems over
long distances. Some materials readily break into smaller particles (i.e., are
friable). This tendency may reduce the value of the material or cause excessive
losses. Low velocity dense phase systems can be used to reduce this type of
degradation. Particle shape will affect system selection as well. Efficiency of
conveying and separation equipment is affected by particle shape. Long, thin
particles such as fibers cannot be separated efficiently using a cyclone. They
are carried through with the gas. These particles must be filtered.
Materials with a high moisture content can stick inside piping causing plugs, clog
rotary valves and blind filters such as dust collectors. Cohesive powders can act
like moist powders since the particles may form large agglomerates with
pressure.
Some powders, especially refractories, are highly abrasive. Abrasive powders

are typically handled in dense phase systems, which have low velocities. Low
velocity reduces wear. Refractory liners, and special fittings such as vortex
elbows or blinded tee elbows are used to control wear in dilute phase systems.
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Other considerations include whether the material is toxic, carcinogenic, an

irritant, flammable, hygroscopic, or explosive. Most organic and metal powders
are explosive or flammable when fine enough.
A summary of design problems, the principle effects of a materials

characteristics, and the design approach to solve the design problem follows.
Design Problem Principle Effects Approach to Solution

Flow Characteristics Power consumption; uniformity of Velocity control; use of
operation. feeders.
Attrition (Degradation) Product damage; change in flow Reduce bends; lower
characteristics; increase in explosive velocity; dense phase
hazard. conveying.
Bulk Density Power consumption; tendency to aerate. Velocity control.
Component sizing.
Particle Size Power consumption; build-up in ducts. Velocity control. Filter
Filter efficiency. design.
Abrasiveness Accelerated component wear. Velocity control.
Moisture Sensitivity Caking in storage; product spoilage. Dry conveying medium;
ventilation in storage.
Toxicity Personnel hazard. Vacuum systems.
Temperature Sensitivity Product damage. Cool conveying medium.

Chemical Activity Corrosion; contamination. Material of construction.
Odors Spoilage of foods. Special filters.
This table is taken from the lecture notes by Hendrik Colijn, Consulting Engineer, Transportation &
Material Handling Services, for a "Pneumatic Conveying Systems" course.
8.2.5 Design Calculation Methods
Dilute phase design calculation methods include the Zenz-Othmer method, the
Fischer-Gerchow method, the Fan Engineering method, the short-cut method
used at Fluor Daniel, the Modified Allied Flotronics method and the Konno-Saito
correlation recommended by PSRI. All of these methods involve some form of
energy balance equation analogous to the Bernoulli equation in fluid hydraulics.
The Fischer-Gerchow and Fan Engineering methods focus on a momentum
equation which use empirical material friction factors. These material factors are
usually proportional to the tangent of the angle of repose. The Kenz-Othmer and
Konno-Saito methods use the gas frictional loss and a material to gas loading
ratio, avoiding the empirical factors, but producing conservative solutions:
a. Fluor Daniel Short-cut Method

b. Modified Allied Flotronics Method (Modified by Fluor Daniel Houston)
c. Fischer-Gerchow Method
d. Fan Engineering Method
e. Konno-Saito Method (PSRI)
f. Zenz-Othmer Method (Solt)
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Dense phase design calculation methods include various graphical phase

diagram methods, the Zenz-Other method (for two-phase "dune" or "wave" flow),
and the PSRI method (for "slug" or "piston" flow).
a. Phase Diagram Method (Graphical)

b. Zenz-Othmer Method (Solt)
c. PSRI Method
The three basic parameters calculated for pneumatic conveying systems are
conveying line size, system pressure drop, and gas mover horsepower. The
various calculation methods as well as example problems are included in
Appendix 8.7.
8.3 TYPES OF PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS
In pressure systems a source of pressurized gas is positioned at the supply end of the
system. Pressure is used to push gas through the conveying system through the pick-up
point, and a cyclone or dust collector which disengages the solids from the flowing gas at
the solids destination. The gas is discharged directly to the atmosphere. Pressure
systems may operate in dilute, dense, or some combination flow regime. Pressure
sources include fans, rotary lobe blowers, centrifugal blowers and various types of
compressors The solids flow capacity and ultimate conveying distance will be limited by
the pressure the source is able to supply. The conveying gas may be air or some inert
gas such as nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, or argon.
In vacuum systems a fan or blower is positioned on the discharge end of the system. A
vacuum is pulled on the conveying system through the pick-up (material feed) point, and
a cyclone or dust collector which disengages the solids from the flowing gas at the solids
destination. The gas is exhausted from the flowing gas at the solids destination. The
gas is exhausted from the fan or blower to atmosphere. Vacuum systems are typically
dilute phase systems using fans or rotary lobe blowers to provide the vacuum. Small
systems may use regenerative blowers as well. Dense phase vacuum conveying may be
used over short distances.
Closed systems are used to limit the make-up of inert gas or conditioned air required for
some systems. These systems can be operated in pressure or vacuum, but are typically
operated with a minimum system pressure just over ambient atmospheric pressure with
inert atmospheres. Setting a slightly positive minimum system pressure ensures that the
system will leak out, keeping air (oxygen) from entering the system. These systems can
be treated the same as the pressure system, except that the fan, blower, or compressor
discharges through the system, ending at the suction, instead of exhausting to
atmosphere. System pressure is controlled by bleeding excess gas and adding make-up
at the system minimum pressure point, typically at the fan, blower, or compressor
suction. Temperature is controlled by an aftercooler at the discharge of the fan, blower
or compressor. It is important in designing closed loop systems that the design
pressures of bins, hoppers, silos, and solids disengagement equipment such as cyclones
and dust collectors be considered carefully. Typically such equipment is a very low
design pressure (-4" W.C. to +12" W.C.). Locate bins, hoppers, and silos at or near the
system low pressure point in order to minimize the required design pressure. Dust
collectors and cyclones are readily available with design pressures up to +100" W.C., but
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typically are limited to 30" W.C. All these vessels and equipment may be designed for
much higher pressures at much greater expense.
Combination (vacuum/pressure) systems use vacuum on the feed end of the system,
and pressure on the discharge end. Low pressure systems using fans may at times pass
solids along with the gas through the fan. Material handling fans are prone to high
maintenance due to wear. Most combined systems require a rotary lobe blower, which
cannot tolerate particulates. The material is filtered through a dust collector, and then
re-fed to the pressure side of the system.
Pneumatic conveying systems are broadly divided into dilute and dense phase systems.
8.3.1 Dilute Phase Systems
In dilute phase systems a material feeder introduces solid particles into a gas
stream, which is either created by a source of positive air pressure, or induced
by a source of vacuum. The kinetic energy of the airstream is converted into
dynamic pressure and aerodynamic lift, and the particles are fluidized and
accelerated to form a suspension. The mass ratio of solid-gas in the suspension
defined as the phase density, is less than 10:1. At the destination the particles
must be separated from the gas stream.
A variety of mechanisms may be used for feeding the material into the gas
stream. Rotary valves are the most common, although blowing seals, venturi
feeders and screw feeders have also been used. Material feeders are potential
sources of gas leakage from the system and their influence upon system
selection and design is discussed in Section 8.4.4.
The gas-solid separation devices used include cyclones, fabric filters and, in
some applications, elutriators. The selection of separation devices is primarily
dependent upon the product characteristics, as discussed in Section 8.4.6.
The minimum conveying velocities required to achieve dilute phase flow are
typically in the range 13-15 m/sec. Volumetric expansion with declining pressure
along the pipe may therefore yield conveying velocities of the order of 40 m/sec
at the outlet. Most bulk solids can be conveyed in the dilute phase mode; the
effect of particle characteristics and size distribution upon the suitability for dilute
and dense phase conveyance is critical.
Figure 8-5a shows dilute phase flow at velocities slightly above the minimum
conveying velocity; a strand of particles skips along the bottom of the pipe, whilst
the particles above this region are in fully suspended flow. Figure 8-5b illustrates
flow at higher velocities where the particles have formed a completely uniform
suspension.
Dilute phase systems may be broken down into the following categories:
Positive pressure systems

Vacuum systems
Combination vacuum-pressure systems
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Figure 8-5
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They may be further divided into open and closed systems.
a. Positive Pressure Systems
Positive pressure systems involve a gas mover forcing gas through a

pipe into which the product is introduced, fluidized and accelerated. At
the destination a gas-solid separator removes the bulk solid from the
gas. Positive pressure systems usually have a pressure not exceeding
14.5 psig/1 barg and utilize either:
Axial or centrifugal fans; or

Twin lobed or positive displacement blowers
Air mover selection is discussed in Section 8.4.5.
Positive pressure systems are especially suited for delivery to multiple

destinations. Diverter valves may be used to select the direction of flow
from several alternative routes. Positive pressure systems are not
recommended where several sources feed the same conveying line via
rotary valves, because the air leakage (and energy loss) through the
valves can be significant compared to the total air volume required for
conveying.
A simple positive pressure system is depicted in Figure 8-6.
b. Vacuum Systems
Vacuum systems operate according to the same principle as positive

pressure systems, except the solids are conveyed by an air flow induced
on the suction side of the air mover see Figure 8-7. Centrifugal fans or
twin-lobed rotary blowers are usually used in such systems. The
conveying line pressure drop for vacuum systems is limited to 7 psia/0.5
bara max. (there will be additional pressure drop due to the gas solid
separation equipment). As a result they cannot achieve the throughputs
or distances possible for an equivalent positive pressure system. The
lower air density in vacuum systems means piping and equipment are
generally larger than for pressure systems with the same conveying rate.
Feed hopper walls are thicker when they are subjected to vacuum.
Properly feeding the conveyor from the hopper reduces the potential for
hopper wall collapse. Vacuum systems need complex pipework and
isolation valves. Vacuum systems are less commonly found in multipoint
discharge systems because they are more prone to "make up" than
positive pressure systems.
Despite such disadvantages vacuum systems are ideally suited for a

variety of uses, such as vacuuming up material from stockpiles, ship
unloading, and cleaning up product spills. Vacuum systems have been
successfully used in multipoint discharge systems in batching
applications such as with dry ingredients or micro-ingredient blending.
Each receiver is manifolded to a common vacuum source and has its
own vacuum valve. The number of receivers that can be on-line
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Figures 8-6 and 8-7
POSITIVE LOW PRESS & VAC SYSTEM
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simultaneously is limited only by the vacuum source size. They are

superior to positive pressure systems for transferring product from
several sources to a single destination. Leakage across rotary valves is
relatively insubstantial when compared with positive pressure systems
because of the small pressure differential across the valves when in
vacuum service. The fact that leakage is inward is also advantageous,
enabling the handling of toxic, odorous or radioactive materials.
Air ingress must be prevented if it at all possible. However, at many

points it is probably unavoidable (e.g., at flexible piping sections used in
ship unloading). Air ingress will alter the balance of conveying air
velocities and must be accounted for in the specification of the air mover.
c. Combination Vacuum-Pressure Systems
Combined vacuum-pressure systems have the advantage of being

suitable for transferring product from multiple sources to multiple
destinations. The source hoppers may be isolated by knife gate valves,
the destinations selected by diverter valves. There are several types.
The air mover serves as both an exhaust and blower. Particle
degradation and erosion make it unwise to convey the product through
the air mover, although this has been done in some applications. As
single blower "pull-push" systems tend to be undersized, they have a
history of being heavy maintenance items. On no account should
product be passed through a Roots type or a Gardner Denver (PD lobe
type) blower. Instead it should be bypassed using an intermediate
storage hopper with its own filter and feed device as depicted in
Figure 8-8 and Figure 8-8A. Conservatively size the air mover,
especially when using fans, and also ensure low air-to-cloth ratios in the
filters.
Dual combined systems separate the positive and negative pressure

system by means of an intermediate vessel and enable the optimum
equipment item for each service to be specified. Selection of a liquid
ring vacuum pump and a screw or reciprocating compressor, instead of
the single twin-lobe rotary blower usually used in single systems, would
enable transport over a greater distance. A schematic of a dual
combined system appears in Figure 8-9 and Figure 8-9A.
The different pressures in the two parts of the system influence the air
volume and therefore velocity; the different air densities influence the
minimum conveying air velocities. Therefore, for an equivalent solids
flowrate, different pipeline diameters may be required in the two different
parts of the system.
d. Closed Circuit Systems
Most pneumatic conveying systems draw air from the atmosphere and
discharge it to the atmosphere (via appropriate filtration equipment to
protect the air mover from damage, the product from contamination and
the environment from pollution). This arrangement is adequate for most
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Figure 8-8
"PULL-PUSH" CONVEYING, ONE PRIME MOVER
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Figures 8-8A
"PULL-PUSH" CONVEYING SYSTEM VACUUM PRESSURE WITH ONE PRIME MOVER
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Figure 8-9
"PULL-PUSH" CONVEYING, TWO PRIME MOVERS
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transport duties because the product itself is enclosed, and pollution may
be eliminated by correct design of gas-solid separators and vents.
In a closed system the discharge gas is recycled from the vent back to
the air mover suction. This recirculation of the conveying medium to
(generally air or nitrogen) reduces the demand to a small makeup supply
compensate for leakage.
Where the product characteristics dictate the use of a conveying medium

other than air, economic considerations will favor conservation of the gas
in a closed system. If the product is explosive in air, or would be
contaminated/degraded by exposure to air, an alternative medium must
be used. Nitrogen is the most common alternative medium. Other
circumstances which may necessitate the use of a closed system include
the transport of radioactive, toxic or odorous products. The effect of the
product characteristics and of the conveying medium on system
selection is discussed further in Section 8.4.
8.3.2 Dense Phase Systems
The British Standard draft definition is as follows:
"Dense phase conveying occurs when products are conveyed

through all or part of the pipeline with air velocities lower than
those required for dilute phase conveying and at phase densities
equivalent to those found in fluidized flow". The phase density is
defined as the solids-to-gas loading ratio by weight.
Dense phase systems usually operate at pressures in the range of

15-90 psig/1-6 barg, with gas velocities of typically 3-33 ft/sec/1-10 m/sec. Initial
gas velocities and velocities at the exit greater than 10 m/sec have been
observed. Streams with phase densities of 40 and above are considered to be in
dense phase flow. Systems operating at phase densities up to 300:1 have been
designed.
Dense phase systems have several advantages over dilute phase systems.
They are generally more efficient, achieving higher product throughputs at lower
gas flowrates and thereby reducing energy costs. The tendency for particle
breakup is also reduced at lower gas flowrates. The lower volumetric flowrates
enable the use of smaller air movers, piping sizes and separators. Higher
pressure operation enables conveying over much greater distances (than the few
hundred meters attainable by dilute phase systems) with some dense phase
systems transporting product as far as 3,000 m.
In most dense phase systems solids are fed to the conveying pipe using a vessel
called a "blow tank" or transporter. Blow tanks/transporters usually operate at
pressures above 1 barg; in such cases they must be designed according to the
ASME code for Pressure Vessels, Section VIII, Division 1. They, together with
the required instrumentation and control, are therefore a relatively expensive
component. Similarly, the higher pressure means that the Roots type blowers
common in dilute phase applications are usually inadequate for dense phase
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systems. Instead more expensive compressors must be used, unless the gas
consumption is low enough to be accommodated by the plant air system. The
transport mechanism at such low velocities is shown in Figure 8-10. In horizontal
flow (a) Particles are metered into the pipe and remain on the bottom because
the air velocity is too low to overcome the frictional resistance, R. (b) the particle
dune increases in cross section as more particles are fed into the pipe. As the
height of the dune increases so does the air resistance force, W. (c) the dune
moves in the direction of air flow and spreads out and other dunes collide with it
forming a larger dune. The pipe cross section is reduced, the velocity increases
and the dune moves along the pipe.
In vertical flow (a) an individual particle settles when the air velocity v falls below
the terminal velocity WS of the particle. (b) the pressure of more particles in the
same cross section of pipe reduces the gas flow area and therefore increases
the velocity. (c) when a sufficient number of particles are present the effective
air velocity between the particles exceeds the terminal velocity, WS, and the
group of particles is lifted. (d) in effect, when conveying bulk granular solids, a
slug flow pattern develops.
Unlike dilute systems, many materials cannot be successfully conveyed in the

dense phase. The particles most suitable for dense phase conveying are those
with a narrow particle size distribution and good air retention properties.
Granular products, especially those with a high percentage of fines, generally
cannot be transported in the dense phase because their low permeability leads to
blockages. Theoretical modelling of dense phase flow behavior is extremely
difficult and for reliable design the use of test rigs and scale up techniques is
essential.
a. Blow Tank/Transporter Systems
1. General Principles
The most common type of dense phase system is based on the

blow tank or transporter. Essentially a blow tank/transporter is a
pressure vessel which is charged with material, pressurized and
discharged batchwise into a pipeline. The filling and discharging
cycle must then be repeated. While it is inherently a batch
process it may be adapted for continuous operation by using
twin pressure vessels either in series or parallel, as discussed
below. When specifying batch systems, however, state the
average pseudo-continuous rate required as such to the vendor
who will recommend the approximate blow tank system size and
cycle time.
2. Single Plug Blow Tanks
3. The simplest form of blow tank, Figure 8-11 only has valves to isolate
the tank from the supply hopper and the vent line. The blow tank
starts to pressurize as soon as the vent line is closed, and both the
tank and line must be pressurized before any material is delivered.
The material is pushed into the line as a
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Figure 8-10
DENSE PHASE SYSTEM TRANSPORT MECHANISM AT LOW VELOCITY
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Figure 8-11
SINGLE PLUG BLOW TANK
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single plug, usually via a bottom discharge. No separate

conveying air is used and fluidizing air is not usually supplied to
the vessel. Towards the end of the cycle the tank and line must
be depressured to enable charging of the tanks for the next
cycle. The time spent pressurizing and depressurizing the
system reduces the proportion of the cycle that is spent actually
conveying product. Therefore, to achieve a given time-averaged
transfer rate the actual transfer rate must be higher
(Figure 8-12). The ratio of the mean to peak transfer rates may
be increased (thereby reducing the peak transfer rate required to
achieve a given mean transfer rate) by:
Increasing vessel size
Fitting valves to the discharge line and (if fitted)

supplementary air line
It is desirable to reduce the peak transfer rate required to meet a

given service because it is this rate that provides the sizing basis
for the equipment.
By increasing the vessel size and hence the amount of product

conveyed per cycle also increases the proportion of the cycle
spent conveying. A balance must be met between the rate
cycling and the blow tank/transporter size.
The fitting of valves to the discharge line and supplementary air

supply line (if fitted) enables rapid pressurization and
depressurization. The tank may be rapidly pressurized if all the
air available is used and discharge is prevented until the required
steady state pressure is reached. Depressurization time is
reduced by isolating the tank from the conveying line, closing the
discharge line valve and opening the vent line valve immediately
upon its emptying. This is also advantageous because it
prevents the large volume of air in the blow tank from rapidly
expanding through the conveying line once the plug has been
discharged from the pipeline. The very high air velocities that
otherwise result could cause severe erosion problems during this
pipework venting process and subject bends (especially blank
tee-pieces) to very high forces; pipework must be well supported
in such circumstances. The "rapid expansion" problem does not
exist in systems that have been designed to maintain product in
the line between blow tank/transporter fillings.
The air supply used to pressurize the blow tank is usually also
used to fluidize the tank contents and thereby facilitate
discharge.The fluidizing membrane is usually porous plastic,
porous ceramic or filter cloth sandwiched between two
perforated metal plates or rubber "pulsers." A secondary air
supply is frequently fed into the conveying line just downstream
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Figure 8-12
MATERIAL FLOWRATE AGAINST TIME FOR A SINGLE PLUG BLOW TANK SYSTEM
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of the tank. More recently, however, 80-90 % of the air is fed

along the total length of the line. This supplementary air is
useful if the material has poor air retention properties, and is
essential for good control. Where the secondary air supply is
fed into the conveying line just downstream of the tank, the
discharge rate may be controlled by proportioning the air supply
between the fluidizing and supplementary air lines (Figure 8-13).
Increased product flow is obtained by increasing the

fraction of the total gas rate that is supplied to the blow
tank.
Reduced product flow is obtained by increasing the

fraction of the total gas rate that is supplied as
supplementary air.
Blow tanks/transporters may be classified as top discharge or

bottom discharge, depending upon the direction in which the
product is discharged. Top discharge tanks have an internal
discharge pipe positioned above the fluidizing membrane
(typically by 1.2 in/30 mm for powdered materials) as shown in
Figure 8-14. Top discharge tanks achieve the highest feed rates
and enable better control; they are best suited to fluidizable
powders with low air permeability and good air retention
properties. However, with top discharge tanks the contents are
never completely discharged. If complete discharge is essential
(e.g., for conveying accurately weighed batches or if
contamination between different batches must be avoided)
bottom discharge operation is necessary.
Bottom discharge tanks used not to have fluidizing membranes;

the material being gravity fed into the pipeline. Current designs,
however, have fluidizing membranes. They are recommended
for granular materials for which top discharge is unsuited
because the high permeability may preclude build up of sufficient
lift.
The pressure drops across the discharge section of blow tanks

must be accounted for in specification of the air mover. In
general,
Bottom Discharge Tanks < 1.5 psi/0.1 bar

Top Discharge Tanks > 1.5 psi/0.1 bar
Large top discharge tanks may have the pressure drop reduced
by removing the mixture from the side.
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Figure 8-13
AIR SUPPLY PROPORTIONED BETWEEN THE FLUIDIZING AND

SUPPLEMENTARY AIR LINES TO IMPROVE CONTROL
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Figure 8-14
TOP DISCHARGE BLOW TANK SHOWING INTERNAL

DISCHARGE PIPE POSITIONED ABOVE FLUIDIZING MEMBRANE
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4. Pulse Phase ("Air Knife") Systems
A pulse phase system involves a blow tank discharging a stream

of material into the conveying line. Intermittent timed air
injection from an "air knife" at the pipe entrance divides the
stream into a series of discrete plugs as illustrated in Figure
8-15. For powdery materials with poor air retention properties a
long plug will tend to block the pipeline. By chopping the
material into shorter plugs the friction between the particles and
the pipe wall is reduced and blockage may be avoided. The
main problem with conveying materials of this type occurs in
vertical pipes where the material does not form plugs, and the air
velocity is below the choking velocity; the material builds up and
chokes the pipe. Layout is particularly influential in this situation.
The use of short risers will enable plugs to build up and then be
conveyed as a mass-flow slug when the pressure differential
exceeds the frictional forces and gravity. Some authorities (e.g.,
Krambrock, 1983) have questioned the utility of this mode of
conveying, asserting that the transport of compact plugs requires
significantly larger forces than for the transport of material in
duning flow mode.
This use of timed pulse air injection has been recommended for
products with the following characteristics:
Granular/plastic pellets
Narrow size distribution
High air permeability
Low air retention
It should be noted that fine materials with very low air retention
characteristics may be unsuitable for dense phase flow
altogether.
In designing such a system, the air knife must be located

sufficiently close to the blow tank to ensure that the discharge
line pressure drop is not excessive, but far enough from the tank
to avoid impeding the plug formation.
5. Plug Control Systems
Numerous proprietary dense phase systems have been

developed for transport of solids at very low velocities over long
distances, based upon various means of controlling plug
formation to avoid blockage.
Three approaches have been used in the design of plug control

systems:
Plug Prevention with Injection of Secondary Air

Plug Elimination using Bypassing Air
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Figure 8-15
PULSE PHASE ("AIR KNIFE") SYSTEM

DIVIDES THE STREAM INTO DISCRETE PLUGS
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Plug Prevention using Controlled Secondary Air
Plug Prevention with Injection of Secondary Air
Secondary air may be supplied along the length of the conveying

line either via a perforated tube or via a bypass (Figure 8-16).
This may fluidize the product and help prevent plugging. If
however a plug does manage to form, the air will follow the path
of least resistance into the line, entering downstream of the plug
without affecting it. Over longer conveying distances the air
velocity increases excessively due to expansion of the gases
resulting in a higher pressure drop and air consumption unless
the pipeline size is stepped up appropriately.
This method is best suited to transporting readily fluidizable

materials at high solid- gas ratios.
Plug Elimination using Bypassing Air
The conveying pipe may be fitted with either an internal or

external bypass, as shown in Figure 8-17. During normal
operation little air flows through the branch pipe. When a plug
forms air will bypass it until it has reached the point in the plug
where the air pressure exceeds the resistance by the
downstream section of the plug. In this way the plug is split into
sections, disintegrating progressively from the downstream to
upstream end.
This system enables very low velocities to be used for the

transport of free flowing bulk materials. It is especially useful for
powdery and pulverized materials with low air permeability and
high air retention. An external bypass may be used if the
material is damaged by an internal bypass. It cannot be used for
fine cohesive product because the bypass would become
plugged. Abrasive solids also create problems by severely
eroding the bypass, in which air velocities are relatively high.
Plug Prevention by Controlled Secondary Air
This system is designed for the transport of fine,

adhesive/caking bulk materials at very low air velocities. To
keep the pressure and conveying velocities as low as possible,
solids plugs must be quickly detected and destroyed without
increasing the conveying gas volume. Air boosters are
positioned either at strategic locations (i.e., bends) along the
conveying line, or at regular intervals 10-50 ft/3-15 m apart
depending upon the materials being conveyed (Figure 8-18).
They sense the pressure at each stage and adjust the booster
pressure downstream to keep the material flowing and prevent
back pressures in the system from developing. Booster
valves-unlike bypass systems - add air to
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Figure 8-16
PLUG PREVENTION WITH INJECTION OF SECONDARY AIR
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Figure 8-17
PLUG ELIMINATION USING BYPASSING AIR
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Figure 8-18
PLUG PREVENTION BY CONTROLLED SECONDARY AIR
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the line and therefore increase the conveying air velocity. The
valves only admit air when and where it is required.
Such systems, if properly designed for an appropriate product,

offer low maintenance and long service life despite their relative
sophistication.
5. Continuous Operation Using Dual Blow Tanks
Single blow tank systems operate in a batch mode. As

discussed above, to achieve a given time-averaged product
flowrate, a higher rate must prevail during the steady-state
section of the cycle. The pipeline diameter and air requirements
must be based upon this higher rate. The use of dual blow tanks
enables almost continuous operation and the time-average
flowrate approaches the steady state flowrate. As a result, the
pipeline diameter, air requirements etc., are lower than for single
blow tank systems - although a second pressure vessel is
required. The cost may still be competitive with that for single
blow tank systems because the continuous nature of the
operation may enable the duty to be achieved with smaller blow
tanks. In single tank systems the blow tank size tends to be
larger in order to increase the ratio of average to peak conveying
rates.
Dual blow tank systems may be configured with the pressure

vessels either in parallel or in series.
Parallel Blow Tanks
A parallel blow system is depicted in Figure 8-19. Note

that each blow tank requires a dedicated set of
discharge, vent and isolation valves. Whilst one blow
tank is being discharged, its twin is being depressured,
filled and repressured, ready for discharge when the first
tank is empty. An automatic control system is required
to ensure correct timing and sequencing. In this way
almost continuous conveying is achieved through the
shared pipeline.
For a given mass of material conveying "continuously"

uses less air as efficiency is increased, provided
adequate control logic is in place to keep the material
flowing.
Series Blow Tanks
Continuous blow tank operation may also be achieved

by two pressure tanks vertically in line beneath a supply
hopper as shown in Figure 8-20. The
intermediate
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Figure 8-19
PARALLEL BLOW TANKS
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Figure 8-20
CONTINUOUS BLOW TANK OPERATION WITH TWO

PRESSURE TANKS IN LINE BENEATH A SUPPLY HOPPER
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vessel is used as an airlock for transferring material

between them. This vessel is filled from the hopper and
pressurized to the same pressure as the blow tank
(usually by a pressure balance line from the blow tank).
The isolation valve to the blow tank is opened, the blow
tank topped up with product, and the valve closed. The
transfer tank is then vented and refilled. In this way a
continuous flow of material is maintained.
The plot plan may influence the choice between parallel

and series blow tanks, with parallel systems occupying
the most floor space but series systems requiring
substantial headroom.
b. Air Mixing Systems
Gas mixing systems handle fluidizable, pulverized, powdered and

granular materials. Gas and product are mixed at the entrance to the
conveying line, to yield high solid-gas ratios. Two types of these
systems have been developed:
1. Screw Feeder with Air Jet
A variable pitch screw feeds material from a hopper to a mixing

chamber into which high pressure air jets are directed. Material
is then discharged into the conveying line (Figure 8-21A).
Pressures up to 40 psig/2.8 barg may be achieved.
2. Air Swept Double Entry Rotary Feeders
Product trapped in the vaned pockets of a rotary feeder is mixed

directly with high pressure air entering each pocket through air
ports built into the end bells of the feeder (Figure 8-21B). The
pocket of material is then blown into the pipeline by the trapped
air. The system operates at pressures up to about 20
psig/1.4 barg.
c. High Pressure Rotary Valve Systems
At least one vendor offers a dense phase pneumatic transport system

based upon high pressure rotary valves instead of the usual blow
tank-type feeders. Rotary valves are available rated for differential
pressures of up to 50 psi/3.5 bar, with special attention given to
minimizing the air leakage that usually precludes the use of high
pressure systems.
Operational differences with dense phase blow tank systems include:
Product flowrate is controlled by setting the valve rotation speed,

not by splitting the conveying air into two parts.
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Figure 8-21A
SCREW FEEDER WITH AIR JET
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Rotary valve systems allow continuous conveying from a single

vessel.
Air leakage occurs from rotary valves but not from blow tanks.
This air leakage must be compensated for to ensure that the
average velocity at the end of conveying line remains constant,
even as the leakage rate changes with changing differential
pressure across the valve.
8.4 SYSTEM SELECTION AND DESIGN
The objective in undertaking the selection and design of a pneumatic conveying system
is to provide the means for the reliable and economical transfer of a given bulk material
at a specified rate over a given distance.
In selecting the most suitable system for a given service numerous interrelated issues
must be resolved - the system type (open or closed), system pressure (positive or
negative), mode of flow (dilute or dense phase), type of operation (batch or continuous),
and the types of feed and gas-solid separation systems. The key parameters influencing
those issues are the properties and conveying characteristics of the product to be
transferred and the conveying distance and layout involved.
In the "Pneumatic Conveying Design Guide" by David Mills, a method is presented which
should yield the most economical and suitable system in circumstances where there are
no constraints on selection. Client preferences and constraints such as space limitations
may limit the choices available. The guidelines below borrow heavily from Mills'
treatment of conveyor selection.
The stages in the specification of a pneumatic conveying system are as follows:
a. Select Basic Type of System (8.4.1)

b. Design Pipeline (8.4.2)
c. Select Mode of Operation (8.4.3)
d. Select Feeder (8.4.4)
e. Select Air Mover (8.4.5)
f. Select Gas-Solid Separation System (8.4.6)
g. Design Solids Storage (8.4.7)
h. Factors Affecting System Design (8.4.8)
The order of the decision stages will change as external constraints dictate that a
particular type of equipment must be included in or excluded from the selection. The
decision stages are discussed below in the preferred order (i.e., assuming there are no
constraints), although in all cases they involve a degree of iteration.
A summary of the advantages and disadvantages as well as process conditions for the
various types of systems is shown in Figures 8-22A through F.
Pneumatic Conveying Systems are being used today for products which a few years ago
would have been handled exclusively by mechanical means.
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In spite of this, however, it is still the "conventional" products which make up the bulk of
the systems installed and consequently provide the most extensive design information.
Most Pneumatic Conveyor manufacturers favor a certain method of conveying or a

certain component applied to a variety of methods. This is understandable as it is at
least an attempt at partial standardization.
We try to be impartial in our selections, but we do have a tendency to stay away from
rotary air locks unless they are definitely indicated. The following comments shown in
Figure 8-22F must, therefore, reflect our preferences and prejudices and should be used
as a guide rather than an indictment!
If the product you are interested in is not listed, ask the mechanical department for
assistance.
8.4.1 System Type
The first choices are concerned with whether an open or closed system is
required, and whether a positive or negative pressure system should be used.
a. Open and Closed Systems
The material properties usually decide whether the system should be

open or closed. Open systems are preferred because of their lower
capital cost and minimal complexity. In many cases the proper design of
gas-solid separators and vents is sufficient to prevent pollution. Open
systems should therefore be used except where a closed system is
necessary for economic, environmental or safety reasons.
Closed systems usually involve recirculation of the discharge gas back to

the air mover suction. This recirculation of the conveying medium
reduces the demand to a small makeup supply to compensate for
leakage. The volume of exhaust requiring filtration is substantially
reduced, with only a small bleed stream required. Closed systems are
best suited to continuous operation.
Closed systems are used where a closely controlled environment is

required. For instance, hygroscopic materials must be transported in dry
air and may be conveyed in a closed system to minimize the air drier
duty.
In other cases the material may react (sometimes explosively) with air,
necessitating the use of an alternative, inert conveying medium.
Nitrogen is the most common gas for this purpose. Economics usually
dictate that conveying media other than air are conserved in a closed
system. Materials with an excessive dust content may be transported in
a closed system to minimize the size and cost of the exhaust filtration
system. Toxic or radioactive materials must be transported in closed
systems and comprehensive measures taken to ensure that leakage to
the environment does not occur.
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Figure 8-22A
SYSTEM DESIGN AND SELECTION
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Figure 8-22B
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Figure 8-22C
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Figure 8-22D
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Figure 8-22E
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PROCESS MANUAL
Figure 8-22F
DESIGN CONDITIONS FOR CONVEYING VARIOUS SOLIDS MATERIALS
CONVEYING ABRASION CORROSION FRIABILITY EXPLOSION

PRODUCT METHOD PROBLEM PROBLEM PROBLEM HAZARD
CEMENT Usually Yes No None Almost Nil
pressure
FLOUR Usually No Food product - None Yes, in some
pressure watch for air/material
contamination concentrations
WHEAT & Vacuum or Mild No Yes Yes, in some
CORN pressure concentrations
SAND Vacuum or Severe No Some, if None
pressure coated
PLASTIC Vacuum or No Watch for None Yes, usually
PELLETS pressure contamination due to static
build-up
ALUM Vacuum or No Some None Slight
pressure
AMMONIUM Vacuum or No Yes Yes, if in pellet Yes
NITRATE pressure form
MALT Vacuum or Mild No Yes Yes, in some
pressure concentrations
SALT Vacuum or Moderate Yes With some No
pressure grades
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 51
PROCESS MANUAL
Figure 8-22F
LONG RADIUS TYPICAL

SEGREGATION BENDS CONVEYING USE OF ROTARY DUSTING
PROBLEM RECOMMENDED RATE 100 FT. AIR LOCKS PROBLEMS
None Steel sch. 40 pipe 40 T.P.H. thru 4" Not recommended Surprisingly
or rubber hose line @ 15 P.S.I. little, if min.
req'd. air flow
used
None Same mat'l. as 25 T.P.H. thru 4" Recommended if Yes, should be
conveying line line @ 15 P.S.I. vented adequately trapped in dust
collector
Some Steel sch. 40 pipe 15 T.P.H. thru 4" Recommended Not excessive
line @ 8 P.S.I. but dust
collectors usual
Some if coated Heavy wall rubber 10 T.P.H. thru 4" Not recommended Can be
hose or wear pocket line @ 10 P.S.I. noticeable
elbows
None Same mat'l as 10 T.P.H. thru 4" Recommended if Minimal
conveying line line @ 5 P.S.I. properly designed
Possible Same mat'l as 10 T.P.H. thru 4" Not recommended Yes
conveying line line @ 8 P.S.I.
Possible As for conveying 10 T.P.H. thru 4" Can be used Some
line line @ 6 P.S.I.
Some Steel sch. 40 pipe 7 1/2 T.P.H. thru Recommended Not excessive
4" line @ 4 P.S.I.
With some Stainless steel min. 18 T.P.H. thru 4" Can be used Yes
grades 1/8" wall line @ 12 P.S.I.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 52
PROCESS MANUAL
Figure 8-22F
REMARKS
High density (.2 to .4 S.C.F.M. 1b. of material) pressure systems usual. Pumps like viscous fluid when
aerated. Systems in use operating at 100 P.S.I. Look out if line plugs - usually must be disassembled.
Use of Rotary air locks precludes high pressure systems. If R.A.L.'s used, should be blow thru, type
for satisfactory clean out. Pressure pod systems for flour operate similar to cement systems but less
air req'd.
Free flowing product. Feeds & conveys well. Does not fluidize - must be blown thru line (1 to 2
S.C.F.M./lb. of material common). Handles equally well in pressure or vacuum system. R.A.L.
systems most common. Maximum pressure usually 8-10 P.S.I.
Abrasion biggest problem. Heavy wall pipe should be used for straight runs. High air velocities (6000
ft./min.) req'd. for sharp sands. Hose or wear pocket elbows will combat abrasion.
Air locks should have controlled feed inlet. Pressures should be kept low to minimize velocity and
temp. gradients. Special conveying lines often used to eliminate streamer formation. Conveys well.
Usually can be stopped in line and re-started.
Alum. hardens and glazes on rubbing surfaces. Air locks, if used, need large clearances. Often coats
inside of pipelines.
Usually handled in pellet (prill) form. Must be kept from contact with oil (explosion hazard). Air locks
should, therefore, have outboard bearings.
Handles well, but air flows usually kept low to minimize breakage. Otherwise, conveys similar to
wheat.
Corrosion main problem. Air locks, if used, should be stainless steel. Conveying lines usually
aluminum. Requires min. 5000 ft./min. air velocity for steady flow. Fine salt harder to convey than
coarse grades.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 53
PROCESS MANUAL
Figure 8-22F
CONVEYING ABRASION CORROSION FRIABILITY EXPLOSION

PRODUCT METHOD PROBLEM PROBLEM PROBLEM HAZARD
SUGAR Vacuum or Yes Food prod. - Some Yes, in some
pressure watch for dust concen-
contamination trations
LIME Usually Moderate Some No No
(pulverized) pressure
LIMESTONE Usually Yes Some No No
3/4" / 1 1/4" pressure
FERTILIZER Vacuum or Moderate Yes Yes Yes
pressure
SODA ASH Usually No Yes No No
(light) pressure
SODA ASH Vacuum or Slight Yes Yes No
(heavy" pressure
PLASTIC Vacuum or Slight Watch for No Yes
RESIN pressure contamination
CLAY Usually No No No No
pressure
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 54
PROCESS MANUAL
Figure 8-22F
LONG RADIUS TYPICAL

SEGREGATION BENDS CONVEYING USE OF ROTARY DUSTING
PROBLEM RECOMMENDED RATE 100 FT. AIR LOCKS PROBLEMS
Some Stainless steel min. 30 T.P.H. thru 6" Can be used but not Yes
1/8" wall line @ 6 P.S.I. recommended
No As for conveying 30 T.P.H. thru 4" Possible Yes
No Sch. 40 steel pipe 28 T.P.H. thru 5" Not recommended Yes
line @ 6 P.S.I.
Yes Sch. 40 pipe 18 T.P.H. thru 4" Not recommended Yes
line @ 12 P.S.I.
No As for conveying 18 T.P.H. thru 4" Possible Yes
Yes As for conveying 12 T.P.H. thru 4" Possible Yes
Some Stainless steel min. 7 1/2 T.P.H. thru Not recommended Yes
1/8" wall 3" line
@ 9 P.S.I.
No As for conveying 30 T.P.H. thru 4" Not recommended Yes
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 55
PROCESS MANUAL
Figure 8-22F
REMARKS
Large clearances req'd. in Rotary Air Locks. Sugar tends to stick to blades and case. Highly abrasive
product - picks up moisture readily - should be stored in insulated bins - requires relatively high
volumes for steady flow.
Watch cloth filters - lime + moisture will crystallize some fabrics. Hydrated lime if insufficiently dried,
creates moisture problem - will coat inside of lines. Rotary air locks, if used, should be blow thru type
for good cleanout.
High air volumes, flow pressures for successful conveying. Feed often a problem due to bridging.
Can be overcome with proper design.
Usually highly corrosive - mostly in prill form which can be broken down excessively if not correctly
handled.
Material attacks copper and copper alloys. Otherwise, handles well in high density, high pressure
system.
Usually required to have minimal breakdown after handling. Degradation of particle size can be limited
to 2% if properly handled.
Usually calls for alum., stainless steel or epoxy coated components to prevent contamination. Air
locks not recommended due to material fusion to tips and case, due to rubbing action. Doesn't absorb
moisture - can be stored in uninsulated bins.
Fluidizes. Some types tend to coat inside of lines. Must be aerated for proper flow from bins.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 56
PROCESS MANUAL
b. System Pressure
The choice between the following systems must be made:
Positive pressure systems

Negative pressure (vacuum) systems
Combined negative-positive pressure systems
Dual combined systems
The distinctions between those systems were described in Section 8.3.

To briefly summarize:
Positive pressure systems are:
Suited to the widest range of solids feeders.
Capable of long distance conveying at high operating pressures.
Ideal for feeding multiple destinations from a single source via

diverter valves.
Inadequate for feeding from multiple sources in series because

air leakage across several solids feeders may be excessive.
Advanced dense phase systems (e.g., pulse phase and plug

control systems) are capable of transferring many products that
are unsuited to conventional dense phase transport. They are
especially suited to low velocity transport of friable/abrasive
products, offering lower operating costs but at a higher initial
capital cost.
Negative pressure (vacuum) systems are:
Ideal for drawing product from multiple sources because air

leakage across the feeders is minimal.
Inward leakage prevents the escape of fines, dust etc., an

essential requirement when transporting toxic or radioactive
products.
Limited in pressure differential and conveying distance.
Combined negative-positive pressure systems are:
Ideal for transferring a product from multiple sources to multiple

destinations.
Limited in pressure differential and conveying distance.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 57
PROCESS MANUAL
Dual combined systems are:
Able to convey over greater distances than normal combined

systems.
More efficient than combined systems because the duty is split

into a positive and negative half, enabling the optimum blower
and exhaust types to be specified for each half.
c. Other Design Considerations
Other considerations include system leakage, and system layout.

Leakage, either into vacuum systems or out from pressure systems,
must be added to that required for conveying when sizing the gas
supplier. Diverter valves and rotary valves all leak through the seals.
Additionally, rotary valves displace gas as they rotate. Leakage in very
high pressure (>40 psig) becomes very large. Typically blow pots are
used at pressures greater than 40 psig to reduce leakage. Other leak
points (such as at flanges) also occur.
Equipment arrangement is typically dictated by the process. However,

some choices can be influenced by the requirements of the pneumatic
conveying system. Plant Design System 3-D modeling enables the
process engineer to optimize process layout including the conveying
system to minimize run lengths and numbers of sweeps, lowering the
ultimate system pressure drop, and therefore gas and horsepower
requirements. Typical guidelines for piping layout include allowing for a
minimum straight run before the first sweep in a system, or between
horizontal-to-vertical sweeps, avoidance of inclined lines, and
minimization of the number of sweeps.
A minimum distance of 200 pipe diameters or 15 feet (whichever is

smaller) is required to allow the gas and the solids to reaccelerate after a
bend or a pick-up point. Diverter valves are counted as 30 o bends.
Sub-90 o bends are ratioed directly as a fraction of the 90 o bend. While
maximum vertical runs are limited by the available pressure drop, typical
limits are about 100 ft total vertical distance for medium pressure
systems. Inclines are more complex than either vertical or horizontal
runs due to solids recycle. The maximum pressure drop (and recycle)
occurs at an incline of 45 o.
While maximum vertical runs are limited by the available pressure drop,
typical limits are about 100 ft total vertical distance for medium pressure
(<7.0 psig) systems.
Wear the conveying system and attrition of the material can be reduced
by keeping line velocities low, especially at the terminal end of the
system. Size the dilute phase system conveying lines such that the
velocity is relatively constant. Line velocities in dilute phase systems
should be maintained above saltation, but below 6,000 ft/min
(9,500 ft/min is maximum).
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 58
PROCESS MANUAL
A brief description of common design errors follow.
d. Common Design Errors
1. Change in the layout or piping arrangement adds bends or

length after the pressure drop calculations have been completed.
Pressure drop calculations must be re-checked after detail
design is completed.
2. Extra pressure drop not accounted for the use of scored or

roughened pipe or for corrugated hose.
3. Selection of a centrifugal blower for which the design point is on

the "flat" portion of the head vs. capacity performance curve,
resulting in a radically reduced gas flow for a small increase in
the pressure drop due to slight saltation or slightly increased
solids feed rate. Solids feed rate may vary due to non-uniform
bulk density.
4. Insufficient straight length between solids feed point and

downstream bend, resulting in a failure of solids to accelerate
before reaching the bend and leading to the plugging of the line.
5. Increase in diameter of the downstream pipe to reduce pressure

drop without adequate attention to maintaining the conveying
velocity above saltation velocity.
6. Design gas flow rate insufficient to handle peak solids feed rate,
as from a rotary valve - especially if it is oversized and
slow-running.
7. Dust collector undersized for peak gas flow rate, especially for
the tank and line clearing step of a blow tank dense phase
system cycle.
8. Failure to provide control interlocks to ensure that the blower is

operating when the solids feed is begun, and remains operating
for a period after the solids feed has ended.
9. Installation of upward inclined sections of pipe resulting in

saltation, high pressure drop, and plugging.
10. Taps not provided to permit checking of conveying gas line

pressure or velocity during system troubleshooting.
11. The system has too many diverter valves, feed points, or
discharge points making the system difficult to troubleshoot due
to complexity.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 59
PROCESS MANUAL
12. Centrifugal blower has a head vs. capacity characteristic that

overloads the motor when no solids are flowing, pressure drop is
small, and gas flow is large.
13. Poorly sealed diverter valves leak gas into or out of the
in-service branch, or leak solids into the out-of-service branch.
14. Shutoff valves used in place of diverter valves and improperly

arranged so that a pocket of solids accumulates against the
closed valve.
15. Sight glasses omitted, hindering inspection, operation, and

troubleshooting.
16. Conductive jumpers not provided for non-conductors such as

sight glasses or pipe connectors, resulting in an explosion
hazard due to accumulation of static electricity.
17. Grounding not provided for all equipment and pipe, resulting in
an explosion hazard.
18. Tramp metal not removed from the solids feed, resulting in an
explosion hazard.
19. Vacuum and pressure relief not provided for system using rotary
lobe blowers.
20. A filter is not provided on the suctions of rotary lobe blowers or

on compressors.
21. A means for pressure drop measurement across the dust

collector is not provided.
22. The level sensor is placed too high in the receiving vessel, by
ignoring the material pipeline effect (material characteristic angle
of repose). This error leads to overfilling and possible
overpressuring of the vessel or to plugging of the conveying line.
23. The placement of the receiving vessel vent too near the inlet
permits sealing off of the vent and results in overpressuring of
the vessel.
24. Ineffective auxiliary dust pick-ups for miscellaneous equipment

when tied into a conveying system due to the change in pressure
in the conveying system, depending on whether the solids feed
is on or off.
25. Conveying pipe and supports not laid out to permit easy access
for clearing line plugs.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 60
PROCESS MANUAL
26. Gas leakage across rotary valves not adequately considered in

sizing of conveyor line and blower.
27. Rotary valves are not designed for the maximum expected
pressure differential.
28. A shutoff valve was omitted above the rotary valve. This
omission requires that feed vessel be empty before the rotary
valve can be serviced.
29. Inadequate consideration given to the possible need for venting

of the rotary valve to prevent the holdup of solids above the
valve.
30. Inadequate stiffness of the rotary valve shaft, permitting

deflection, wear, and increased gas leakage.
31. Light-weight base support for the rotary valve flexes allowing
belts to slip or chains to jump from their sprockets.
32. Poor seals on rotary valves allow leakage to atmosphere or into

internally mounted bearings.
33. Dirty plant air causes plugging of solenoids or air operators on

valves.
34. Moist plant air leads to freezing in solenoids, air operators, or on

dust collector bags.
35. Moist conveying gas leads to tackiness of some solids or

freezing on dust collector bags.
36. Heat buildup in closed loop systems leads to degradation or

tackiness of solids.
37. Solids to be conveyed, especially during process upsets, have

properties (such as size, shape, or moisture content) which are
different from the design basis.
38. Abrasive characteristics of the solids not recognized at the time

of the system design.
39. Friability characteristic of the solids not recognized at the time of

the system design.
40. Corrugated flexible connections or hoses installed with the flow

in the wrong direction, leading to particle attrition.
41. Crevices at pipe joints, leading to cross-contamination in dual or

multiple service systems.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 61
PROCESS MANUAL
8.4.2 Pipeline Design
Conveying lines may be fabricated from carbon steel, refractory-lined carbon

steel, stainless steel, aluminum, flexible hose, or even glass in specialty
applications. Most chemical and plastic applications use stainless steel or
aluminum pipe. Stainless steel is favored when contamination is a concern.
Pipe used in dilute phase conveying of plastic pellets is usually dimpled or
"pinged" on the inside surface to reduce the generation of "angel hair" and
"skins." "Angel hair" and "skins" form when pellets slide along the inner pipe
surface, overheating and melting due to friction. The dimpled surface causes the
pellets to tumble, preventing overheating due to friction.
Coupling at pipe joints can be by either compression type couplings in low

pressure systems (<8 psig), or by flanged connections (gas-tight flanged
connections are recommended for closed loop systems). Welded or threaded
pipe is not recommended since all pneumatic conveying systems plug
periodically, and must have break points for cleaning out plugs. Pipe sections
are typically 20 ft. to 30 ft. long with flanged connections at the bends. Break
points are usually at the bends, especially at horizontal to vertical bends. Bends
are usually long radius (r/d = 12) sweeps, but can also be blinded tees or short
radius elbows (r/d = 1.5). Sweeps are used to minimize the losses due to
reacceleration of the gas and the solids after the bend. Minimum distances must
be allowed between sweeps, especially in horizontal to vertical changes to allow
the gas and solids to reaccelerate. Closed loop system return gas lines should
be at least twice the area in cross section over the area of the material section of
the loop.
The specification of the pipeline diameter sets the line pressure drop, and in
conjunction with the feeder and separator pressure drops, determines the air
mover rating.
To achieve the desired product flowrate over a specified conveying distance,

several combinations of pipe internal diameter and system pressure drop may be
acceptable. These parameters should be selected such that the power
requirements are minimized and any pressure limitations on the feed device are
not exceeded and the design is the most effective.
In general high pressure dense phase systems will involve relatively small bore
piping (< 3 in/80 mm) whereas low pressure dilute phase systems utilize larger
diameter piping (> 8 in/200 mm). Dense phase system pipe diameters similar to
those generally thought of as more suitable for dilute phase systems do exist.
There are two main approaches towards establishing the pipe diameter and
system pressure drop (and therefore the air supply pressure):
Mathematical models
Test data from an existing plant or test rig
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 62
PROCESS MANUAL
Vendors typically will insist on test data. They measure:
Acceptable velocities
Stall pressure
Particle breakup
Air consumption.
The vendor will optimize the system against any criteria the client wishes, such
as line size, air consumption, capital cost, material breakup, etc.
The crucial significance of material properties means that if reliable mathematical

models, or existing test data, is not available for the product to be conveyed,
then use of a test rig will be necessary to establish the conveying characteristics.
If test data is used it must be scaled to correspond to the conveying distance,
pipeline orientation, pipeline diameter and number of bends in the new design.
a. Mathematical Models in Pipeline Design
Mathematical models are only applicable to the limited range of materials

and conveying conditions for which ample data is available. The use of
models is therefore not discussed further here but a method for solving
dilute phase transportation problems are presented in Appendix II,
Section 8.7.2. If additional information is required David Mills'
"Pneumatic Conveying Design Guide" is a good starting point. Software
programs are also available.
b. Test Data and Conveying Characteristics in Pipeline Design
The characteristic behavior of any given bulk solid when pneumatically

conveyed involves too many interrelated parameters for adequate
representation using mathematical models. It is necessary to conduct
tests using the actual material to be conveyed if accurate knowledge of
the conveying characteristics is sought.
The most useful representation of the conveying characteristics of a

given material is obtained by plotting the material mass flowrate against
the air flowrate, and superimposing lines of constant pressure drop and
phase density, as illustrated in Figure 8-23 for the conveying of cement.
It is also useful to plot the conveying line inlet air velocity against the
phase density to enable determination of the minimum conveying
conditions, Figure 8-24. The conveying line inlet air velocity specified for
design should incorporate a design margin of 20 % over the minimum
conveying air velocity.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 63
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.4.1
8.4.2
Figure 8-23
CONVEYING CHARACTERISTICS FOR CEMENT CONVEYED THROUGH A PIPELINE

50M LONG, 75MM DIAMETER, HAVING A TOTAL OF NINE BENDS AT 90 DEGREES
K:\WRK090\037\345\MANUALS\PH&SB1\002-08A.SAM-03/28/1997
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 64
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
Figure 8-24
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF MINIMUM CONVEYING CONDITIONS FOR

CEMENT CONVEYED THROUGH A PIPELINE 100M LONG, 50 MM DIAMETER,
HAVING A TOTAL OF 17 BENDS
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 65
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
1. Pipeline Design Procedure
An algorithm for system design is presented in Figure 8-25. The

stages are as follows:
- Specify the Material Mass Flowrate, mp
In specifying the bulk material flowrate consider:
If operation is batchwise, the steady-state rate

required will be higher than the averaged mean.
whether the feeding device can meet the

specified flowrate.
- Specify the Conveying Distance Required, L
The conveying distance must be specified in terms of:
Horizontal distance
Vertically downward distance
Vertically upward distance
Number and type of bends
- Material Conveying Characteristics
The material conveying characteristics must be

determined by field trials or using a test rig.
- Scaling to Conveying Distance and Geometry
In scaling the conveying characteristics from the test rig

geometry to the required design:
First, scale the required distance, allowing for

vertical sections and bends.
Second, scale the conveying characteristics in

terms of pipeline diameter.
Scaling procedures are discussed in more detail in

Section 8.4.2.
- Can Material Flowrate be Achieved Satisfactorily?
Using the conveying characteristics (now applicable to

the required design) check that the required material
flowrate can be achieved for the specified pipeline
distance and nominal bore. The material flowrate may
be achieved with a range of pipeline diameters.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 66
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
Figure 8-25
ALGORITHM FOR PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEM

DESIGN BASED ON THE USE OF TEST DATA
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 67
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
The most economic combination of parameters should

be evaluated).
- Calculate Power Required
Calculate the power required using the air mass flowrate

obtained from the conveying characteristic. A value
corresponding to 20 % above the minimum conveying
velocity should be used.
2. System Rating Procedure
In rating an existing conveying system, or in evaluating a system

design proposal by a vendor, the procedure is simpler because
many of the design parameters are fixed. An algorithm for
system rating is presented in Figure 8-26. The stepwise
procedure is as follows:
- Specify Fixed Parameters
In an existing design the pipeline length, diameter and

geometry are all fixed.
- Material Conveying Characteristics
The material conveying characteristics should be

available.
- Scale to Length and Diameter Required
The conveying characteristics must be scaled to the

pipeline length, diameter and geometry of the proposed
design.
- Specify Air Requirements
The minimum air mass flowrate may be determined from

the scaled conveying characteristics, based upon the
system pressure drop. The actual air mass flowrate
specified for the air mover should incorporate a design
margin of 20 % above the minimum air mass flowrate
required for conveying.
- Specify the Material Mass Flowrate
The delivery pressure and air flowrate of the air mover

are known, so the achievable material mass flowrate
may be read from the conveying characteristic.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 68
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
Figure 8-26
ALGORITHM FOR PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEM RATING

BASED ON THE USE OF TEST DATA
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 69
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
a. Pipeline Scaling Parameters
Conveying characteristics derived from test data are widely used in

system design. If the conveying characteristics are established for the
material being conveyed in a given pipeline (i.e., the test rig), it is
possible to scale them up to a pipeline of different geometry (i.e., the
desired system layout).
In scaling from the test rig to the design case the following approach is
followed:
Bends are accounted for in terms of equipment length of straight

horizontal pipe.
Distance is scaled, in terms of equivalent length of straight

horizontal pipe.
Diameter is scaled.
Orientation (vertically upwards, vertically downwards) is scaled

in terms of the ratio of the conveying line pressure drop in
vertical pipe to that in horizontal pipe.
1. Equivalent Lengths for Bends
The equivalent lengths for bends in terms of straight horizontal

pipe ranges from about 6.6 ft/2 m in low velocity dense phase
flow to 66 ft/20 m in high velocity dilute phase flow. For this
reason it is recommended that the number of bends in a pipeline
should be minimized, especially in dilute phase systems.
The equivalent lengths are correlated in terms of the conveying

line inlet air velocity, Figure 8-27.
2. Pipeline Length
Pipeline length is scaled using the relationship:
Mp1Le1 = Mp2Le2
where:
Mp = solid mass flowrate (kg/sec)

Le = equivalent length of straight horizontal pipe (m)
and:
1, 2 = different pipelines of same diameter, air mass

flowrate and conveying line P. (NB. This criteria
ensures that the air velocities are the same in each
pipeline)
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 70
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
Figure 8-27
INFLUENCE OF PIPELINE BENDS EXPRESSED

AS EQUIVALENT LENGTH OF STRAIGHT HORIZONTAL PIPELINE
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 71
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
While the above equation may be used to scale data to either

longer or shorter pipelines, care must be taken in both cases:
Scaling to Shorter Lengths
When scaling to shorter lengths for a specified air mass flowrate

and a given pipeline P, the phase density of the material
increases as does the overall material flowrate. However, the
phase density may increase to the point where the material
cannot be successfully conveyed. This is especially likely if the
material is one of the many unsuited to conventional dense
phase conveying.
Scaling to Longer Distances
When scaling to longer distances, for a specified air mass

flowrate and a given pipeline P, the phase density of the
material decreases, as does the overall minimum flowrate.
However, the decrease in phase density may in turn cause the
minimum conveying air velocity to increase to the point where
the material cannot be conveyed successfully.
Due to difficulties in accurately calculating system Ps, a

designer may select a source pressure much greater than the
design point and drop the excess pressure across the blow
tank/transporter. This gives tremendous flexibility to account for
"unknowns" and may in the final analysis justify the extra
compressor costs.
3. Pipeline Diameter
Pipeline diameter is scaled on the basis that the material mass

flowrate is proportional to the pipe cross sectional area.
Mp2 = Mp1 (d2/d1)2
where:

d = pipeline diameter (m)
and:
1,2 = different pipelines of same length and geometry
The above equation should be used with caution as experimental

data indicates that it is only accurate to within approximately
25 %.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 72
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
The conveying air velocity at the entrance to a new

section of larger bore pipeline must not fall below the
minimum value corresponding to the phase density at
which the material is being conveyed at that point.
The lengths of the individual sections of different

diameter pipeline should be in proportion to the pressure
drop across each section, excepting the first and last
sections. The first section should be 10 % longer than
that evaluated on the basis of P ratios, the final section
shortened by this distance. This should ensure that
criteria (i) above is satisfied.
It is recommended that an enlargement section with a

6 o included angle be located at the point at which the
pipeline is stepped.
4. Pipeline Orientation
The conveying data, originally for material flowing in a straight

horizontal pipeline, has been corrected to allow for the number of
bends, and the pipeline length and diameter. It must now be
corrected to allow for flow vertically upwards and downwards in
the pipeline.
The horizontal conveying distance greatly exceeds the vertical in

most pneumatic conveying systems. The approach used is to
represent a given length of vertical pipeline by an equivalent
length of horizontal pipeline obtained using a scaling parameter.
- Conveying Vertically Upwards
Le (horizontal pipeline) = 2 X L (vertical lift)
irrespective of the conveying conditions.
- Conveying Vertically Down
The pipeline gain or loss in conveying vertically down is

dependent upon the phase density of the flowing stream.
In general, at low phase densities (< 40) the P per unit
length is less and at high phase densities (> 40) the P
per unit length is more, than for the equivalent flow in
horizontal pipe. Scaling is therefore less clear cut than
in conveying vertically upwards.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 73
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
Table 8
SCALING IN VERTICALLY DOWNWARDS CONVEYING

SYSTEMS
Allow for Vertical Downward Sections by
Phase Density Adjusting the Equivalent Length
of Horizontal Pipeline
<5 Increase in equivalent horizontal length = length
of vertical downward section
5 < < 40 Increase in equivalent horizontala

= 40 No allowance for vertically downward sections
(i.e., neglect)
100 > > 40 Reduction in equivalent horizontala

> 100 Reduction in equivalent horizontal length =
length of vertical downward section
Notes:
(a) It may be assumed in this region that the increase or
decrease in equivalent horizontal length is linearly
proportional to phase density.
Diverter Valves
Diverter valves are used in pneumatic conveying lines to route material

and air to different destinations. Using diverter valves, a single gas
source can be used to supply multiple sources and multiple destinations.
Diverter valves come in three principle types; flap diverters, tunnel
diverters, and double valves (such as ball or pinch valves). Flap
diverters use a rotating drum with one or two lines that run across the
drum. The drum is rotated to line up one path or another with the line(s).
Double valve arrangements close a valve in the closed path, opening a
new path. Flap valves are more suited to low and medium pressure
systems. Tunnel diverters are more suitable for medium and high
pressure systems, especially where dense phase, or combined dilute
and dense phase systems may be operated. Double valve systems are
used more for high and very high pressure systems. A leakage table for
flap and tunnel diverter valves is included in the course material. This
leakage, like that for rotary valves should be included in the system gas
requirements for gas mover sizing.
See Appendix 18 for a diverter valve application chart as well as a

diverter valve leakage chart.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 74
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
Pneumatic conveyor operation may be either batchwise or continuous. In some

cases process requirements dictate the mode of operation, but usually the choice
of feeder decides the issue.
Feeder selection is itself dependent upon the material properties and pressure
requirements (a function of material properties and conveying distance).
Blow tanks, for example, are usually selected either for high pressure (long
distance) duties, or where material characteristics dictate low speed transport.
Blow tanks are batch mode feeders, although the use of dual pressure vessels
may enable continuous operation, as discussed in Section 8.3.2.
Batch mode operation involves transfer at rates above the time averaged mean.
This maximum conveying rate must be estimated and used for design of the
pipeline and specification of the product feeder and air mover.
The complex interrelationship of the variables involved in pneumatic conveying

results in an iterative design procedure. The pipeline initial design, based upon
the required conveying duty, may result in selection of a high pressure drop
dense phase system. A blow tank feeder would therefore be selected; if batch
operation of the process is acceptable then the pipeline would need to be
redesigned for the maximum conveying rate.
8.4.4 Solids Feeder
Material line feeders serve to meter solids into the conveying system. These can
be either rotary valves, or some other type of feeder used in conjunction with a
rotary valve, double flap valve or a venturi eductor. Volumetric feeders meter
constant volumes of material per unit time. Bulk density must be constant in
order to maintain feedrate accuracy. Finer and more cohesive materials will vary
in bulk density more than will coarser materials. Material flow rate variances can
cause surges in the conveying systems, which can cause plugging. Fan
systems are especially prone to this kind of plugging. Volumetric feeders may be
screws, belts, vibratory pan or tube conveyors, rotary valves, or double-flap
valves. Gravimetric feeders meter constant weights of material per unit time.
Bulk density variances are still important, but less so. Gravimetric feeders tend
to be either screw or belt feeders.
Where the solids feeder to be selected is more than a railcar (for which the
engineer has no design input), the following issues must be considered in
selecting a solids feeder:
Pressure Rating
Air Leakage
Pressure Drop
Flow Control
Product Suitability
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 71
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
While the above equation may be used to scale data to either

longer or shorter pipelines, care must be taken in both cases:
Scaling to Shorter Lengths
When scaling to shorter lengths for a specified air mass flowrate

and a given pipeline P, the phase density of the material
increases as does the overall material flowrate. However, the
phase density may increase to the point where the material
cannot be successfully conveyed. This is especially likely if the
material is one of the many unsuited to conventional dense
phase conveying.
Scaling to Longer Distances
When scaling to longer distances, for a specified air mass

flowrate and a given pipeline P, the phase density of the
material decreases, as does the overall minimum flowrate.
However, the decrease in phase density may in turn cause the
minimum conveying air velocity to increase to the point where
the material cannot be conveyed successfully.
Due to difficulties in accurately calculating system Ps, a

designer may select a source pressure much greater than the
design point and drop the excess pressure across the blow
tank/transporter. This gives tremendous flexibility to account for
"unknowns" and may in the final analysis justify the extra
compressor costs.
3. Pipeline Diameter
Pipeline diameter is scaled on the basis that the material mass

flowrate is proportional to the pipe cross sectional area.
Mp2 = Mp1 (d2/d1)2
where:

d = pipeline diameter (m)
and:
1,2 = different pipelines of same length and geometry
The above equation should be used with caution as experimental

data indicates that it is only accurate to within approximately
25 %.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 72
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
The conveying air velocity at the entrance to a new

section of larger bore pipeline must not fall below the
minimum value corresponding to the phase density at
which the material is being conveyed at that point.
The lengths of the individual sections of different

diameter pipeline should be in proportion to the pressure
drop across each section, excepting the first and last
sections. The first section should be 10 % longer than
that evaluated on the basis of P ratios, the final section
shortened by this distance. This should ensure that
criteria (i) above is satisfied.
It is recommended that an enlargement section with a

6 o included angle be located at the point at which the
pipeline is stepped.
4. Pipeline Orientation
The conveying data, originally for material flowing in a straight

horizontal pipeline, has been corrected to allow for the number of
bends, and the pipeline length and diameter. It must now be
corrected to allow for flow vertically upwards and downwards in
the pipeline.
The horizontal conveying distance greatly exceeds the vertical in

most pneumatic conveying systems. The approach used is to
represent a given length of vertical pipeline by an equivalent
length of horizontal pipeline obtained using a scaling parameter.
- Conveying Vertically Upwards
Le (horizontal pipeline) = 2 X L (vertical lift)
irrespective of the conveying conditions.
- Conveying Vertically Down
The pipeline gain or loss in conveying vertically down is

dependent upon the phase density of the flowing stream.
In general, at low phase densities (< 40) the P per unit
length is less and at high phase densities (> 40) the P
per unit length is more, than for the equivalent flow in
horizontal pipe. Scaling is therefore less clear cut than
in conveying vertically upwards.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 73
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
Table 8
SCALING IN VERTICALLY DOWNWARDS CONVEYING

SYSTEMS
Allow for Vertical Downward Sections by
Phase Density Adjusting the Equivalent Length
of Horizontal Pipeline
<5 Increase in equivalent horizontal length = length
of vertical downward section
5 < < 40 Increase in equivalent horizontala

= 40 No allowance for vertically downward sections
(i.e., neglect)
100 > > 40 Reduction in equivalent horizontala

> 100 Reduction in equivalent horizontal length =
length of vertical downward section
Notes:
(a) It may be assumed in this region that the increase or
decrease in equivalent horizontal length is linearly
proportional to phase density.
Diverter Valves
Diverter valves are used in pneumatic conveying lines to route material

and air to different destinations. Using diverter valves, a single gas
source can be used to supply multiple sources and multiple destinations.
Diverter valves come in three principle types; flap diverters, tunnel
diverters, and double valves (such as ball or pinch valves). Flap
diverters use a rotating drum with one or two lines that run across the
drum. The drum is rotated to line up one path or another with the line(s).
Double valve arrangements close a valve in the closed path, opening a
new path. Flap valves are more suited to low and medium pressure
systems. Tunnel diverters are more suitable for medium and high
pressure systems, especially where dense phase, or combined dilute
and dense phase systems may be operated. Double valve systems are
used more for high and very high pressure systems. A leakage table for
flap and tunnel diverter valves is included in the course material. This
leakage, like that for rotary valves should be included in the system gas
requirements for gas mover sizing.
See Appendix 18 for a diverter valve application chart as well as a

diverter valve leakage chart.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 74
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
Pneumatic conveyor operation may be either batchwise or continuous. In some

cases process requirements dictate the mode of operation, but usually the choice
of feeder decides the issue.
Feeder selection is itself dependent upon the material properties and pressure
requirements (a function of material properties and conveying distance).
Blow tanks, for example, are usually selected either for high pressure (long
distance) duties, or where material characteristics dictate low speed transport.
Blow tanks are batch mode feeders, although the use of dual pressure vessels
may enable continuous operation, as discussed in Section 8.3.2.
Batch mode operation involves transfer at rates above the time averaged mean.
This maximum conveying rate must be estimated and used for design of the
pipeline and specification of the product feeder and air mover.
The complex interrelationship of the variables involved in pneumatic conveying

results in an iterative design procedure. The pipeline initial design, based upon
the required conveying duty, may result in selection of a high pressure drop
dense phase system. A blow tank feeder would therefore be selected; if batch
operation of the process is acceptable then the pipeline would need to be
redesigned for the maximum conveying rate.
8.4.4 Solids Feeder
Material line feeders serve to meter solids into the conveying system. These can
be either rotary valves, or some other type of feeder used in conjunction with a
rotary valve, double flap valve or a venturi eductor. Volumetric feeders meter
constant volumes of material per unit time. Bulk density must be constant in
order to maintain feedrate accuracy. Finer and more cohesive materials will vary
in bulk density more than will coarser materials. Material flow rate variances can
cause surges in the conveying systems, which can cause plugging. Fan
systems are especially prone to this kind of plugging. Volumetric feeders may be
screws, belts, vibratory pan or tube conveyors, rotary valves, or double-flap
valves. Gravimetric feeders meter constant weights of material per unit time.
Bulk density variances are still important, but less so. Gravimetric feeders tend
to be either screw or belt feeders.
Where the solids feeder to be selected is more than a railcar (for which the
engineer has no design input), the following issues must be considered in
selecting a solids feeder:
Pressure Rating
Air Leakage
Pressure Drop
Flow Control
Product Suitability
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 75
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
a. Pressure Rating
If the pipeline diameter, pressure drop and conveying mode have already
been determined, a feeder must be selected with a pressure rating
adequate for the resulting system pressure drop.
The pressure rating ranges of the major types of solids feeders are
shown in Figure 8-28. Note that some European manufacturers now
offer rotary valves rated to differential pressures of up to 50 psia/3.5
bara.
Selecting the feeder with the greatest working pressure allows use of a
smaller diameter line, only if it is matched with a higher pressure motive.
For a given diameter the feeder with the highest pressure rating yields
the maximum conveyor duty.
b. Air Leakage
Air leakage across the product feeder must be accounted for in the
specification of the volumetric rate for the air mover. Inadequate
account for air leakage may result in pipeline blockage.
In positive pressure systems air leakage across the valves (rotary or

other) may disrupt the feeding of product. In vacuum systems leakages
are usually negligible because of the relatively low pressure differential.
Regular maintenance is essential to prevent excessive leakage.
c. Pressure Drop
The pressure drop across the feeder must be accounted for in the
specification of the air mover. It is desirable to minimize the pressure
drop across the feeder - any avoidable pressure drop is a waste of
energy.
d. Flow Control
Achieving a constant steady flow of product is important; excessive

fluctuation may result in pipeline blockage. Feeders such as rotary
valves, screw feeders and gate-lock valves readily enable metering of
product. Venturi feeders require installation of metering equipment.
Blow tank discharge rates may be controlled by proportioning the flow of
air between fluidizing and supplementary air lines.
e. Product Suitability
Feeder selection must account for the nature of the product being
handled. The suitability of given feeders for various products is
discussed below.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 76
PROCESS MANUAL
Figure 8-28
APPROXIMATE OPERATING PRESSURE RANGES FOR CONVEYING LINE FEEDING DEVICES
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 77
PROCESS MANUAL
f. Feeder Types
The most commonly used types of material feeders are discussed below:
Rotary Valves
Screw Feeders
Venturi Feeders
Blow Tanks
Gate-Lock Valves
A comparison of material flowrate versus maximum conveying distance

is shown in Figure 8-29 for different types of feeders. See Table 8-1 for
more details of feeder types.
- Rotary Valves
Rotary valves are used to isolate the conveying system from

either the atmosphere, or from feeders and bins at the feed
point. Rotary valves may also function as feeders, but chiefly
isolate areas of differing pressure. Rotary valve sizing depends
on many considerations such as particle size, bulk density,
moisture content, and cohesiveness. Rotary valves must move
slowly enough to allow the pockets to completely fill, but quickly
enough to provide a continuous stream without surging. Rotary
valve pockets do not fill 100 % with material, but have a fill
efficiency depending on the material characteristics such as bulk
density, particles size, moisture and cohesiveness. Typically,
coarse materials such as plastic pellets will have high (95 %) fill
efficiencies, with maximum rotor speeds up to 30 rpm. Fine
powders (average particle size less than 200 mesh) can have
low fill efficiencies (50 % to 80 %) with rotor speeds limited to
about 15 rpm. Fill efficiencies and maximum rotor speeds vary
between manufacturers and materials.
Rotary valves usually are vented to allow displaced gas to

escape so that the solids may quickly fill the pockets. Rotary
valves usually are vented back to the top of the feed bin to which
they are attached. Most rotary valves are straight drop-through
design, but rotary valves in plastic pellet service are typically
side-entry to prevent jamming or shearing the pellets in the rotor.
In closed loop systems, it is recommended to include slide gate
valves below the rotary valve to isolate the valve from the
conveying line to avoid allowing air to enter the system during
rotary valve maintenance. The rotary valve is one area where
reliability and performance matter more than mere price. Use of
a high quality rotary valve is essential to good operation.
Rotary valves are the most commonly used material feeders for
dilute phase systems. A few vendors also offer dense phase
systems utilizing high specification rotary valves. They serve as
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 80
PROCESS MANUAL
Figure 8-30
ROTARY VALVE
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 81
PROCESS MANUAL
or pellets, shear may cause particle degradation and valve

vibration; in such cases a valve with an offset inlet should be
used (Figure 8-31a). For cohesive solids a "blow through" type
valve is necessary (Figure 8-31b) where conveying air is used to
purge the valve pockets and material entrainment takes place in
the valve. The feeding of fine fluidizable particles may be readily
disrupted by air leakage in positive pressure systems; large
granular particles are less likely to be affected.
Rotor and pocket design is also dependent upon the particle

characteristics. Rotors may be either open-ended with the
blades welded directly to the central cylindrical drive shaft; or
they may be closed-ended, with disks welded at either end of the
shaft forming enclosed pockets. Closed ended pockets are
preferred for abrasive products, to avoid wearing of the rotor
housing end plates. The pockets themselves may be either
deep, suitable for free-flowing materials that will not lodge in the
pocket; or shallow and rounded, suitable for cohesive materials.
In those mechanical designs where small abrasive particles may

intrude into bearings causing excessive wear, seal purging
should be provided. Consult vendors.
The leakage rates through rotary valves should be provided by

the vendor. The following table (8-2) may provide a first
estimate.
Table 8-2
AIR LEAKAGE THROUGH FULLER ROTARY VALVES
Feeder Size,
in/mm Leakage (SCFM/M3/hr) at given P
6 psi/0.4 bar 9 psi/0.6 bar 12 psi/0.8 bar
10/254 65/110 85/144 130/221
10 x 18/254 x 100/170 150/255 200/340
458
15/381 105/178 160/272 210/357
18/457 128/217 190/323 256/435
22/559 152/258 255/433 305/518
28/711 200/340 300/510 400/680
See Appendix 17 (8.7.17) for leakage information from rotary
valves.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 82
PROCESS MANUAL
Figure 8-31
(a) OFF-SET VALVE
(b) BLOW THROUGH VALVE
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 83
PROCESS MANUAL
- Screw Feeder
A screw feeder feeds product into an air-mixing chamber. Air

nozzles in the chamber generate an air stream which entrains
the product. They may feed against line pressures of up to
36.3 psig/2.5 barg. The discharge rate is controlled by the
speed of rotation of the screw. (The power consumption of
screw feeders is considerably higher than that of rotary valves).
They are frequently used for feeding pulverized fly ash, cement
and similar materials.
The simple (constant pitch) screw feeder is limited to use in

negative pressure systems where the pressure drop is negligible
and leakage is therefore relatively minor. Constant pitch screw
feeders are rarely used in positive pressure systems because
they provide a poor seal and allow excessive air leakage. Their
power consumption is considerably higher than that of rotary
valves.
Decreasing pitch screws may be used to feed positive pressure

systems with fine cohesive products. The decreasing pitch
compresses the material into a compact plug which forms an
effective seal. The power consumption of decreasing pitch
screws is of the order of 10 times that of a simple screw.
- Venturi Feeder
A venturi feeder consists of a reduced pipeline cross section

near the feed point. This increases the velocity of the entraining
air and reduces the pressure in the throat. Ideally, a venturi
design would result in this pressure being reduced to the
pressure at the supply source (e.g., supply hopper), which is
usually atmospheric. This ensures there is no air leakage
opposing the flow of material.
Venturi feeders are useful for cases where rotary valves may be
damaging to, or damaged by, the product (e.g., abrasive or
friable materials). The maximum conveying line pressure drop is
4.4 psi/0.3 bar, limiting their application. They are best suited to
free flowing materials (e.g., sand, coal, alumina). Separate
provision must be made for control of the feedrate.
Venturi feeders may in turn be fed by:
Belt
Screw or vibratory feeders
Supply hopper (with valves or calibrated orifice)
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 84
PROCESS MANUAL
- Gate-Lock Valves
Gate-lock valves comprise two gates in series which alternately

open and close, enabling material to pass from the supply
hopper into the conveying line where it is entrained in air
(Figure 8-32). Operation of the gates is intermittent (5-10
times/min) and the resulting flow unsteady. As a result,
relatively high gas velocities are needed to ensure that a
transient high solid flowrate does not block the line, they should
only be used in dilute phase systems.
The leakage of air outwards in positive pressure systems,

inwards in negative pressure systems, must be accounted for in
sizing the air mover. In positive pressure systems the air which
leaks past the lower gate from the conveying line must be
vented to prevent interference with the material about to flow
from the upper gate.
Gate-lock valves are inexpensive, but are the least used type of
feeder because of their low efficiency. Their lack of moving
parts makes them suitable for use with friable and (with
appropriate materials of construction) abrasive material.
- Suction Nozzles
Suction nozzles are used in negative pressure systems when

only the top surface of the material is accessible, for instance
when off-loading ships. The nozzle design must ensure that the
inlet will not become plugged with material even when the nozzle
is totally immersed in it, and that enough air is available to
convey the material once it is entrained in the line. Two air inlets
are required, one for primary air at the material pickup point, and
one (or several) downstream for secondary air as shown in
Figure 8-33.
The flow of primary and secondary air must be regulated and the
ratios must be controlled.
8.4.5 Air Mover
Conveying gas an be supplied by fans, rotary lobe blowers, centrifugal blowers, and
compressors. Fans are used for low pressure differential systems (+/-20" W.C.) with low
solids to gas loadings (0.45 to 1.3 vacuum; 1 to 3 pressure). Conveying distances are
limited (100 ft vacuum, 200 ft pressure), and the maximum throughput is 50 tons/hr.
Care must be taken in fan selection; flat fan curves will result in an unstable system
prone to surging or plugging. Fans usually meant for air handling (no solids) will have
fan curves too flat for use in conveying systems. Rotary lobe blowers are positive
displacement devices used in medium pressure differential systems (+/-7.0 psi) with
medium solids to gas loadings (2.5 to 4.5 vacuum; 3 to 13 pressure). Conveying
distances are better than for fan systems (300 ft vacuum, 1000 ft pressure), and the
maximum throughput is 100 tons/hr. Compressors are used for high pressure differential
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 85
PROCESS MANUAL
Figure 8-32
GATE-LOCK VALVE
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 86
PROCESS MANUAL
Figure 8-33
SUCTION NOZZLE, USED IN NEGATIVE PRESSURE SYSTEMS

WHERE ONLY THE TOP SURFACE OF THE MATERIAL IS ACCESSIBLE
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 87
PROCESS MANUAL
systems (up to 40 psig for continuous dense phase systems, up to 150 psig for
blow pots) with high solids to gas ratios (13 to 45 for continuous) to very high
solids to gas ratios (45 to 135 for blow pots) loadings. Conveying distances for
continuous systems are up to 3000 ft, up to 8000 ft for blow pots, with maximum
throughputs of 200 tons/hr. Some small systems can be supplied with
compressed air or other (inert) gas directly from plant systems instead of a
dedicated compressor. These are typically low rate vacuum or pressure loading
systems. Most gas movers are sources of noise; many are housed in sound
enclosures. Rotary lobe blowers usually are furnished with inlet and outlet
mufflers.
Roots-type rotary lobe blowers must be protected during startup, especially in

closed loop systems. If the blower suction is starved, the rotating lobes could
touch, damaging the blower. In closed loop systems, typically a bypass loop is
used during startup. Use of variable-speed drives is also a solution in avoiding
blower damage in rapid startup of closed loop systems.
The specification of the air requirements and selection of the air mover type is
discussed in the following sections:
a. Air Requirements
In Section 8.4.2, Pipeline Design, the following parameters were

established:
Conveying line pressure drop

Air mass flowrate
Pipeline diameter
The delivery pressure and volumetric flowrate of the air mover must be
specified.
The delivery pressure required is the sum of the following pressure

drops:
Transmission line
Feeder
Conveying line
Air filter
Safety margin
The safety margin is usually taken to be 10 %.
The volumetric flowrate is usually expressed at normal temperature and

pressure (i.e., 0 oC and 1.013 bara, 32 oF and 14.7 psia). The volumetric
flowrate for which the air mover must be rated is the sum of:
Volumetric flowrate required for conveying

Volumetric flowrate lost by leakage (e.g., through rotary valve)
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 88
PROCESS MANUAL
Volumetric flowrate declines with decreasing temperatures, so design

should be on the basis of the lowest likely temperature. Seasonal
fluctuations in temperature must be considered.
The compression effects on temperature are only of importance for

positive pressure and combined systems.
In negative pressure systems the conveying air conditions at the

conveying line inlet are always approximately ambient (allowance being
made for the inlet filter).
An ideal isentropic compression process is modelled as follows:
1

1

T2 = T1 (P2/P1)
where:
T2 = discharge temperature (oK), oK = 5 (oF + 460)

9
T1 = suction temperature (oK), oK = oC + 273
P2 = discharge pressure (psia or bara)
P1 = suction pressure (psia or bara)
and:
= Specific heat ratio (= Cp/Cv = 1.4 for air)
T2 T1
Ni = The isentropic efficiency is defined as
T2 T1
where:
Ni = isentropic efficiency,
T2* = actual air outlet temperature (oK),
and:
T1, T2 as defined above.
The following volumetric flowrate at normal temperature and pressure Vo,

in m3/sec is calculated thus:
P 1 V1
Vo = 2.695
T1
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 89
PROCESS MANUAL
where:
P1 = pressure at conveying line entrance (bar)

V1 = volumetric flowrate required for conveying (m3/sec)
T1 = temperature at conveying line entrance (oK)
The volumetric flowrate required for conveying is determined from the air
mass flowrate established in Section 8.4.2, Pipeline Design. Care must
be taken to allow for the compression effects on temperature, if
necessary.
In the USA, inlet or free air conditions for fans are 1 ATM (14.7 PSIA)
and 70oF (21.1 oC), not 1 ATM (1.01 bar) and 59oF (15oC).
- Compression Effects on Temperature
Air compressors developing pressures in excess of 2 barg

usually incorporate coolers, because isothermal compression
may be neglected.
Roots-type blowers, operating at lower pressures, do not usually

incorporate air cooling. As a result their discharge air may be at
a relatively high temperature compared to the inlet air. For
instance, a blower with a delivery pressure of 14.5 psig/1 barg,
taking suction from the atmosphere 60 oF/15 oC, will have a
delivery temperature of 194 oF/90 oC. The volumetric flowrate at
194 oF/90 oC is approximately 26 % greater than at 60 oF/15 oC.
The effect of any such temperature rise on the product and its
transport velocity should be considered. If conveying plastic
pellets for example, the formation of angel hairs would increase
appreciably at 194 oF/90 oC relative to 60 oF/15 oC and cooling
would therefore be required for process reasons.
It should be appreciated that the temperature of the flowing

gas-solid mixture is a function of both the air and material
temperatures upon feeding the system.
- Compression Effects on Humidity
Isothermal compression results in condensation and the

discharge of saturated air. If water droplets are entrained and
carried into the conveying line, or if condensation occurs in the
line, the process may be adversely effected. Hygroscopic
materials, even if they convey well in saturated air, such as
pulverized fly ash and cement, would become cohesive and a
blockage would probably occur. The product characteristics and
air humidity indicate whether removal or drying of the air is
necessary.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 90
PROCESS MANUAL
A filter is often sufficient to remove droplets suspended in the air

stream. If this is unsatisfactory and the humidity of the
conveying air must be reduced, drying is necessary.
A refrigerant drier is usually sufficient to dehumidify the air to the

degree required, cooling the stream to approximately 35.6 oF/
2 oC, removing the condensate and heating it again.
For more stringent drying requirements desiccant driers may be

used. They dehumidify the air to the equivalent of a dew point of
-40 oF/-40 oC. High operating costs mean their use should be
avoided if possible.
b. Air Mover Selection
Once the duty for the air mover has been established, in terms of
delivery pressure and volumetric flowrate, the most suitable type may be
selected.
The range of air movers commonly used in pneumatic conveying is

illustrated in Figure 8-34. Note that centrifugal compressors are not
listed among the aerodynamic machines used. They are generally
designed for very high volumetric flowrate,
(60-600 ft3/sec/100-1000 m3/min), high pressure (up to 150 psig/10 barg)
applications and are therefore unsuited to pneumatic conveying. They
are ideal for dense phase conveying which may require pressures of that
order.
The turndown requirements of the system must be considered:

approximately the same volume flow of air may be required but at a
lower pressure, in order to achieve a given reduction in the material
flowrate. In any conveying system, irrespective of turndown, the
volumetric air flowrate should be relatively invariant with changing
pressure to ensure that the minimum conveying air velocity is
maintained. As a guideline, for dilute phase systems the air mover
should maintain the volumetric flowrate to within 25 % of design with a
change of 25 % in pressure.
It is good practice to select a blower with reserve capacity to allow fine

tuning of the air velocity on start-up.
As shown in Figure 8-35 the operating characteristic for fans is not ideal for
pneumatic conveying. The air rate is very dependent upon the line pressure
drop. If the solids feedrate increases, the pressure drop increases and the air
rate drops. Beware of flat fan curves for centrifugal fans in conveying service.
A small variation in solids loading will cause the fan to go to static "no delivery"
or become unstable. As a result fans are only used for short distance dilute
phase conveying. The operating characteristics for positive displacement
machines are much steeper, making them much more suitable for pneumatic
conveying. Where fans are to be used, the fan curves should be steeper than
those used in typical exhaust or air handling service.
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Figure 8-34
THE RANGE OF AIR MOVERS COMMONLY USED IN PNEUMATIC CONVEYING
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Figure 8-35
AIR MOVER OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
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Table 8-3
AIR MOVERS FOR POSITIVE PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Air Mover Delivery Pressure Volumetric Flowrate Comments
Axial or Low Pressures

Centrifugal Fans ( 1.5 psig/0.1 barg)
Roots-type Rotary up to 14.5 psig/1 barg up to 294 ft3/sec/ Low thermo-
Blowers 500 m3/min dynamic
efficiency,
pulsating flow
Liquid Ring up to 58 psig/4 barg 0.6-42 ft3 /sec/ Inefficient
Compressors 1-70 m3/min
Sliding Vane up to 58 psig/4 barg up to 29 ft3 /sec/50 Cooling essential
Compressor single stage m3/min (water jacket or oil
injection)
Rotary Screw single stage to 2.4-412 ft3/min steady flow-air
Compressor 58 psig/4 barg, two 4-700 m3 /min receiver not
stage to 160 psig/11 required
barg
Reciprocating > 14.5 psig/1 barg up to 118 ft3/sec/
Compressors 200 m3/min
Table 8-4
AIR MOVERS FOR VACUUM SYSTEMS
Air Mover Comments

Centrifugal Fan Weak Vacuum
Roots-type Blower 400 mmHg vac
Liquid Ring Vacuum Pump single stage 600 mmHg vac
two stage 700 mmHg vac
Also note that:
1. Filters should be provided on the air mover inlet. They should be

sized to handle 150 % of the design flow.
2. Inlet and outlet silencers should be provided. They should be

located a minimum distance from the air mover.
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3. Air movers that service pressure systems shall be oil free.
4. Air movers for blow tanks must bypass the tanks or be shutdown
during the filling cycle. Short cycles favor the use of a bypass to
avoid possible overheating from frequent starting.
8.4.6 Gas-Solid Separation Equipment
The object of gas-solids separation equipment is:
To recover as much conveyed product as possible, and

To minimize environmental pollution
In general, the finer the particles to be separated, the greater the cost of the
gas-solid separation equipment. The effect of particle degradation must be
considered in specifying the separation equipment. Particle degradation may
significantly alter the particle size distribution of the material being conveyed,
increasing the fines content as shown in Figure 8-36. In some cases minimizing
the particle degradation (e.g., by minimizing particle velocity, using long radius
bends etc.,) may enable the specification and cost of the separation equipment
to be reduced.
Gas-solid separation usually is performed in cyclones and dust collectors. Other

methods include target boxes (in low velocity dense phase systems),
precipitators, scrubbers, and in-line screeners and air-classifiers in combination
with final filters of some type.
The major types of gas-solids separation equipment used in pneumatic

conveying are discussed below. Selection is dependent upon the density and
size distribution of the particles to be separated and the efficiency of separation
required.
Care must be taken to specify the filter for the maximum loadings (dust, air
flowrate) anticipated, especially with some dense phase systems, where a surge
may occur as the solid plug leaves the conveying line.
a. Gravity Settling Chambers
Suitable when the bulk material is relatively large (> 0.1 in/3 mm dia.,
density > 62 lb/ft3//1,000 kg/m3) and does not contain fine dust. In
relatively low velocity dense phase systems the product bin itself may act
as the fall-out vessel. If excessive re-entrainment of the collected
particles is to be avoided the gas velocity should decrease to
9.8 ft/sec/3 m/sec or less. If low density or fibrous materials are present
a mesh separating screen may be fitted at an angle across the direction
of gas flow.
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Figure 8-36
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION BEFORE AND AFTER CONVEYING
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b. Cyclones
Cyclones are used to remove medium to fine particulates (less than

0.4 in/1 mm dia.) and almost invariably constitute the initial gas-solid
separation step in dilute phase systems. If the solids contain or generate
dust a fabric filter must be fitted downstream. Operation at high inlet gas
velocities (up to 98 ft/sec/30 m/sec) may cause problems when
conveying friable or abrasive materials.
High throughput cyclones collect particles down to 0.003 in/80 m; high

efficiency cyclones remove particles down to 0.001 in/30 m.
c. Fabric Filters
Fabric filters are used to remove fine particles (< 0.004 in/100 m dia.),
especially those of low density. They are frequently used to supplement
gravity settling chambers and cyclones, by removing any remaining fines
before the exhaust is vented to atmosphere. In negative pressure
systems they must be used - usually downstream of a cyclone - to
protect the exhauster from the ingress of dust, especially if it is a
Roots-type rotary blower. Compressors and rotary lob blowers require
inlet cartridge filters to ensure no particles or dust enters the blower or
compressor, which may damage them.
Three main methods of filter cleaning are used:
Mechanical shaking
Reverse Air Cleaning
Reverse Pulse Jet Cleaning
The first two methods are batch processes, requiring isolation of the filter
during cleaning. Reverse Pulse Jet Cleaning occurs continuously,
without interruption of the separation process. It involves regular short
(0.1 sec) pulses of high pressure air (87-109 psig/6-75 barg) directed
down the inside of the filter tube, momentarily reversing the direction of
air flow and flexing the fabric. It is superior to the other techniques
because it results in the smallest filter size - there is no need to allocate
additional filter area to allow for downtime during cleaning. Typically air
to cloth ratios depend on the particle size, the finer the material the less
air used. For a granular material such as sugar 8 ft3/min of air is
required per ft2 of cloth; for a finer material such as talc, 2 ft3/min of air is
required per ft2 of cloth.
Useful information for filtration of particles using fabric filters is provided

in Appendix 19.
d. HEPA Filtration
In cases where the particles may pose a toxic or other health hazard,
HEPA (high efficiency particulate air filters) may be required as the final
step. By definition, HEPA filters give a particle removal efficiency of at
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least 99.97 % for 1x10-5 in/0.3 m particles. Pre-filtration should ensure

that the HEPA filters are protected from lint particles
4x10-5-8x10-5 in/1-2 m dia., and dust concentrations > 1.4x10-6 lb/ft3/23
mg/m3.
8.4.7 Solids Storage
A proper storage silo, bin or hopper must be designed to allow for free discharge,
considering the material characteristics of the particular solid. The most
important characteristics include particle size, bulk density, moisture content,
angle of repose, and cohesiveness. Inlets should in the center of the roof to
allow for even weight distribution. Steep (60o angle or better) bottom cones are
usually required to ensure discharge even with relatively free-flowing powders.
Mechanical bin dischargers, aeration devices, or specialized mass flow bottom
designs are used to prevent rat-holing and bridging from occurring in the silo and
ensure discharge. Sufficient freeboard (usually about 2 ft. over the top of the
pile) must be allowed when at the maximum fill level to account for the angle of
repose of the material. The characteristic angle of repose of the material should
be considered when choosing the location of the bin high level switch. Load cells
are also widely used to sense level in silos. Silos usually have shallow (15o
angle) cone roofs. These roofs are required only to prevent water from entering
the silo and to support the silo vent filter. Some silo roofs double as the relief
panel, or are lift-off to allow for relief in the event of dust explosions. Blending
silos are specialized silos designed to blend different grades of plastic pellets to
produce a uniform specification material. This method is used to work-off
off-grade material by blending it with good material such that the entire blend is
within specification. Blending is accomplished by gravity flow in the silo,
sometimes in combination with pneumatic recirculation loops.
8.4.8 Factors Affecting System Design
In specifying a pneumatic conveying system the following general information is

needed:
Solids material definition

Definition of system capacity
Type of system to be used
Degree of control for economic operation
Conveying equipment supplier
The first step toward designing a pneumatic conveying system to perform a

given function is to collect all the data necessary to define the system. One
equipment manufacturer requests the following list of information as a minimum
before starting his own analysis. The list is in some ways incomplete but
suggests the overall complexity of the problem.
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Basic Design Data
Plant Location
Altitude
Ambient Temperature Range
Material to be Conveyed
Type/Name of Material
Bulk Density
Particle Specific Gravity
Particle Size Distribution (Sieve Analysis)
Angle of Repose
Properties - Hygroscopic, Friable, Abrasive, Toxic,
Explosive in air, etc.
Maximum Allowable Temperature
Allowable Contamination
Conveying Data
Conveying Rate and Time

Number of Feed Points
Number of Delivery Points
Conveying Fluid
Type of Metal in Contact
Type of System
Layout and Design Data
Equipment Locations
Conveying Distance
Horizontal
Vertical
Electrical Area Classification
Control Scheme
a. Product Characteristics
One of the complexities of pneumatic conveying, as with any bulk solids

handling system, is that the properties of the solids product will
themselves strongly influence the design and performance of the system
in many ways, even to the extent of influencing the suitability of the
handled material for its own end use. It is not possible to present an
in-depth treatment of all the design factors resulting from product
properties in this manual. A summary of product properties which can
have a major effect on the selection and design of the pneumatic
transport system are listed below. These items are intended to be
representative only and are presented to suggest to the process
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engineer types of potential problems to be aware of when making a

preliminary system selection for a given product material.
If the product is new, or there is no prior industrial experience with

handling it, pilot tests should be considered as essential for establishing
proper transport design parameters. In lieu of this, and for estimating
purposes only, experience with similar materials may be used to develop
approximations for the transport properties.
1. Bulk Density, Particle Specific Gravity
These properties, together with particle size, are used to

determine the minimum velocity needed to prevent plugging in
the transfer lines. They are also used to size rotary valves and
other volumetric feeding devices. The bulk density should be
determined in a loose state. Some products will settle and
compact in storage. If the product tends to aerate, and exhibits
a lowered bulk density, then the aerated bulk density should also
be known.
2. Particle Size Distribution
Three size characteristics of the product are important, i.e., the

minimum, mean, and maximum size particles. A product with
uniform size particles will tend to be easy to fluidize and can be
expected to lend itself to dense phase as well as to dilute phase
conveying. If large size particles are to be handled in dilute
phase transport, the minimum conveying velocity must be
checked, for it may be too high to preclude line erosion. On the
other hand, a product with fine particle size will require special
attention to disentrainment from the conveying gas at the system
terminus.
3. Sliding Friction
This characteristic is important in determining the product's

resistance to flow in the horizontal portion of the transfer line.
The usual measurement which is taken is called the "angle of
slide on a steel plate". It is the "angle of repose," or the angle
that the product forms with the horizontal when it is poured into a
pile. This angle is a measure of product flowability. An angle
measured at up to 45 degrees is an indication that the product is
free-flowing; an angle above 45 degrees means that product flow
will be sluggish. Tables 8-11 and 8-12 (Appendix 9, 8.7.9,
Appendix 10, 8.7.10, respectively) and contain the characteristic
"angle of slide" and/or "angle of repose" for many common bulk
solid materials.
Under certain conditions, even materials with poor flow

characteristics can be conveyed satisfactorily. Products such as
chopped butadiene rubber (which is subject to cold flow and
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reagglomeration) can be handled trouble-free if a Venturi feeder

is used to introduce the material and it is maintained
continuously in a fluidized state.
4. Product Hardness (Friability, Abrasiveness)
The hardness of a material has a pronounced effect on system

design. A soft or friable material must be handled with extreme
care to avoid reducing it to dust. Normal speeds cannot be
used for rotary lock valves which are to be used to feed soft
materials (i.e., these with a Mohs hardness scale rating of 3 or
less. For this type of service, if used at all, the rotary feeder
should be conservatively sized and operated at very low speeds.
With dilute phase conveying of soft materials the use of

extremely long radius elbows is suggested to reduce centrifugal
forces along the pipe wall. Special receivers or oversized
cyclone collectors may also be required to reduce such forces.
Finally, deceleration chambers are needed to allow the product
to slow down before entering the terminal receiver, all the while
holding velocities to an absolute minimum.
If a given friable material can be fluidized easily, dense phase

conveying should be considered. With the much lower transfer
velocity, and the correspondingly lowered interactive friction
within the solids bed, particle destruction should be markedly
reduced.
On the other hand, the abrasive condition of a material can be

increased greatly when it is picked up in a high-speed moving air
stream. Many materials that are considered to be only mildly
abrasive can become particularly destructive to the conveying
pipe due to a sandblast effect. For example, the shell of
flaxseed is reported to be able to cut through a steel pipe elbow
with only a few days use. Rotary lock feeders are also
susceptible to accelerated wear when handling materials such as
Portland Cement, foundry sand, etc. Abrasive materials call for
the use of blow tanks or cascade valves in preference to rotary
lock feeders.
With highly abrasive solids, special attention must be paid to

fittings, etc., where solids impingement is to be expected.
Special elbows are available with square cross-sections and
replaceable backs which may be lined with rubber to reduce
abrasion. Also, special cast nickel alloy flanged bends are made
in 15 degree segments which can be bolted in series to produce
any incremental turn desired. The initial expense of this type of
design is fairly high but erosion is frequently quite localized and
only those few segments that wear out have to be replaced.
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5. Explosion Hazards
An increasing number of powders are considered to be

potentially hazardous when mixed with air. Also, some materials
may have residual flammable liquids left on them from the
manufacturing process which could be ignited during the transfer
step if oxygen is present. One example of this is polymer
products, which if not first devolatilized, will contain traces of
potentially explosive monomer liquid on its surface. In these
cases, a closed-loop inert gas system is recommended(a).
Some other chemical combinations must also be considered as

explosive in nature. For example, metal dust may react
exothermally or explode, when dispersed in either nitrogen or
carbon dioxide; and materials such as ammonium nitrate or
organic peroxides are subject to spontaneous autoignition.
Safety aspects are further discussed in Section 8.5.
6. Static Electricity
When products are known to pick up exceptionally high static

electric charges, the transfer system should be well grounded.
In addition to this, the humidity may have to be regulated and
special-elimination devices used.
7. Hygroscopic Products
Moisture often has a dramatic effect on the flow properties of

particulate solids. With the pressure of moisture much will
depend on how it is contained rather than the total amount
present. Moisture may be contained within the particle voids, as
a surface film surrounding the particles, or chemically bound as
water of formation or crystallization. Of these, the surface
moisture will have the most pronounced effect in increasing the
resistance to particle flow. The apparent mechanism is one of
particle agglomeration. High air humidity is known to have a
pronounced effect on the "flowability" of flour, salt, magnetite,
urea, etc. Dry or conditioned air should be considered with this
type of material.
A closed-loop system may prove to be effective without drying

because only a small amount of makeup air is needed and the
product itself will tend to dry the stream of recycled air.
(a)
Coal dust is an explosion hazard if the conveying gas contains more than 15 % volume oxygen
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8. Oily Products
Surface contamination with liquids other than water can also be

a problem. Products that contain more than 10 % fat or oil can
cause buildups at elbows and cyclone separators. The
centrifugal forces and frictional heat can cause the oils to move
from the particle interior to its surface and cause agglomeration.
To minimize this problem, consider increasing the radius of
curvature of the elbows and centrifugal separators.
Also, consider including provisions in the design for washing

such critical points with hot water or steam.
Trace amounts of oil can be picked up from the conveying air

stream if an oil-lubricated air blower is used. The importance of
this should be assessed prior to finalizing the conveying system
design.
9. Toxic, Odorous, Corrosive Materials
A number of product properties lend themselves to being

handled in a like or similar manner. If a material is toxic,
odorous, or corrosive and cannot be tolerated in the surrounding
atmosphere it is better handled in a vacuum system where
leakage is inward. This type of problem lends itself to a closed
loop system where the small amount of exhaust purge can be
more easily managed, and there is assurance that torn filter
bags will not allow the product to escape to the atmosphere.
10. Product Contamination
Filtration of the motive air or gas entering the system is

necessary where air laden dust may unduly contaminate a
product such as foodstuff, polymer, etc., or damage the air
blower. Typically these filters require a pressure drop of about
0.1-0.15 psi/7-10 mbar, which is not a large drop when a positive
displacement blower is to be used. However, filters must be
sized for the particular service to prevent excessive maintenance
and to retain the system's conveying capacity for a long
operating period.
In addition to dust, one must consider the potential product

contamination from blower lubricating oil. When handling
polymeric materials, such as polyethylene pellets, one must use
rotary positive displacement blowers which do not require
lubrication on the tables. If a lubricating compressor should be
used in such a service, good seals would be mandatory to
prevent the oil from entering the air stream. This also prevents
the use of such items as a Fuller-Kenyon pump or reciprocating
blowers for these services.
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11. Temperature Sensitive Products
Products which have a low melting point must be handled

carefully to avoid generating an excessive amount of frictional
heat which could cause an incipient melting or softening. For
example, individual particles of PVC resin powder are prone to
fuse or bond together from internal friction if the material is
handled roughly. PVC resin does tend to pack up in transfer
lines if not carefully handled. The fusion property is particularly
aggravated if the material is simultaneously subjected to
compacting stresses. As a result, when PVC has been
squeezed through a rotary feeder and then remelted, small black
flecks appear on the surface of the melt. The flecks are formed
as a result of the overheating/overstressing of the PVC in the
rotary feeder. As a result of this type of problem, low-velocity
dense-phase conveying is commonly used to transfer PVC but
rotary feeders are never used for this material.
12. Fibrous Materials
One can easily be misled by the visually apparent particle

uniformity of some fibrous materials and conclude that they will
convey beautifully. Flour is such a material. Flour is normally
transported with a dense-phase system and so long as it is kept
fluidized there is no problem. But if the air flow should stop the
individual fibers will tend to interlock as a massive plug and it
becomes necessary to literally drill out the lines. It is likely that
most agricultural grain products in milled form would act in a
similar manner.
b. Layout and Design Considerations
It is extremely important for the process engineer to recognize that

proper plant layout and careful attention to certain design details are
absolutely necessary to ensure trouble-free operation of a pneumatic
transfer system installation. Reference literature on pneumatic
conveying has stressed the flexibility available to the designer for the
routing of the transfer line. What is not always made clear is that
changes in flow direction (such as at elbows, bends, etc.) can represent
the largest single contribution to the system pressure drop, and
consequently to its operating cost.
The engineer or designer needs to be cognizant of particular pitfalls of

pneumatic conveying. The following is a list of items which should be
considered during the initial design and layout phase of such a system:
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1. Make the transfer line routing as direct as possible without

interference to other equipment. Use a minimum number of
bends(b). If possible, use sweeping bends to change direction
gradually.
2. Keep the distance of the piping between the blower discharge

and the first solids pickup point as short as possible and with as
few bends in it as possible.
3. Always increase the size of the air piping one or two line sizes as
necessary prior to reaching the first solids feeder. This should
prevent line erosion from too high a localized solids velocity.
4. Provide for at least 20 pipe diameters of horizontal run in the

transfer piping past the first solids pickup point before making its
first upwards bend towards an overhead pipeway. The purpose
for this procedure is to give the solids time to accelerate and
become entrained in the gas stream before they are carried up
the vertical riser.
5. One of the most potentially erosive locations in a transfer line is

where there is a sharp change in direction at the end of a long
horizontal straight run, especially near the terminal end of the
system where the fluid velocity is at its maximum. There are
several possible solutions to this problem if the solids material is
known to be abrasive.
Slow the product down. Increase the line size before

reaching the bend(c). A 10 pipe diameters length run
should be sufficient for the enlarged portion of the line.
Make a transition to a harder material for the bend than

for the straight pipe.
Use a replaceable wear plate insert in the elbow.
Consider change in layout. If possible, make line

elevation change close to the starting point and run the
line high to its destination.
Use very long radius bend(s) to make change in

direction gradually.
(b)
On a large system (8-10 in/200-250 mm diameter pipe) a single bend can add as much as
25 BHP/18.6 kw to the blower driver operating requirements.
(c)
This is said to be more popular in Europe where the metric lines are made in smaller size
increments than the ASA sizes used as U.S. standards.
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Use 304 SS for long radius ells in aluminum pneumatic

transfer systems.
6. Certain published literature shows the use of sloped lines (45-60o

from the horizontal) to convey solids to a higher elevation. This
is a dangerous practice and should be avoided. With this
configuration the solids will be thrown along the bottom portion of
the pipe, collect, and create a slugging condition accompanied
by a lot of line vibration.
7. With materials that are not too easily fluidizable and which tend
to settle out in the transfer line, consider using a reverse bend of
about 5o following the normal horizontal bend (a modified
"S" curve) to reentrain the solids into the conveying gas.
8. The ducting for pneumatic conveying systems is normally

designed for ease of replacement. Lightweight, thin wall
construction is commonly used for the straight sections of the
system. Schedule 10 steel pipe may be used with the more
abrasive materials, but aluminum is far easier to fabricate and so
is used where compatible with the product. Elbows, etc., are
usually of stainless steel even when aluminum straight sections
are used.
9. Attempt to standardize on the size and shape of elbows and

other critical parts subject to excessive wear from erosion so that
they can be used interchangeably and the spare parts inventory
can be kept to a minimum.
10. Most transfer systems do not need much structural support

because they are relatively light in weight. Couplings are used
to make up sections of the transfer line so that it can be
dismantled easily for inspection and cleaning. These connectors
allow some flexibility for line expansion; but, because they are
compression-type fittings, it is especially important to anchor the
elbows at strategic locations to prevent joint separation.
Use flanged spools in 20-30 ft runs on rack and outdoor

installations and 12-16 ft. spools indoors. This will allow better
operability and maintainability.
11. Avoid all-welded construction - especially at elbows and other

locations subject to excessive wear. Design should allow for
easy replacement of all such parts. Typically flange spools are
used; 20-30 ft/6-9 m runs on rack and outdoor installations;
12-16 ft/4-5 m runs for indoor installations.
12. Several line sizes which are considered to be nonstandard for

the petroleum industry are commonly used with pneumatic
conveying systems.
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A five inch line size is used quite often in bulk handling systems.
For example, bulk trucks which handle cement use
127 mm/5-inch conveying systems to be able to unload rapidly
(within a half hour). 32 mm/1 in and 64 mm/2 in line sizes
have also been used. These sizes are not difficult to obtain, but
their use is not necessarily recommended.
13. One design technique developed in Europe is to maintain a

relatively constant velocity in the transfer line by stepping up the
line size as the system pressure drops. This is easier to do with
metric sizes than with the much large ASA size steps, however.
14. Note ambient inlet air is not always 14.7 psia (1.01 bara).
If plant air is used, drying may be required as with instrument air.
c. Control Schemes
Control schemes for most pneumatic conveying systems are very simple
ones. Position switches are usually provided on diverter valves. Most
gas suppliers have temperature limits on both suction and discharge.
High temperature shutdowns or alarms are not typically required for
suppliers unless the system is a closed loop. Some materials are heat
sensitive at normal supplier discharge temperatures. Some blowers and
compressors have very high exhaust temperatures due to heat of
compression (approx. 13 oF per psi of compression). Aftercoolers are
typically required on rotary lobe blowers in plastic pellet conveying
applications. The discharge temperature would then be controlled to
remove this compression heat. High pressure (or high vacuum) can be
used to signal a line pluggage. Closed loop systems control the
minimum pressure in the loop to minimize gas make-up rates. Pressure
relief is required to protect silos, bins and hoppers, which are designed
for very low pressures (12" W.C. or lower). Explosion panels are usually
included on cyclones and dust collectors. Another consideration is for
controlled start-ups especially for closed-loop systems. It is important
that rotary lobe blowers not experience large pressure differentials at
start-up; pulling a vacuum on the suction of a rotary lobe blower at
start-up could cause the rotor lobes to touch, destroying the blower.
Typically a bypass is provided for start-up in constant speed blowers, or
variable speed drives may be employed.
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8.5 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
8.5.1 Introduction
Pneumatic conveying can be used for various applications, including powder

handling. The possibility of dust explosion must be a consideration during the
design of a pneumatic conveyor, because of the high concentrations of dust
present. Typically the minimum concentrations in air for an explosion to occur is
in the range of 6x104-0.03 lb/ft3/10-500 g/m3. Although every effort should be
made in the design to eliminate ignition sources and prevent electrostatic sparks,
some unforeseen ignition sources must be anticipated. The majority of dust
explosions are caused by unknown ignition sources.
The conveying pipe can be designed to withstand the explosion pressure.

However, at the delivery point the conveyor will be discharged into a collecting
vessel or silo with associated air separation equipment (filters or cyclones),
which will require explosion protection. In the event of an explosion the conveyor
and feed should be shutdown.
Where the conveying pipe is not strong enough to withstand an explosion, the
conveying would have to be carried out using an inert conveying medium
because venting would be impracticable.
Pneumatic conveying systems generally offer greater safety to operators than

any other type of bulk handling system. They are cleaner, offering less exposure
to operators. Typically dust explosions do not occur in operating pneumatic
conveying lines. The reason for this observation is two-fold; first, the material
loading is usually higher than the upper explosion limit, and second the velocity is
usually too high for flame propagation (i.e., it blows itself out). The four
requirements for a dust explosion include: 1) dust must collect in the facility,
2) dust must be suspended in air at a concentration above the lower explosion
limit, 3) the dust suspension must be ignited, and 4) sufficient dust to sustain
combustion must be in close proximity to the ignited dust. Static electricity and
motors or switch gear not designed for dusty environments are prime ignition
sources. Explosion vents are typically used to protect equipment, but must be
vented outside buildings or other enclosures to prevent secondary explosions
from ordinary nuisance dusts which may accumulate due to poor housekeeping.
Explosion suppression systems have also been used, but care must be taken to
ensure that the devices do not discharge undetected. If this happens, the next
explosion may not be suppressed since the device will already have discharged.
Closed loop systems have even lower explosion risk when an inert atmosphere is
used. In destination silos, bins, hoppers, and dust collectors it is another story,
especially when the system is not operating. During times when the system is
not operating, conditions could occur to cause a dust explosion. Equipment and
piping must be thoroughly grounded even at sight glasses and hose connections,
and explosion relief panels must be furnished. Atmospheric inerting may be
insufficient as the system could be exposed to air during maintenance. One
must then remove the fuel, or provide a fire control system (sprinklers) to satisfy
the NFPA code. Information from a number of sources on the relative
explosiveness of some materials is included in 8.7.26 - Appendix 26.
Additionally, a list of materials and their relative explosiveness is included in the
SECTION 8.0
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reading file from the U.S. Bureau of Mines (1961). This manual gives a detailed
method for the sizing of explosion vent areas.
8.5.2 Dust Explosions - General
The UK Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) publishes a three part Guide

to Dust Explosion, Prevention and Protection. In addition the Industry and
Engineering standards published for the process location should be consulted.
See Appendix 23 for basic data for gases and dusts.
Under certain conditions fine particles of combustible material dispersed in air will
ignite and explode. This causes a rapid pressure increase within the containing
structure. If the equipment is not designed to withstand the explosion it can
result in extensive damage and the possibility of injury.
In enclosed vessels the pressures generated by these explosions can reach

10 barg for organic dusts and higher still for metal dusts such as aluminum.
These high pressures cannot be tolerated by most dust handling equipment and
therefore protection methods must be considered.
a. Exclusion of Ignition Sources
Without an ignition source there cannot be a dust explosion. All practical

measures must be taken to exclude ignition sources. Unfortunately, this
step is insufficient on its own and other precautions must be taken
because the ignition source for the majority of dust explosions is not
known and therefore impossible to design out. Examples of ignition
sources include: Flames, Hot Surfaces, Incandescent Material,
Spontaneous Heating, Welding or Cutting Operations, Friction Heating or
Sparks, Impact Sparks, Electric Sparks and Electro Static Discharge
Sparks.
b. Exclusion of Oxygen (Inerting)
Using nitrogen, carbon dioxide or other suitable gases the oxygen

content is reduced to below the minimum required to support combustion
(typically < 6 - 15 %). This method is expensive, it requires a closed
system to conserve the inert gas and continuous monitoring of the
oxygen content.
c. Containment
The vessels and associated pipework are built to withstand the

maximum pressure. This is expensive, except in very small systems.
d. Venting (Bursting Disks)
This method is widely used, it is relatively simple and cheap to install.

Vents provided in the walls of the vessel allow dust and combustion
products to escape, limiting the pressure rise to an acceptable level.
SECTION 8.0
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e. Suppression
In some cases venting is unacceptable (If the dust is toxic or corrosive

for example). The start of the explosion is detected by instruments
which trigger the release of fire suppressants.
There are a number of conditions that must be satisfied simultaneously for a dust
explosion to occur.
- The dust must be combustible. Many substances have been involved in

serious dust cloud explosions including organic chemicals, resins, metal
powders and food products.
- The dust must have a particle size distribution which will propagate
flame. In general if the particle size of a combustible dust is reduced the
risk of explosion increases. Fine particles stay in suspension more
readily than coarse particles, hence the probability of producing an
explosible concentration is enhanced. Particles with diameters greater
than 500 m are unlikely to cause dust explosions. (However coarse
particles can produce fines when handled and this should be
considered).
- The dust concentration within the suspension must be within the

explosible range. Typically the minimum concentrations in air for an
explosion to occur is in the range 10 -500 g/m3.
- The dust suspension must be in contact with an ignition source of

sufficient energy.
When all of the these conditions are satisfied the hazard from a dust explosion is
dependent upon the explosibility of the dust, the volume and characteristics of
the vessel and the degree of turbulence in the vessel.
The explosibility of the dust can be measured in the laboratory using the
standard 201 sphere. The maximum rate of pressure rise (dP/dt) max bar/s and
the maximum explosion pressure in an enclosed explosion, Pmax are measured
over a range of dust concentrations, using a standard technique. The highest
value of (dP/dt) max is used to calculate the KST value for the dust.
KST = dP 1/3
dt max V
where:
V = the vessel volume in m3
This equation is referred to as the cube root law. The KST value is defined as the
maximum rate of pressure rise measured under standard conditions in 1 m3
vessel, and is used to characterize the explosibility of the dust by reference to
four groups. See Table 8-5.
SECTION 8.0
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Table 8-5
DUST EXPLOSION DATA
KST EXPLOSION CLASS CHARACTERISTICS

0 St0 No Explosion
> 0 - 200 St1 Weak Explosion
200 - 300 St2 Strong Explosion
> 300 St3 Very Strong Explosion
The Chilworth Laboratory at Southampton University, UK, carries out this type of
work. Other laboratories in the UK can be found in the IChemE Guide to Dust
Explosion, Prevention and Protection Part 1 by Dr C. Schofield.
Alternatively the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) can be consulted or their
equivalent in Europe. In the USA the Environmental Protection Agency can be
consulted.
8.5.3 Sizing of Vents - Basic Methods
The basic principle of venting is that if a dust explosion occurs in a vessel a vent
of sufficient area should open rapidly allowing unburnt dust and explosion
products to escape, thus limiting the pressure rise to an acceptable level. The
acceptable pressure rise is determined by the requirement that the vessel does
not rupture and in some cases does not deform.
Venting is a widely used precaution because it is relatively simple and cheap. In

the following circumstances venting is inappropriate and alternative precautions
should be used and specialist advise sought.
- The dust is toxic or corrosive.
- The dust explodes violently KST > 600 bar m/s.
- The dust is a detonating or deflagrating material (will explode in the

absence of atmospheric oxygen). When detonation occurs there is
insufficient time for the vent to open to reduce pressure.
- The vessel has a volume larger than 1,000 m3 (methods not yet
confirmed by experiment).
- The vent cover will not withstand corrosive and erosive conditions inside
the vessel.
- It is not possible to vent dust and combustion products to a safe place.
There is no single method for sizing vents to cover all eventualities. The most
widely used methods are considered below:
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a. Vent Ratio Method
AREA OF VENT, m 2
VENT RATIO =
VOLUME OF VESSEL, m 3
For vessels up to 30 m3 recommended vent ratios are given below in

Table 8-6.
Table 8-6
VENT RATIO DATA - SMALL VESSELS
MAX RATE OF PRESSURE VENT RATIO

RISE (BAR/S) (1/m)
< 345 1/6.1
345 - 690 1/4.6
> 690 1/3.1
It will be appreciated that for larger vessels the vent areas can be large
and difficult to accommodate. The large areas arise because the vent
ratio method is based on rapid flame propagation throughout the whole
vessel volume rather than a spherical flame front from a single ignition
source. In reality such a high degree of turbulence and fragmentation of
the flame front is unlikely to occur throughout the whole vessel volume,
resulting in overgenerous vent sizing. For larger vessels the vent ratio is
modified as shown in Table 8-7.
Table 8-7
VENT RATIO DATA - LARGE VESSELS
VOLUME RANGE
m3 MODIFICATION
30 - 300 Vent Ratio reduced Linearly from 1/ 6 to 1/25
300 - 600 Half Area of Top
(silos) (Full Area for More Explosive Dusts)
> 700 Full Area of Top
The following list is of specific applications of the vent ratio method and
the necessary conditions.
The maximum reduced explosion pressure will not exceed

0.03 barg and the vent cover will not weigh more than 25 kg/m2.
Discharge ducts, if incorporated, are less than 3 m long, (vent

ducts are not recommended for very weak vessels).
SECTION 8.0
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A high degree of turbulence and flame front fragmentation is

allowed for.
Unless detailed information is available to the contrary the

volume used in the calculation should be the total volume of the
vessel.
The vent ratio method was used for many years in the UK and USA to
determine vent areas.
b. Nomograph or Cubic Law Method
This method is widely used in Europe. It is based, indirectly, on the

cubic relationship for closed vessels which has been shown to apply to
vented vessels, within acceptable limits. This law only applies to vessels
with L/D ratios less than 5 to 1 and volumes greater than 17 liters.
KST = dP 1/3
dt max V
From this equation the relationship between vent area (F) and vessel
volume (V) was deduced.
F 1 V 2/3
2
F2 =
V 2/3
1
where:
F1 = vent area on the test vessel necessary to limit the pressure rise
to the prescribed value
F2 = vent area on the vessel in question required to limit the pressure

rise to the same value
V1 = volume of test vessel
V2 = volume of vessel in question
The scale up of test data for different conditions and for the different St
classes of dust has been simplified by the provision of a series of
nomographs in Figures 8-37A thru 8-37C. A similar series of
nomographics is shown in Figures 8-38A thru 8-38C based on the KST
values.
To determine the vent area F, m2 for a vessel of volume V, m3 the

following information is required:
- PSTAT, barg = vent opening pressure
SECTION 8.0
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Figure 8-37A
NOMOGRAPH FOR DETERMINING VENT AREAS BASED ON ST CLASSIFICATION

[VDI (1979)]: Pstat = 0.1 barg.
SECTION 8.0
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Figure 8-37B

[VDI (1979)]: Pstat = 0.2 barg.
SECTION 8.0
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Figure 8-37C

[VDI (1979)]: Pstat = 0.5 barg.
SECTION 8.0
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Figure 8-38A
NOMOGRAPH FOR DETERMINING VENT AREAS BASED ON Kst VALUES

[VDI (1979)]: Pstat = 0.1 barg.
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Figure 8-38B

[VDI (1979)]: Pstat = 0.2 barg.
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Figure 8-38C

[VDI (1979)]: Pstat = 0.5 barg.
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- PRED, barg = the reduced pressure (maximum pressure in the vented

vessel; reduced from Pmax by the presence of the vent)
- The St classification of the dust, from laboratory test
It is assumed the vent cover has low inertia with an area density less
than 10 kg/m2. The use of the nomograph is illustrated in Figure 8-39.
Figure 8-40 shows an example of the comparison of vent areas

determined from St and KST nomographs.
These nomographs are for strong ignition sources. To avoid making

judgments on the likely strength of ignition it is recommended that these
nomographs are used for all ignition strengths.
Specific areas for the application of the nomograph method and

necessary conditions are summarized as:
- KST and St should be measured using the standard laboratory

methods.
- The lowest pressure that can be designed for without

extrapolation is 0.2 barg.
- The vent cover inertia must be low and the area density of the
cover must be less than 10 kg/m2.
- The vessel volume is between 1-1,000 m3
- Unless detailed information is available to the contrary the

volume used in the nomograph should be the total free volume
of the vessel.
- The turbulence in the vessel is similar to that in the test method.
- The vessel should have an L/D ratio less than 5:1. For weaker
vessels use 3:1.
- This method takes no account of vent ducts.
c. K Factor Method
It has been shown for compact rectangular vessels the maximum

explosion pressure in a vented vessel was related to the vent area.
Pmax K = Av Note: K is not the same as Kst

F
where:
F = the vent area

Av = the cross sectional area of the vessel
SECTION 8.0
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Figure 8-39
METHOD OF USING NOMOGRAPHS
SECTION 8.0
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Details of this method are to be found in the IChemE Guide to Dust

Explosion Prevention and Protection Part 1, Section 4.3.
The specific areas of application for the K factor method and the
necessary conditions are summarized below:
- Suitable for St2 in the absence of excessive turbulence.
- The vent cover inertia must be low and the weight per unit area
of the cover must be less than 10 kg/m2.
- Vessel volume between 1 - 1,000 m3.
- The area Av used in the determination of K is usually taken as

the area of the smallest side of the vessel.
- The vessel L/D ratio should be less than 5:1 (3:1 for weak
vessels).
- The method in the IChemE guide makes no allowance for vent

ducts.
d. The Rust Method
This is a fourth alternative for calculating vent areas. It is based on the

flame front being spherical initially and then determined by the vessel
shape. It has been used for plant handling soap and detergent powders.
It is particularly useful for weak explosions (St1).
8.5.4 Factors Affecting Estimation of Vent Size
a. Weak Vessels
The Vent Ratio Method is recommended.
b. Weak Explosions
KST < 50 bar/s (approx). The St Nomograph will overestimate the

required vent size, hence the KST Nomograph or the Rust method should
be used.
c. Turbulence
A pneumatic conveyor supplying a solid/air mixture to a silo may create a

turbulent dust cloud. In this circumstance the flame front may be
fragmented or stretched and centers of ignition may be spread
throughout the vessel - increasing the rate of combustion and creating a
higher rate of pressure rise. The vent ratio method should be used,
methods based on a spherical flame spread should be avoided.
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d. Internal Obstructions
This has a similar effect to turbulence. Internal obstructions can impede

the passage of flame towards the vent. Tests may be required to find
the optimum location for the vent.
e. Vent Location
The vent should be located so that the flame front is unimpeded and the
flame front area must never be reduced so that it is less than the area of
the vent. The required vent area can be made up of smaller vents if
required, providing the total area and the opening pressure are
adequate.
The vent location is influenced by requirement to vent the unburnt dust

and the combustion products to a safe place.
f. Vessel Shape
In general the methods described are most suited to a compact vessel.

Usually the L/D ratio should not exceed 5:1 although ICI recommend 3:1
for process vessels and silos. There are no standard methods available
for vessels with L/D ratios exceeding 5.
The nomograph method is most appropriate for conical vessels and the
K factor method for cylindrical vessels.
g. Limitations to Vent Area
In some pieces of equipment it is not possible to have a vent area

obtained using the standard methods because of obstructions from
ancillary equipment, inlet and outlet pipes for example. In this situation
the vessel must be strengthened to allow a higher pressure and
consequently a smaller vent size can be calculated.
h. Vessel Operating Pressure
The activation pressure for the vent must be significantly different from
the normal operating pressure to avoid the vent opening during normal
operation.
i. Interconnected Vessels
Where two vessels are connected by a pipe a dust explosion in one

vessel will be communicated to the second vessel, if it cannot be
isolated. In the second vessel, precompression and increased
turbulence will enhance the rate of pressure rise. The following
SECTION 8.0
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procedure isrecommended by the IChemE Guide to Dust Explosions,

Prevention and Protection Part 1 Section 5.9:
- The vent activation pressure should be less than 0.2 barg.
- For vessels with similar volumes (within 10 %) both vessels

should be sized using the nomograph method.
- For vessels of different sizes the vents should be sized using the
nomograph method, but both vessels and interconnecting lines
should be designed for pressure-shock resistance of at least 2
barg.
- Where the smaller vessel cannot be adequately vented it should

be designed for a pressure-shock resistance equivalent to the
maximum explosion pressure.
If the vessels are isolated by fast acting valves or extinguisher burners

controlled by explosion detection systems then each vessel should be
vented separately by the appropriate method.
j. Vent Ducts
1. Fitting a vent has two serious implications:
- The flow of dust and gases from the vent is impeded

and the pressure reduction in the vessel will be
significantly impeded.
- The vent duct, initially, may be filled with a mixture of

unburnt dust and air which will be ignited by the burning
material flowing from the vent.
2. The effect of the duct on the vessel pressure is illustrated in

Figure 8-41. The increase due to the vent duct is large and
could cause the vessel to rupture. The IChemE Guide makes
the following recommendations:
- Vent ducts should be as short as possible in length -

ideally less than 3 m in length.
- The pressure rise in the vessel should be estimated on

the basis given in Figure 8-41.
- If the pressure rise due to the duct is unacceptable the

size of the vent should be increased accordingly.
- The cross sectional area of the duct should be the same

or up to 10 % greater than the vent size. An increase in
cross sectional area in the direction of flow is beneficial.
SECTION 8.0
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Figure 8-41
THE EFFECT OF VENT DUCTS ON THE PRESSURE IN A VENTED VESSEL [VDI (1979)]
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 125
PROCESS MANUAL
- Vent cross section can be any shape (for rectangular

vents up to 5:1 aspect ratio is acceptable) - circular
ducts are often preferred because of the greater
strength for the same gauge metal.
- There should be no change in shape of the vent duct

along its length that could impede the flow of combustion
products or the movement of vent covers.
- The vent duct should be straight because of the

unpredictable effects of bends. Short bends of long
radius may be acceptable to divert the discharge but
expert guidance should be sought.
- The vent duct should be constructed to have the same

pressure-shock resistance as the vessel being
protected.
8.5.5 Venting Considerations for Pneumatic Conveying Equipment
a. Silos
Silos may operate full or partially full. For the purpose of sizing vents the
total free volume should be used as more dust is likely to be generated
under empty conditions.
In large silos the dust cloud is likely to be of low turbulence, although a

pneumatic conveyor inlet could cause break-up of a flame should it be
operating at the time of ignition.
Vents in side walls are not recommended, the vent should be located in
the top cover. For the purpose of sizing the vents for cylindrical silos the
vent activating pressure should be 0.1 barg and a maximum reduced
pressure of 0.2 barg could be expected to be within the strength
capabilities of typical silos.
The nomograph and K factor methods should be used to size the vent.
Both of these methods are limited to vessels with L/D < 5, which will limit
the height of the silo. If the L/D is very high, sufficient pressure may be
developed to damage the silo before the flame front reaches the vent.
For vessels with L/D ratio close to or just above 5, or where the dust
cloud could be turbulent, the whole cross sectional area should be used
for venting.
b. Cyclones
The dust cloud in a cyclone is concentrated close to the outer wall. The
volume occupied by an explosible dust cloud will therefore be much
smaller than the volume of the cyclone, and the vent areas determined
by the usual methods will appear conservative. However, there are
occasions where an explosion downstream may course a "blow-back"
which would disrupt the normal air flow resulting in a uniform distribution
SECTION 8.0
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PROCESS MANUAL
of dust. Hence to determine the vent area the whole cyclone volume
should be used as this is the worst case.
The K factor and nomograph methods are recommended for vent sizing,
if the cyclone can withstand a reduced pressure greater than 0.2 barg.
The position of the vent is important. The most favorable position for the
vents is around the top surface of the cyclone body (Figure 8-42). It is
essential the construction and installation of the vent covers does not
cause turbulence in the air flow, which could affect the cyclone
performance. In a typical high-throughput cyclone the area available for
venting on the top surface is about 50 % of the cross sectional area,
therefore a K factor of 2 can be readily accepted.
Vents are sometimes fitted on top of the vortex tube see (Figure 8-43).
In this position explosion pressures will be higher than in the alternative
position and the vortex tube needs to be strong enough to avoid being
damaged by an explosion in the body of the cyclone.
c. Dry Dust Collectors
Under normal operating conditions the dust concentration entering the

bag or fabric filter will be well below the lower explosive limits. However,
during fabric cleaning high dust concentrations occur locally and any
disturbance of the system would cause dust to be re-entrained from the
sides of the vessel and from the material collected in the hopper.
Ignition is commonly caused by sparks or smoldering material conveyed
from the upstream processes. This may cause explosion directly, or
burning may spread from smoldering material under the influence of
higher air velocities close to the fabric filter. It is generally believed the
ignition is most likely to occur in the hopper.
It is recommended that vents are located on the dirty side of the filter
close to the hopper. In general the vent sizing should be based on a
reduced pressure of 0.35 barg or less depending on the design in
question. The clean side should be provided with vents, especially if the
clean side volume is greater than about 50 % of the dirty side volume -
this additional vent area should be sized based on the clean side
volume.
If the vent on a filter is activated it is important that the fan is switched off
automatically and stopped quickly to limit the spread of the combustion.
Additionally, fire extinguishing is recommended to stop the fabric bags
continuing to burn.
SECTION 8.0
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Figure 8-42
VENT ON TOP OF CYCLONE
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d. Conveying Pipeline
The conveying pipe should be designed to be strong enough to

withstand the explosion pressure, however, at the delivery point the
conveyor will be discharged into a collecting vessel or silo. The
collecting vessel and air separation equipment (cyclones and filters) will
be protected.
In the event of an explosion the conveyor and its feed should be

shutdown.
If the pipe is not strong enough to withstand an explosion and it is not

practical to vent the line, an inert gas would have to be used.
8.5.6 Control of Ignition
In addition to venting it is advisable to take some precautions to reduce the risk

of ignition. In the sections below specific precautions are given for particular
types of equipment. These precautions are not usually sufficient on their own
and other precautions (venting, inerting) should also be used.
a. Pneumatic Conveying Lines
All components should be regularly checked for earth connection, which

should have a resistance less than 10 ohms. Where flexible connections
are required flexible metal parts should also be used.
Pipework either side of sight glasses and flange connections should be

connected to earth with a resistance less than 10 ohms.
The conveying air should be taken from a clean ignition free source.
Blower, fan, pump or compressor motors should be fitted with an
overload trip.
Air pressure relief and non-return valves may also be fitted.
Feed to the system should be controlled at optimum rate.
Detectors which initiate shutdown if hot material or sparks are detected

in the feed, may be installed at the feed point.
At start-up the air supply should first be established and then powder fed
in at its optimum rate as quickly as possible.
At shutdown the powder supply should be stopped quickly and the air
continued until all the powder has been removed.
Pneumatic conveying lines should not contain any dead areas where
dust can accumulate.
SECTION 8.0
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Non-conducting plastic conveying lines should be used with care.

Antistatic plastics should be used if the material is sensitive to ignition by
static electricity (see BS5958).
Electrical equipment should conform to BS6467.
b. Storage Bins
All metal storage bins are preferred if the material is sensitive to ignition
by static electricity. The resistance to earth should be less than 10 ohms
and should be checked regularly. Special precautions may be necessary
for plastic containers for high resistivity powders (see BS5958).
Electrical wiring should not be strapped to the outside of bins.
Metal items such as chain measures or metal tapes should not be

lowered into the bin. Level indicators of approved dust tight design
should be used. They must be adequately earthed and electricity supply
cables should not run inside the bin.
Material feed to the bin should be shut off if it contains excessively hot
material. Infrared sensors may be used to detect hot material.
Cutting and welding preparations on the bin should only be carried out in
accordance with the Factories Act 1961 Subsection 31(4).
Bins used to store materials liable to spontaneous heating should have

provision for being discharged in isolation from the rest of the plant, to a
safe place.
Carbon monoxide monitors may be used to detect spontaneous

combustion.
Electrical equipment should conform to BS6467.
c. Dust Filters
All metal collecting bins are preferred. The resistance to earth should be
less than 10 ohms and should be regularly checked. Special precautions
may be necessary for high resistivity powders. BS5958 gives details.
Precautions should be taken to prevent overflowing of the collecting bin.
Level indicators of approved dust-tight design must be adequately

grounded. Electricity supply cables should not run inside nor be
strapped to the outside of the collecting bin. Electrical equipment should
conform to BS6467.
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Filter bags made from epitropic fibers, which conduct electricity can be
used to prevent the build up of static electricity on the bags, but steps
must be taken to ensure that the bags are earthed.
The use of filter bags which incorporate metal wires into the weave,
requires some caution, because if the connection between a metal wire
and earth is broken (by wear) the isolated wire will create an electrostatic
hazard.
Material feed to the filter should be shut off if it contains excessively hot
material. Infrared sensors may be used to detect hot material. Filters
collecting materials liable to spontaneous heating should have provision
for being discharged in isolation for the rest of the plant.
Cutting and welding operations on the collecting bin should only be

carried out in accordance with the Factories Act 1961 Subsection 31(4).
8.5.7 Inerting
a. Use of Inert Gas
An effective method of explosion prevention is the partial or complete

substitution of the air or flammable atmosphere with which the dust is
mixed by an inert gas. Dust explosions can be eliminated if oxygen is
excluded completely or is reduced to a concentration level below which
flame propagation and consequently explosion cannot occur.
This method, called inerting, is applicable to enclosed plants. A plant

that is substantially open to the atmosphere cannot be effectively inerted
because significant fluctuation in oxygen concentration are likely.
Furthermore the loss of inert gas would be uneconomic and may lead to
a build-up of inert gas in places accessible to people, with the risk of the
asphyxiation. An HSE Guidance Note GS 5 (HSE 1977/A) gives advice
on entry into confined spaces where inert gas may be present.
A major consideration when designing a plant to be protected by inerting

is the need for continuous monitoring of oxygen and flammable gas or
vapor concentrations.
Inerting is of particular use for very strongly explosible dusts (KST

> 600 bar s-1). It is also used where flammable solvent vapors are
present.
The design of inert gas systems requires estimates of leakage rates from
plant items and of the efficiency of gas mixing in the plant. It is
recommended that the advice of a specialist is sought.
b. Diluent Dust Addition
The term "inerting" is also used in some instances to describe the

technique whereby combustible dusts are made noncombustible by
SECTION 8.0
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diluting them with an inert dust such as calcium sulphate, limestone,

sodium bicarbonate, common salt, various silicates or stonedust. Such
materials may act as a heat sink or otherwise interfere with the flame
propagation. The technique is readily applicable where unwanted
by-product materials, or other materials for which some contamination is
acceptable, are involved. In most cases more than 60 % diluent dust is
required: in some cases considerably more is required. Furthermore the
diluent dust must be intimately mixed with the explosible dust. Diluent
dust inerting is not widely used except in coal mines.
c. Inerting Gases
Typical inert gases used include nitrogen, carbon dioxide, argon, helium
and flue gases.
The choice of inert gas depends on a number of factors including:
Cost
Availability of supply
Reliability of supply
Likelihood of contamination of the dust by constituents of the

inert gas, including moisture
Volume effectiveness in reducing explosibility
Greatest consideration should be given to ensuring that the supply of

inert gas is reliable and that adequate backup facilities are available in
the event of failure.
The IChemE Guide to Dust Explosion, Prevention and Protection Part 2

Appendix C provides a method to determine the concentration of inert
gas required to prevent explosion.
SECTION 8.0
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Table 8-8
RELATIVE MERITS OF INERT GASES
Gas Advantages Disadvantages

Carbon Dioxide Readily available in compressed form, Some metal dusts react violently with
from proprietary inert gas generators, Carbon Dioxide (e.g., aluminum).
and in some cases as a waste gas from
on-site processes. Flow of Carbon Dioxide can generate
considerable electrostatic charge.
Effective - higher oxygen levels (per
cent by volume) are permissible
compared with nitrogen
Moderate cost.
Nitrogen Readily available in compressed or Less effective in volume/volume terms
cryogenic form, and in some cases as a than Carbon Dioxide.
waste gas from on-site processes.
Some metal dusts react with Nitrogen
Moderate cost. (e.g., magnesium) at high
temperature.
Flue gases Often readily available as a waste gas Requires additional equipment to:
from on-site generators.
Cool the gas
Often available at low cost. Remove contaminants
Monitor or remove combustible vapors
Remove incandescent material.
May react with dusts.
Storage of flue gas may not be

practical, so that adequate quantities
may not always be available for
example during a furnace shutdown.
Argon or Helium Unlikely to contaminate products or Expensive.
react with them.
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1.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6 REFERENCES, CODES AND STANDARDS
Fluor Master Specification 000.259.29610, Bulk Material Handling - Pneumatic

Conveying Systems
Fluor Master Specification 000.259.59611, Pneumatic Conveying Diverters
Fluor Master Specification 000.259.59612, Rotary Feeders and Airlocks
NFPA Code 91, Standard for the Installation of Blower and Exchange Systems for Dust,
Stock and Vapor Removals or Conveying
NFPA Code 650, Pneumatic Conveying Systems for Handling Combustible Materials
OSHA Code of Federal Regulations Title 29 Part 1910
BS 5667, Specification for Continuous Mechanical Handling Equipment - Safety

Requirements
BRE Fire Research Station, Fire Research Notes 992, Dust Explosion Hazards in
Pneumatic Transport (K N Palmer)
Perry, R.H., Chemical Engineers' Handbook, pp. 7-17 to 7-25, 6th Edition, 1984
Mills, David; Pneumatic Conveying Design Guide, Butterworths, Sevenoaks, Kent, UK,
1990
Bohnet, M; Advances in the Design Pneumatic Conveyors, Int. Chem. Eng., July 1985,
25 (3), 387-405
Krambrock, W; Dense Phase Pneumatic Conveying, Ger. Chem. Eng., (Engl. Transl.),
July 1983, 6(4), 199-210
Kraus, M.N., Pneumatic Conveying Systems, Chem. Eng. (Int. Ed), 13 October 1986,
93(19), 50-61
Kraus, M.N., Pneumatic Conveying Systems for Bulk Materials, 3rd Edition
Mills, D., Troubleshooting Pneumatic Conveying (Part 1), Chem. Eng. (Int. Ed),
June 1990, 97 (6), 93-102, 105
Mills, D., Troubleshooting Pneumatic Conveying (Part 2), Chem. Eng. (Int. Ed), July
1991, 97(7), 101-107
Mills, D., Pneumatic Conveying: Cost Effective Design, Chem. Eng. (Int. Ed), February
1990, 97(2), 70-82
The Best of Pneumatic Conveying, Powder and Bulk Engineering.
Thompson, F.M., Dense Phase Pneumatic Conveying, Chem. Process, (Chicago), May
1985, 51(6), 52-54, 57-59
Zenz, F.A., Othmer, D.F., Fluidized and Solid Particle Systems, Reinhold Pub. Co., New
York
K:\WRK090\037\345\MANUALS\PH&SB1\002-08B.SAM-03/28/1997
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 134
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
8.7 APPENDICES
8.7.1 Appendix 1: Design Calculation Methods

8.7.2 Appendix 2: Example Problem
8.7.3 Appendix 3: Fluor Daniel Shortcut Calculation Method
8.7.4 Appendix 4: Fluor Daniel Modified Allied Flotronics Method
8.7.5 Appendix 5: Fischer-Gerchow Method
8.7.6 Appendix 6: Fan Engineering Method
8.7.7A Appendix 7A: Konno and Saito Correlation (FPS Units)
8.7.7B Appendix 7B: Konno-Saito Method (as recommended by PSRI)
8.7.7C Appendix 7C: Zanz-Othmer Method (dilute and two-phase dense phase flow
systems)
8.7.7D Appendix 7D: Particulate Solids Research Institute (PSRI) (for piston flow
dense phase systems) (See PSRI "Desktop Design Manual,"
Edition 1, June 1994)
8.7.8 Appendix 8: Table 8-10 Standard Pipe Dimensions
8.7.9 Appendix 9: Tables 8-11 and 8-12, Bulk Solid Material Characteristics
8.7.10 Appendix 10: Not Used
8.7.11 Appendix 11: Table 8-13, Dilute Phase Conveying Velocities for Various
Materials
8.7.12 Appendix 12: Table 8-14, Dense Phase Conveying Velocity for Various
Materials
8.7.13 Appendix 13: Sieves
Table 8-15, U.S. Sieve Series
Table 8-16, Tyler Standard Screens
Table 8-17, I.M.M. Screens
Table 8-18, British Standard Sieves
8.7.17A Appendix 17A: Airlock Size and RPM Calculation
8.7.17B Appendix 17B: Airlock Loss - Approximate
8.7.17C Appendix 17C: Rotary Valve Leakage Chart (Flotronics)
8.7.18A Appendix 18A: Diverter Valve Application Chart
8.7.18B Appendix 18B: Line Diverter Valve Leakage Chart
8.7.19A Appendix 19A: FILTER AIR-TO-CLOTH Ratio Selection
8.7.19B Appendix 19B: Comparative Air-Filter Characteristics
8.7.19C Appendix 19C: Fabric Temperature Limits
8.7.19D Appendix 19D: Fibers for Dry-Filtration Fabrics
8.7.19E Appendix 19E: Selection Criteria for Dry Filter and Wet Scrubber Selection
8.7.19F Appendix 19F: Size and Characteristics of Air - Barne Solids
8.7.20 Appendix 20: Properties of Common Vapors and Gases
8.7.21 Appendix 21: Altitude-Pressure-Temperature-Density Table of Air
8.7.22 Appendix 22: Economics
8.7.23 Appendix 23: Fundamental Burning Velocities of Selected Gases
8.7.24 Appendix 24: Fire Hazard Properties of Selected Liquids, Gases and Volatile
Solids
8.7.25 Appendix 25: Defining the Limits of Hazardous (Classified) Locations for
Compliance with National Electric Code
8.7.26 Appendix 26: Explosion Properties of Dusts
8.7.27 Appendix 27: Equipment Data Sheets - Process Input
8.7.28 Appendix 28: Sample Specification
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 135
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
8.7.1 Appendix I: Design Calculation Methods
Dilute phase design calculation methods include the Zenz-Othmer method, the
Fischer-Gerchow method, the Fan Engineering method, the short-cut method
used at Fluor Daniel, the Modified Allied Flotronics method and the Konno-Saito
correlation recommended by PSRI. All of these methods involve some form of
energy balance equation analogous to the Bernoulli equation in fluid hydraulics.
The Fischer-Gerchow and Fan Engineering methods focus on a momentum
equation which use empirical material friction factors. These material factors are
usually proportional to the tangent of the angle of repose. The Zenz-Othmer and
Konno-Saito methods use the gas frictional loss and a material to gas loading
ratio, avoiding the empirical factors, but producing conservative solutions.
a. Fluor Daniel Short-cut Method

b. Modified Allied Flotronics Method (Fluor Daniel Houston)
c. Fischer-Gerchow Method
d. Fan Engineering Method
e. Konno-Saito Method (PSRI)
f. Zenz-Othmer Method (Solt)
Dense phase design calculation methods include various graphical phase

diagram methods, the Zenz-Othmer method (for two-phase "dune" or "wave"
flow), and the PSRI method (for "slug" or "piston" flow).
a. Phase Diagram Method (Graphical)

b. Zenz-Othmer Method (Solt)
c. PSRI Method
The three basic parameters calculated for pneumatic conveying systems are
conveying line size, system pressure drop, and gas mover horsepower. Each
calculation method will be described, and some sample problems will be
performed.
8.7.2 Appendix 2
Example Problem Basis
A dilute phase pressure system uses air to convey 50,000 lb./hr. of a low density
(35 lb/ft3) polyethylene pellet. The pellet is a 1/8" diameter sphere. The air
supply pipe is 120 ft horizontal run, 20 ft vertical run, with (3) 90 o mitered elbows
and (1) 45 o mitered elbow. The material pipe is 150 ft horizontal, 75 ft vertical,
with (4) 90 o bends, (1) 45 o bend, (1) 15 o bend, and (1) 30 o diverter valve.
Calculate the diameter of the pipe required.
Bear in mind that velocity increases with decreasing gas density as the gas flows
down the pipe. All calculations are based on the average system velocity.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 136
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SAMPLE

PROBLEM DILUTE PHASE
SUMMARY
System: Pressure System for LDPE Pellets
Capacity: 25 Tons/Hr; 50,000 lbs/hr; 833 lbs/min
Line: 8" Sch 10; 8.329" ID; 0.378 ft2 flow area
Design Fluor Modified Fischer/ Fan

Parameter Shortcut Flotronics Gerchow Engineering
Pickup Velocity, 4,800 4,905 4,500 4,800

FPM
Air Flow Rate Not 2,225 2,268 Not

SCFM Calculated Calculated
Terminal Velocity Not 5,886 6,000 ----

FPM Calculated (Assumed)
Solids Ratio, R 4.62 5.0 4.9 4.62

lb/lb air
Solids Conveying 5.0 3.05 3.4 2.8

P, psi (2.65 with
slide rule)
Air Only 1.18 1.18 1.18 1.18

P, psi (Assumed) (Assumed) (Calculated) (Calculated)
Total P, psi 6.18 4.23 4.58 3.98
Note: For this system a blower was purchased for 2,468 SCFM and a design P of 8 psi.
The design P included suction piping, inlet muffler, discharge muffler, cooler and filter
pressure drops. The blower was equipped with a 125 hp motor.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 137
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
APPENDICES
8.7.3 Appendix 3: Fluor Daniel Shortcut Calculation Method
This is a rapid method which is handy to use for a preliminary selection of a line
size and an estimate of the pressure drop for the system. The shortcut method
is limited only to conventional dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems.
Procedural steps in the calculation procedure are as follows:
Assumptions
a. Conveying line size and schedule.

b. Endpoint air is at standard condition (i.e., 14.7 psia and 70 oF)
Table 8-9A
TYPICAL SOLIDS LOADING IN PNEUMATIC TRANSFER LINES
Line Le Loading Factor (Lb./Sec./Ft.2)
0 to 250 ft. 45 to 60
250 to 500 30 to 40
Solids Loading Factor range is for systems operating at between 0 to 10 psig
For materials with bulk densities of 55 lb./ft.3 or less with maximum particle sizes
up to 1/8", the following average velocities may be used:
Table 8-9B
Conveying Distance Average Velocity
200 ft. 4,000 ft./min.

500 ft. 5,000 ft./min.
1,000 ft. 6,000 ft./min.
1. Calculate System Equivalent Length: (See Note 1, Page 139)
Determine the equivalent length of bends: (See Note 1)
Le(bends) = n(50 ft.)
n = number of equivalent bends
So the Total System Equivalent Length = n(50 ft.) + H (ft.) + V

(ft.)
where:
H = Horizontal distance of pipes

V = Vertical distance of pipe
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 138
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
2. Select Solids Loading Factor:
From Table 8-9A, determine the solids loading.
3. Check Solids Loading:
lb 144in 2 x W
W = 2
sec ft
2
ft x 60 x A
where:
W = Solids rate (lb./min.)

A = Internal pipe flow area (in.2)
4. Determine the Pickup Velocity:
Determine the pickup velocity from Figure 8-44.
Note: The size and type of material is required.
5. Gas Density and Solids/Gas Ratio:
Assume a Solids Pressure Drop:
Calculate the inlet gas density:
p(g)=29(14.7+ P)/(10.73(459.7+T(oF))),(lb./ft.3)
where:
P(g) = gas density, lb./ft.3

P = pressure drop, psi
Then Solids/Gas Ratio R = 60W/(p(g)V1)
where:
V1 = pickup velocity (ft./min.)
6. Calculate the Solids Pressure Drop for Average System

Pressure and Solids/Gas Ratio:
Pavg. = (P1 + P2)/2, (Psia)
Determine P from Figure 8-45, (Psi/100 ft.).
7. Calculate Total Solids Pressure Drop = P100(Le/100), (Psi).
If not within 10 % of assumed value; try another guess and

repeat calculation.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 139
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
Figure 8-44
DILUTE PHASE CONVEYING VELOCITIES
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 140
PROCESS MANUAL
Figure 8-45
SHORTCUT METHOD PRESSURE DROP CHART
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 141
PROCESS MANUAL
Note: (1) For equivalent length of system, use total horizontal and
vertical length plus an allowance of 50 ft. for each 90o elbow.
For two 45o elbows use the equivalent of one 90o elbow.
FD Shortcut Calculation Method for Solution to Example Problem
Assumptions:
a. 8" schedule 40 conveying line
Calculations
1. Calculate System Equivalent Length:
Determine the equivalent length of bends;
Le(bends) = n(50 ft.)
n = number of equivalent bends = 4+((30o+15o+45)/90o)=5
So, Le(bends) = 5(50) = 250 ft.
So the Total System Equivalent Length = 150+75+250 = 475 ft.
2. Select Solids Loading Factor:
From Table 8-9A, target solids loading is between 30 to

40 lb./sec./ft.2.
3. Check Solids Loading:
w = 144W/60A W = 5,000 lb./hr./60 min./hr. = 833.3 lb./min.
= 144 x 833.3 A = 50.0 in.2 (Table 8-10, Appendix 8)

60 x 50.0
= 39.9 lb./sec./ft.2
This meets the expected solids loading factor range.
4. Determine the Pickup Velocity:
From Figure 8-44 (same as that used in Fan Engineering

calculation),
V1 = 4,800 ft./min. (Note this in the velocity range of

Table 8-9B.)
5. Gas Density and Solids/Gas Ratio:
Assume a Solids Pressure Drop:
P = 5.0 Psi
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 142
PROCESS MANUAL
p(g) = 29(14.7+dP)/(10.73T(abs))
= 29(14.7 Psia+5 Psi)/(10.73(460+70oF))=0.10 lb./ft.3
Then Solids/Gas Ratio R = 60w/(p(g)V1)
= 60(39.9 lb./sec./ft.2)/(0.10 lb./ft.3(4,800 ft./min.) = 5.0 lb.

Solids/lb. Gas
6. Solids Pressure Drop for Average System Pressure and

Solids/Gas Ratio:
Pavg. = (14.7 Psia+19.7 Psia)/2 = 17.2 Psia
From Figure 8-45, P(corrected) = 1.15 Psi/100 ft.
So, Solids Pressure Drop = dP100(Le/100)=1.15 Psi/100 ft.

(475 ft./100) = 5.5 Psi
Conclusion
This is within 10 % of assumed value; therefore use an 8 inch Schedule 40 pipe.
Note that an 8 inch Schedule 10 pipe would decrease the P from 5.5 psi to 5.0 psi. If
Schedule 10 pipe is cost effective and sufficient erosion protection is provided then use
an 8 inch Schedule 10 pipe.
8.7.4 Appendix 4: Fluor Daniel Modified Allied Flotronics Method
This method was developed in the Houston Office of Fluor Daniel based on
stepwise method received unofficially from Allied Flotronics. Allied Flotronics
used this method in an unofficial, but widely distributed computer program using
a Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet template. There are at least two releases (one for
windows) of the Flotronics software circulating within Fluor Daniel. The fate of
this program is uncertain at best since it is unofficial, undocumented, and the
source company no longer exists having been recently absorbed by a
competitor. There are also known problems with the original Flotronics software
as it underestimates line sizes in vacuum systems. The Fluor Daniel Modified
Flotronics Method spreadsheet is attractive for preliminary estimates because it
is relatively user friendly, and is very fast. However, it has only been validated
for LDPE pressure systems.
Assumptions:
EQUIVALENT LENGTH OF BENDS
Pipe Size: 2" 3" 4" 5" 6" 8" 10" 12"
Le, Ft.: 6 10 11 14 17 22 27 34
1. Select System Type: Pressure

SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 143
PROCESS MANUAL
2. Determine System Layout (refer to problems statement)
3. Select Pipe Diameter (8" Schedule 10 assumed)
4. Calculate Flow Area:
A = PI(Dt)2/(4(144))=PI(8.329 In.)2/(4(144)) = 0.378 ft.2.
5. Determine the equivalent length of bends from the table above;
Le(bends) = n(Le)
n = number of equivalent bends = 4+((30o+15o+45o)/90o)=5
For an 8" bend, Le = 22 ft., so total bend equivalent length

= 5(22) = 110 ft.
6. Determine Total Equivalent Length:
Le (total) = 150+75+110=335 ft.
7. Assume a System Pressure Drop:
Assume a pressure drop of 4 Psi
8. Determine Initial Pressure:
P1 = 14.7+4 = 18.7 Psia
9. Determine Final Pressure:
P2 = 14.7 Psia
10. Calculate Pickup Velocity
V1 = C800(p(b))1/2(14.7/P1)1/2(1+(Le/10,000))
V1 = (1.1)800(35lb./ft.3)1/2(14.7Psia/18.7Psia)1/2(1+(335 ft./
10,000)) = 4,776 ft./min.
11. Calculate the Calculate Gas Densities:
Initial Gas Density = p(g)1 = 0.075 lb./ft.3(18.7 Psia/14.7 Psia) =

0.095 lb./ft.3
Final Gas Density = p(g)2 = 0.075 lb./ft.3
12. Calculate the Terminal Air Velocity:
V2 = V1(p(g)1/p(g)2) - 4,776 ft./min.(0.075 lb./ft.3/0.095 lb./ft.3) =

6,050 ft./min.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 144
PROCESS MANUAL
13. Calculate the Gas Flow:
Q = V2(A) = 6,050 ft./min.(0378 ft.2) = 2,287 Scfm
14. Calculate the Average Velocity:
Va = (V1+V2)/2 = (4,776 ft./min.+6,050 ft./min.)/2 =

5,413 ft./min.
15. Calculate the Average Gas Density:
p(g)a = (0.095 lb./ft.3+0.075 lb./ft.3)/2 = 0.085 lb./ft.3
16. Calculate the Gas Friction Loss:
dP100 = [0.0035+(0.264/(114.8Dt(Va)(p(g)a0.42))]p(g)a(Va)2/
(6,955Dt)
= [0.0035+(0.264/((114.8(8.329 in.)(5,413 ft./min.)

(0.085 lb./ft.3))0.42)] x (0.085 lb./ft.3) (5,413 ft./min.)2/
` (6,955(8.329 in.))
= 0.20 Psi/100 ft.
17. Calculate the Solids to Gas Ratio:
R = Ws/(60Q0.075)
= 50,000 lb./hr./(60(2,287 Scfm)0.075)
= 4.86 lb. Solids/lb. Gas
18. Calculate the Conveying Friction Loss Ratio:
B = 0.63R+0.3 = 0.63(4.86 lb. Solids/lb. Gas)+0.3 = 3.36
19. Calculate the conveying friction loss:
dPf = (Le/100)dP100(B) = 335 ft./100)(0.20 Psi/100 ft.)(3.36)

= 2.25 Psi
20. Calculate the Acceleration Loss:
dPa= 5e-10W(V2)2/Q
= 5e-10(50,000 lb./hr.)(6,050 ft./min.)2/2,287 Scfm
= 0.40 Psi
= 0.23 Psi
21. Calculate Lift Loss:
dP1= 0.007((W/60)+Q(0.075))L/Q
= 0.007((50,000 lb./hr./60)+(2,287 Scfm)(0.075))(75 ft.)/
2,287 Scfm
= 0.23 Psi
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 145
PROCESS MANUAL
22. Estimate Fitting Loss:
dPd = 0.11 n = 0.11(2) = 0.22 Psi
23. Calculate the Total Piping Loss:
dPp = 3.1 Psi
Trial 1 of 4 Psi is 29 % higher than Calculated; if trial>(+/-2 %) from

Calculated, try again.
24. Trial 2, Guess Pressure Differential = 3.0 Psi
Trial 2 Calculated System Pressure Drop = 3.05 Psi
8.7.5 Appendix 5: Fischer-Gerchow Method
The Fischer-Gerchow method calculates the gas friction loss and the solids
moving loss. The total system loss is the total of these two losses. Air friction
losses are normally read from tables or charts using the average gas velocity. A
pressure drop and gas density must be assumed at the beginning, and then
checked against the final total. The procedure is a trial and error procedure.
Solids losses include acceleration losses, elevation losses, horizontal losses, and
elbow (fitting) losses.
Assumptions

b. 4,000 ft./min. pickup velocity
c. 6,000 ft./min. endpoint velocity
d. Endpoint air is standard condition (i.e., 14.7 psia and 70 oF)
e. Example problem conditions in Appendix 2
1. Calculate air flow rate:
(4,000 ft./min.)(0.378 ft.2) = 1,512 Acfm at pickup point
(6,000 ft./min.)(0.378 ft.2) = 2,268 Scfm at the endpoint
2. Calculate Solids Acceleration Loss (E1):
Average velocity = (4,000 ft./min.+6,000 ft./min.)/2

= 5,000 ft./min.
E1 = Mv2/2g = 50,000 lb./hr.(5,000 ft./min.)2/

((60 min./hr.)2(32.2 ft./sec.2)) = 89,825 ft.-lb./min.
3. Calculate Solids Elevation Loss (E2):
E2 = ML = 50,000 lb./hr.(75 ft./60 min./hr.) = 62,475 ft.-lb./min.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 146
PROCESS MANUAL
4. Calculate Horizontal Loss (E3):
E3 = ML = 50,000 lb./hr.(150 ft.)(0.625) = 78,094 ft.-lb./min.
where:
f(s) = solids friction factor = tangent of angel of repose;

The angle of repose for LDPE is 32o, so Tan 32o = 0.625
5. Calculate Fitting Loss (E4):
E4 = (Mv2/gR)(L)(f(s))n
= 50,000 lb./hr.(5,000 ft./min.2/((60 min./hr.)
(32.2 ft./sec.2(8 ft.)
x (2)PI(R/4)(0.625)5 = 882,100 ft.-lb./min.
where:
L = bend length = 2PI(R/4)

n = number of equivalent bends = 4+((30o+15o+45o)/90o) = 5
6. Total Solids Conveying Loss:
E5 = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 = 1,112,494 ft.-lb./min.; Q
= 2,268 Scfm from (1)
1, 112, 494 ft lb/ min Scfm In W.C. min

Press. Loss =
2, 268 Scfmx 5.2 ft lb
= 94.33 In. W.C. = 3.41 psi
7. Air Only Frictional Loss for Gas Supply Pipe:
Assume Total System Pressure Drop = 5.0 Psi
p(g) = Gas Density

= 29(14.7 Psia+5 Psig)/(10.73 Psia-ft.3/lb.-Mole-
o
R(459.7 oR+70 oF))
= 0.1 lb./ft.3 at the start of the system
From the friction loss chart (Figure 28), at 1,512 Acfm (or
4,000 ft./min.) and an 8.3 pipe I.D., loss = 3.1 In. W.C. per
100 ft.
Fitting loss, from Fluor Chart 101C-9 in Process Manual Vol. V,

for 90o miters in 45o increments. (See Section 5.0 of Hydraulics
Book 2 for currently used methodology).
Ks = 0.356, so the loss = (3+(45o/90o))0.356(4,000 ft./min./

60 min./hr.)2(0.1 lb./ft.3/9,270)
= 0.057 psi
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 147
PROCESS MANUAL
Using 20 % Safety Factor, Loss = 1.2(0.57 Psi) = 0.06 Psi

= 1.66 In. W.C.
Total Air Friction Loss = (3.1 In. W.C./100 ft.)(140 ft.)+1.66 In.
W.C. = 6 In. W.C.
8. Air Only Frictional Loss for Material Pipe:
Endpoint Air Flow = 2,268 Scfm
p(g)= 29(14.7 Psi+(5 Psig/2))/(10.73 Psia-ft.3/lb.-Mole-oR(459.7

o
R+70 oF)) = 0.88 lb./ft.3 average
From the friction loss chart (Figure 28), at 2,268 Scfm (or
6,000 ft./min.) and an 8.3 pipe I.D., loss = 6.45 In. W.C. per
100 ft.
Fitting loss, from Fluor Chart 101C-10 in Process Manual Vol. V,

for an 8 ft. radius bend, at 8 ft. x 12/8 = 12, so Ks = 0.10
(extrapolated to R/D = 12), So the Loss =
(4+((30o+15o+45o)/90o))0.1(6,000 ft./min./60 min./hr.)2(0.088 lb./ft.3

/9,270) = 0.47 Psi
Using 20 % Safety Factor, Loss = 1.2(0.047 Psi) = 0.06 Psi =

1.58 In. W.C.
Total Air Friction Loss = (6.45 In. W.C./100 ft.)225 ft.+1.58 In

W.C. = 16.1 In. W.C.
9. Inlet and Exit Losses:
Allow 3 In. W.C. for each of (1) pickup tee, (1) receiver inlet and
(1) receiver exit So, Total = 9 In. W.C.
10. Summary:
Solids Losses: 3.4 Psi = 94.33 In. W.C.

Air Pipe Loss: 6.0 In. W.C.
Air Loss: 16.1 In. W.C.
Inlet/Outlet Loss: 9.0 In. W.C.
Total Pressure Drop = 125.43 In. W.C. = 4.53 Psi
11. Check Solids to Air Ratio at the Receiver:
(50,000 lb./hr./60 min./hr.)(2,268 Scfm (0.75 lb./Sft.3)) = 4.9 to 1
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 148
PROCESS MANUAL
12. Check Pickup Velocity:
2,268 Scfm (14.7 Psia)/(14.7 Psia+4.53 Psi) = 1,734 ft.3/min.
1,734 ft.3/min./0.378 ft.2= 4,587 ft./min.
4,000 ft./min. was assumed; assume a new pickup velocity of

4,500 ft./min.
13. Repeating trial with 4,500 ft./min. pickup velocity:
Total Pressure Drop = 4.89 Psi, Pickup Velocity = 4.503 ft./min.
14. Size Blower:
Add Blower Discharge Muffler Loss: 5 In. W.C.

Add Blower Discharge Cooler Loss: 5 In. W.C.
Add Blower Discharge Filter Loss: 5 In. W.C.
Total Miscellaneous Losses: 15 In. W.C.
Blower Discharge Pressure = 4.89 Psi+(15/27.68) Psi = 5.43 Psi
(5.43)27.68(1,212,116)/(33,000(102.78)) = 53.74 bHp
Assume a blower efficiency of 75 %; So blower motor =

53.74/0.75 = 71.65 Hp
Assume a blower service factor of 15 %
So blower motor = 71.65(1.15) = 82.4 Hp, therefore use a

100 Hp motor.
For Size 18 Rotary Valve, Air Leakage is 120 Scfm at 5 Psi

Pressure Differential. The Total Air Flow is
2,268 Scfm+120 Scfm = 2,388 Scfm
Add Blower Inlet Filter Loss: 5 In. W.C.
Thus at blower inlet: 2,388(14.7)/(14.7 - (5/27.68)) = 2,418 Acfm
Blower Suction Pressure = 14.52 Psia
Blower Discharge Pressure = 20.13 Psia
Blower Differential Pressure = 5.61 Psi
8.7.6 Appendix 6: Fan Engineering Method
The Fan Engineering method uses an assumed pickup velocity and pipe size to
calculate the solids to gas ratio, or loading and gas volume. Principles of
aerodynamics are used to calculate the particle floating velocity, and the particle
velocity relative to the gas. Energy equations are then used to determine the
solids and gas frictional losses. The total system loss is the total of these two
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 149
PROCESS MANUAL
losses. Air friction losses are normally read from tables or charts using the
average gas velocity. A pressure drop and gas density must be assumed at the
beginning, and then checked against the final total. The procedure is a trial and
error procedure. Solids losses include acceleration losses, elevation losses,
horizontal losses, and elbow (fitting) losses.
Assumptions

c. Example problem conditions in Appendix 2.
1. Calculate Floating Velocity:
Assume Total System Pressure Drop = 5.0 Psi
p(g) = Gas Density

= 29 (14.7 Psia+5 Psig)/(10.73 Psia-Ft.3/lb.-Mole-
o
R(459.7 oR+70 oF))
= 0.1 lb./ft.3 at the start of the system
Vf = (4gp(b)D(p)/(3fdp(g)))1/2
= (4(32.174 ft./sec.2)(35 lb./ft.3)(0.01 ft.)/(3(0.5)(0.1 lb./ft.3)))1/2
= 17.3 ft./sec. = 1,040 ft./min.
2. Pickup Velocity:
From Figure 8-44, "Dilute Phase Conveying Velocities" chart, for

1/8" diameter pellets and a bulk density of 35 lbs./ft.3 the pickup
velocity is 4,800 ft./min.
3. Calculate the Relative Solids Velocity:
Vr (horizontal run) = Vf(0.18+(0.000065Va))

= 1,040(0.18+(0.000065(0.48)
= 512 ft./min.
4. Calculate the Solids Velocity:
Vm (horizontal) = 4,800-512 = 4,288 ft./min.

Vm (vertical) = 4,800-1,040 = 3,760 ft./min.
5. Calculate Solids Lift Loss:
Assume the same solids to gas loading as in the

Fischer-Gerchow example above; R = 4.62 lb. Solids/lb. Gas
Lift Loss = TPI = RL/69.4 = (4.62)75/69.4 = 4.99 In. W.C.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 150
PROCESS MANUAL
6. Calculate Solids Acceleration Loss:
(a) Loss for Pickup from Rest:
TPA1 = RVm2/(2g69.4)
= 4.62 lb. Solids/lb. Gas (4,288 ft./min./
60 min./hr.)2/ (2(32.2 ft./sec.2)69.4)
= 5.28 In. W.C.
(b) Loss for Reacceleration from First Bend (Lift):
Velocity = 0.8 (4,288 ft./min.) = 3,430 ft./min.
Must Reaccelerate to 3,760 ft./min.
TPA2 = R(Vm22-Vm12)/(2g69.4)
= 4.62 lb. Solids/lb. Gas((4,288/60)2
-(3,430/60)2ft.2/sec.2)/(2(32.2 ft./sec.2)69.4)
= 0.68 In. W.C.
(c) Loss for Reacceleration from Second Bend (Horizontal):
TPA3 = R(Vm22-Vm12)/(2g69.4)
= 4.62 lb. Solids/lb. Gas((4,288/60)2
-(3,008/60)2 ft.2/sec.2)/(2(32.2 ft./sec.2)69.4)
= 2.68 In. W.C.
(d) Loss for Reacceleration from Last Three Bends

(Horizontal):
TPA4 - 6 = 3(R(Vm22-Vm12)/(2g69.4))
= (3)4.62 lb. Solids/lb. Gas ((4,288/60)2
-(3,430/60)2
2 2 2
ft. /sec. )/(2(32.2 ft./sec. )69.4)
= 5.70 In. W.C.
(e) Total Loss for Reacceleration:
TPA Total = 14.34 In. W.C.
7. Horizontal Losses:
TPH = fRL/69.4; Use same f as for Fischer-Gerchow, f = 0.625
TPH = (0.625)4.62 lb. Solids/lb. Gas(150 ft.)/69.4 = 6.24 In.

W.C.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 151
PROCESS MANUAL
8. Total Losses for Bends:
TP(90) = fR Vm2PI/(2g69.4)
= (0.625)4.62 lb. Solids/lb. Gas (4,288ft./min./
60 ft./sec.)2PI/(2(322 ft./sec.2)69.4)
= 10.37 In. W.C./Bend
Total Loss = 5 Bends(10.37 In. W.C./Bend) = 51.85 In. W.C.
9. Total Solids Losses = 77.42 In. W.C. (2.8 Psi)
10. Total System Pressure Drop:
Total Solids Losses = 77.42 In. W.C. = 2.8 Psi

Total Gas Only Losses = 1.18 Psi (Same as Fischer-Gerchow)
Total System Pressure Drop = 3.98 Psi
8.7.7A Appendix 7A: Konno and Saito Correlation (FPS Units)1
1 2 3 4 5 6
U 2g g G V 2f g U 2g L 0.057U g g L G L
P = + Sg c S + + + S + g L
2 gc gc D (gD) 0.5 VS
where:
GS
=
U g g
and
D = Tube diameter, ft.

f = Fanning friction factor, (-)
g = gravitational constant, 32.2 ft./s2
gc = gravitational conversion constant, 32.2 lb.m
-ft./(lb.lb.f-2)
GS = Solids mass flux, lb./s-ft.2
L = Pipe length, ft.
Ug = Superficial gas velocity, ft./s
VS = Solids gas velocity, ft./s
P = Pressure drop, lb/ft.2
g = Gas density, lb./ft.3
1 = Pressure drop due to fluid acceleration

2 = Pressure drop due to acceleration of solids
3 = Fluid-pipe friction pressure drop
1
This chart taken from Particulate Solids Research "Desktop Design Manual"
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 152
PROCESS MANUAL
4 = Solids-pipe friction pressure drop

5 = Pressure drop due to static head of solids
6 = Pressure drop due to static head of gas (important only at high
pressures)
Note: If the solids and the gas are already accelerated, terms 1 and 2 should be
omitted from the calculation. Also, terms 5 and 6 should be omitted when
applying the correlation to horizontal flow.
PSRI Choking Velocity Correlation

0.35
U ch U t Gs D
0.35
p
0.10
= f
gd p U ch f dp
where:
Uch = Choking Velocity, ft./s or m/s

Ut = Single Particle Terminal Velocity, ft./s or m/s
g = gravitational constant, 32.2 ft./s2 or 9.81 m/s2
D = Diameter of the Conveying Line, ft. or m
Gs = Solids Mass Flux, lb./ft.2-s or kg/m2-s
f = Gas Density, lb./ft.3 or kg/m3
p = Particle Density, lb/ft3 or kg/m3
dp = Particle Size, ft. or m
Accuracy: Within 30 %
Parameter Ranges:
8 < dp 3400 m
0 < P 700 psig 0 < P < 48 bar
1 < Gs 250 lb./ft.2-s 0 < Gs < 1220 kg/m2-s
1.2 < D 12 in. 3.2 < D < 30.5 cm
55 < p 490 lb./ft.3 881 < p < 7849 kg/m3
Note:
1. Predicts data for all Geldart Groups

2. For dp <44 m, use 44 m (small dp's agglomerate)
3. Use D = 12 in. (30 cm) for D > 12 in. (30 cm)
Problem 7-1: Calculate the choking velocity for a vertical pneumatic conveying system in
which air is to be used to convey solids flowing at a mass flux of 60 lb./ft.2-s through a
4-in-diameter pipe. Use the following values and conditions for the calculations:
f = 0.15 lb./ft.3; p = 120 lb./ft.3; f = 0.044 lb./ft.-h; dp = 762 m; Ut = 10.2 ft./s.
Solution: D = 4 in. = 0.33 ft.; dp = 762 m = 0.0025 ft.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 153
PROCESS MANUAL
The choking velocity correlation

0.35
U ch U t Gs D
0.35
p
0.10
= f
gd p U ch f dp
Trial and error method: Assume values of Uch; Correct value is when the left-hand side
(LHS) equals the right-hand side (RHS) of the equation,
Assume Uch = 19 ft./s,
LHS = 19.0 10.2 = 31

32.2x0.0025
0.35 0.35 0.1
RHS = 60 0.33
0.0025
120
0.15 = 31.3; LHS = RHS; Uch = 19 ft/s
19x0.15
PSRI Saltation Velocity Correlation

0.3
U salt Gs
= 11.5 ()
gD U salt f
where:
Usalt = Saltation Velocity, ft./s or m/s

g = gravitational constant, 32.2 ft./2 or 9.81 m/s2
D = Diameter of the Conveying Line, ft. or m
Gs = Solids Mass Flux, lb./ft.2-s or kg/m2-s
f = Gas Density, lb./ft.3 or kg/m3
dp = Particle Size, m
= Pipe inclination from the horizontal, degrees
= Function dependent on pipe inclination
= 1+0.006dp0.74 sin 2
Accuracy: Within 30 %
Parameter Ranges:
8 dp < 10,000 m
0 P < 750 psig 0 < P < 52 bar
1 Gs < 500 lb./ft.2-s 0 < Gs < 2440 kg/m2-s
0.3 D < 16.5 in. 0.8 < D < 42 cm
40 p < 550 lb./ft.3 640 < p < 8810 kg/m3
0 < 70 degrees
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 154
PROCESS MANUAL
Note:
1. Predicts data for all Geldart Groups

3. Use D = 17 in. (43 cm) for D > 17 in. (43 cm)
Problem 7-2: Calculate the saltation velocity for a horizontal pneumatic conveying
system as in Problem 7-1.
Solution: D = 4 in. = 0.33 ft.; ( )= 1 for = 0 o
The saltation velocity correlation can be rewritten as:

0.769
G
0.3
U salt = 11.5 gD s ()
f
0.769
0.3
U salt = 11.5 32.2x0.33 60 x1
0.15
Usalt = 64.6 ft/s
(Refer to Figure 8-46, following)
8.7.7B Appendix 7B: Konno-Saito Method (as recommended by PSRI)
The method of Konno and Saito is the method which is recommended by the
Particulate Solids Research Institute for the design of vacuum and pressure
dilute phase pneumatic conveying system. This method is another energy
balance equation similar to the Zenz-Othmer method. This one equation is used
to calculate all losses, but the acceleration terms are only used once per system,
and the vertical static losses for gas and material static head are ignored for
horizontal lines. The equation may be broken into six different terms: 1) air
acceleration loss, 2) material acceleration loss, 3) air friction loss, 4) material
friction loss, gas static head loss, and material static head loss. The material
friction loss is calculated based on the air loss and a material loading ratio.
dP=(((v(g)2*p(g))/2*gc))+(W*v(p)/gc)+((2f(g)*p(g)*v(g)2*L)/gc*dt))
+((0.057*v(g)*p(g)*Th*L)/((gc*dt)^0.5))+(W*L/v(s))+(p(g)*L)
Units
where:
dP = Pressure Drop (Psi)

v(g) = Gas Velocity (ft./sec.)
p(g) = Gas Density (lb./ft.3)
f(g) = Gas Friction
v(p) = Material Velocity (ft./sec.)
p(p) = Material Density (lb./ft.3)
f(p) = Material Friction
W = Material Flux (lb./sec.-ft.2)
L = Line Length (ft.)
gc = Gravitational Acceleration (ft./sec.2)
dt = Line Diameter (inches)
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 155
PROCESS MANUAL
Figure 8-46
PRESSURE DROP FOR SOLIDS REACCELERATION IN PNEUMATIC

CONVEYING THROUGH 90O ROUND ELBOWS IN HORIZONTAL TO VERTICAL FLOW
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 156
PROCESS MANUAL
where:
Th = (W/(v(g)*p(g)))
This equation can be broken into separate terms, and can be manipulated into more
convenient terms. We will do so, taking each term separately. Also, we will assume
some values for each term in order to perform a sample calculation:
Units
Conveying Gas = Air
sp(g) = Standard Gas Density 0.0752 (lb./ft.3)

Mw = Gas Molecular Weight 28.951 (lb./lb.-Mole)
mu(g) = Gas Viscosity 0.0183 (cP)
P1 = System Inlet Pressure 4.585 (Psig)
P2 = System Outlet Pressure 1.3 (Psig)
T = Temperature 70 (o F) = 294.26 (o K)
Q(g) = Gas Flow Rate 2,301 (Scfm)
C = Material Rate 833 (lb./min.)
p(p) = Material Density 75 (lb./ft.3)
p(b) = Material Bulk Density 35 (lb./ft.3)
Dpl = Largest Particle Size 0.0104 (ft.)
Dpm = Mean Particle Size 0.0104 (ft.)
L = Line Length
Horizontal 150 (ft.)
Vertical 75 (ft.)
g = Gravitational Acceleration 32.174 (ft./sec.2)
dt = Line Diameter 8.329 (inches)
Gas Acceleration Term:
dP = ((v(g)2*p(g))/(2*gc))
where:
Q(q) = 2,301 (Scfm)

T= 70.0 (o F)
P1 = 4.6 (Psig)
P2 = 1.3 (Psig)
p(g) = 0.0982 (lb./ft.3)
A= 0.3784 (ft.2)
v(g) = 77.6 (ft./sec.)
dt = 8.329 (inches)
dP = 0.06 (Psi)
This loss is only considered once per system, assuming no blinded tee elbows, and one
material pick-up point per system.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 157
PROCESS MANUAL
Material Acceleration Term:
dP = (W*v(p)/gc)
C= 833.33 (lb./min.)
Q(g) = 2,301 (Scfm)
T= 70.0 (o F)
P1 = 4.6 (Psig)
P2 = 1.3 (Psig)
p(p) = 75 (lb./ft.3)
p(g) = 0.0982 (lb./ft.3)
A= 0.378 (ft.2)
v(g) = 77.61 (ft./sec.)
v(p) = 69.85 (ft./sec.)
v(t) = 7.76 (ft./sec.)
Dpl = 0.0104 (ft.)
dt = 8.329 (inches)
dP = 0.61 (Psi)
This loss is only considered once per system, assuming no blinded tee elbows, and one
material pick-up point per system.
Gas Friction Term:
f(g) = 0.013961
dP/L = ((2f(g)*p(g)*v(g)2/(gc*dt))
C= 833.33 (lb./min.)
Q(g) = 2,301 (Scfm)
T= 70.0 (o F)
P1 = 4.6 (Psig)
P2 = 1.3 (Psig)
p(g) = 0.0898 (lb./ft.3)
v(g) = 77.61 (ft./sec.)
dt = 8.329 (inches)
e= 0.0018 (inches)
f(g) = 0.0140
dP/L(g) = 0.0047 (Psi/ft.)
This term is applied using the average pressure in the segment. Using inlet pressure is
an acceptable first guess. The average loss per foot is then multiplied with the segment
length to obtain the segment pressure drop. Trial and error calculations are used to
obtain the final pressure drop.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 158
PROCESS MANUAL
Material Friction Term:
dP/L = ((0.057*v(g)*p(g)*(W/(v(g)*p(g))))/((g*dt)^0.5))
W= 36.71 (lb./sec.-ft.2)
p(g) = 0.0898 (lb./ft.3)
v(g) = 77.6080 (ft./sec.)
dt = 8.329 (inches)
gc = 32.174 (ft./sec.2)
dP/L = 0.0031 (Psi/ft.)
L(horizontal) = 150 (ft.)
L (vertical) = 75 (ft.)
Number of Bends = 5
Le(bends) = 14 (ft.)/Bend
Total Le = 295 (ft.)
dP = 0.91 (Psi)
Material Static Pressure Losses Due to Vertical Rises:
dP/L = (W/v(p))
W= 36.71 (lb./sec.-ft.2)
v(p) = 69.8472 (ft./sec.)
dP/L = 0.0036 (Psi/ft.)
Gas Static Pressure Losses Due to Vertical Rises:
dP/L = p(g)
p(g) = 0.0898 (lb./ft.3)

dP/L(static) = 0.0006 (Psi/ft.)
Total System Pressure Drop 3.29 (Psi)

=
Initial Guess = 3.29 (Psi)
The free-fall terminal velocity is the minimum gas velocity required to suspend a particle
in a vertical pipe against gravity. If the gas velocity falls below the choking velocity, a
plug could form in the conveying line. This can happen if the system is in between being
stream and two-phase flow in some systems due to the natural surging or slugging which
happens in two phase flow. Other systems may form weak pistons in two-phase or
piston flow, and behave as fluidized beds rather than forming pistons in vertical lines.
These lines may plug under these conditions. The pressure and vacuum spreadsheets
use a test for choking velocity to warn when the vertical lines may plug.
Free-Fall Terminal Velocity:
Calculate the omega parameter; OMEGA = ((4*g*mu(g)*0.000672*(p(p)

-p(g)))/(3*(p(g)^2))^(1/3)
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 159
PROCESS MANUAL
where:
mu(g) = 0.018 (cP)

p(g) = 0.0898 (lb./ft.3)
p(p) = 75 (lb./ft.3)
OMEGA = 1.69 (ft./sec.)
Calculate the delta parameter, DELTA = ((3*((0.000672*mu(g))^2))/(4*g*p(g)*(p)-

p(g)))^(1/3)
where:
mu(g) = 0.018 (cP)

p(g) = 0.0898 (lb./ft.3)
p(p) = 75 (lb./ft.3)
DELTA = 7.98E-05 (ft.)
Free-Fall Terminal Velocity = vt = OMEGA*(((24/(((D(p)/12)/DELTA)^2)+((2.696

-(2.0136*PHI))/(((D(p)/12)/DELTA^0.5)))^-1)
PHI = 1 (For Spheres Only)

Dp1 = 0.1250 (Inches)
vt = 27.61 (ft./sec.)
Chocking Velocity:
The chocking velocity is the characteristic velocity at which the material will tend to form
plugs in the conveying line.
Right Hand Side of the Equation: RHS = ((W/(Uc*p(g)))^0.35)*((dt/

D(p)1)^0.35)*((p(p)/p(g))^0.1)
where:
p(p) = 75 (lb./ft.3)
p(g) = 0.0898 (lb./ft.3)
W= 36.71 (lb./sec.-ft.3)
dt = 8.329 (Inches)
D(p)1 = 0.125 (Inches)
RHS = 19.36
Left Hand Side of the Equation: LHS = (Uc-vt)/((g*D(p)1/12)^0.5)
where:
vt = 27.61 (ft./sec.)
g= 32.174 (ft./sec.2)
D(p)1 = 0.125 (Inches)
RHS = 19.92
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 160
PROCESS MANUAL
Guess Uc until RHS = LHS:
Uc = 39.14 (ft./sec.)
Saltation Velocity:
Every material has a characteristic velocity at which any particle will become entrained in
the flowing gas stream, according to Stokes' Law. Restating Stokes' Law, the particle will
be suspended in the flowing gas stream depending on the particle size, particle shape,
particle density, gas density, and gas viscosity. The particle will reach a terminal velocity
with respect to the gas. This characteristic velocity, when calculated for the largest
particle, becomes known as the saltation velocity. When the gas stream is moving at
less than or equal to the saltation velocity, the solid material will begin to disengage from
the flowing gas. The particles will fall to the pipe bottom. First, the particles will scrape
along the pipe bottom, then as the gas velocity is reduced, the particles will begin moving
in wave or dune flow. As the gas velocity is decreased more, the dunes may fill the pipe
from bottom to top, forming moving slugs or pistons. These pistons may be either
permeable or impermeable to gas. Plastic pellets or other coarse powders with little or
no fines form permeable pistons.
The saltation Velocity = Usalt = (11.5*((g*(dt/12))^0.5)*((W/

p(g))^0.3)*PHIth)^0.769
where:
g= 32.17 (ft./sec.2)
dt = 8.33 (Inches)
W= 36.71 (lb./sec.-ft.3)
p(g) = 0.09 (lb./ft.3)
PHIth = 1.00 (For Horizontal Lines Only)
Usalt = 86.45 (ft./sec.)
8.7.7C Appendix 7C: Zenz-Othmer Method (Dilute and Two-Phase Dense Phase Flow
Systems)
The following material is excerpted from the documentation of a Lotus 1-2-3

spreadsheet for pneumatic conveying system design. The first portion is a
discussion of the Zenz-Othmer method as presented by Paul E. Solt for the
design of both dilute and two-phase dense phase flow systems. The second
section (Appendix 7D) is a design method developed at the Particulate Solids
Research Institute (PSRI) for piston flow dense phase systems. Both methods
are fairly analytical, require readily available information, and lend themselves to
computer type trial and error solutions.
Zenz-Othmer Method (as presented by Paul E. Solt)
The method of Zenz and Othmer is a versatile method which can handle vacuum
and pressure conveying systems in both dilute and two-phase (dume flow) dense
phase flow regimes. This method is somewhat conservative in two-phase flow
due to the assumption that the line pressure drop is the same for both vertical
and horizontal flow. The method below follows Solt in that the dilute phase
vertical pressure drop equation is used in an effort to account for the reduced
wall friction in vertical flow.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 161
PROCESS MANUAL
Dilute Phase Systems:
Dilute phase (or stream-flow) systems are those in which the gas velocity
exceeds the characteristic saltation velocity of the material being transported in
horizontal flow, and exceeds the characteristic choking velocity of the material
being transported in vertical flow. Pressure losses in dilute phase flow are the
sum of acceleration and frictional losses for both the material and gas. These
losses where calculated by Zenz and Othmer for horizontal flow (equation 11.1)
and for vertical flow (equation 11.2).
Horizontal pressure losses in dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems has

been calculated by Zenz & Othmer using equation 11.1. This equation is an
energy balance derived from the Bernoulli equation, and can be broken down
into four different terms: 1) air acceleration loss, 2) material acceleration loss,
3) air friction loss, and 4) material friction loss. The material friction loss is
calculated based on the air loss and a material loading ratio.
dP = (vv(g)2*p(g))/288*g)+(W*v(p)/g)+((f(g)+v(g)2L)/6*g*dt))*(1+(f(p)*W)/
(f(g)*v(g)2*p(g))
where:
Units
dP =Pressure Drop (Psi)

v(g) = Gas Velocity (ft./sec.)
p(g) = Gas Density (lb./ft.3)
f(g) = Gas Friction
v(p) = Material Velocity (ft./sec.)
p(p) = Material Density (lb./ft.3)
f(p) = Material Friction
W = Material Flux (lb./sec.-ft.2)
L = Line Length (ft.)
g = Gravitational Acceleration (ft./sec.2)
dt = Line Diameter (Inches)
This equation can be broken into separate terms, and can be manipulated into
more convenient terms. We will do so, taking each term separately. Also, we
will assume some values for each term in order to perform a sample calculation:
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 162
PROCESS MANUAL
Units
Conveying Gas = Air
sp(g) = Standard Gas Density 0.0752 (lb./ft.3)

Mw = Gas Molecular Weight 28.951 (lb./lb.-Mole)
P1 = System Inlet Pressure 3.974 (Psig)
P2 = System Outlet Pressure 1.3 (Psig)
T = Temperature 70 (o F) 294.26 (o K)
Q(g) = Gas Flow Rate 2,301 (Scfm)
C = Material Rate 833 (lb./min.)
p(p) = Material Density 75 (lb./ft.3)
p(b) = Material Bulk Density 35 (lb./ft.3)
Dp1 = Largest Particle Size 0.0104 (ft.)
Dpm = Mean Particle Size 0.0104 (ft.)
L = Line Length
= Horizontal 150 (ft.)
= Vertical 75 (ft.)
g = Gravitational 32.174 (ft./sec.2)
Acceleration
dt = Line Diameter 8.329 (Inches)
Gas Acceleration Term:
dP = (2.09le-6*Q(g)2*(459.7+T))/(dt^4*(14.696+((P1+P2)/2)))
Q(g) = 2,301 (Scfm)

T= 70.0 (o F)
P1 = 4.0 (Psig)
P2 = 1.3 (Psig)
dt = 8.329 (Inches)
dP = 0.0653 (Psi)
This loss is only considered once per system, assuming no blinded tee elbows,
and one material pick-up point per system.
Material Acceleration Term:
Dp = (C/1517*(dt^2))*(((Q(g)*459.7+T))/(11.8*(dt^2)*(14.696+(P1+P2)/2))))
-(6.305((p(p)*Dp1*(459.7+T)/(14.696+((P1+P2)/2)))^0.5))))
C= 833.3333 (lb./min.)
Q(g) = 2,301 (Scfm)
T= 70.0 (o F)
P1 = 4.0 (Psig)
P2 = 1.3 (Psig)
p(p) = 75 (lb./ft.3)
Dp1 = 0.0104 (ft.)
dt = 8.329 (Inches)
dP = 0.63 (Psi)
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 163
PROCESS MANUAL
This loss is only considered once per system, assuming no blinded tee elbows,
and one material pick-up point per system.
Gas Friction Term:
dP/L = (((0.0245*((e/dt)^0.23))+((0.0009073*(dt^0.6)*((459.7+T)^0.75))/
((e^0.1)*((Q(g)*((0.555*(459.7+T))+120)))))) X (((Q(g)^2)*(459.7+T))/
(9961*(dt^5)*(14.696+(P1+P2)/2))))
C= 833.3333 (lb./min.)
Q(g) = 2,301 (Scfm)
T= 70.0 (o F)
P1 = 4.0 (Psig)
P2 = 1.3 (Psig)
dt = 8.329 (Inches)
e= 0.0018 (Inches)
dP/L(g) = 0.0017 (Psi/ft.)
This term is applied using the average pressure in the segment. Using inlet
pressure in an acceptable first guess. The average loss per foot is then
multiplied with the segment length to obtain the segment pressure drop. Trial
and error calculations are used to obtain the final pressure drop.
Material Friction Term:
The particle friction loss is accounted for as a ratio of particle friction loss to gas
friction loss:
Ratio = ((f(p)*v(p))/f(g)*v(g)))*(W/(v(g)*p(g)))
The first part of this term cannot be greater than unity. However, the velocity of
the particle is very nearly that of the fluid, whereas the particle friction is many
times that of the gas. Therefore this term is assumed to be equal to 1.0. So:
Ratio =1.0*13.35*C/Q(g)
C= 833.3333 (lb./min.)
Q(g) = 2,301 (Scfm)
Ratio = 4.83
The total horizontal loss:
dP/L = dP/L(g)*(1+Ratio)
dP/L = 0.0099 (Psi/ft.)

L(straight) = 150 (ft.)
Number of Bends = 5
Total Le = 220 (ft.)
dP = 2.19 (Psi)
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 164
PROCESS MANUAL
Vertical pressure losses in dilute phase pneumatic conveying system has been
calculated by Zenz & Othmer using equation 11.2. This equation accounts for
losses due to static head in vertical lines, and is added to equation 11.1 to obtain
the total pressure loss per foot for a vertical line. This loss is then multiplied with
the material ratio as for the horizontal line case. As for the horizontal line, this
equation is applied to the average pressure in a trial and error procedure.
Static Pressure Losses Due to Vertical Rises:
dP/L = C/(47.12*(dt^2)**(((Q(g)*(459.7+T))/
((dt^2)*11.799*(14.696+((P1+P2))))-(6.305*(((p(p)*Dp1*(459.7+T))/
14.696+((P1+P2)/2)))^0.5))))
C = 833.3333 (lb./min.)
Q(g) = 2,301 (Scfm)
dt = 8.329 (Inches)
T = 70.0 (o F)
P1 = 4.0 (Psig)
P2 = 1.3 (Psig)
p(p) = 75 (lb./ft.3)
Dp1 = 0.0104 (ft.)
dP/L(pipe) = 0.0099 (Psi/ft.) (Equation 11.1)
dP/L(static) = 0.0046 (Psi/ft.)
L(straight) = 75 (ft.)
Number of = 0
Bends
Total Le = 75 (ft.)
dP = 1.09 (Psi) (Equation 11.2)
Total System Pressure Drop = 3.97 (Psi)
Initial Guess = 3.97 (Psi)
Two-Phase (Dune Flow) Dense Phase Systems:
Two-phase dense phase systems are those in which the gas velocity is less than
the characteristic saltation velocity of the material being transported in horizontal
flow, and exceeds the characteristic choking velocity of the material being
transported in vertical flow. Pressure losses in two-phase flow are the sum of
acceleration and frictional losses for both the material and gas. These losses
were calculated by Zenz & Othmer for horizontal flow (equation 11.10a) and for
vertical flow (equation 11.2). Air and material acceleration losses in two-phase
dense phase systems are calculated in the same way as for the dilute phase
systems. Vertical losses due to static head is also calculated in the same way.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 165
PROCESS MANUAL
Horizontal losses are calculated using equation 11.10a:
dP/L = C/(1.72*(dt^2)*(((Q(g)*(T+459.7))/((dt^2)*(14.696+P)))^0.55)))*((Dp1*12/
dt)^0.25)
C= 833.3333 (lb./min.)
Q(g) = 2,301 (Scfm)
dt = 8.329 (Inches)
T= 70.0 (o F)
P1 = 4.0 (Psig)
P2 = 1.3 (Psig)
p(p) = 75 (lb./ft.3)
Dpm = 0.0104 (ft.)
Dp1 = 0.0104 (ft.)
dP/L(pipe) = 0.0543 (Psi/ft.) (Equation 11.10a)
Le = 219.76 (ft.)
dP = 11.94 (Psi)
From the calculation for dilute phase systems above:
Gas Acceleration Losses: 0.07 (Psi) (Same Gas Acceleration Term as in dilute
phase case)
Material Acceleration Losses: 0.63 (Psi) (Same Material Accel. Term as in dilute phase
case)
Horizontal Friction Losses: 0.05 (Psi/ft.) (Equation 11.10a)
Vertical Friction Losses: 0.0099 (Psi/ft.) (Equation 11.1)
Vertical Static Losses: 0.0046 (Psi/ft.) (Equation 11.2)
Total System Pressure Drop = 9.94 (Psi)
Saltation Velocity:
Every material has a characteristic velocity at which any particle will become
entrained in the flowing gas stream, according to Stokes' Law. Restating Stokes'
Law, the particle will be suspended in the flowing gas stream depending on the
particle size, particle shape, particle density, gas density, and gas viscosity. The
particle will reach a terminal velocity with respect to the gas. This characteristic
velocity, when calculated for the largest particle, becomes known as the saltation
velocity. When the gas stream is moving at less than or equal to the saltation
velocity, the solid material will begin to disengage from the flowing gas. The
particles will fall to the pipe bottom. First, the particles will scrape along the pipe
bottom, then as the gas velocity is reduced, the particles will begin moving in
wave or dune flow. As the gas velocity is decreased more, the dunes may fill the
pipe from bottom to top, forming moving slugs or pistons. These pistons may be
either permeable or impermeable to gas. Plastic pellets or other coarse powders
with little or no form permeable pistons.
The following two methods are from three methods discussed by Paul E. Solt in
one of his articles in "Powder & Bulk Engineering" Magazine. The first is from
the B.F. Sturtevant Co., and is useful to conservatively estimate pickup velocities
in
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 166
PROCESS MANUAL
first approximations of required airflow. The second is more analytical, and is

from the work of Thomas & Matsumoto.
Saltation Velocity:
Sturtevant: Vgs = 920*(p(b)^0.5)
where: p(b) = 35 lb./ft.3

Vgs = 5442.793 ft./min.
Matsumoto:
Determine the critical particle size: D(p)* = 1.39*dt*((p(p)/p(g))^-0.74)
where: dt = 8.329 Inches = 0.2116 Meters

p(p) = 74.8452 lb./ft.3 = 1.1990 g/cc
p(g) = 0.07 lb./ft.3 = 0.0012 g/cc
So: D(p)* = 0.0018 Meters = 1.7539 mm
Now, D(p) = 0.1250 Inches = 3.1750 mm
and since D(p)>/=D(p)*, the material is coarse
For fine materials, ugs = 5.56e3*((D(p)/dt)^1.43)*((Frs/10^4)
where: dt = 8.329 Inches = 0.2116 Meters

D(p)1 = 0.1250 Inches = 3.1750 mm
g= 32.17 ft./sec.2
v(g) = 103.25 ft./sec.
ugs = 4.8160 lb.(s)/lb.(g)
Frs = 10*((ugs/(5560*((D(p)/dt)^1.43)))^0.25) = 7.6978
Frs = (Ugs/((g*dt)^0.5)), so UGS = 36.38 ft./sec. =
2182.62 ft./min.
For coarse materials, ugs = 0.373*((p(p)/p(g)^1.06)*((Fr(p)/10)^-3.7)*

((Frs/10)^3.61)
Free-Fall Terminal Velocity = vt = 6.305*(((p(p)*Dp1*(459.7+T))/(14.696+P))^0.5)
where:
dt = 8.329 Inches
D(p) = 0.1250 Inches
g= 32.17 ft./sec.2
v(g) = 103.25 ft./sec.
ugs = 4.8160 lb.(s)/lb.(g)
vt = 102.72 ft./sec.
P1 4.0 Psig
o
T= 70.0 F
p(g) = 0.07 lb./ft.3
p(p) = 0.1250 lb./ft3
Dpi = 0.1250 Inches
Ups = 0.53 ft./sec.
Frp = 2.51
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 167
PROCESS MANUAL
Frs = 10*((ugs/(0.373*((p(p)/p(g))^1.06*((Frp/10)^-3.7)))^(1/3.61)) = 0.6450

Frs = (Ups/((g*dt)^0.5)), so UPs = 3.05ft./sec. =
182.89ft./min.
Free-Fall Terminal Velocity:
The free-fall terminal or choking velocity is the minimum gas velocity required to
suspend a particle in a vertical pipe against gravity. If the gas velocity falls below
the choking velocity, a plug could form in the conveying line. The can happen if
the system is in between being stream and two-phase flow in some systems due
to the natural surging or slugging which happens in two phase flow. Other
systems may form weak pistons in two-phase or piston flow, and behave as
fluidized beds rather than forming pistons in vertical lines. These lines may plug
under these conditions. The pressure and vacuum spreadsheets use a test for
choking velocity to warn when lines may plug.
The choking or free-fall terminal velocity is given by Paul E. Solt as:
Free-Fall Terminal Velocity = vt = 6.305*(((p)*Dp1*(459.7+T))/(14.696+P))^0.5)
This velocity was calculated above as part of the saltation velocity circulation:
p(p) = 78.85 lb./ft.3

Dp1 = 0.13 Inches
o
T= 70 F
P= 4 Psig
vt = 102.72 ft./sec.
8.7.7D Appendix 7D - Particulate Solids Research Institute (PSRI) (for Piston Flow
Dense Phase Systems)
Dense phase piston flow systems are those in which the gas velocity is
substantially below the specific saltation velocity of the material being
transported in horizontal flow, and exceeds the characteristic choking velocity of
the material being transported in vertical flow. These systems can be
characterized into four types: 1) Two phase flow (described above using the
Zenz-Othmer design procedure), 2) Extrusion flow in which materials with long
deaeration times are fluidized and pumped like a liquid, 3) Packed-Bed flow in
which relatively large particles are moved in a continuous packed stream, and
4) Piston or slug flow where the material moves in discrete pistons or slugs.
Extrusion flow and Packed-Bed flow regimes are not well understood, have high
pressure drops per unit length, and have no well defined design correlations.
Piston flow behavior can be predicted according to material characteristics. This
behavior can be described by the system type: 1) Pulsed systems use a
secondary gas stream at the blow-pot discharge ("air knife") to cut the pistons
into appropriate lengths, 2) Simple systems require no secondary gas ("air knife")
as the pistons form by themselves according to the material characteristics, and
3) Bypass systems which add secondary gas all along the material pipe as well
as the blow pot discharge through a small parallel gas pipe.
The design of these systems has four steps: 1) Determine the solids
classification and system type, 2) Determining the minimum required pipe
diameter, 3) Calculating the system pressure drop, and 4) Determining the
minimum gas requirement.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 168
PROCESS MANUAL
Determination of Solids Classification and System Type:
There are three methods to make these determinations: 1) ICI-Warren Spring

Classification, 2) Surface Tension method, and 3) Sdelta method. The
ICI-Warren Springs method is based only on 60 oF air, and is a purely graphical
method. The effect of using other gases at different temperatures is not known.
The Sdelta method requires more information on particle size and distribution
than is usually available. Consequently, the Surface Tension method is
recommended for use in spreadsheets.
Surface Tension Classification Method: (Refer to Figure 8-47)
Calculate Abscissa, X = D(p)/((3*(mu(g)^2)/(4*g*p(g)*(p(p)-p(g))))^(/13))
P= 114.7 (Psia)
T= 70.0 (o F)
D(p) = 0.1250 (Inches)
mu(g) = 1.23E-05 (lb./ft.-sec.)(DIPPR REGRESSION)
p(p) = 74.8 (lb./ft.3)
3
p(g) = 0.5848 (lb./ft. ) (IDEAL GAS LAW)
g= 32.174 (ft./sec.2)
Mw = 29 lb./lb.-mole
X= 240.81
Calculate Void Fraction, e = 1-(p(b)/p(p)) =
p(p) = 74.8 (lb./ft.3)

p(b) = 35.0 (lb./ft.3)
e= 0.5
From plot of Superficial Velocity vs. Particle Diameter, (Refer to Figure 8-48)
e Y Y calc
At e = 0.5 5.8 5.98
At e = 1 24.5 24.59
"Y calc" is calculated from regression of the plotted Superficial Velocity vs.
Particle Diameter curves.
Calculate Omega = ((4*g*mu(g)*(p(p)-p(g)))/(3*(p(g)^2))^(1/3)
mu(g) = 1.23E-05 (lb./ft.-sec.) (DIPPR REGRESSION)

p(p) = 74.8 (lb./ft.3
p(g) = 0.58 (lb./ft.3) (IDEAL GAS LAW)
g= 32.17 (ft./sec.2)
Omega = 0.49 (ft./sec.)
Calculate Incipient Solids Fluid Velocity, Vmf = Y*Omega
vmf Vmf calc

Vmf = 2.82 (ft./sec.) 2.90 (ft./sec.)
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 169
PROCESS MANUAL
Figure 8-47
ICI/WARREN SPRING AND SURFACE TENSION PARTICLE CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

FOR CONVEYABILITY (CURVES BASED ON AMBIENT AIR FOR MOTIVE GAS)
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 170
PROCESS MANUAL
Figure 8-48
SUPERFICIAL VELOCITY VS. PARTICLE DIAMETER

DEFINITION OF THE CONSTANT "C" IN EQUATION 1
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 171
PROCESS MANUAL
Calculate Particulate Terminal Velocity, Vt = Y(e=1)*Omega
Vt = 11.89 (ft./sec.) 11.94 (ft./sec.)
Calculate Particle Reynolds Number at Vmf, Re(p)=X*Y=

((Cd*(Re(p)^(1/3))*((Re(p)/Cd)^(1/3))
Y Y calc
Re(p) = 1396.68 1439.86
Re(p)>1.0, Re(p) is in Newton's Law region.
Calculate Constant "C" = Vmf/Vt
Y Y calc
C= 0.24 0.24
For Re(p) in the Stoke's Law range (Re</=1.0), particle surface tension = s =
18*1000*Vt*mu(g)*0.3048*(3.6/(0.000672*3600))
Y Y calc
Vt = 11.89 (ft./sec.) 11.94 (ft./sec.)
mu(g) = 1.23E-05 (lb./ft.-sec.) (DIPPR REGRESSION)
s= 1.1924 (Dynes/cm) 1.2 (Dynes/cm)
For Re(p) in the Newton's Law range (Re> 1.0), particle surface tension = s =
0.3*1000*(Vt^2)*D(p)m*p(g)*0.3048*0.3048*0.3048*16.01846
Y Y calc
Vt = 11.89 (ft./sec.) 11.94 (ft./sec.)
p(g) = 0.58 (lb./ft.3) (IDEAL GAS LAW)
D(P)m = 0.0104 (Ft.)
s= 384.6762 (Dynes/cm) 387.5035 (Dynes/cm)
System Type:
Materials with surface tensions greater than 10 dynes/cm form strong,

self-sustaining slugs. Simple systems are recommended. Materials with surface
tensions between 10 and 0.2 dynes/cm form weak slugs. Bypass systems are
recommended. Materials with surface tensions below 0.2 do not readily form
slugs on their own. A pulsed system is recommended.
The surface tension for this material is 387.5035 (Dynes/cm)
The example above exhibits surface tensions above 10.0 dynes/cm, suggesting
a simple system is recommended.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 172
PROCESS MANUAL
Minimum Pipe Diameter:
For "coarse powders" (surface tensions > 0.2 dynes/cm), Dt =

8.71*(((3600*m)/(p(b)))^0.4)
m= 13.89 (lb./sec.)
p(b) = 35.00 (lb./ft.3)
Dt = 6.02 (Inches)
For "fine powders" (surface tensions </=0.2 dynes/cm), Dt = 9.59*(((m*3600)/

(p(b)*((Lb.)^0.5)))^0.5)
m= 13.89 (lb./sec.)
p(b) = 35 (lb./ft.3)
Lb. = 2 (ft.)
Dt = 5.08 (Inches)
Since this powder has a surface tension greater than 0.2 dynes/cm, it is
classified as a coarse powder.
System Pressure Drop:
It should be noted that this correlation is from the ICI-Warren Springs

investigations carried out in 1979. These investigations were carried out with air
at ambient conditions which was then compressed up to a maximum pressure of
413.7 kPag (60 Psig). No differences were observed between horizontal and
vertical pipe orientation regarding pressure drop. (Refer to Figure 8-49).
dP = P2*{Exp[(L/C)*((W/A)/(((W/A)*e*p(g)2/p(b))+(p(g)2*Vmf2))*(P2/(P2+dP)]-1}
where:
P2 = System Discharge Pressure = 14.696 (Psia)

L= Linear Length of Line = 225 (ft.)
C= System Constant = 15748.00 (ft.)
W= Conveying Rate = 13.89 (lb./sec.)
A= Minimum Conveying Pipe Area = 0.1975 (ft.2)
Gs = Mass Flux = 70.31 (lb./sec.-ft.2)
e= Voids Friction = 0.53
p(g)2 = Discharge Gas Density = 0.0749 (lb./ft.3)
p(b) = Solids Bulk Density = 35 (lb./ft.3)
Vmf = Discharge incipient Velocity = 2.82 (ft./sec.)
Guess dP = System Pressure Drop = 30.4950 (Psi)
Calculated dP = System Pressure Drop = 30.4945 (Psi)
Minimum Gas Requirement:
The minimum gas velocity is assumed to be the gas flow at the minimum
fluidization velocity. Operating at this point gives the maximum solids to gas
ratio.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 173
PROCESS MANUAL
Figure 8-49
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION OF ICI/WARREN SPRINGS PRESSURE DROP EQUATION
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 174
PROCESS MANUAL
First calculate the maximum Solids to Gas Ratio = Rmax =(Gs/((Gs*e*p(g)1/

p(b))+(p(g)1*Vmf)) (Refer to Figure 8-50)
where:
Gs = Mass Flux = 70.31 (lb./sec.-ft.2)

e = Voids Fraction = 0.53
p(g)1 = Inlet Gas Density = 0.2304 (lb./ft.3) (IDEAL GAS LAW)
p(b) = Solids Bulk Density = 35 (lb./ft.3)
Vmf = Discharge incipient Velocity = 2.82 (ft./sec.)
Rmax = Maximum Solids to Gas Ratio = 78.55 (lb. Solids/lb. Gas)
Now calculate the minimum required superficial gas velocity = Vsup =

(1/K)*(1+(Gs*e/ (p(b)*Vmf)))
K = K Ratio = 0.4
Vsup = Superficial Velocity = 9.71 (ft./sec.)
Q = Gas Required at Feedpoint = 115.11 (Acfm)
Q = Gas Required at Feedpoint = 353.98 (Scfm)
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 175
PROCESS MANUAL
Figure 8-50
MINIMUM AIR RATES FOR CONVEYING POWDERS AND GRANULAR SOLIDS

(BASED ON ICI/WARREN SPRINGS DATA)
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 176
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.8 Appendix 8
Table 8-10
STANDARD PIPE DIMENSIONS
WALL INTERNAL
NOMINAL THICKNESS DIAMETER FLOW AREA
SIZE, IN SCHEDULE IN IN IN5 IN2
3/4 10 .083 .884 .5398 .614

3/4 40 .113 .824 .3799 .533
1 10 .109 1.097 1.589 .945
1 40 .133 1.049 1.270 .864
1-1/2 10 .109 1.682 13.46 2.222
1-1/2 40 .145 1.610 10.82 2.036
2 10 .109 2.157 46.69 3.654
2 40 .154 2.067 37.73 3.272
3 10 .120 3.260 368.2 8.35
3 40 .216 3.068 271.8 7.39
4 10 .120 4.260 1,403 14.25
4 40 .237 4.026 1,058 12.73
5 10 .134 5.295 4,162 22.02
5 40 .258 5.047 3,275 20.01
6 10 .134 6.357 10,382 31.77
6 40 .280 6.065 8,206 28.9
8 10 .148 8.329 40,083 54.5
8 40 .322 7.981 32,381 50.0
10 10 .165 10.42 122,840 85.3
10 40 .365 10.02 101,004 78.9
12 10 .180 12.39 291,982 120.6
12 40 S .375 12.00 248,832 113.1
14 10 .250 13.50 448,403 143.1
14 30 S .375 13.25 408,394 137.9
16 10 .250 15.50 894,661 188.7
16 30 S .375 15.25 824,861 182.7
K:\WRK090\037\345\MANUALS\PH&SB1\002-08C.SAM-04/01/1997
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 177
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.9 Appendix 9: Bulk Solid Material Characteristics
Table 8-11
COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION FOR VARIOUS

MATERIALS SLIDING ON STEEL(a)
MATERIAL BULK DENSITY COEFFICIENT

(lbs/ft3) OF FRICTION
(b)
Alfalfa, ground 15 0.6

Alumina, fine, granulated 55 0.7
Anthracite Coal, broken of any size 55 0.4
Bagasse, wet 4 1.0
Beans (See Coffee, Cocoa, Navy, Soy)
Bituminous Coal, pulverized 30 0.8
Borax, dehydrated, powdered 75 0.8
Bran 21 0.7
Brewers Grits 33 0.4
Buckwheat 34 0.5
Casein, granular 40 0.6
Cinders 42 0.7
Clover seed 48 0.5
Coal (See Anthracite, Bituminous)
Cocoa Beans 37 0.5
Cocoa Nibs 32 0.5
Coconut meal 32 0.8
Coconut, shredded 25 0.5
Coffee Beans, green 42 0.5
Coffee, steel cut 28 0.4
Coke, pulverized 25 0.7
Corn, field (on cob) 45 0.4
Corn, shelled 45 0.4
Corn Flakes 12 0.4
Corn Germ 25 0.5
Corn Germ Flakes 25 0.7
Corn Grits 40 0.4
Cornmeal 40 0.7
Cornmeal muffin mixture 28 1.0
Cotton Seed 25 0.6
Cotton Seed Meal 33 0.7
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 178
PROCESS MANUAL
Table 8-11 (Continued)


(lbs/ft3) OF
FRICTION(b)
Cryolite, " to 200 mesh, crushed 52 0.6

Dolomite, pulverized 46 0.9
Farina 44 0.6
Feldspar, pulverized 55
Flax Seed, ground 28 0.8
Flour 37 0.7
Flour, prepared biscuit 26 0.6
Fly ash, powdered 45 0.8
Fuller's Earth, raw 42 0.9
Glass Batch, average mix 100 0.7
Grass, blue, seed 11 1.0
Gravel 120 0.6
Gypsum 142 0.6
Hominy 45 1.0
Iron Oxide Pigment 25 0.4
Kalsomine, powder 32 0.8
Limestone, pulverized 85 0.9
Linseed Meal 27 0.6
Linseed, rolled 25 0.7
Malt, dry 32 0.4
Malt, spent dry 10 0.5
Malt Sugar, ground 35 0.6
Malt Sugar, unground 30 0.6
Mica, ground 13 0.7
Milk, powdered 40 1.0
Navy Beans 54 0.4
Oats 26 0.4
Oats, rolled 18 0.5
Pablum 9 0.6
Plaster of Paris, powdered 50 0.8
Portland Cement 95 0.8
Pumice, pulverized 40 1.0
Resin, synthetic (from plant), crushed 40 0.6
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 179
PROCESS MANUAL


(lbs/ft3) OF
FRICTION(b)
Resin and Wood Flour, powdered 19 0.8

Rice 50 0.4
Rubber, scrap, ground 23 0.7
Salt, granulated 81 0.6
Sand, coarse sized 95 0.6
Sand, Core 65 0.8
Sand, Mine run 105 0.7
Sand, very fine 100 0.6
Sand, voids full of water 120 1.0
Seed (See Clover, Cotton, Flax, Grass,
Timothy)
Soap chips 10 0.6
Soy Beans, crushed 34 0.7
Soy Beans, flour 27 0.8
Soy Beans, meal 40 0.5
Soy Beans, split 44 0.5
Soy Beans, whole 47 0.4
Starch, lump and pelleted 30 0.5
Starch, powdered 35 1.0
Starch, tablet, granular crystals 40 0.4
Sulphur, pulverized 50 1.0
Timothy Seed 36 0.5
Tobacco Stems, chopped, coarse 16 0.4
Wheat 48 0.4
Wheat Germ 32 0.6
Wheat Germs, ground 32 0.7
Wood Chips, dry 23 0.4
Wood Sawdust, dry 20 0.7
Wood Sawdust, ground 20 1.0
Notes:
(a) Reference data from "Fan Engineering" published by Buffalo Forge
Company. Adapted from the data of Weights of Various Substances,
Stephans-Adamson Division of Borg-Warner Corporation, Aurora,
Illinois.
(b) Coefficient of friction is computed as the tangent of the angle of slide
(angle of repose).
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 180
PROCESS MANUAL
Bulk Solid Material Characteristics
Table 8-12
ANGLE OF REPOSE FOR VARIOUS BULK MATERIALS(a)
MATERIAL BULK DENSITY ANGLE OF

(lbs/ft3) REPOSE
(DEGREES)
Adipic Acid, fine 45 35 - 45

Alum, fine 45 - 50 30 - 45
Alum, lumpy 50 - 65 30 - 45
Alumina, fine 35 - 60 55
Alumina, briquette 65 22
Aluminum, chips 7 - 15 45 +
Aluminum Silicate, fine, non-abrasive 49 30 - 45
Aluminum Sulphate, granular 45 - 58 32
Ammonium Chloride, crystalline, fine, 52 30 - 45
non-abrasive
Ammonium Sulphate, damp, 40 45
granulated
Antimony, powder, fine, mildly abrasive 30 - 45
Asbestos shred, irregular, mildly 20 - 25 45
abrasive, light and fluffy
Ashes, dry, granular or lumpy, mildly 20 - 25 45
abrasive
Ashes, damp, granular or lumpy, mildly 35 - 45 45
abrasive
Asphalt, crushed, granular, non- 45 30 - 45
abrasive
Bakelite, powder, non-abrasive 30 - 40 45 +
Barytes, lumpy, very abrasive 144 - 180 30
Barium Carbonate, very fine, mildly 72 45
abrasive
Bauxite, calcined, granular 70 26
Bauxite, ground, dried 68 35
Bauxite mine run, lumpy, very abrasive 75 - 85 31
Bentonite, crude, lumpy, mildly 34 - 40 45 +
abrasive
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 181
PROCESS MANUAL

lbs/ft3 REPOSE
(DEGREES)
Bentonite, fine, mildly abrasive 50 - 60 42

Benzene hexachloride dust, dangerous 56 45 +
to health
Sodium Bicarbonate, very fine, non- 41 30
abrasive
Borate of lime, very fine, non-abrasive 30 - 45
Borax, fine, non-abrasive 50 - 70 30 - 45
Boric acid, fine, non-abrasive 55 30 - 45
Bronze, chips, fine, very abrasive 30 - 50 45 +
Calcium Dichromate, granular 62 25
Calcium Carbide, powdered 139 45
Calcium Lactate, lumpy, non-abrasive 26 - 29 45 +
Calcium Oxide (lime), fine 27 43
Carbon, ground 50 21
Cast Iron Chips, granular, mildly 130 - 200 45
abrasive
Cement, Portland, very fine, mildly 90 - 100 30 - 45
abrasive
Cement Clinker, lumpy, very abrasive 75 - 95 30 - 45
Chalk, lumpy, mildly abrasive 85 - 90 45
Chalk, fine, mildly abrasive 70 - 75 45
Chalk, precipitated, powdered 18 45
Charcoal, bone, carbonated, granular 60 27
Charcoal, wood, lumpy, mildly abrasive 15 - 30 35
Chrome Ore, granular, very abrasive 125 - 140 30 - 45
Clay, calcined, fine, very abrasive 80 30 - 45
Clay, powdered, 11 % moisture 45 45
Coal, anthracite, granular, mildly 52 - 60 30 - 45
abrasive
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 182
PROCESS MANUAL

lbs/ft3 REPOSE
(DEGREES)
Coal, anthracite, fine, mildly abrasive 60 45

Coal, bituminous, slack, granular, non- 45 - 50 29 - 45
abrasive
Coal, ground 40 29
Coffee Beans 30 - 45
Coffee, ground, fine, non-abrasive 25 30 - 45
Coke, petroleum, calcined, lumpy, very 35 - 45 30 - 45
abrasive
Copper Ore, lumpy, very abrasive 120 - 150 30 - 45
Copper Oxide, powdered 190 40
Copper Sulphate, ground 75 31
Cork, ground, fine, light 5 - 15 45 +
Cottonseed, dry, de-linted, granular 22 - 40 30 - 45
non-abrasive
Cottonseed Hulls, fine, non-abrasive, 12 45
light
Diatomaceous Earth, very fine, very 11 - 14 30 - 45
abrasive
Dicalcium Phosphate, very fine, non- 43 45 +
abrasive
Disodium Phosphate, fine, mildly 25 - 31 45 +
abrasive
Dolomite, lumpy, mildly abrasive 80 - 100 30 - 45
Dolomite, pulverized 46 41
Epsom Salts, fine, non-abrasive 40 - 50 30 - 45
Feldspar, ground, fine, mildly abrasive 65 - 70 45
Ferrous Sulphate, granular, mildly 50 - 75 30 - 45
abrasive
Flour, fine, non-abrasive 30 - 46 55 - 60
Flue Dust, blast furnace 40 - 125 45
Fluorspar, granular, mildly abrasive 82 - 110 45 +
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 183
PROCESS MANUAL

lbs/ft3 REPOSE
(DEGREES)
Fuller's Earth, raw, fine, mildly abrasive 35 - 42 35

Graphite, flake, granular, non-abrasive 40 30 - 45
Graphite, flour, very fine, non-abrasive 28 30
Gravel, lumpy or granular, mildly 90 - 120 30 - 40
abrasive
Gypsum 142 45 +
Gypsum, calcined, granular, mildly 55 - 60 40
abrasive
Gypsum, calcined, powdered, mildly 60 - 80 45 +
abrasive
Gypsum, raw, under 1", lumpy, mildly 90 - 100 30 - 45
abrasive
Hops, dry, non-abrasive 35 45 +
Iron Oxide, pigment 25 40
Kaolin Clay, lumpy, mildly abrasive 163 30 - 45
Lead Silicate, granulated 230 40
Lead Sulphate, pulverized 184 45
Lime, ground, fine, non-abrasive 60 45 +
Lime, hydrated, fine, non-abrasive 40 30 - 45
Lime, pebble, lumpy, non-abrasive 53 - 56 45 +
Limestone, crushed, lumpy, mildly 85 - 90 30 - 45
abrasive
Limestone, pulverized 75 - 85 42
Lithopone, pigment, very fine, non- 45 - 50 30 - 45
abrasive
Magnesium Chloride 33 45 +
Manganese Sulphate, granular, very 70 30 - 45
abrasive
Mica, pulverized, fine, mildly abrasive, 13 - 30 30 - 45
very light and fluffy
Mineral Wool 20 30
Molybdenite Ore, powdered 107 40
Monosodium Phosphate 50 30 - 45
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 184
PROCESS MANUAL

lbs/ft3 REPOSE
(DEGREES)
Sodium Nitrate, granular 68 24

Oxalic Acid Crystals, fine, non- 60 45 +
abrasive, hygroscopic
Phosphate Rock, lumpy, mildly 75 - 85 30 - 45
abrasive
Phosphate Rock, pulverized 60 40 - 52
Polystyrene Beads, fine, non-abrasive 40 30 - 45
Polyethylene, cubes 25
Polyethylene, pellets 23
Polyethylene, powder 52
Potassium Carbonate 51
Potassium Chloride, pellets, granular, 120 - 130 30 - 45
mildly abrasive
Potassium Nitrate, granular, mildly 76 30
abrasive
Potassium Sulphate, fine, mildly 42 - 48 45
abrasive
Powdered Starch 50
Pumice, fine, very abrasive 40 - 45 45
Pyrites, pellets, granular, mildly 120 - 130 30 - 45
abrasive
Rubber, reclaim, lumpy, non-abrasive 25 - 30 45 +
Rubber, scrap, ground, stringy, 23 - 50 35 +
sluggish
Salicylic Acid, fine, non-abrasive, 29 30 - 45
hygroscopic
Shale, crushed, granular, mildly 85 - 90 39
abrasive
Silica Gel, fine, very abrasive 30 - 45 30 - 45
Slag, furnace, lumpy 160 - 180 45 +
Soap, beads or granules, non-abrasive 30 - 45
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 185
PROCESS MANUAL

lbs/ft3 REPOSE
(DEGREES)
Soapstone Talc, very fine, mildly 40 - 50 45 +

abrasive
Soda Ash, light 25 - 38 37
Soda Ash, heavy 55 - 62 35
Sodium Antimonate, crushed 49 31
Sodium Nitrate 68 - 80 24
Sodium Sulfite 96 40
Sodium Sulphate 88 31
Steel Turnings, irregular, very abrasive 75 - 150 45 +
Sugar, refined, fine, non-abrasive 50 - 55 30 - 45
Sulphur, lumpy, non-abrasive 55 - 85 32
Sulphur, powdered, fine, non-abrasive 55 - 60 30 - 45
Tin Oxide, ground 100 35
Triple Super Phosphate 50 - 55 30 - 45
Trisodium Phosphate 60 30 - 45
Vermiculite, expanded, granular, light 16 45 +
and fluffy, mildly abrasive
Vermiculite Ore, lumpy, mildly abrasive 80 30 - 45
Wheat, whole grain, non-abrasive 48 30
Wood, chips or shavings - 45
Zinc Calcines, powdered 85 54
Zinc Ore, roasted, granular 100 38
Zinc Oxide, heavy, very fine, non- 20 - 35 45 +
abrasive
Zinc Oxide, light, very fine, non- 10 - 15 45 +
abrasive
Zinc Sulphate 70 - 88 44
Note:
(a) Source not available
8.7.10 Appendix 10: Not Used.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 186
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.11 Appendix 11
Table 8-13
DILUTE PHASE CONVEYING VELOCITIES FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS
Material Particle Bulk Pickup

Size Description Density Velocity
(lbs/ft3) (ft/min)
Alumina 100 % passing #140 58 3000
U.S. Sieve
Barite 99 % passing #230 85-135 3000
U.S. Sieve
Barley Seed ------ 38 4800
Bauxite, Ground 100 % passing #140 90 3000
U.S. Sieve
Bentonite, Ground, 95 % passing #200 54 2000
Aerated U.S. Sieve
Cement, Portland "Fine" 91 3600
Coal Up to 1/2 inch 45 4000
Coal "Powdered" -- 3500
Coffee Beans ------ -- 2700
Fluorspar 50 % passing #200 101 2500
U.S. Sieve
Fuller's Earth 95 % passing #140 35-55 1800
U.S. Sieve
Kieselguhr 85 % passing #200 15 2000
U.S. Sieve
Limestone, Ground Average 100 microns 58 2500
Magnetite ------ 100 5000
Phosphate Rock, Average 100 microns 69 2500
Ground
Polyethylene "3/16 inch cubes" 30 3000
Polyethylene "Pellets" 33-35 4300
Sand, Coarse "Rough Size" 98 6000
Salt (NaC1) 5 % passing #100 85 5500
U.S. Sieve
Soda (Dense) 66 % passing #140 65 3000
U.S. Sieve
Sodium Sulphate 100 % passing #35 80-90 3000
U.S. Sieve
Sugar "Granulated" 54 4800
Uranium Dioxide 100 % passing #35 220 4200
U.S. Sieve
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 187
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.12 Appendix 12
Table 8-14
DENSE PHASE CONVEYING VELOCITY FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS
Bulk Solids to Velocity

Material Average Density Air Wt. At Pickup
Particle Size (#/ft3) Ratio (ft/min)
Alumina, hydrated 44 microns 56-68 46 2200
Asbestos, Pellets 1/4" dia. x 3/4" 50 15 3000
Calcium Carbonate 3-4 microns 25 32 1400
Cement Fines 90-100 137 1500
Feldspar, Ground 20 microns 75 54 1900
Magnesite 20-200 mesh 90 17 2200
Perlite Fines -- 136 600
Polyvinyl Chloride Powder 30 20 1600
Quartz, dry Powder 70-75 14 3400
Silica Davison #56:
0.024" 17-18 9 2700
Davison #952:
0.0021
Urea 1/16" 40-48 20 3200
Caution: Do not use above data for Dilute Phase Calculation Methods.
Use Zenz Calculation Method to calculate system pressure drop

for
Dense Phase conveying.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 188
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.13 Appendix 13: Sieves
Table 8-15
U.S. SIEVE SERIES
Meshes Sieve No. Sieve Opening Diameter of Wire

per Inch (Inches) (Inches)
2.58 2-1/2 0.315 0.073
3.03 3 0.265 0.065
3.57 3-1/2 0.223 0.057
4.22 4 0.187 0.05
4.98 5 0.157 0.044
5.81 6 0.132 0.04
6.80 7 0.111 0.036
7.89 8 0.0937 0.0331
9.21 10 0.0787 0.0299
10.72 12 0.0661 0.0272
12.58 14 0.0555 0.0240
14.66 16 0.0469 0.0213
17.15 18 0.0394 0.0189
20.16 20 0.0331 0.0165
23.47 25 0.028 0.0146
27.62 30 0.0232 0.0130
32.15 35 0.0197 0.0114
38.02 40 0.0165 0.0098
44.44 45 0.0138 0.0087
52.36 50 0.0117 0.0074
61.93 60 0.0098 0.0064
72.46 70 0.0083 0.0055
85.47 80 0.0070 0.0047
101.01 100 0.0059 0.0040
120.48 120 0.0049 0.0034
142.86 140 0.0041 0.0029
166.67 170 0.0035 0.0025
200 200 0.0029 0.0021
238.10 230 0.0024 0.0018
270.26 270 0.0021 0.0016
323 325 0.0017 0.0014
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 189
PROCESS MANUAL
Table 8-16
TYLER STANDARD SCREENS
Meshes per Inch Size of Aperture Diameter of Wire

(Inches) (Inches)
1.050 0.149
0.742 0.135
0.525 0.105
0.371 0.092
3 0.263 0.070
4 0.185 0.065
6 0.131 0.036
8 0.093 0.032
10 0.065 0.035
14 0.046 0.025
20 0.0328 0.0172
28 0.0232 0.0125
35 0.0164 0.0122
48 0.0116 0.0092
65 0.0082 0.0072
100 0.0058 0.0042
150 0.0041 0.0026
200 0.0029 0.0021
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 190
PROCESS MANUAL
Table 8-17
I.M.M SCREENS
Meshes per Inch Size of Aperture Diameter of Wire

(Inches) (Inches)
5 0.1 0.1
8 0.062 0.063
10 0.05 0.05
12 0.0416 0.0417
16 0.0312 0.0313
20 0.025 0.025
30 0.0166 0.0167
40 0.0125 0.0125
50 0.01 0.01
60 0.0083 0.0083
70 0.0071 0.0071
80 0.0062 0.0063
90 0.0055 0.0055
100 0.005 0.005
120 0.0042 0.0041
150 0.0033 0.0033
200 0.0025 0.0025
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 191
PROCESS MANUAL
Table 8-18
BRITISH STANDARD SIEVES
Nominal Meshes per Inch Size of Aperture Wire Diameter of Width

for Wire Screens (Inches) of Bridge (Inches)
5 0.1320 0.068
6 0.1107 0.056
7 0.0949 0.048
8 0.0810 0.044
10 0.0660 0.034
12 0.0553 0.028
14 0.0474 0.024
16 0.0395 0.023
18 0.0336 0.022
22 0.0275 0.018
25 0.0236 0.0164
30 0.0197 0.0136
36 0.0166 0.0112
44 0.0139 0.0088
52 0.0116 0.0076
60 0.0099 0.0068
72 0.0083 0.0056
85 0.0070 0.0048
100 0.0060 0.0040
120 0.0049 0.0034
150 0.0041 0.0026
170 0.0035 0.0024
200 0.0030 0.0020
240 0.0026 0.0016
300 0.0021 0.0012
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 192
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.14 Appendix 14: Not used
8.7.17A Appendix 17A: Airlock Size and RPM Calculation
To determine the feed rate for a rotary airlock the following method should be
used.
Design Conveying Rate____________________

Airlock displacement_____________________ft3/rev
*Material bulk density___________________lbs/ft3
*Expected efficiency of A/L______________%
_________lbs/hr divided by 60 min =_______#/min. divided

_________lbs/ft3=________________ft/3/min
_________ft3/min divided by __________ft3/rev = _________RPM

@ 100 % fill.
_________ RPM @ 100 % ____________ % = ____________ design RPM.
Airlock Displacement
Heavy Duty High Efficiency
8 x 6 = .17 ft3/rev 7 x 7 = .10 ft3/rev
10 x 8 = .34 ft3/rev 9 x 9 = .20 ft3/rev
12 x 10 = .60 ft3/rev 12 x 12 = .60 ft3/rev
16 x 12 = 1.17 ft3/rev 15 x 15 = 1.20 ft3/rev
20 x 15 = 2.29 ft3/rev
**A/L eff: H = 90 %
M = 80 %
L = 70 %
*From material factors page or from MAC test report.

**Airlock efficiency ratings are somewhat subjective as they can vary from one
application to another. For best results contact the factory.
8.7.17B Appendix 17B: Airlock Loss - Approximate
All airlocks, rotary valves rotary feeders, etc., of the clearance type loose or
"leak" air in two ways: 1) Air at conveying line pressure is released through
empty pockets as the rotor turns, and 2) Leakage through the machined
clearance between the rotor tips and the housing bore. The equations given
below are based on an empty airlock, material flow in most cases would provide
some sealing effect reducing the air leakage. Unfortunately, there are so many
variables that it is extremely difficult to quantify the sealing effect. Corrections
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 193
PROCESS MANUAL
for the sealing effect are therefore very subjective and should be applied with
caution.
Pocket Loss:
(14.7 + P) D N
CFM =
14.7
where:
P = Pressure: PSIG + LO
Vacuum: PSIG + LI
D = Airlock Displacement in ft3/rev
N = RPM
Clearance Loss:
A
2454 P X
CFM = 30 144
0.75
where:
A = Average Area (in2) of clearance

X = Factor based on pressure differential and specific heats of air (k = 1.39
@ 100 oF +)
A (IN2)
AIRLOCK CLI CLII CLIII
7x7 .163 .282 .446
9x9 .180 .342 .540
12x12 .278 .479 .757
15x15 .334 .577 .911
8x6 .169 .292 .461
10x8 .213 .368 .581
12x10 .257 .444 .701
16x12 .313 .541 .854
20x15 .390 .674 1.064
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 194
PROCESS MANUAL
X
P X P X P X
.5 .0090 5.5 .0545 10.5 .0653
1.0 .0168 6.0 .0565 11.0 .0656
1.5 .0236 6.5 .0582 11.5 .0659
2.0 .0295 7.0 .0597 12.0 .0659
2.5 .0347 7.5 .0610 12.5 .0660
3.0 .0392 8.0 .0620 13.0 .0661
3.5 .0432 8.5 .0630 13.5 .0662
4.0 .0466 9.0 .0637 14.0 .0661
4.5 .0496 9.5 .0644
5.0 .0522 10.0 .0649
This diagram taken from "Pneumatic Conveying Engineering Manual, Dilute

Phase" by MAC Equipment Inc.
Airlock Loss: Example Calculation
Use an HE 9x9 Class II operating at 22 rpm on a positive pressure system with a

P of 7.3.
a. Determine "Pocket Loss"
(14.7 + P) DN
CFM =
14.7
where:
P = 7.3
D = .2
N = 22
(14.7 + 7.3) .2 22
CFM = = 6.6 CFM or 7 CFM
14.7
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 195
PROCESS MANUAL
b. Determine "Clearance Loss"
A
2454 P X
CFM = 30 144
0.75
where:
A = .342
P = 7.3
X = .061
.342
2454 7.3 .061
CFM = 30 144
= 31.4 or 32 CFM
0.75
c. Total Loss = 7 CFM + 32 CFM = 39 CFM Airlock Loss
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 196
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.17CAppendix 17C: Rotary Valve Leakage Chart* (Flotronics) (Leakage in Scfm)
Rotary Operating Theoretical Motor Pressure Differential

Valve Speed Brake Hp Size
Model No (rpm) (Hp) (Hp) Static Leakage Dynamic Leakage Total Leakage
2 5 8 10 2 5 8 10 2 5 8 10
FTA 0.3 15 0.13 - 0.22 1/3 - 1/2 11 18 22 25 5 6 7 7 16 24 29 32
25 0.22 - 0.36 1/2 - 1/2 11 18 22 25 8 9 11 12 19 27 33 37
35 0.30 - 0.50 1/2 - 3/4 11 18 22 25 11 13 15 17 22 31 37 42
FTA 0.6 10 0.17 - 0.25 1/2 - 1/2 14 23 29 32 6 7 8 9 20 30 37 41
20 0.33 - 0.50 1/2 - 3/4 14 23 29 32 12 14 16 18 26 37 45 50
30 0.50 - 0.75 3/4 - 1 14 23 29 32 18 21 24 26 32 44 53 58
FTA 1.2 10 0.25 - 0.33 1/2 - 3/4 18 28 36 40 14 16 19 20 32 44 55 60
20 0.50 -0.67 3/4 - 1 18 28 36 40 27 32 37 40 45 60 73 80
30 0.75 - 1.0 1 - 1-1/2 18 28 36 40 41 48 55 60 59 76 91 100
FTA 2.0 10 0.60 - 1.0 1 - 1-1/2 23 36 46 51 23 27 31 34 46 63 77 85
15 0.90 - 1.5 1-1/2 - 2 23 36 46 51 35 41 47 51 58 77 93 102
25 1.5 - 2.5 2-3 23 36 46 51 50 68 78 86 73 104 124 137
FTA 4.0 10 1.2 - 1.6 2-3 29 45 57 64 47 56 64 70 76 101 121 134
15 1.8 - 2.4 3 29 45 57 64 71 84 96 105 100 129 153 169
25 3.0 - 4.0 5 29 45 57 64 117 140 160 175 146 185 217 239
This chart was taken from "Pneumatic Conveying Design Manual," by Flotronics, Inc.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 197
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.18A Appendix 18A: Diverter Valve Application Chart(a)
Air Pressure Abrasion Material

Leakage Contamination Rating Resistance Size
Flapper Poor Good Low Poor Coarse
Tunnel Poor Good Low Poor Coarse
Double Ball Valve Good Poor High Good Coarse/Fine
Pinch Good Poor High Good Coarse/Fine
Sliding Disc Good Poor High Good Coarse/Fine
Notes:
(a) This chart was taken from the lecture notes by Lawrence G. Caldwell presented in a
Pneumatic Conveying seminar at the Center for Professional Advancement.
8.7.18B Appendix 18B: Line Diverter Valve Leakage Chart (Leakage in Scfm)(b)
Pressure Differential
Diverter Tunnel Blade Flapper
Size 2 5 10 2 5 10 2 5 10
2 2.2 3.5 - - - - - - -
3 3.4 5.3 7.5 3.1 5.0 7.0 1.8 2.8 4.0
4 4.5 7.2 10.1 4.0 6.5 9.0 2.2 3.5 5.0
5 5.8 9.3 13.2 5.0 7.8 11.0 2.8 4.5 6.3
6 7.2 11.3 16.0 5.5 8.5 12.0 3.4 5.3 7.5
8 9.0 14.1 20.0 6.5 10.0 14.0 - - -
10 11.6 18.5 26.2 8.3 13.0 18.5 - - -
12 14.0 22.0 31.1 9.4 15.0 21.0 - - -
Notes:
(a) This chart was taken from "Pneumatic Conveying Design Manual," by Flotronics Inc.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 198
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.19A Appendix 19A: Filter Air-to-Cloth Ratio Selection A:C = (AxBxCxDxE):1
MATERIAL FACTOR - TABLE A

FACTOR 15 12 10 9 6
M CAKE MIX ASBESTOS ALUMINA AMMONIUM ACTIVATED CARBON
CARDBOARD DUST BUFFING DUST ASPIRIN PHOSPHATE- CARBON BLACK
A COCOA FIBROUS & CARBON BLACK FERTILIZER (MOLECULAR)
FEEDS CELLULOSTIC (FINISHED) COKE DETERGENTS
T FLOUR MATERIAL CEMENT DIATOMACEOUS FUMES AND OTHER
GRAIN FOUNDRY SHAKEOUT CERAMIC PIGMENTS EARTH DISPERSED
E LEATHER DUST GYPSUM CLAY & BRICK DUST DRY PETRO- PRODUCTS DIRECT
SAWDUST LIME (HYDRATED) COAL CHEMICALS FROM REACTIONS
R TOBACCO PERLITE FLOURISPAR DYES POWDERED MILK
RUBBER CHEMICALS GUM, NATURAL FLY ASH SOAPS
I SALT KAOLIN METAL POWDER
SAND LIMESTONE METAL OXIDES
A SANDBLAST DUST PERCHLORATES PIGMENTS,
SODA ASH ROCK DUST, ORES METALLIC &
L TALC & MINERALS SYNTHETIC
SILICA PLASTICS
S SORBIC ACID RESINS
SUGAR SILICATES
STARCH
STEARATES
TANNIC ACID
IN GENERAL, ALSO INCLUDES THOSE SOLIDS THAT ARE
PHYSICALLY & UNSTABLE IN THEIR PHYSICAL OR CHE-MICAL
CHEMICALLY STABLE STATE DUE TO HYGROSCOPIC NATURE,
MATERIALS SUBLIMATION AND/OR POLYMERI-ZATION
APPLICATION FACTOR - TABLE B

APPLICATION FACTOR B
NUISANCE VENTING
Relief of transfer points,
conveyors, pacing stations, etc. 1.0
PRODUCT COLLECTION
Air conveying - venting mills,
flash driers, classifiers, etc. 0.9
PROCESS GAS FILTRATION
Spray driers, Kilns, reactors, 0.8
etc.
PARTICLE SIZE FACTOR - TABLE D

FINENESS FACTOR D
OVER 100 MICRON 1.2
50 TO 100 MICRON 1.1
10 TO 50 MICRON 1.0
3 TO 10 MICRON 0.9
UNDER 3 MICRON 0.8
This diagram taken from "Dust Collection Engineering Manual" by MAC Equipment Inc.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 199
PROCESS MANUAL
Guidelines for Calculating Air-to-Cloth Ratios
Operating experience is unquestionably the best reference for determining

air-to-cloth ratios (A.C.R.). However, the information below may be used as
guideline:
A.C.R. = Material
x Process
x Particle Size/Temperature
Step 1
To determine the Material Factor, find your material and select the appropriate
value from the Material Factor Table below:
TABLE A MATERIAL FACTOR TABLE
MATERIAL 9 8 7 6 5
FACTOR
M GRAIN KAOLIN ALUMINA COKE ACTIVATED CARBON
A PAPER SAND METALLIC ORE PIGMENTS CALCIUM
T SAWDUST GYPSUM CEMENT FLYASH CARBON BLACK
E TOBACCO LIME COAL DETERGENTS GRAPHITE
R SALT FLOUR LEAD OXIDE CHARCOAL
I
A SODA ASH FERTILIZER SUGAR METALLURGICAL FUME
L TALC LIMESTONE ZINC OXIDE
ABRASIVES
Step 2
Material Loading is expressed in grains per cubic foot.
The Process Factor is a function of the inlet grain loading and type of process.
First determine the material loading which is expressed in grains per cubic foot
(gr/cf).
To calculate gr/cf from lbs/min:
7, 000 gr/lb x lb/ min

Multiply: = gr/cf
CFM
Next, establish the process curve which most closely defines your application.
The following applications are listed as guidelines:
The applications are defined by:
Process Gas Filtration: Dryers, Kilns, Reactors
Product Collection: Air Conveying, Size Reduction, Classifying
Nuisance Venting: Bulk Material Handling
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 200
PROCESS MANUAL
To determine the Process Factor, use either:
Graph B1, if your grain loading is 10 gr/cf
Graph B2, if your grain loading is < 10 gr cf
On the graph, find your grain loading and move horizontally to the appropriate
application curve. Move vertically to the bottom of the graph to obtain Process
Factor.
Step 3
The air-to-cloth ratio is also affected by temperature and particle size. Graph C
is used to determine your Particle Size/Temperature Factor. Locate the
temperature of your application and move horizontally to the appropriate particle
size curve. Then move vertically to the bottom of the graph to obtain the Particle
Size/Temperature Factor.
Step 4
Calculate the air-to-cloth ratio:
A.C.R. = A x B x C
Example
Ventilating a belt conveyor bucket elevator and screen handling, silica sand at
ambient temperature with an estimated inlet loading of 2 lb/min. Air volume is
5,000 CFM. Average particle size is greater than 10 microns.
A.C.R. = 8 x 1.1 x 1.0

= 8.8 : 1
A filter's design and cleaning mechanisms affect the final filter ratio. This
additional equipment factor must be considered and is noted on the specific
Technical Data Sheet of the dust collector being considered. Consult your Sly
representative or Sly at 1-800-334-2957.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 201
PROCESS MANUAL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 202
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.19B Appendix 19B: Comparative Air-Filter Characteristics
Unit Filters
Viscous Type Dry Type
Automatic Filters
Cleanable Throwaway Throwaway Cleanable
Dust capacity 1. Well adapted for heavy dust loads (up to 2 1. Well adapted to light or moderate dust 1. Well adapted for heavy
grams 1000 cu. ft.) due to high dust capacity loads of less than 1 grain/1000 cu. ft. dust loads up to 2 grains
1000 cu. ft. since it is
serviced automatically
Filter size 1. Common size of unit filter is 20- x 20-in. face area handling 800 cu. ft/min at rated 1. Automatic viscous units
capacity. supplied to handle 1000
2. Face velocity is generally 300 - 400 ft/min for all types. cu. ft/min and over
2. Face velocity is
350-750 ft/min.
Air velocity 1. Rated velocity 1. Rated velocity is 10-50 ft/min through the 1. Rated velocity is
2. Entrainment of oil may occur at very high medium. (Some dry glass types run as 350-750 ft/min through the
velocities high as 300 ft/min) filter medium for viscous
2. Higher velocities may result in rupture of types. For dry types, it is
filter medium. 10-50 ft/min.
Resistance 1. Resistance ranges from 0.05-0.30 in when clean to 0.4-0.5 in when dirty. 1. Resistance runs about
2. When the resistance exceeds a given value, the cells should be replaced or 0.3-0.4 in water.
reconditioned.
3. Cycling cells in large installation will serve to maintain a nearly constant resistance.
4. High resistance due to excessive dust loading 4. Excessive pressure drops resulting from
results in channeling and poor efficiency. high dust loading may result in rupture of
filter medium.
Efficiency 1. Commercial makes are found in a variety of 1. In general, give higher efficiency than
efficiencies, these depending roughly on filter viscous type, particularly on fine particles.
resistance for similar types of medium. 2. Efficiency increases with increased dust
2. Efficiency decreases with increased dust load load and decreases with increased velocity.
and increases with increased velocity up to
certain limits.
Operating 1. Well adapted for short-period operations 1. Well adapted for
cycle (less than 10 hr/day) due to relatively low continuous operation
investment cost.
2. Operating cycle is 1-2 months for general 2. Operating cycle is 2-4 weeks for general
"average" industrial air conditioning "average" industrial air conditioning
Method of 1. Washed with steam, 1. Filter cell replaced. Life may in some cases 1. Vacuum cleaned, 1. Automatic. Filter may clog
Cleaning hot water, or be lengthened by shaking or vacuum blown with in time and cleaning by
solvents and given cleaning, but this is not often successful. com-pressed air, or blowing with com-pressed
fresh oil coating dry cleaned air may be necessary.
Space 1. Well adapted for low headroom requirements. 1. Have a high headroom
requirement 2. Form of banks can be chosen to fit any shaped space requirement
3. Space should be allowed for a man to remove filter cells for cleaning or replacement. 2. Take up less floor space
than other types
4. Requires space for 4. Requires space for
washing, reoiling, mechanical loader
and draining tanks in some cases
Type of filter 1. Crimped, split, or woven metal, glass fibers, 1. Cellulose pulp, felt, cotton gauze, spun 1. Metal screens, packing, or
medium wood shavings, hair-all oil coated glass baffling. One type uses
2. Dry medium cannot stand direct wetting. cellulose pulp
Oil-impregnated medium are available to
resist humidity and prevent fluff entrainment
Character of 1. Not well suited for linty materials 1. Not well suited for 1. Not suited for linty material
dust handling oily dusts if of viscous types
2. Well adapted for make-up air granular 2. Well adapted for linty material
materials 3. Better adapted for fine dust than other
types
Temperature 1. All metal types may be used up as high as 1. Limited to 180 oF except for glass types 1. Viscous may be used up
limitations 250 oF if suitable oil or grease is used. Those which may be used up to 700 oF, if suitable to 250 oF if suitable oil is
utilizing cellulosic materials are limited to frames and gaskets are used. used. Dry type limited to
180 oF. 180 oF.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 203
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.19C Appendix 19C - Fabric Temperature Limits1
Fabrics are generally selected based upon their temperature limits and their
chemical properties. Listed below are the more commonly used felted fabrics in
order of their temperature properties. A brief description of each fabric with its
chemical properties follows.
MAXIMUM RECOMMENDED OPERATING TEMPERATURE

DEGREES F FOR CONTINUOUS SERVICE
Polypropylene 225 degrees
Nylon 225 degrees
Acrylic 260 degrees
Polyester 275 degrees
Acrylic (homopolymer) 284 degrees
Nomex 375 degrees
Teflon 450 degrees
Fiberglass 500 degrees
Chemical Properties:
Polypropylene. Polypropylene is second only to nylon in its resistance to both

abrasion and its relative tensile strength. It is superior to nylon in its resistance
to acids. It also exhibits high resistance to attack by alkali.
Nylon. Nylon is the best of the fibers for its overall strength and resistance to
abrasion. It is excellent for use with alkaline dust, however, it is extremely
vulnerable to acid attack and will fail rapidly in the presence of any acid. Its low
temperature resistance of 225 degrees F, limits its use as an industrial filter
fabric.
Acrylics. Acrylics exhibits a good resistance to both acid and alkaline service. In
general acrylics are difficult to stabilize and since their temperature limits are
similar to the polyesters, polyester is normally the fabric of choice.
Polyester. Polyesters are currently the work horse of the filter fabrics. They
exhibit good acid and alkali resistance. The fabric is relatively stable and thus it
covers a broad range of applications. Polyesters do tend to hydrolyze in a hot
moist atmosphere and thus care should be taken where both high moisture and
heat are encountered.
Nomex. Nomex is chemically a high temperature nylon. It exhibits the same

chemical characteristics as standard nylon. It is extremely strong and abrasion
1
This chart taken from "Dust Collection Engineering Manual" by MAC Equipment Inc.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 204
PROCESS MANUAL
resistant, but it will deteriorate rapidly in an acid atmosphere. Nomex is

substantially more expensive than the fabrics discussed previously.
Teflon. Teflon for practical purposes is chemically inert. It is somewhat difficult

to stabilize Teflon fabric and it is difficult to build a cake on Teflon bags due to
the slippery nature of the material. Teflon is the most expensive of any fabric
discussed here and is rarely used except in those applications where the
chemistry demands an inert filter fabric.
Fiberglass. Fiberglass is the fabric of choice for many high temperature

applications. It is normally used in the form of a heavy woven fabric which
operates very much like a felt. Fiberglass is always furnished with a finish.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 205
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.19D Appendix 19D: Fibers for Dry-Filtration fabrics
Recommended Max.
Operating Temp.: Chemical
Tensile Abrasion Exposure Time Resistance Flammability: General
Fiber Manufacturer Strength Resistance in Degrees F Will Support Special Chemical
: Combustion? Properties Classification
Long Short
(Months) (Hours) Acids Alkalies
Acrilan Monsanto C C 250 300 D D Yes Polyacrylonitrile
(acrylic)
Arnel Celanese Corp. of E E 250 300 D D Yes A modified cellulose, has Tracetate
America improved heat and bacterial
resistance
Cotton Natural fiber C B 160 250 D A Yes Cellulose
Dacron E.I. du Pont de A A 275 350 B C-D Yes More rapid degradation may Polyester
Nemours occur in the presence of
heat and moisture. Holds
crease.
Darvan B.F. Goodrich C E 310 320 B D Yes Melts above 330 oF. Has Nytril
Chemical excellent dimensional
stability at 300 oF.
Dynel Union Carbide C C 180 240 B A No Will soften and distort if Copolymer of
Chemical Co. exposed to temp. above acrylonitrile and
180 oF unless heat-set vinyl chloride
Glass Pittsburgh Plate Glass A E 500 650 C E No Limited by poor flex-abrasion Glass
Co.; Owens Corning qualities. Finishes limit max.
Fiberglass Corp.; temp. range
Libby Owens; Ford
Glass Fiber Co.
Kodel Eastman Chemical C C 275 350 B-C C-D Yes Excellent stability under heat Polyester
Products, Inc.
Nylon 66 E.I. du Pont de A A 200 250 E A Yes Stays soft and pliable when Polamide
Nemours, Monsanto exposed to heat
Nylon 6 American Enka; A A 200 250 E B Yes Polamide
Industrial Rayon;
Allied Chemical
Orlon 42 E.I. du Pont de C B 260 300 C D Yes Best all-around Polyacrylonitrile
Nemours high-temperature fiber (acrylic)
Polyethylene Union Carbide A A 150 212 A A Yes Affected by some organic Polyethylene
Chemical Co. (heat-set) solvents. Can be heat-set to
operate at about 212 oF. If
subjected to load for a long
time, it will continue to
stretch. Lighter than water.
Polypropylene Hercules, Alamo A B-C 190 190 A A Yes Strong, excellent chemical Polyolefin
Polymer, National resistance
plastic products
Q957 Dow Chemical C X 220 240 B B No Fibers made from film. They Vinylidene chloride
are flat ribbons
Saran Saran Yarn Co. D C 150 200 A B No Fibers made from film. They Vinylidene chloride
and others (ammonia, are flat ribbons. Outstanding
F) chemical resistance, but
severe temp. limitation.
Teflon E.I. du Pont de C D 450 550 A A No Expensive. Best chemical Polyfluoroethylene
(multifilament) Nemours resistance, good heat
resistance. When exposed
to temp. in excess of 400 oF,
toxic fumes are given off.
Strength decreases rapidly
at high temp.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 206
PROCESS MANUAL
Recommended Max.
Operating Temp.: Chemical
Tensile Abrasion Exposure Time Resistance Flammability: General
Fiber Manufacturer Strength Resistance in Degrees F Will Support Special Chemical
: Combustion? Properties Classification
Long Short
(Months) (Hours) Acids Alkalies
Nomex E.I. du Pont de A-B A-B 425 450 D A No Outstanding temperature Nylon aromatic
Nemours resistance polyamide
Verel Eastman Chemical C E 200 250 C D No Verel FR has better flame Modified acrylic
Products, Inc. resistance than wool.
Wool Natural fiber Wet, E Wet, C 200 250 E E No When wet has excellent Protein
Dry, D Dry, C elastic recovery. Can be
felted.
Zefran Dow Chemical C C 220 270 C D Yes Acrylic alloy
Courtesy of the Globe Albany Corp. This company offers information as best currently available: no obligation or liability whatsoever is assumed in connection with its use.
Data apply only to staple fibers, although continuous-filament yarns are also made. Teflon is excepted, as test fabric was made from filament yarn.
A = excellent B = above average C = good, average D = fair E = poor, X = unknown
This chart taken from Perry's Chemical Engineering Handbook.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 207
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.19E Appendix 19E: Selection Criteria for Dry Filter and Wet Scrubber Selection
Appropriate for most applications B Appropriate for some applications Y Generally not appropriate
Dry Filter Selection Wet Scrubber Selection
Cartridge Envelope Tube Impingement Packed Venturi
Filter Filter Filter Baffle Plate Tower
Particle Size: > 10

Inlet loading:
Light - <1 gr/cf
B
Medium - 1-4 gr/cf
Y
Heavy - 5-10 gr/cf Y B Y
Very Heavy - > 10 gr/cf Y Y Y
Particle Size: < -PM 10
Inlet loading:
Light - <1 gr/cf

B
Medium - 1-4 gr/cf
Y
Heavy - 5-10 gr/cf Y B Y
Very Heavy - >10 gr/cf Y Y Y
Particle Size: <1 -Sub Micron
Inlet loading:
Light - <1 gr/cf B Y Y

Medium - 1-4 gr/cf B B Y Y
Heavy - 5-10 gr/cf Y B Y Y
Very Heavy - >10 gr/cf Y Y Y Y
Temperature: <275 oF

<375 oF B
>375 oF Y B
Dewpoint: Ambient

Process Moisture Added Y B
Saturated Y Y B
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 208
PROCESS MANUAL
(Appendix 19E Cont'd)
Appropriate for most applications B Appropriate for some applications Y Generally not appropriate
Dry Filter Selection Wet Scrubber Selection
Cartridge Envelope Tube Impingement Packed Venturi
Filter Filter Filter Baffle Plate Tower
Hygroscopic
Y B
Granular
B
Fluffy/Fibrous
Y Y Y
Sticky
Y B B Y
Abrasive
B Y
Corrosive
B
Vapor
Y Y B Y
Mists
Y Y Y
Condensing/Cooling
Y Y Y B Y
Odors
Y Y Y Y
Sly Inc. sells three basic Sly Inc. sells three basic
styles of dry collectors: styles of wet scrubbers;
cartridge, envelope and the Impinjet;
tubular bag filters. Impingement baffle plate;
Packed Towers and
Venturi
This diagram taken from Dust Collection Engineering Manual by MAC Equipment Inc.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 209
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.19F Appendix 19F: Size and Characteristics of Air - Borne Solids
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 210
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.20 Appendix 20: Properties of Common Vapors and Gases
SPECIFIC DENSITY VOLUME

GAS CHEMICAL MOLECULAR GRAVITY LBS PER CU FT Cp/Cv
FORMULA WEIGHT AIR = 1 CU FT PER LB (k)
Acetylene C2 H2 26.0156 .912 .0736 13.587 1.296

Air ------ ------ 1.0000 .080716 12.389 1.406
Ammonia NH3 17.031 .5963 .0481 20.790 1.317
Argon A 39.944 1.3787 .1113 8.985 1.667
Benzene C6 H6 78.0468 ------ ------ ------ 1.10

Butane C4H10 58.076 ------ ------ ------ 1.108
Carbon Dioxide CO2 44.000 1.5290 .1234 8.104 1.30

Carbon Disulfide CS2 76.12 ------ ----- ------ 1.205
Carbon Tetrachloride C Cl4 153.828 ------ ------ ------ 1.18
Carbon Monoxide CO 28.000 .9671 .0781 12.804 1.403
Chlorine C12 70.914 2.486 .2007 4.983 1.336
Dichloromethane CH4Cl2 84.929 ------ ------ ------ 1.18
Ethane C2 H6 30.047 1.0493 .0847 11.806 1.224

Ethyl Chloride C2H5Cl 64.496 ------ ------ ------ 1.13
Ethylene C2 H4 28.0312 .9749 .0787 12.706 1.255
Helium He 4.002 .1381 .0111 90.090 1.66

Hexane C6H14 86.109 ------ ------ ------ 1.08
Hydrogen H2 2.0156 .06952 .0056 178.571 1.408
Hydrogen Chloride H Cl 36.4648 1.2678 .1023 9.775 1.405
Hydrogen Sulphide H2 S 34.0756 1.190 .0961 10.406 1.324
Isobutane C4H10 58.078 2.068 .1669 5.992 1.111
Krypton Kr 83.7 2.868 .2315 4.319 1.666
Methane CH4 16.031 .554 .0447 22.371 1.316

Methyl Chloride CH3Cl 50.486 1.785 .1441 6.940 1.20
Neon Ne 20.183 .696 .0562 17.794 1.642

Nitric Oxide NO 30.008 1.0366 .0837 11.947 1.394
Nitrogen N2 28.016 .9672 .0781 12.804 1.41
Nitrous Oxide N2 O 44.016 1.529 .1234 8.104 1.303
Oxygen Q2 32.0000 1.1053 .0892 11.211 1.40
Pentane C5H12 72.0936 ------ ------ ------ 1.086

Propane C3 H8 44.0624 1.562 .1261 7.930 1.153
Propylene C3 H6 42.0468 1.453 .1173 8.525 ------
Sulfur Dioxide SO2 64.06 2.2638 .1827 5.473 1.256
Water Vapor H2 O 17.0156 ------ ------ ------ 1.30
Xenon X 131.3 4.52 .3648 2.741 1.666
This diagram taken from "Pneumatic Conveying Engineering Manual, Dilute Phase" by MAC Equipment Inc.
SECTION 8.0
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PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.21 Appendix 21: Altitude - Pressure - Temperature - Density Table of air
ALTITUDE PRESSURE TEMPERATURE DENSITY

(FEET) (IN. HG. ABS) DEGREES F. LBS/FT3
0 29.92 70.0 .0750
500 29.38 68.1 .0740
1000 28.85 66.1 .0730
1500 28.33 64.2 .0719
2000 27.82 62.3 .0709
2500 27.31 60.4 .0698
3000 26.81 58.4 .0687
3500 26.33 56.5 .0676
4000 25.84 54.6 .0666
4500 25.37 52.6 .0657
5000 24.89 50.7 .0648
5500 24.43 48.8 .0638
6000 23.98 46.9 .0628
6500 23.53 45.0 .0619
7000 23.09 43.0 .0610
7500 22.65 41.0 .0600
8000 22.12 39.0 .0590
8500 21.80 37.1 .0581
9000 21.38 35.2 .0573
9500 20.98 33.3 .0564
10000 20.57 31.3 .0555
11000 19.75 28.5 .0538
12000 19.03 23.6 .0521
13000 18.29 19.7 .0505
14000 17.57 15.8 .0488
15000 16.88 12.0 .0473
20000 13.70 -12.6 .0405
25000 11.10 -30.1 .0337
30000 8.88 -47.5 .0281
35000 7.03 -65.6 .0233
40000 5.54 -69.8 .0185
45000 4.36 -69.8 .0145
50000 3.43 -69.8 .0114
This diagram taken from "Pneumatic Conveying Engineering Manual, Dilute Phase" by MAC Equipment Inc.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 212
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.22 Appendix 22: Economics
It has become almost trite to detail the ways in which money can be saved by
replacing an individual package system with a bulk handling system.
To be trite:
Bags are a continuously recurring expense, adding nothing to the value

of the product (unless you happen to handle plastic beads in plastic bags
and can dump the bag and beads into the extruder hopper).
Bags often burst (or worse) causing product loss and high clean-up
expense.
Bags take up more room than comparable bulk volume - usually must be
stored inside.
Bags must be handled - either physically or by mechanical loading and

unloading devices - which is time consuming.
All this is covered in the available Pneumatic Conveying literature. It may not
make good reading but it does make good sense.
Let us look at it a little closer.
Most companies face the recurring problem of rising material and labor costs.
There is really very little that can be done about this except on a temporary
basis, which leaves only the expense items as a possible area for cost reduction
to minimize price increases.
Material handling is an expense which is necessary to synthesize the finished

product but which adds on value to it. It should, therefore, be an area which is
closely scrutinized for possible cost savings.
It is one place where a manager can do something about his costs.
How?
Specifically by:
a. reducing or eliminating the physical labor of material movement into the

plant and to the process point.
b. reducing the cost of raw material by eliminating the package.
c. releasing storage space for productive work
d. speeding up the physical distribution process, to provide the material at

the right place at the right time.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 213
PROCESS MANUAL
All these things aid immeasurably in speeding up production, quite apart

from the direct savings which result.
To realize the benefits, however, certain conditions must be met. These

include:
1. A raw material usage sufficient to offset the cost of bulk handling

equipment. If it takes 10 years to pay for the equipment from the
savings of bulk over bags it's obviously not worth the expense.
2. A soundly engineered system requiring minimum maintenance.

Maintenance people are higher priced than bag handlers and if
labor is saved in handling, it shouldn't have to be applied to
maintenance.
It is difficult to give specific figures for minimum usage levels to approach

the break even point as this depends, among other things, upon the
product and the accepted amortization period.
A hypothetical case might, however, be something like this:
MATERIAL PLASTIC PELLETS

Annual Usage 1,000,000 lb
(10 tons/week)
1. Transportation saving bag to 5/lb $ 50,000.00/yr

bulk
2. Bag saving 75/100 lb $ 7,500.00/yr
3. Unloading labor saving 2 men @ 1 hr ea per $ 1,000.00/yr

20,000 lb @ $10.00/hr
4. Unloading equipment saving Fork lift truck @ $ 1,000.00/yr

$20.00/hr 1 hr
20,000 lb
5. In plant transfer labor saving 1 man @ 2 hrs per $ 5000.00/yr

4000 lb @ $10.00/hr
1 man @ 1 hr per $ 2500.00/yr
4000 lb @ $10.00/hr
Fork lift truck hr per $ 2500.00/yr
4000 lb @ $20.00/hr
6. Space saving 20,000 lb of bags @ $ 3750.00/yr

2000 lb/sq ft 250 sq ft
@ $15.00 per sq ft
TOTAL YEARLY SAVING

$ 73250.00/yr
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 214
PROCESS MANUAL
The labor saved is, of course, not usually eliminated, merely transferred,
but it is usually transferred to productive work rather than expense work.
(Pushing a button to unload material is productive?)
A complete bulk handling system for this usage of polyethylene could

conceivably cost less than the $73,250.00 yearly saving, resulting in an
enviable amortization period. Many systems are not as clear cut as this
and must be assessed on their individual merits, but as a general rule,
weekly usage of 20,000 lb or above, usually justifies a bulk handling
system.
But why a Pneumatic Conveying System? Why not a conventional

screw conveyor/bucket elevator complex to transfer material into storage
and from storage to the plant?
Usually because it is cleaner, neater, more flexible, lower in maintenance

and for distances above 50'0, less expensive.
Not always of course. You can't unload grain from a boat at anything
approaching the speed of a "grain leg" with a Pneumatic Conveyor. Nor
can you load coal into a boat at a comparable rate to a high speed belt
conveyor.
But you can go around corners and round existing machinery with a
Pneumatic Conveying line. It takes very little to support it and very little
to extend it. It is completely dust tight and with most products self
cleaning, so you can put all kinds of products through one line without
risking contamination.
And while you are at it you can do a little product cooling - if you are so
inclined.
All these things make a Pneumatic Conveyor an attractive proposition for

a great many products and certainly worth careful investigation for any
dry material.
As we said, you can't do everything with it - but you would be surprised

at what you can do.
Why don't you consider pneumatic conveying?
Although many of the questions asked about Pneumatic Conveyors are

naturally related to a specific product, some are very sufficiently broad in
scope to apply to Pneumatic Conveying generally.
The following is a sampling of the most frequently asked general

information questions - with, in some cases, rather opinionated answers.
Question. How far can a dry bulk product be blown?
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 215
PROCESS MANUAL
Answer. This is almost as hard to answer as "how high is up." It

depends upon the volume of air available, the pressure
potential of the blower and the size of the pipeline. For
example - 15 PSI blower delivering 650 CFM through a
4" line will use up its full pressure potential just moving
air through a line 3000 feet long. So, for a 4" line under
3000 feet, some of the pressure will be available to
move product as well as air. The shorter the line, the
lower the pressure required to move the air - leaving the
balance to move the product. However, if the line size is
increased to (say) 6", only 9 PSI is required to move air
at the same velocity as in the 4" line through 3000 feet.
Therefore, it 15 PSI is available, product can be
introduced into the line without exceeding the pressure
potential of the blower. In fact, with the 6" line the
distance would increase to 5000 feet before all the
pressure were used to move air only.
And so it goes on.
Some mile system are in use, operating in high

pressure (50 - 60 PSI) but as a general rule the 15 PSI
system has a possible limit of 1500 feet and a practical
limit of about 1000 feet.
Question. Can a product be stopped in a conveying line and

restarted?
Answer. Some products can - plastic pellets, for example,

providing the conveying distance is not excessive and
the conveying rate not too high.
As a General rule (again!) however, systems should be

designed to clear the product from the line before the air
flow is cut off.
Question. What is the maximum lump size which can be

conveyed?
Answer. As an example, limestone which will pass through a 1"

screen and sometimes results in 1" x 1" x 3" lumps,
is blown successfully through a 5" line.
It is a good rule of thumb to limit the particle size in

smaller lines to one quarter the pipe diameter with an
upper limit of approximately a 2" cube.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 216
PROCESS MANUAL
Question. Can the same system be used for a variety of products?
Answer. Usually - although often with less than perfect results.

Air flows for optimum performance in a fixed size line will
vary with individual products. If two products with
different characteristics are to be conveyed with the
same fixed speed blower, a compromise air flow will be
used, which is not ideal for either.
Unless the products are poles apart in properties,

however, (sand and sawdust?) satisfactory fixed air flow
systems can be designed to suit them.
Question. Why limit conveying system to 15 PSI?
Answer. Mainly because this coves the bulk of normal

requirements. Also, because 15 PSI is the limit above
which pressurized containers must be certified coded
vessels.
Also because 15 PSI is the practical limit for most rotary

positive blowers and rotary air locks. High pressure
systems up to 100 PSI are in operation for long distance
conveying. These are usually limited to products which
fluidize easily - such as cement - except where plug flow
is used - and that's another story.
Question. How long do pipe lines last?
Answer. It depends on the product being conveyed. Sharp sand

can wear out horizontal runs of schedule 80 steel pipe in
6 months with a usage of 40 tons per day. Brewers malt
may take 8 years to wear a horizontal run of schedule 40
steel pipe with a usage of 250 tons per week.
Question. Should outdoor conveying lines be insulated?
Answer. Normally no. It's better to blow air through the lines for a
short period of time before conveying begins, to dry up
any accumulated moisture, than to try to eliminate
moisture with insulation.
Question. Which is noisier - a blower or an exhauster - and how

noisy are they anyway?
Answer. Exhausters are usually noisier than blowers, for the

simple reason that they often discharge the displaced air
into the room where they are located.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 217
PROCESS MANUAL
A blower discharges the air down a closed line.

Exhausters should have better discharge mufflers than
blowers for this reason.
How noisy is noisy - an impossible question to answer -

but objectionable noise can be eliminated with suitable
mufflers.
Question. Should conveying air be dried before being used to

convey hygroscopic materials?
Answer. It can be - and often is, but is probably better to provide

a dry air purge of the material in bulk storage.
In a 100 foot line at normal conveying velocities product

particles are not in the line more than two seconds - not
very long to pick up moisture.
They usually sit around much longer than this in storage,

both before and after being conveyed.
Question. Can dry bulk products be stored outside?
Answer. It depends on the product, the turnover period, and the

size of lump which can be tolerated.
Most food products (sugar, salt, starches, flour for

example) will lump when exposed to varying ambient
conditions. Many industrial chemicals do the same. But
grains, plastic pellets, resins and many fertilizers are
usually stored outside successfully. One way or another
outdoor bulk storage is practical for most dry products.
8.7.23 Appendix 23: Fundamental Burning Velocities of Selected Gases and Dusts
Basic information along with Appendix 26 associated with narrative Section 8.5 -
Safety Considerations in Pneumatic Conveying.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 218
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Table C-1 Fundamental Burning Velocities of Selected Gases and Vapors
SECTION 8.0
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SECTION 8.0
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8.7.24 Appendix 24: Fire Hazard Properties of Selected Liquids, Gases and Volatile
Solids
"Low-density gases seldom produce hazardous mixtures in zones close to grade"

--- upper and lower limits are usually expressed in terms of percentage by
volume of gas or vapor in air or oxygen at standard atmospheric temperature and
pressure.
Vapor density is determined by comparing the weight of a volume of pure vapor

or gas to the weight of an equal volume of dry air at the same temperature and
pressure. A vapor density greater than 1.0 indicates that the substance is
heavier than air; a value less than 1.0 means that the substance is lighter than
air.
Lighter-than-air gases will usually dissipate rapidly because of their relatively low
densities. Unless released in confined, poorly ventilated spaces, low-density
gases seldom produce hazardous mixtures in zones close to grade where most
electrical equipment is located.
In the case of hydrocarbons - most of which are heavier than air - the problem is
not to establish the existence of a Class I location but to define the limits of the
Division 1 and Division 2 areas. Anywhere that hydrocarbons are handled, used,
or stored, there is a high degree of probability that flammable liquids, gases, and
vapors will be released in sufficient quantities to constitute a hazard. Vapor can
disperse in all directions as governed by the vapor density and air movement in
the area. A very mild breeze can extend the limits of the hazardous location
quite far in the direction of air movement, but the combustible mixture will not be
dispersed significantly.
A Class I, Division 1 location is an area in which one or more of these conditions

exist:
Hazardous concentrations of flammable gases or vapors exist

continuously or intermittently under normal operating conditions.
Hazardous concentrations of flammable gases or vapors may exist

frequently because of leakage or repair or maintenance operations.
Breakdown or faulty operation of equipment might release hazardous

concentrations of flammable gases or vapors and might also cause
simultaneous failure of electrical equipment.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 222
PROCESS MANUAL
A Class I, Division 2 location is an area in which one or more of these conditions

prevail:
Volatile flammable liquids or flammable gases are handled, processed,

or used, but are confined in closed containers or systems from which
they can escape only in case of accidental rupture of the container or
breakdown of the system, or in the event of abnormal equipment
operation.
Hazardous concentrations of gases or vapors are normally prevented

from forming by positive mechanical ventilation, and ignitable
concentrations can form only if the ventilation system fails.
The area is adjacent to a Class I, Division 1 area from which hazardous

concentrations might spread because of inadequate or unreliable
ventilation supplied from a source of uncontaminated air.
Because maximum explosion pressures and same operating temperatures vary

widely for hazardous-location electrical installations, the electrical equipment
must be approved for the specific flammable material responsible for the
hazardous location designation. Combustible atmospheres are categorized into
seven groups - A through G.2 Substances that can contribute to a Class I
atmosphere fall into Groups A through D; approximately 70 such substances are
given in Table 500-2 of the National Electrical Code. Among the more common
substances listed by group in Table 500-2 are:
Group A - acetylene
Group B - hydrogen or equivalent vapors and gases, such as manufactured gas.
Group C - ethyl-ether vapors, ethylene, cyclopropane, and similar substances.
Group D - gasoline, naphtha, benzene, hexane, butane, propane, alcohol,
acetone, lacquer-solvent vapors, natural gas, and similar substances.
Electrical equipment installed in hazardous locations must be approved not only

for the class and division, but also for the group associated with the substance
responsible for the location classification.
2
See "Defining the Limits of Hazardous (Classified) Locations for Compliance with National Electrical
Code - General Considerations," PE 9/14/78, p 145, file #0501.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 223
PROCESS MANUAL
FIRE HAZARD PROPERTIES OF SELECTED LIQUIDS, GASES, AND VOLATILE SOLIDS1

Flammable Limits,
Description Flash Ignition Percent by Volume Vapor Remarks
Point, Temperature, Density
F F Lower Upper (Air=1)
Acetaldehyde CH3CHO (Acetic Aldehyde) -36 347 4.0 60 1.5 Polymerizes

Acetic Acid Glacial CH3COOH 16.0
109 869 5.4 @212 F 2.1
Acetone CH3COCH3 (Dimethyl Ketone) 2.4
0 869 212 F 12.8 2
Acetonitrile CH3CN (Methyl Cyanide) 42 975 4.4 16.0 1.4
Acetyl Chloride CH3COCL (Ethanol Chloride) 40 734 - - 2.7
Acetylene CHCH (Ethine) Gas 581 2.5 100 0.9 Low Pressure
Acrolein CH2CHCHO (Acrylic Aldehyde) -15 455 2.8 31 1.9 Unstable
Acrylonitrile CH2CHCN (Vinyl Cyanide) 32 898 3.0 17 1.8 Polymerizes
Allylamine CH2CHCH2NH2 (2-Propenylamine) -20 705 2.2 22 2.0
Allyl Chloride CH2CHCH2CL (3-Chloropropene) -25 905 2.9 11.1 2.6
Ammonia, Anhydrous NH3 Gas 1204 16 25 0.6
Amyl Acetate CH3COOC5H11 (1-Pentanol Acetate) 77 680 1.1 7.5 4.5
Amyl Alcohol CH3(CH2)3CH2OH (1-Pentanol) 91 572 1.2 10.0 3.0
@212 F
Aniline C6H5NH2 (Aminobenzene) (Phenylamine) 158 1139 1.3 - 3.2
Benzaldehyde C6H5CHO (Artificial Almond Oil) 148 377 3.7
Benzol C6H6 (Benzene) 12 1040 1.3 7.1 2.8
Benzyl Chloride C6H5CH2CL (-Chlorotoluene) 15.3 1085 1.1 4.4
Butane CH3CH2CH2CH3 Gas 761 1.9 8.5 2.0
Butene CH3CHCHCH3 (-Butylene) Gas 725 1.6 10.0 1.9
Butyl Acetate CH3COOC4H9 72 797 1.7 7.6 4.0
Butyl Alcohol CH3(CH2)2CH2OH 84 689 1.4 11.2 2.6
(1-Butanol) (Propylcarbinol)
Butylamine C4H9NH2 (1-Amino Butane) 10 594 1.7 9.8 2.5
Butylbenzene C6H5C4H9 160 770 0.8 5.8 4.6
Butyl Chloride C4H9CL 15 860 1.8 10.1 3.2
Butyl Formate HCOOC4H9 (Formic Acid) 64 612 1.7 8.2 3.5
Butyric Acid CH3(CH2)2COOH 161 842 2.0 10.0 3.0
Carbon Disulfide CS2 -22 194 1.3 50.0 2.6
Chlorobenzene C6H5CL (Chlorobenzol) 84 1184 1.3 7.1 3.9
(Phenyl Chloride)
2-Chloroethanol CH2CLCH2OH 140 797 4.9 15.9 2.8
(2-Chloroethyl Alcohol)
1-Chloropropylene CH3CHCHCL <21 4.5 16 2.63
O-Cresol CH3C6H4OH (Cresylic Acid) 178 1110 1.4 3.7
@300 F
Cumene C6H5CH(CH3)2(Cumol)(2-Phenyl Propane) 111 797 0.9 6.5 4.1
Cyclohexane C6H12 (Hexamethylene) -4 473 1.3 8 2.9
Cyclopropane (CH2)3 (Trimethylene) Gas 932 2.4 10.4 1.5
Decane CH3(CH2)8CH3 115 410 0.8 5.4 4.9
Deuterium D2 (Heavy Hydrogen) Gas 5 75
Diacetone CH3COCH2C(CH3)2OH 148 1118 1.8 6.9 4
Diborane B2H6 Gas 100-125 0.8 88 1.0 Ignites
spontaneously
in moist air
Diethyl Peroxide C2H5OOC2H5 2.3 7.7 Explodes on
heating
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 224
PROCESS MANUAL

Flammable Limits,
Diethyl Sulfate (C2H5)2SO4 (Ethyl Sulfate) 220 817 Decomposes,
giving ethyl
ether
2,2-Dimethyl Propane (CH3)4C Gas 842 1.4 7.5 2.5
Dimethyl Sulfate (CH3)2SO4 (Methyl Sulfate) 182 370 4.4
___hane CH3CH3 Gas 959 3.0 12.5 1.0
Ethyl Acetate CH3COOC2H5 (Acetic Ether) 24 800 2.2 11.0 3.0
Ethyl Alcohol C2H5OH (Grain Alcohol) (Ethanol) 55 689 3.3 19 1.6
Ethylamine C2H5NM2 (Aminoethane) <0 725 3.5 14.0 1.6 70% aqueous
solution
Ethyl Bromide C2H5Br (Bromoethane) <-4 952 6.7 11.3 3.8
Ethyl Chloride C2H5CL (Chloromethane) -58 966 3.8 15.4 2.2
Ethylene H2CCH2 (Ethene) Gas 914 2.7 36.0 1.0
Ethyl Formate HCO2C2H5 (Formic Acid) Ethyl Ester -4 851 2.8 16.0 2.6
Ethyl Mercaptan C2H5SH (Ethanethol <80 572 2.8 18.0 2.1
Ethyl Nitrite C2H5ONO (Nitrous Ether) -31 194 3.0 50.0 2.6 Decomposes
Ethyl Propyl Ether C2H5OC3H7 <-4 1.7 9.0
Formaldehyde HCHO Gas 806 7.0 73 1.0
Formic Acid HCOOH 100% Solution 156 1114 1.6
Fuel Oil No. 1 (Kerosene, Coal Oil) 100 410 0.7 5 Flash point
may vary
Furan CH-CHCH-CHO (Furfuran) <32 2.3 14.3 2.3
Furfural OCH-CHCH-CHCHO 140 600 2.1 19.3 3.3
Gas, Blast Furnace 35 74
Gas, Coal Gas 5.3 32
Gas, Natural 900-1170 3.8- 13-17
6.5
Gas, Oil Gas 4.8 32.5
Gas, Water 7.0 72
Gasoline-56-60 Octane -45 536 1.4 7.6 Values may vary
100 Octane -36 24 1.3 7.1 3-4 for different
grades of gasoline
Heptane CH3(CH2)5CH3 25 419 1.05 6.7 3.5
Hexane Ch3(CH2)4CH3 (Hexyl Hydride) -7 437 1.1 7.5 3.0
Hydrazine H2NNH2 100 4.7 10.0 1.1 Ignition
temperature
may vary in
contact with
iron rust, black
iron, stainless
steel, glass
Hydrocyanic Acid 96o HCN (Prussic Acid) 0 1000 5.6 40.0 0.9
Hydrogen H2 Gas 752 4.0 75 0.1
Hydrogen Sulfide H2S
Isobutane (CH3)3CH (2-Methylpropane) Gas 860 1.8 8.4 2.0
Isobutylbenzene (CH3)2CHCH2C6H5 131 806 0.8 6.0 4.6
Isoprene CH2-2C(CH3)CH-CH2 -65 428 2.0 12 2.1
Isopropyl Alcohol (CH3)2CHOH (2-Propanol) 53 750 2.0 12 2.1
Lubricating Oil, Mineral 300- 500-
(Paraffin Oil, Motor Oil) 450 700
Methane CH4 (Marsh Gas) Gas 1004 5.0 15.0 0.6
Methyl Acetate CH3COOCH3 (Acid Acetic Methyl Ester) 14 935 3.1 16 2.8
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 225
PROCESS MANUAL

Flammable Limits,
Methyl Alcohol CH3OH (Methanol) 52 725 6.7 36 1.1
Methyl Chloride CH3CL (Chloromethane) Gas 1170 10.7 17.4 1.8
Methyl Ether (CH3)2O (Dimethyl Ether) (Methyl Oxide) Gas 662 3.4 27.0 1.6
Methyl Formate CH3OOCH (Formic Acid) -2 869 5.0 23.0 2.1
2-Methylpropene CH2-C(CH3)CH3 (Isobutylene) Gas 869 1.8 9.6 1.9
Naphtha V.M & P 50 Flash .50 450 0.9 6.7 4.1 Values may
vary depending
on the
manufacturer
Naphthalene C10H8 (White Tar) 174 979 0.9 5.9 4.4
Nitrobenzene C6H5NO2 (Oil of Mirbane) 190 900 1.8
@200F
Nitroethane C2H5NO2 82 778 3.4 2.6
Nitroglycerine C3H5(NO3)3 518 Explodes
Nitromethane CH3NO2 95 785 7.3 2.1 May detonate
under high
temperature
and pressure
conditions
Nonane C9H20 88 401 0.8 2.9 4.4
Octane CH3(CH2(6CH3 56 428 1.0 6.5 3.9
Paraldehyde (CH3CHO)3 96 460 1.3 4.5
Pentane CH3(CH2)3CH3 <-40 500 1.5 7.8 2.5
Petroleum Ether (Benzine) (Naphtha, Petroleum) <0 550 1.1 5.9 2.5
Phenol C6H5OH (Carbolic Acid) 175 1319 3.2
Phthalic Acid C6H4(COOH)2 334 5.73
Propane CH3CH2CH3 Gas 842 2.2 9.5 1.6
Propylene CH2-CHCH3 (Propene) Gas 860 2.0 11.1 1.5
Propyne CH3C-CH (Methylacetylene) Gas 1.7 1.4
Styrene C6H5CH-CH2 (Phenylethylene) 90 914 1.1 6.1 3.6
Sulfur Chloride S2CL2 245 453 Decomposes in
water
Tartaric Acid (CHOHCO2H)2 410 797 1.76
Toluol C6H5CH3 (Methylbenzene) (Toluene) 40 896 1.2 7.1 3.1
Transformer Oil 295
Triethylene Glycol 350 700 0.9 9.2
Turpentine 95 488 0.8
Vinyl Acetate CH2CHOOCCH3 18 800 2.6 13.4 3.0
Vinyl Chloride CH2CHCL (Chloroethylene) Gas 882 3.6 33.0 2.2
Vinyl Ethyl Alcohol CH2CH(CH2)2OH 100 4.7 34 2.49
1 Abstracted from Volume 13 of National Fire Code.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 226
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.25 Appendix 25: Defining the Limits of Hazardous (Classified) Locations For
Compliance with National Electrical Code
Class II and III Locations
Class II hazardous locations are those locations where combustible dusts are
present or likely to become present. A potential dust-explosion hazard exists
wherever combustible dusts accumulate, are handled, or are processed. Many
dusts fall into the "combustible" category; some of the most common are given in
Table I. The significance of the factors used as headings in Table I is:
Ignition temperature is the minimum temperature required for ignition. It

varies with oxygen concentration in the air, humidity, atmospheric
pressure, venting and external air flow, and size and shape of dust
particles.
Minimum igniting energy defines the minimum electric spark required for
ignition.
Minimum explosive concentration is the least amount of dust that will

ignite with a continuous spark igniting source.
Relative explosion hazard is a function of the ease of ignition and the

severity of the resulting explosion. The severity of the explosion is
determined by the maximum pressure and the rate of pressure
development.
Like all classified locations, Class II locations have two divisions.3 A Class II,
Division 1 location is one that meets one or more of these criteria:
Combustible dust is or may be present in suspension in air continuously

or intermittently in the course of normal operations in quantities sufficient
to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures.
Mechanical failure or abnormal operation of machinery or equipment

might create explosive or ignitable dust mixtures and might also provide
a source of ignition through simultaneous failure of electrical equipment,
operation of protective devices, etc.
Combustible electrically conductive dusts may be present.
Following are some examples of Class II, Division 1 hazardous locations:
Working areas of grain handling and storage plants
3
See "Defining the Limits of Hazardous (Classified) Locations for Compliance with National Electrical
Code - General Considerations," PE 9/14/78. p 145, file #0501, and "Class I locations," PE 10/12/78,
p. 191, file #0501.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 227
PROCESS MANUAL
Areas near dust-producing machinery and equipment in grain-processing

plants, starch plants, sugar-pulverizing plants, flour mills, malting plants,
hay-grinding plants.
Areas in which metal dusts and powders are produced, processed,

handled, packed, or stored.
Coal bunkers, coal-pulverizing plants, and areas in which coke, carbon

black, and charcoal are processed, handled, or used.
In a Class II, Division 2 location, ignitable concentrations of combustible dusts

are not expected to be found in the course of normal operations; but, abnormal
conditions may allow combustible dusts to accumulate in sufficient quantities and
dust/air concentrations to permit ignition. Abnormal conditions could include
failure of dust-control equipment, process equipment, or containers, chutes, or
other handling equipment. The following are usually considered to be Class II,
Division 2 locations:
Areas containing only closed bins or hoppers, and enclosed spouts and
conveyors.
Areas containing machines and equipment from which appreciable

quantities of dust would escape only under abnormal conditions.
Warehouses and shipping rooms in which dust-producing materials are

handled or stored only in bags or containers.
Areas adjacent to Class II, Division 1 locations.
Because dust that is carbonized or excessively dry is susceptible to spontaneous

ignition, electrical equipment installed in Class II locations should be capable of
operating at full load without developing surface temperatures high enough to
cause excessive dehydration or carbonization and dust deposits that might form.
Electrical equipment installed in Class II locations must be approved for class

and division and the applicable group. For purposes of equipment approval,
dusts are classified into three groups:
Group E - metal dusts

Group F - carbon black, charcoal, coal, coke dust
Group G - flour, starch, grain dust
Class III locations are those in which easily ignitable fibers or flyings are present,
but are not likely to be in suspension in air in quantities sufficient to produce an
ignitable atmosphere. Single fibers of organic materials such as lint, cotton tufts,
and fluffy fabrics, however, are quite vulnerable to a localized heat source such
as an electric spark. In purge oxygen, single fibers of cotton can be ignited by a
0.02 joule spark.
Textiles such as those used in clothing can be ignited and burned with repetitive
or sustained high-energy electric sparks. Cotton and wool fabrics can be ignited
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 228
PROCESS MANUAL
in pure oxygen with a spark of 2.3 joules; in normal air, a spark of 193 joules or
more is required for ignition. Silk and polyester fibers are more difficult to ignite
than cotton or wool.
Fibers contaminated with greasy substances can be ignited with much weaker
sparks than clean fibers. Typically, only one ten-thousandth of the energy
required to ignite a clean fabric is required for an oily sample of the same fabric.
In general, the burning characteristics of fibers will be affected by the specific
gravity of the substance, size and shape of the sample, air circulation in the area,
oxygen concentration, and relative humidity. The burning characteristics of some
common fibers whose presence can cause an area to be designated as Class III
are given in Table II.
A Class III, Division 1 location is one in which easily ignitable fibers or materials
that produce combustible flyings are manufactured, handled, or used. This
classification usually includes:
Plants that produce combustible fibers

Portions of rayon, cotton, or other textile mills.
Flax-processing plants
Clothing manufacturing plants
Woodworking plants
A Class III, Division 2 location is one in which easily ignitable fibers are stored or
handled, but are not manufactured or processed. An example is a textile
warehouse.
There are no group designations associated with Class III locations, and
electrical equipment installed in Class III locations need only be approved for the
applicable class and division. The maximum equipment surface temperature
under normal conditions shall not exceed 329 oF (165 oC) for equipment not
subject to overloading, and 248 oF (120 oC) for equipment such as transformers
and motors that are subject to overloading.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 229
PROCESS MANUAL
TABLE I, EXPLOSIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS DUSTS*
Ignition Minimum Explosive Relative

Type of Dust Temperature of Minimum Igniting Concentration Explosion
Dust Cloud, o C Energy, Joules Oz per cu ft Hazard
Agricultural:
Alfalfa . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 530 0.320 0.105 Moderate
Cereal grass . . . . . . ............. 550 0.800 0.250 Weak
Cinnamon . . . . . . . . ............. 440 0.030 0.060 Strong
Citrus peel . . . . . . . . ............. 730 0.045 0.065 Moderate
Cocoa . . . . . . . . . . ............. 500 0.120 0.065 Moderate
Coffee . . . . . . . . . . ............. 720 0.160 0.085 Weak
Corn . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 400 0.040 0.055 Strong
Corn cob . . . . . . . . . ............. 480 0.080 0.040 Strong
Corn dextrine . . . . . . ............. 410 0.040 0.040 Severe
Cornstarch . . . . . . . ............. 390 0.030 0.040 Severe
Cotton linters . . . . . . ............. 520 1.920 0.500 Moderate
Cottonseed . . . . . . . ............. 530 0.120 0.055 Moderate
Egg white . . . . . . . . ............. 610 0.640 0.140 Weak
Flax shive . . . . . . . . ............. 430 0.080 0.080 Moderate
Garlic . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 360 0.240 0.100 Moderate
Grain, mixed . . . . . . ............. 430 0.030 0.055 Strong
Grass seed . . . . . . . ............. 490 0.026 0.290 Weak
Guar seed . . . . . . . . ............. 500 0.060 0.040 Strong
Gum, Manila (copal) . . ............. 360 0.030 0.030 Severe
Hemp hurd . . . . . . . ............. 440 0.035 0.040 Severe
Malt, brewers . . . . . . ............. 400 0.035 0.055 Strong
Milk, skim . . . . . . . . ............. 490 0.050 0.050 Strong
Pea flour . . . . . . . . . ............. 560 0.040 0.050 Strong
Peanut hull . . . . . . . ............. 460 0.050 0.045 Strong
Peat, sphagnum . . . . ............. 460 0.050 0.045 Strong
Pecan nutshell . . . . . ............. 440 0.050 0.030 Strong
Pectin . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 410 0.035 0.075 Severe
Potato starch . . . . . . ............. 440 0.025 0.045 Severe
Pyethrum . . . . . . . . ............. 460 0.080 0.100 Moderate
Rauwolfia vomitoria root ............ 420 0.045 0.055 Strong
Rice . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 440 0.050 0.050 Strong
Safflower . . . . . . . . . ............. 460 0.025 0.055 Strong
Soy flour . . . . . . . . . ............. 550 0.100 0.060 Moderate
Sugar, powdered . . . . ............. 370 0.030 0.045 Strong
Walnut shell, black . . . ............. 450 0.050 0.030 Strong
Wheat flour . . . . . . . ............. 440 0.060 0.050 Strong
Wheat, untreated . . . . ............. 500 0.060 0.065 Strong
Wheat starch . . . . . . ............. 430 0.025 0.045 Severe
Wheat straw . . . . . . . ............. 470 0.050 0.055 Strong
Yeast, torula . . . . . . . ............. 520 0.050 0.050 Strong
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 230
PROCESS MANUAL
TABLE I, EXPLOSIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS DUSTS* (Continued)

Carbonaceous:
Asphalt, resin, volatile content 57.5% . . .. 510 0.025 0.025 Severe
Charcoal, hardwood mix, volatile content Strong
27.1% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 530 0.020 0.140
Coal, Colo., Brookside, volatile Strong
content 38.7% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 530 0.060 0.045
Coal, III., No. 7, volatile content 48.6% . .. 600 0.050 0.045 Strong
Coal, Ky., Breek, volatile content 40.6% .. 610 0.030 0.050 Strong
Coal, Pa., Pittsburgh, volatile 610 0.060 0.055 Strong
content 37.0% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Coal, Pa., Thick Freeport, volatile Moderate
content 35.6% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 595 0.060 0.060
Coal, Wyo., Laramie No. 3, volatile Strong
content 43.3% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 575 0.050 0.050
Gilsonite, Utah, volatile Severe
content 86.5% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 580 0.025 0.020
Lignite, Calif., volatile Severe
content 60.4% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 450 0.030 0.030
Pitch, coal tar, volatile Severe
content 58.1% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 710 0.020 0.035
Metals: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 0.015 0.045 Severe
Antimony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 1.920 0.420 Weak
Boron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 0.060 0.100 Moderate
Cadmium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 4.000
Chromium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 0.140 0.230 Moderate
Cobalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760 ----- ----- Fire
Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 ----- ----- Fire
Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 0.020 0.100 Strong
Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
Magnesium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 0.020 0.020 Severe
Molybdenum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 ----- ----- Fire
Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950+
Selenium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950+
Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780 0.080 0.100 Severe
Tantalum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 0.120 0.200 Moderate
Tellurium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Thorium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 0.005 0.075 Severe
Tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 0.080 0.190 Moderate
Titanium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 0.010 0.045 Severe
Tungsten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950+
Uranium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 0.045 0.060 Severe
Vanadium, 86 percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 0.060 0.220 Weak
Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600 0.640 0.480 Weak
Zirconium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 0.005 0.045 Severe
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 231
PROCESS MANUAL
TABLE I, EXPLOSIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS DUSTS* (Continued)

Alloys and compounds:
Aluminum-cobalt . . . . . . . .......... 950 0.100 0.180 Moderate
Aluminum-copper . . . . . . .......... 930 1.920 0.280 Weak
Aluminum-iron . . . . . . . . .......... 550 0.720 0.500 Weak
Aluminum-magnesium . . . .......... 430 0.020 0.020 Severe
Aluminum-nickel . . . . . . . .......... 940 0.080 0.0190 Moderate
Aluminum-silicon,
12 percent Si . . . . . . . . . .......... 670 0.060 0.040 Strong
Calcium silicide . . . . . . . . .......... 540 0.130 0.060 Strong
Ferrochromium, high-carbon .......... 790 ----- 2.000
Ferromanganese, medium-
carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 450 0.080 0.130 Moderate
Ferrosilicon, 75 percent Si ........... 860 0.400 0.420 Weak
Ferrotitanium, low-carbon ........... 370 0.080 0.140 Strong
Ferrovanadium . . . . . . . ........... 440 0.400 1.300
Thorium hydride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 0.003 0.080 Severe
Titanium hydride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 0.060 0.070 Strong
Uranium hydride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 0.005 0.060 Severe
Zirconium hydride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 0.060 0.085 Strong
Plastics: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acetal resin (polyformaldehyde) . . . . . . . 440 0.020 0.035 Severe
Acrylic polymer resin
Methyl methacrylateethyl acrylate . . .... 480 0.010 0.030 Severe
Alkyd resin
Alkyd molding compound . . . . . . . . .... 500 0.120 0.155 Weak
Alkyl resin
Allyl alcohol derivative, CR-39 . . . . . .... 500 0.020 0.035 Severe
Amino resin
Urea-formaldehyde molding compound ... 450 0.080 0.075 Strong
Cellulostic fillers
Wood flour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 430 0.020 0.035 Severe
Cellulosic resin
Ethyl cellulose molding compound . . .... 320 0.010 0.025 Severe
Chlorinated polyester resin
Chlorinated polyester alcohol . . . . . .... 460 0.160 0.045 Moderate
Cold-molded resin
Petroleum resin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 510 0.030 0.025 Severe
Coumarone-indene resin . . . . . . . . .... 520 0.010 0.015 Severe
Epoxy resin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 530 0.020 0.020 Severe
Fluorocarbon resin
Fluoroethylene polymer . . . . . . . . . .... 600 ----- ----- Fire
Furane resin
Phenol furfural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 520 0.010 0.025 Severe
Ingredients
Hexamethylenetetramine . . . . . . . . .... 410 0.010 0.015 Severe
Miscellaneous resins
Petrin acrylate monomer . . . . . . . . .... 220 0.020 0.045 Severe
Natural resin
Rosin, DK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 390 0.010 0.015 Severe
Nylon polymer resin . . . . . . . . . . . .... 500 0.020 0.030 Severe
Phenolic resin
Phenol-formaldehyde
molding compound . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 500 0.020 0.030 Severe
Polycarbonate resin . . . . ........... 710 0.020 0.025 Severe
Polyester resin
Polyethylene terephthalate ........... 500 0.040 0.040 Strong
Polyethylene resin . . . . . ........... 410 0.010 0.020 Severe
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 232
PROCESS MANUAL
Polymethylene resin Moderate

Carboxypolymethylene ............. 520 0.640 0.115
Polypropylene resin . . ............. 420 0.030 0.020 Severe
Polyurethane resin 510 0.020 0.025 Severe
Polyurethane foam . . . .............
Rayon 520 0.240 0.055 Moderate
Rayon (viscose) flock . .............
Rubber 320 0.030 0.030 Severe
Rubber, synthetic . . . .............
Styrene polymer resin 500 0.020 0.020 Severe
Polystyrene latex . . . . .............
Vinyl polymer resin 390 0.010 0.020 Severe
Polyvinyl butyral . . . . .............
*Source: Bureau of Mines U.S. Department of Interior
TABLE II. BURNING CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME COMMON FIBERS*
Specific Approximate Ignition Burning

Substance Gravity Temperature, oC Characteristics
Acetate 1.32 525 Melts ahead of flame

Acrilan 1.17 560 Burns readily
Arnel 1.3 525 Melts ahead of flame
Cotton 1.54 to 1.56 400 Burns rapidly
Nylon 6 1.14 530 Melts and burns
Wool 1.3 600 Melts ahead of flame
*Adapted from Wellington Sears Handbook of Industrial Textiles, published 1963 by Wellington Sears Co., Inc., 111 W. 40th St.,
New York, NY 10017.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 233
PROCESS MANUAL
K:\WRK090\037\345\MANUALS\PH&SB1\002-08D.SAM-04/15/1997
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 234
PROCESS MANUAL
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 235
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.26 Appendix 26: Explosion Properties of Dusts
The values presented in the following tables are intended as a general guide,
and are based on a selection of materials and available data on explosion and
fire properties. The variation inherent in many of the materials, and also resulting
from different test methods for measuring the same explosion property, mean
that the quoted values should strictly be applied only to the sample actually
tested, taking account of the method of test. In the tables references are given
which enable further details to be obtained but, for many practical purposes,
guideline are all that are required. If further information is required for a
particular sample of a material, direct testing of that material is usually
necessary. Significant variation in explosion properties with a material can arise
from differences in particle size, particle shape, moisture content, dispersability,
and from variations in composition inevitable with many materials of natural
origin.
The tabulated values originated from publications in the United Kingdom, the
United States, and the Federal German Republic and the methods of test are
those in use in the country of origin of data. Further information can be obtained
from studying the references and Chapter 3.
Where more than one set of data has been published for a material, preference
has been given in the selection of data to that combining the most
comprehensive and the most hazardous values indicated. As many identifiable
dusts as possible have been included, but mixtures that are not generally
reproducible, and many co-polymers, have been excluded.
Because of the different methods of test in the three countries, the values for
minimum ignition temperature of dust clouds may differ somewhat. The
minimum ignition temperature of dust layers is measured in the United States
using a sample 1.3 cm deep and 2.5 cm diameter, in the Furnace Apparatus,
but in the Federal German Republic a 0.5 cm deep layer on a hotplate is used
(Chapter 3). The results from the two methods are not directly comparable
(Chapter 4). The values of maximum explosion pressure and maximum rate of
pressure rise are the highest quoted for a given material and are not necessarily
measured for the same dust concentration. In the test for the maximum oxygen
concentration to prevent ignition, the use of the Furnace Apparatus has been
taken throughout (Chapter 3), and the inert gas was carbon dioxide for data
originating from the United States and nitrogen for data originating from the
United Kingdom, unless stated otherwise. The relative effectiveness of the two
inert gases is discussed in Chapter 4.
(-) indicates that no value was available, but should not be taken to mean that
the property was not measurable.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 236
PROCESS MANUAL
The references are as follows:
[1] Dorsett, H.G. and Nagy, J. (1968), US Bureau of Mines RI 7132.

[2] Freytag, H.H. (Ed). (1965), Handbuch der Raumexplosionen. Verlag
Chemie. Wenheim.
[3] Jacobson, M., Cooper, A.R. and Nagy, J. (1964), US Bureau of Mines
RI 6516.
[4] Jacobson, M., Nagy, J. and Cooper, A.R. (1962), US Bureau of Mines
RI 5971.
[5] Jacobson, M., Nagy, Cooper, A.R. and Ball, F.J. (1961), US Bureau of
Mines RI 5753.
[6] Nagy, J., Cooper, A.R. and Dorsett, H.G. (1968), US Bureau of Mines
RI 7208.
[7] Nagy, J., Dorsett, H.G. and Cooper, A.R. (1965), US Bureau of Mines
RI 6597.
[8] Raftery, M.M. (1968), Explosibility tests for industrial dusts. Ministry of
Technology and Fire Offices' Committee. Fire Research Technical
Paper No. 21, HMSO, London.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 237
PROCESS MANUAL
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
Minimum Minimum Maximum tration
ignition explosible Minimum Maximum rate of to prevent
temperature concen- ignition explosion pressure ignition
o
C tration energy pressure rise % by
Dust Cloudlayer g/l mJ lb/in2 lb/in2s volume References Notes
Acetamide 560 - - - - - - 8 Group (b) dust

Aceto acetailide 560 - 0.030 20 90 4,800 4
Acetoacet-p-phenetedide 560 - 0.030 10 87 >10,000 1
Acetoacet-o-toluidine 710 - - - - - - 1
2 Acetylamino-5-nitro 450 450 0.160 40 137 9,000 - 1
thiazole
Adipic acid 550 - 0.035 60 95 4,000 - 4,8
Alfalfa 460 200 0.100 320 88 1,100 - 5
Almond shell 440 200 0.065 80 101 1,400 - 5
Aluminium, atonized 650 760 0.045 50 84 >20,000 - 3
Aluminium, flake 610 320 0.045 10 127 >20,000 - 3
Aluminium-cobalt alloy 950 570 0.180 100 92 11,000 - 3
Aluminium-copper alloy - 830 0.100 100 95 4,000 - 3
Aluminium-iron alloy 550 450 - 36 300 - 3
Aluminium-lithium alloy 470 400 <0.1 140 96 6,000 - 3
Aluminium-magnesium alloy 430 480 0.020 80 86 10,000 - 3
Aluminium-nickel alloy 950 540 0.190 80 96 10,000 - 3
Aluminium-silicon alloy 670 - 0.040 60 85 7,500 - 3
Aluminium acetate 560 640 - 59 950 - 1 Guncotton
ignition source in
pressure test.
Aluminium octoate 460 - - - - - - 8
Aluminium stearate 400 380 0.015 10 86 >10,000 - 1
2 Amino-5-nitrothiazole 460 460 0.075 30 110 5,600 - 1
Anthracene 505 Melts - - 68 - - 2,8
Antrhanilic acid 580 - 0.030 35 84 6,500 - 1
Anthraquinone 670 - - - - - - 8
Antimony 420 330 0.420 1,920 28 300 - 3
Antipyrin 405 Melts - - 53 - - 2
Asphalt 510 500 0.025 25 94 4,800 - 7
Aspirin 550 Melts 0.015 16 87 7,700 - 8
Azelaic acid 610 - 0.025 25 76 4,700 - 4
Azo isobutyronitrile 430 350 0.015 25 134 8,000 - 4
Barley 370 - - - - - - 8
Benethonium chloride 380 410 0.020 60 91 6,700 - 1
Benzoic acid 600 Melts 0.011 12 95 10,300 - 8
Benzotriazole 440 - 0.030 30 103 9,200 - 1
Benzoyl peroxide - - - 21 - - - 8
Beryllium 910 540 - - Did not Did not - 3 Contained 8
ignite ignite percent oxide
Beryllium acetate, basic 620 - 0.080 100 87 2,200 15 1 Inert gas carbon
dioxide
Bis (2-hydroxy-5- 570 - 0.040 60 70 2,000 13 1 Inert gas carbon
chlorophenyl)-methane dioxide
Bis (2-hydroxy-3,5,6,- Did not 450 - - - - - 1
trichlorophenyl)-methane ignite
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 238
PROCESS MANUAL
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
o
Bone meal 490 230 - - 11 100 - 6 Guncotton
ignition source in
pressure test
Boron 730 390 Did not - 41 200 - 3 Guncotton
ignite ignition source in
pressure test.
Bread 450 - - - - - - 8
Brunswick green 360 - - - - - - 8
P-t-butyl benzoic acid 560 - 0.020 25 88 6,500 - 4
Cadmium 570 250 - 4,000 7 100 - 3
Cadmium Yellow 390 - - - - - - 8
Calcium carbide 555 325 - - 13 - - 2
Calcium citrate 470 - - - - - - 8 Group (b) dust
Calcium gluconate 550 - - - - - - 8 Group (b) dust
Calcium DL Pantothenate 520 - 0.050 80 105 4,600 - 1
Calcium propionate 530 - - - 90 1,900 - 8
Calcium silicide 540 540 0.060 150 86 20,000 - 3
Calcium stearate 400 - 0.025 15 97 >10,000 - 1
Caprolactam 430 - 0.07 60 79 1,700 8 8
Carbon, activated 660 270 0.100 - 92 1,700 - 7 Guncotton
ignition source in
min. expl. conc.
and max. expl.
pressure tests.
Carbon, black 510 - - - - - - 7
Carbon methyl cellulose 460 310 0.060 140 130 5000 - 4
Carboxy methyl hydroxy
ethyl cellulose 380 - 0.200 960 83 800 - 4
Carboxy polymethylene 520 - 0.115 640 76 1200 - 4
Casein 460 - - - 89 1200 - 8
Cellulose 410 300 0.045 40 117 8000 - 4
Cellulose acetate 340 - 0.035 20 114 6500 5 4,8 Inert gas nitrogen
Cellulose acetate butyrate 370 - 0.025 30 81 2700 7 4
Cellulose proprionate 460 - 0.025 60 105 4700 - 4
Cellulose triacetate 390 - 0.035 30 107 4300 - 4,8
Cellulose tripropionate 460 - 0.025 45 88 4000 - 4
Charcoal 530 180 0.140 20 100 1800 - 7
Chloramine-T 540 150 - - 7 150 - 1 Guncotton
ignition source in
pressure test.
o-Chlorobenzmalono nitrile - - 0.025 - 90 >10000 - 1
p-Chloroaceto acetanilide 640 - 0.035 30 94 3900 - 1
0-Chloroaceto acetanilide 650 - 0.035 20 85 5500 - 1
Choloroamino toluene -
sulfonic acid 650 - - - - - - 8
4-Chloro-2 nitro aniline 590 120 <0.750 140 123 3500 - 1
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 239
PROCESS MANUAL
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
o
p-Chloro o-toluidine - - - - - - 8
hydrochloride 650
Chocolate crumb 340 - - - - - - 8
Chromium 580 400 0.230 140 56 5000 - 3
Cinnamon 440 230 0.060 30 121 3900 - 5
Citrus peel 500 330 0.060 100 51 1200 - 5
Coal, brown 485 230 - - - - - 2 See also Lignite
Coal, 8 % volatiles 730 - - - - - - 7
Coal, 12 % volatiles 670 240 - - - - - 7
Coal, 25 % volatiles 605 210 0.120 120 62 400 - 7
Coal, 37 % volatiles 610 170 0.055 60 90 2300 - 7 Standard
Pittsburgh coal
Coal, 43 % volatiles 575 180 0.050 50 92 2000 - 7
Cobalt 760 370 - - - - - 3
Cocoa 500 200 0.065 120 69 1200 - 5
Coconut 450 280 - - - - - 2
Coconut shell 470 220 0.035 60 115 4200 - 5
Coffee 360 270 0.085 160 38 150 10 5,8 Inert gas carbon
dioxide
Coffee, extract 600 - - - 47 - - 2
Coffee, instant 410 350 0.280 Did not 68 500 - 5
ignite
Coke >750 430 - - - - - 2
Coke, petroleum, - Guncotton
13 % volatiles 670 - 1.00 - 36 200 - 7 ignition source in
min. expl. conc.
and max. expl.
pressure tests.
Colophony 325 Melts - - - - - 2
Copal 330 Melts - - 68 - - 2 See also gum
manila
Copper 700 - - Did not Did not Did not - 3
ignite ignite ignite
Copper-zinc, gold bronze 370 190 1.00 - 44 1300 - 3
Cork 460 210 0.035 35 96 7500 - 6
Corn cob 450 240 0.045 45 127 3700 - 5
Corn dextrine 410 390 0.040 40 124 7000 - 5
Cornflour 390 - - - - - - 8
Cornstarch 390 - 0.040 30 145 9500 - 5
Cotton flock 470 - 0.050 25 94 6000 - 4
Cotton linters 520 - 0.50 1920 73 400 5 5
Cottonseed meal 530 200 0.055 80 89 2200 - 5
Coumarone-indene resin 550 - 0.015 10 93 11000 11 4
Crystal violet 475 Melts - - - - - 2
Cyclohexanone peroxide - - - 21 84 5600 - 8
Dehydroacetic acid 430 - 0.030 15 87 8000 - 1
Dextrin 410 440 0.050 40 99 9000 - 6
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 240
PROCESS MANUAL
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
o
Dextrose monohydrate 350 - - - - - - 8
Diallyl phthalate 480 - 0.030 20 90 8500 - 1
Diamino stilbene disulfonic
acid 550 - - - - - - 8 Group (b) dust
Diazo aminobenzene 550 - 0.015 20 114 10000 - 1
Di-t-Butyl-p-cresol 420 - 0.015 15 79 13000 9 4
Dibutyl tin maleate 600 - - - - - - 8
Dibutyl tin oxide 530 - - - - - - 8
Dichlorophene 770 - - - 72 3000 - 1
2,4-Dichlorophenoxy ethyl
benzoate 540 - 0.045 60 84 2200 - 1
Dicyclopentadiene dioxide 420 - 0.015 30 89 9500 - 4
Dihydrostreptomycin
sulphate 600 230 0.520 - 42 200 7 1
3-3' Dimethoxy 4-4' diamino
diphenyl - - 0.030 - 82 >10000 - 1
Dimethylacridan 540 - - - - - - 8
Dimethyl diphenyl urea 490 - - - - - - 8
Dimethyl isophthalate 580 - 0.025 15 84 8000 - 4
Dimethyl terephthalate 570 - 0.030 20 105 12000 6 4
S-S'-Dimethyl
xanthogene-thylene bis 400 - 0.300 3200 84 1500 - 1
dithiocarbamate
Dinitro aniline 470 - - - - - - 8
3,5-Dinitrobenzamide 500 Melts 0.040 45 163 6500 - 1
3,5-Dinotrobenzoic acid 460 - 0.050 45 139 4300 - 1
Dinitrobenzoyl chloride 380 - - - - - - 8
Dinitrocresol 340 Melts 0.03 - - - - 1,2
4,4'-Dinitro-sym-diphenyl
urea 550 - 0.095 60 102 2500 - 1
Dinitro stilbene disulphonic
acid 450 - - - - - - 8
Dinitrotoluamide 500 - 0.050 15 153 >10000 - 6
Diphenyl 630 - 0.015 20 82 3700 - 1
4,4'-Diphenyl di 590 140 0.065 30 143 5500 - 1
sulphonylazide
Diphenylol propane
(bisphenol-A) 570 - 0.012 11 81 11800 5 4,8 Inert gas nitrogen
Egg white 610 - 0.14 640 58 500 - 5
Epoxy resin 490 - 0.015 9 94 8500 - 4,8
Esparto grass - - - - 94 7300 - 8
Ethyl cellulose 340 330 0.025 15 112 7000 - 4
Ethylene diamine tetra
acetic acid 450 - 0.075 50 106 3000 - 1
Ethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose
390 - 0.020 30 94 2200 - 6
Ferric ammonium
ferrocyanide 390 210 1.500 - 17 100 - 1
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 241
PROCESS MANUAL
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
o
Ferric dimethyl dithio
carbamate 280 150 0.055 25 86 6300 - 1
Ferric ferrocyanide 370 - - - 82 1000 - 1
Ferrochromium 790 670 2.00 - - - - 3
Ferromanganese 450 290 0.130 80 62 5000 - 3
Ferrosilicon (45 % Si) 640 - - - - - - 2
Ferrosilicon (90 % Si) Did not 980 0.240 1280 113 3500 - 3
ignite
Ferrotitanium 370 400 0.140 80 55 9500 - 3
Ferrous ferrocyanide 380 190 0.400 - - - - 1
Ferrovanadium 440 400 1.300 400 - - - 3
Fish meal 485 - - - - - - 2
Fumaric acid 520 - 0.085 35 103 3000 - 4
Garlic 360 - 0.10 240 57 1300 - 5
Gelatin, dried 620 480 <0.5 - 78 1200 - 1
Gilsonite 580 500 0.020 25 78 4500 - 7
Graphite 730 580 - - - - - 7
Grass - - - - 56 400 - 8
Gum arabic 500 260 0.060 100 117 3000 - 4
Gum Karaya 520 240 0.100 180 116 2500 - 4
Gum manila (copal) 360 390 0.030 30 89 6000 - 4
Gum tragacanth 490 260 0.040 45 123 5000 - 4
Hexa methylene tetramine 410 - 0.015 10 98 11000 11 4
Horseradish - - <0.100 - 96 1600 - 6
Hydrazine acid tartrate 570 - 0.175 460 30 200 - 1
p-Hydroxy benzoic acid 620 - 0.040 - 37 - - 1
Hydroxyethyl cellulose 410 - 0.025 40 106 2600 - 6
Hydroxyethyl methyl
cellulose 410 - - - - - - 8
Hydroxy propyl cellulose 400 - 0.020 30 96 2900 - 6
Iron 430 240 - - - - - 2
Iron, carbonyl 420 230 0.105 100 47 8000 - 3
Iron pyrites 380 280 1.00 8200 5 100 - 3
Isatoic anhydride 700 - 0.035 25 80 4900 - 1
Isinglass 520 - - - Nil Nil - 8
Isophthalic acid 700 - 0.035 25 78 3100 - 4
Kelp 570 220 Did not Did not 19 200 - 5
ignite ignite
Lactalbumin 570 240 0.040 50 97 3500 - 4
Lampblack 730 - - - - - - 7
Lauryl peroxide - - - 12 90 6400 - 8
Lead 790 290 - Did not 3 100 - 3 Flame ignition
ignite source in
pressure test
Leather 390 - - - - - - 8
Lignin 450 - 0.040 20 102 5000 7 4
Lignite 450 200 0.030 30 94 8000 - 7
Lycopodium 480 310 0.025 40 75 3100 9 5
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 242
PROCESS MANUAL
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
o
Magnesium 560 430 0.030 40 116 15000 - 3
Maize husk 430 - - - 75 700 - 8
Maize starch 410 - - - - - - 2
Maleic anhydride 500 Melts - - - - - 2
Malt barley 400 250 0.055 35 95 4400 - 5
Manganese 460 240 0.125 305 53 4900 - 3
Manganese ethylene bis 270 - 0.07 35 - - - 8
dithio carbamate
Manioc 430 - - - - - - 8
Mannitol 460 - 0.065 40 97 2800 - 1
Melamine formaldehyde 410 - 0.02 50 93 1800 - 4,8
resin
DL Methionine 370 360 0.025 35 119 5700 7 1
1-Methylamino 830 Melts 0.055 50 71 3300 - 1
anthraquinone
Methyl cellulose 360 340 0.030 20 133 6000 - 4
2,2-Methylene bis-4-ethyl-6-t-
butyl phenol 310 - - - 76 7300 - 8
Milk 440 - - - - - - 8
Milk, skimmed 490 200 0.050 50 95 2300 - 5
Milk sugar 450 Melts - - 31 - - 2
Molybdenum 720 360 - - - - - 3
Molybdenum disulfide 570 290 - - - - - 6
Monochloracetic acid 620 - - - - - - 8
Monosodium salt of trichloro 540 - - - - - - 8 Group (b) dust
ethylphosphate
Moss, Irish 530 230 Did not Did not 21 300 - 5
ignite ignite
Naphthalene 575 Melts - - 87 - - 2
-Naphthalene-azo-dimethyl
aniline 510 Melts 0.020 50 70 2300 - 1
-Naphthol 670 - - - - - - 8
Naphthol yellow 415 395 - - - - - 2
Nigrosine hydrochloride 630 - - - - - - 8
p-Nitro-o-anisidene 400 - - - - - - 8
p-Nitro-benzene arsonic -
acid 360 280 0.195 480 77 900 - 1
Nitrocellulose - - - 30 >256 >20900 - 8
Nitro diphenylamine 480 - - - - - - 8
Nitro furfural semi
carbazone 240 - - - >143 8600 - 8
Nitropyridone 430 Melts 0.045 35 111 >10000 - 1
p-Nitro-o-toluidine 470 - - - - - - 8
m-Nitro-p-toluidine 470 - - - - - - 8
Nylon 500 430 0.030 20 95 4000 6 4
Oilcake meal 470 285 - - - - - 2
Onion, dehydrated 410 - 0.130 Did not 35 500 - 5
ignite
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 243
PROCESS MANUAL
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
o
Paper 440 270 0.055 60 96 3600 - 6
Para formaldehyde 410 - 0.040 20 133 13000 - 4
Peanut hull 460 210 0.045 50 116 8000 - 5
Peat 420 295 - - - - - 2
Peat, sphagnum 460 240 0.045 50 104 2200 - 5
Pectin 410 200 0.075 35 132 8000 - 5
Penicillin, N-ethyl piperidine,
salt of 310 - - - - - - 8
Penta erythritol 450 - 0.030 10 90 9500 7 4
Phenol formaldehyde 450 - 0.015 10 107 6500 - 8,4
Phenol furfural resin 530 - 0.025 10 88 8500 - 4
Phenothiazine 540 - 0.030 - 56 3000 - 1
p-Phenylene diamine 620 - 0.025 30 94 11000 - 4
Phosphorus, red 360 305 - - - - - 2
Phosphorus pentasulfide 280 270 0.050 15 64 >10000 - 1
Phthalic acid 650 Melts - - 62 - - 2
Phthalic anhydride 605 Melts 0.015 15 72 4200 11 2,4
Phthalimide 630 - 0.030 50 89 4800 - 1
Phthalodinitrile >700 Melts - - 43 - - 2
Phytosterol 330 Melts 0.025 10 76 >10000 - 1
Piperazine 480 - - - 72 1400 - 1
Pitch 710 - 0.035 20 88 6000 - 7
Polyacetal 440 - 0.035 20 113 4100 - 4
Polycrylamide 410 240 0.040 30 85 2500 - 4
Polyacrylonitrile 500 460 0.025 20 89 11000 - 4
Polycarbonate 710 - 0.025 25 96 4700 - 4
Polyethylene 390 - 0.020 10 80 7500 - 4,8
Polyethylene oxide 350 - 0.030 30 106 2100 5 4
Polyethylene terephthalate 500 - 0.040 35 98 5500 - 4
Poly isobutyl methacrylate 500 280 0.020 40 74 2800 - 4
Poly methacrylic acid 450 290 0.045 100 97 1800 - 4
Polymethyl methacrylate 440 - 0.020 15 101 1800 7 4
Polymonochlorotrifluoro Did not Did not Did not Did not - 4
ethylene 600 720 ignite ignite ignite ignite
Polypropylene 420 - 0.020 30 76 5500 - 4
Polystyrene 500 500 0.020 15 100 7000 - 4
Polytetrafluoro ethylene 670 570 Did not Did not Did not Did not - 4
ignite ignite ignite ignite
Polyurethane foam 510 440 0.030 20 87 3700 - 4
Polyurethane foam, fire
retardant 550 390 0.025 15 86 3700 - 4
Polyvinylacetate 450 - 0.040 160 69 1000 11 4,8 Inert gas carbon
dioxide
Polyvinyl alcohol 450 Melts - - 78 - - 2
Polyvinyl butyral 390 - 0.020 10 84 2000 5 4
Polyvinyl chloride 670 - Did not Did not 38 500 - 4 Flame ignition
ignite ignite source
Polyvinylidene chloride 670 - - - - - - 8 Group (b) dust
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 244
PROCESS MANUAL
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
o
Polyvinyl pyrrolidone 465 Melts - - 15 - - 2
Potassium hydrogen tartrate
520 - - - - - - 1
Potassium sorbate 380 180 0.120 60 79 9500 - 1
Potato, dried 450 - - - 97 1000 - 8
Potato starch 430 - - - - - - 2
Provender 370 - - - 93 1400 - 8
Pyrethrum 460 210 0.100 80 95 1500 - 1
Quillaia bark 450 - - - - - - 8
Rape seed meal 465 - - - - - - 2
Rayon, viscose 420 - - - - - - 8
Rayon, flock - - 0.03 - - - - 8
Rice 440 240 0.050 50 105 2700 - 5
Rosin 390 - 0.015 10 87 1200 - 4
Rubber 380 - - - - - - -8
Rubber, crude, hard 350 - 0.025 50 80 3800 13 4
Rubber, crumb 440 - - - 84 3300 - 8
Rubber, vulcanized 360 - - - 40 - - 2
Rye flour 415 325 - - 335 - - 2
Saccharin 690 - - - - - - 1
Salicylanilide 610 Melts 0.040 20 73 4800 - 1
Salicylic acid 590 - 0.025 - 84 6800 - 4,8
Sawdust 430 - - - 97 2000 - 8
Sebacic acid - - - - 74 400 - 8
Senna 440 - 0.010 105 49 300 - 8
Shellac 400 - 0.020 10 73 3600 9 4
Silicon Did not 760 <0.10 80 94 13000 - 3
ignite
Soap 430 600 0.085 100 77 2800 - 6
Sodium acetate 590 - 0.030 35 90 4600 - 1
Sodium amatol 580 680 0.050 80 91 800 - 1
Sodium benzoate 560 680 0.050 80 91 3700 - 1
Sodium carboxmethyl 320 - 1.10 440 49 400 5 8
cellulose
Sodium 2-chloro-5 nitro-
benzene sulphonate 550 440 - - - - - 1
Sodium 2,2-dichloro
propionate 500 - 0.260 220 68 500 - 1
Sodium dihydroxy
naphthalene disulfonate 510 - - - - - - 8 Group (b) dust.
Sodium glucaspaldrate 600 - - - - - - 8
Sodium glucoheptonate 600 - - - - - - 8
Sodium monochloracetate 550 - - - - - - 8
Sodium m-nitrobenzene
sulphonate - - - - 92 400 - 1
Sodium m-nitrobenzoate - - - - 87 2900 - 1
Sodium pentachlorophenate Did not 360 - - Did not Did not - 1
ignite ignite ignite
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 245
PROCESS MANUAL
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
o
Sodium propionate 479 - - - 70 700 - 8
Sodium secobarbital 520 - 0.100 960 76 800 - 1
Sodium sorbate 400 140 0.050 30 87 6500 - 1
Sodium thiosulfate 510 330 - - 11 <100 - 1 Guncotton
ignition source in
pressure test.
Sodium toluene sulphonate 530 - - - - - - 8
Sodium xylene sulphonate 490 - - - - - - 8
Soot >690 535 - - Did not Did not - 2
ignite ignite
Sorbic acid 440 460 0.020 15 106 >10000 5 1,8 Inert gas nitrogen
L-Sorbose 370 - 0.065 80 76 4700 - 1
Soya flour 550 340 0.060 100 94 800 9 5
Soya protein 540 - 0.050 60 87 6500 9 5
Starch 470 - - - - - - 8
Starch, cold water 490 - - - - - - 8
Stearic acid 290 - - 25 80 8500 - 1
Steel 450 - - - - - - 8
Streptomycin sulphate 700 - - - - - - 8
Sucrose 420 Melts 0.045 40 86 5500 - 1
Sugar 370 400 0.045 30 109 5000 - 5
Sulphur 190 220 0.035 15 78 4700 - 1
Tantalum 630 300 <0.20 120 55 4400 - 3
Tartaric acid 350 - - - - - - 8
Tea 500 - - - 93 1700 - 8
Tea, instant 580 340 Did not Did not 48 400 - 5
ignite ignite
Tellurium 550 340 - - - - - 3
Terephthalic acid 680 - 0.050 20 84 8000 - 4
Tetranitro carbazole 395 Melts - - - - - 2
Thiourea 420 Melts - - 29 100 - 1
Thorium 270 280 0.075 5 79 5500 - 3
Thorium hydride 260 20 0.080 3 81 12000 - 3
Tin 630 430 0.190 80 48 1700 - 3
Titanium 375 290 0.045 15 85 11000 Ignites in 2,3
carbon
dioxide
Titanium hydride 480 540 0.070 60 121 12000 3 3
Tobacco 485 290 - - - - - 2
Tobacco, dried 320 - - - 85 1000 - 8
Tobacco, stem 420 230 Did not Did not 53 400 - 5
ignite ignite
Tribromosalicyl anilide 880 Melts - - - - - 1
Trinitro toluene - - 0.070 75 63 2100 - 6
s-Trioxane 480 - 0.143 - 85 600 - 1
, '-Trithiobis (N,N-
dimethyl-thioformamide) 280 230 0.060 35 96 6000 - 1
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 246
PROCESS MANUAL
Maximum
oxygen
concen-
o
Tung 540 240 0.07 240 74 1900 - 5
Tungsten 730 470 - - Did not Did not - 3
ignite ignite
Uranium 20 100 0.060 45 69 5000 - 3
Uranium hydride 20 20 0.060 5 74 9000 - 3
Urea 900 - Did not Did not Did not Did not - 4,8 Group (b) dust.
ignite ignite ignite ignite
Urea formaldehyde
molding powder 460 - 0.085 80 89 3600 9 4
Urea formaldehyde resin 430 - 0.02 34 110 1600 - 8
Vanadium 500 490 0.220 60 57 1000 10 3
Vitamin B1 mononitrate 380 190 0.035 35 120 9000 - 1
Vitamin C 460 280 0.070 60 88 4800 - 1
Walnut shell 420 210 0.035 60 121 5500 - 5
Wax, accra 260 - - - - - - 8
Wax, carnauba 340 - - - - - - 8
Wax, paraffin 340 - - - - - - 8
Wheat, flour 380 360 0.050 50 109 3700 - 5
Wheat, grain dust 420 290 - - 43 - - 2
Wheat starch 430 - 0.045 25 100 6500 - 5
Wood 360 - - - 90 5700 5 8
Wood, bark 450 250 0.020 60 103 7500 - 4
Wood, flour 430 - 0.050 20 94 8500 7 4
Wood, hard 420 315 - - 66 - - 2
Wood, soft 440 325 - - 63 - - 2
Yeast 520 260 0.050 50 123 3500 - 5
Zinc 680 460 0.500 960 70 1800 - 3
Zinc ethylene dithio-
carbamate 480 180 - - 45 300 - 1
Zinc stearate 315 Melts 0.020 10 80 >10000 - 1,2
Zirconium 20 220 0.045 5 75 11000 Ignites in 3
carbon
dioxide
Zirconium hydride 350 270 0.085 60 90 9500 3 3
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 247
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.27 Appendix 27: Equipment Data Sheets - Process Input
Rotary Blowers 2 Pages
Rotary Valves 2 Pages
Diverter Valves 2 Pages
Cyclones 1 Page
Dust Collectors 6 Pages
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 261
PROCESS MANUAL
8.7.28 Appendix 28: Sample Specification
The following pages show a typical specification for a dilute phase pneumatic
conveying system, used for low linear density polyethylene. (Contract 468200,
Specification SP-4682-48-7, Pneumatic Conveying Systems).
This plant was built in Saudi Arabia and worked very well.
A similar plant for polypropylene was built in Cologne, Germany where a dense
phase conveying system was used, manufactured by Buhler Miag. Double rotary
feeders were used in tandem to suit the higher pressures (up to 25 psig).
Specification SP-4682-48-7
PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS
1.0 SCOPE
1.1 This specification sets forth and defines the design, engineering, materials of
construction and fabrication requirements for pneumatic conveying systems handling
Linear Low Density Polyethylene pellets and granules at Al-Jubail, Saudi Arabia.
1.2 All systems will conform to the design basis described in Paragraph 3.0
1.3 The word VENDOR used in this specification refers to the prime manufacturer receiving
this specification; any and all subsuppliers or material and/or equipment furnished to the
VENDOR shall be required to meet all of the requirements of these specifications. It
shall be VENDOR's responsibility to see that subsuppliers and sub-supplied materials
conform to these specifications. The word PURCHASER used in this specification refers
to Fluor Corporation or its agent.
1.4 Any change in or exception to any part of this specification by the VENDOR must be
defined by the VENDOR in his proposal. Except for the exceptions listed in the
VENDOR's proposal, the content of this specification and all related specifications and/or
attachments fully meet the understanding and acceptance of the VENDOR. No change
in design, engineering, materials of construction, fabrication and/or supply of any system
or component thereof shall be made without the written approval and acceptance of the
PURCHASER.
2.0 GENERAL
2.1 As a minimum requirement of the VENDOR, the design, fabrication and supply of each
system shall include all items specifically listed herein. The fact that certain items may
not be listed or described in detail (such as injector tees, water cooled air coolers,
blowers, rotary feeders, line filters, line mufflers, bag filters, diverter gates and valves, air
regulators, filters, oil lubricators and the like), shall net relieve the VENDOR of the full
responsibility of designing, fabricating and supplying such items and/or material in order
to make and guarantee each component and system to be a complete operating unit.
Refer to the following paragraph for specific items furnished by the PURCHASER.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 262
PROCESS MANUAL
Generally, instruments will be furnished by PURCHASER. Instrumentation normally

supplied by a manufacturer as part of a packaged or integral unit, shall be furnished by
the VENDOR. The manufacturer, type, units of measurements and like data related to
such instruments must meet with the written approval of the PURCHASER and be in
accordance with Fluor Specification SP-4682-70-7, Instrumentation Provided by
Equipment VENDORS.
2.2 Motor drivers for blowers, rotary feeders and other motor drivers for equipment items
shall be furnished by the PURCHASER.
PURCHASER will be selecting a specific motor supplier, and VENDOR will be required to
purchase drivers only from this supplier. However, if a motor is specially manufactured
for a piece of equipment, an exception may be made. VENDOR must submit a
description of the special motor for PURCHASER'S approval. Mounting of all motors will
be by the VENDOR.
2.2.1 Unless specifically noted herein, all starters and controls will be supplied by the
PURCHASER.
2.2.2 VENDOR shall supply motor support base plate as part of the blower base if it is
designed as an integral part of the blower base. All other drive components,
such as chain and/or "V" belt drives, motor slide rails, bases, guards, and drive
sheaves shall be furnished by the VENDOR. Drive guards shall provide
protection but allow a clear view of the drive without removing the guard.
2.2.3 All blowers shall be furnished complete with their own bed plates or fabricated
plates or cast frames as may be the case. The bed plate or frame shall be sized
to act as a common base for the motor, silencers, and belt or coupling guards.
VENDOR shall mount the blower, silencers, filters, motor, drive and belt guard
(with belts) and ship complete as an assembled unit.
NOTE: Motors shall be designed for continuous operation at the rated load;
operation at rated conditions shall not utilize the service factor of the motor (if
any). V-Belt drives shall be designed on the basis of supplied motor power
before taking in account belt service factor.
2.3 All system control panels, panel mounted and remote initiating devices and indicating
lights complete with wiring to all local and panel mounted devices and lights will be
furnished by the PURCHASER.
2.4 All pneumatically operated valves complete with solenoids (where applicable), air
cylinders, filters, lubricators, speed control regulators and position switches to actuate
local and panel mounted devices and lights shall be furnished by the VENDOR. All such
devices shall be designed for continuous duty in the high humidity, sandy, seaport
conditions of Al-Jubail, Saudi Arabia.
2.5 Valving will be electrically interlocked by the PURCHASER so that operating errors will
be reduced in critical systems. Multiple contact position switches shall be furnished by
the VENDOR.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 263
PROCESS MANUAL
2.6 VENDOR shall furnish all gasket and bolting materials where VENDOR furnished
equipment and/or material connects to equipment and/or material furnished by others.
2.7 VENDOR shall supply certified dimensional outline drawings, cross sections, operating
instructions, parts lists, design data, shop and erection drawings covering each system
for all component parts. This includes equipment items such as blowers, rotary feeders,
injector tees, line mufflers, bag filters and shaker mechanisms, line filters, diverter gates
and diverter valves, water cooled air coolers, air regulators, oil lubricators and the like,
instruments and related controls (where applicable and as qualified in this Section),
product receivers, gaskets and insulating material for flanged pipe joints, motor drives,
motor drive components, butterfly valves, slide gates, transition pieces, conveying and
return air piping and the like. All equipment items and component parts of each separate
conveying system shall be identified with a metal tag showing all of the following data:
2.7.1 The PURCHASER's respective line number of which the particular item is a part
and VENDOR's detailed "spool" isometric, i.e., "Line 22-21 ALC-10" -
SHT1-MK5."
2.7.2 The PURCHASER's respective equipment item number or specialty item

number, if any; i.e., "Item No. C-301" or SP 52310 (see data sheets).
2.7.3 The VENDOR's respective "piece mark number."
IMPORTANT: VENDOR must follow the tagging instructions noted in 2.7.1,

2.7.2 and 2.7.3 above. If metal tag is not practical, then the minimum
requirement will be to dye stain the above data physically on the respective part.
2.8 All shop piping (cutting and/or spool) drawings prepared by the VENDOR shall conform
to the general arrangement shown on the PURCHASER's final drawings. When
applicable, equipment outline drawings shall show anchor bolt diameter and location plus
load requirements for the design of reinforced concrete foundations and other supports.
Outline drawings shall also show any special space requirements for maintenance or
routine operations.
2.9 Specifications and/or drawings transmitted as attachments are applicable and shall be
considered a part of this specification. The fact that certain detail shown on these
drawings or called for in these specifications is not specifically referred to in this
specification does not relieve the VENDOR from including such detailed material and/or
equipment in his supply. In the absence of specific mention to the contrary, it will be
assumed that the VENDOR's proposal is all inclusive and, as such, fully meets with the
full compliance of this specification and/or drawings and specifications included as
attachments.
2.10 In addition to the specific items noted elsewhere in this specification, the following will
also be furnished by the PURCHASER:
2.10.1 Electrical wiring to all limit switches, motors, controls and electro-pneumatically
controlled solenoid valves and slide gates.
2.10.2 Motor starters.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 264
PROCESS MANUAL
2.10.3 All product storage tanks and product weigh tanks including product blenders.
2.10.4 Target boxes.
2.10.5 Local and main control panels including all motor control centers.
2.10.6 All instruments, except as qualified in Section 2.1.
2.10.7 Instrument and plant air piping.
2.10.8 Foundations for equipment and structural supports, all structural steel and/or
aluminum supporting structures. Integral type equipment supporting steel or
aluminum to be furnished by VENDOR. All filters, line coolers, cyclones, etc.
shall have tabs or connection points designed for the attachment of supports.
Such tabs shall be provided by VENDOR.
2.11 A complete list of all sub-suppliers shall be furnished to the PURCHASER by the
VENDOR.
2.12 All equipment that requires lubrication and is shipped without such lubricant in place shall
be clearly marked to warn personnel that the addition of lubricant is required before the
operation of the equipment.
2.13 Equipment furnished under this specification shall conform to applicable requirements of
the following Fluor specifications:
2.13.1 SP-4682-40-3 Spare Parts Requirements
2.13.2 SP-4682-40-4 Lubrication Requirements
2.13.3 SP-4682-46-11 AC Motors
2.13.4 Deleted
2.13.5 SP-4682-60-2 Electrical Requirements for Packaged Mechanical

Equipment
2.13.6 SP-4682-70-7 Instrumentation Provided by Equipment VENDORs
2.13.7 SP-4682-80-2 Painting
2.13.8 SP-4682-90-11 Commercial Quality Welding
2.13.9 SP-4682-100-1 Noise Limits for Mechanical Equipment
2.13.10 SP-4682-100-20 Metrication
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 265
PROCESS MANUAL
2.14 Climatic Operating Conditions
Ambient Temperature Range: 0oC - 50oC
Relative Humidity: 100 Percent Design
Environment: Salt laden corrosive atmosphere,

thunderstorms, and extended sandstorms.
Elevation: Sea Level
Maximum Wind Velocity: 140 km/hr
2.15 Utilities
Electrical: For controls, 120 volt, 1 phase, 60 cycle
For motors, see Fluor Specification

SP-4682-46-11 "induction Motors"
Plant and Instrument Air: Clean, dry air at 6.2 barg
Cooling water: Seawater; supply pressure 4.1 barg, supply

temperature 10 to 37oC.
2.16 Product Properties
Material Classification LLDPE LLDPE

Material Form GRANULES PELLETS
Specific Gravity (g/ml) 0.91 to 0.93 0.91 to 0.93
3
Bulk Density (kg/m ) Settled 384 to 513 528 to 560
Fluidized 288 to 384 528 to 560
Moisture Content Nil Nil
o
Product Temperature ( C) --- ---
Maximum Temperature Allowed (oC) 60 60
Characteristics Corrosive No No
Abrasive Mildly Mildly
Hygroscopic No No
Flowability Fair, Aid Fair
not Nec.
Angle of Repose (Degrees) 30 - 50 30 - 50
Eff. Internal Friction Angle (Degrees) 30 - 37 39
Wall Friction Angle with Aluminum (Degrees) 10 - 13 25
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 266
PROCESS MANUAL
Nominal Particle Size (mm) 1.0 Cyl., 3.2.D x 3.2L

U.S. Standard Series #10 15 - 25
Screen Analysis % Retained (Typical) #18 35 - 25
#35 33 - 27
#45 8 - 11
#60 6-7
#120 2-5
#200 1 - Fl
PAN FF1 - FF1
2.17 Electrical Items and Controls
2.17.1 For motor starters, supplementary control devices and intermediate wiring refer
to Fluor Specification SP-4682-60-2, Electrical Requirements for Packaged
Mechanical Equipment.
2.17.2 All instruments and controls shall be in accordance with Fluor

Specifica-tion SP-4682-70-7, Instrumentation Supplied by Equipment VENDORs,
and the requirements specified herein.
2.17.3 All required interface connection points for equipment supplied by others shall be
in accordance with Fluor Specification SP-4682-60-2, Electrical Requirements for
Packaged Mechanical Equipment.
2.18 Identification
2.18.1 Marking
Each assembly shall have its Equipment Tag Number as indicated by the
Purchase Order and/or specification (data) sheet, impression stamped on a
nameplate permanently attached to the assembly.
2.18.2 Tagging
Each item shall be identified with its Purchase Order number and Item number.
In addition, manufacturer's part number shall be match marked to a
corresponding drawing for installation purposes. Tags shall be corrosion
resistant metal (not aluminum) and impression stamped. (Also see Section 2.7 of
this specification).
2.19 Preparation for Shipment and Long Term Storage
2.19.1 Equipment shipped to the jobsite will be exposed to Saudi Arabia's Al-Jubail area
climatic construction conditions for several months prior to installation.
Provisions shall be made by the supplier for long term protection of this
equipment against damage which may be caused by wind, dust, salt laden
atmosphere, sand, and rain.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 267
PROCESS MANUAL
2.19.2 After inspection and prior to shipment, all unpainted and unmachined exterior
surfaces shall be primed and painted. All machined or threaded exterior
surfaces shall not be primed but rather coated with Esso Rust-Ban 324 or 385.
Internal machined or threaded surfaces shall be coated with Rust-Ban 339.
Provision of strong air tight sealed enclosure containing silica gel or other
desiccant is acceptable as an alternate to the above. Painting shall be in
accordance with Specification SP-4682-80-2.
2.19.3 VENDOR shall be solely responsible for the adequacy of the "Preparation for
Shipment" provisions employed with respect to materials and application to
provide equipment to its destination in an "ex-works" condition.
3.0 DESIGN BASIS
3.1 The polyethylene product that is to be transferred by each pneumatic conveying system
will have the approximate characteristics as per Section 3.16 of this specification.
3.2 See the attached plot plan drawings, system descriptions, and preliminary isometric
drawings for definition, capacity, and routings of the conveying systems.
3.3 A primary consideration in the design, fabrication and operation of each system will be to
ensure product cleanliness and the prevention of any cross-contamination between
transfers of different grades of products. All piping interiors of piping runs that actually
carry product shall be without internal projections (such as welds at pipe joints). Internal
diameters of mating parts shall be the same or tapered if required; internal surface
alignment must be maintained to avoid creating any internal discontinuity. Care shall be
taken to prevent misalignment of pipe joints that would result in an intake of air, dust, and
the like from internal negative pressure. Gaskets for any joint shall be so cut to avoid
internal projection after installation.
3.4 All piping that will be used to physically convey and transfer product shall be "treated" or
"prepared" internally over the entire perimeter and length of each piece of pipe after
fabrication. This internal "treatment" or "preparation" is required to minimize the creation
of product "smears," "fluff," and/or "streamers" during product transfer. If sandblasting is
used, treatment shall be equivalent to sandblasting with #6 flint. VENDOR shall submit
sample of treated pipe for approval prior to fabrication.
3.5 System components such as valves, feeders, etc., shall be furnished with circular cross
sections and circular late flanges. Square flanges are not prohibited, but shall be used
only when the square flange and transition is proven necessary for design purposes or
where a particular piece of equipment is only manufactured with a square flange.
3.6 Pressure drop in that portion of pipe before product entering the conveying line shall be
minimized. In general, the "air only" piping shall be one pipe diameter larger than the
"conveying" piping, unless the pipe run is quite short.
3.7 System capacities as shown in the attached system description sheets are stated as the
average transfer rate which must be realized over the entire transfer period, from start of
the first blower in the system until the lines are cleared of the pellet "dribble" at the end of
the transfer. Transfer quantities for rating purposes will be he complete contents of
storage silos.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 268
PROCESS MANUAL
3.8 Product pick-up velocity shall be 18.4 m/s (3600 FPM) for pellet only systems and 21 m/s
(4100 FPM) for any system handling granules plus or minus 0.5 m/s. After taking into
account air losses through rotary feeder and diverter valve leakages, air terminal
velocities for pellet service shall not exceed 30.5 m/s (6000 FPM) to minimize creation of
fines, streamers and the like.
3.9 For each system a table shall be prepared giving the following process data as a
minimum:
Capacity
Line Size
Pick-up Point(s)
Terminal Point(s)
Product Pick-up Air Velocity (Actual)
Product Pick-up Air Temperature
Terminal Air Velocity (Actual)
Terminal Air Flow (Actual and Standard)
System Pressure Drop (Calculated and Design)
Motor KW Required at Calculated Pressure Drop
Motor KW Provided
3.10 Each conveying System shall be designed such that temperature of the conveying air will
not exceed 50oC (40oC alternate). Coolers shall be provided and shall be designed for
rated air flow and a temperature rise across the blower at its maximum pressure rating at
maximum ambient air temperature. Ambient air conditions and utilities available are
shown on the pneumatic line heat exchanger data sheets.
3.11 All conveying lines and equipment shall be bonded and grounded to dissipate static
electricity. Where flexible connections are used, these shall be "jumpered" with bonded
conductors.
3.12 Control schemes for the various systems will be shown on the Mechanical Flow
Diagrams. In general, when the pick-up point is a storage silo, transfer rate will be
controlled by regulating the slide valve at the silo discharge based on "push" blower
pressure in the pull-push system.
3.13 Filters shall be furnished for all systems under the following general classifications:
Product Dust Filters installed on the intake side of blowers at the terminal end of "pull" or
"vacuum" blowers and on the discharge side of pellet receivers on "push systems, to
remove product dust exhaust to atmosphere.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 269
PROCESS MANUAL
Vacuum System Intake Filters installed at the inlet end of "vacuum" or "pull" systems to
remove air-borne particles from the conveying air.
Line Filters installed at the discharge side of "push" blowers remove air-borne particles
from the conveying air.
Intake Filter Silencers installed at the intake of "push" blowers to remove air-borne
particles from entering the blower and to reduce blower noise levels.
Product Filter-Receivers installed at transfer points from pull systems to push systems to
act as both a receiver and a filter.
Bin and Silo Vent Collector installed on bins and silos to remove product dust from
exhaust air.
3.14 Every effort shall be made to maximize interchangeability of filter bags and elements
throughout the system.
4.0 ENGINEERING
4.1 The basic arrangement of all equipment for each conveying system will be provided by
PURCHASER. Drawings shall show the preferred routing of all air and conveying lines,
pick-up and discharge points and location of major pieces of equipment. These drawings
are intended as the basis of design by the VENDOR. The VENDOR may propose
corrections and/or changes to the general routing and/or equipment shown on the
drawings. Such proposed changes shall be clearly outlined by VENDOR for review and
approval of PURCHASER.
4.2 The successful VENDOR shall submit certified equipment outlines covering equipment
component items offered by the VENDOR for all systems. PURCHASER will then
complete plan and elevation drawings which will then be transmitted to VENDOR.
4.3 The VENDOR shall use these final plans and elevation drawings to establish his design
and layout and fabrication requirements for the ultimate final fabrication and installation
drawings.
4.4 In the event PURCHASER elects to prepare detailed "spool" isometric drawings for
piping systems, these shall be reviewed and approved by VENDOR for full compliance
with his design. These detailed "spool" isometric drawings shall not be released to
VENDOR'S fabricator until they have been checked and signed by the VENDOR.
4.5 If VENDOR is required to prepare the detailed isometric drawings covering all VENDOR
supplied conveying and air lines and other VENDOR supplied equipment piping, these
shall be checked and signed by VENDOR and then submitted to PURCHASER for
review. It shall not be the PURCHASER'S function to check or approve such drawings
and VENDOR shall take responsibility for their accuracy. These "spool" isometrics are
not to be used by VENDOR'S fabricator until they have been reviewed by PURCHASER.
4.6 The specification, design and/or drawing functions performed or to be performed by the
PURCHASER shall not be construed as a means of diminishing the VENDOR's
responsibility for the design engineering, guarantee, fabrication and/or supply of any work
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 270
PROCESS MANUAL
conveying system or components thereof as outlined in this specification. It shall be the

VENDOR's full responsibility to carry out the design of the pneumatic conveying systems
in accordance with this specification.
4.7 PURCHASER's approval will not relieve the VENDOR of his responsibility, i.e., the
VENDOR shall assume full responsibility for compliance with specific codes, inquiry
and/or purchase order terms and conditions; PURCHASER's approval or review conveys
no responsibility for the accuracy of shop dimensions, satisfactory field fit-up and
erection, design and/or compliance with codes. All these remain the full responsibility of
VENDOR.
NOTE: Information covering errors in fabrication, equipment and/or material supply

which are found by the PURCHASER to be in need of correction will be passed on to
VENDOR immediately as they are found during field erection or start-up. The VENDOR
will be required to take corrective measures within 24 hours from the time notification is
received advising disposition of the matter to the satisfaction of the PURCHASER.
Failing action by the VENDOR in the time stipulated, corrective measures will be made
by the PURCHASER with all charges submitted for the VENDOR's account.
5.0 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS
5.1 All equipment and materials of construction shall be in strict accordance with this
specification, referenced specifications, and attached drawings and component sections.
5.2 Metal parts of surfaces in contact with product shall be either aluminum or stainless steel,
except for product material to be discharged to trash bins (see data sheets and isometric
drawings). This includes surfaces which are used in air only piping located downstream
of line filters. No substitution will be permitted unless approved in writing by
PURCHASER. All conveying piping shall be as noted elsewhere in this specification.
5.3 Nonmetallic parts in contact with pellets shall be soft white neoprene, clear plastic which
is compatible with conventional low density polyethylene, or Teflon.
5.4 Except as noted herein and/or in the attached drawings, all storage tanks (supplied by
other's) shall be equipped with an outlet slide valve supplied by pneumatic system
VENDOR. All outlet slide valves shall be required to close and seal tightly against flow of
pellets while conveying systems are operating. Valves shall be set initially for a 10
second duration of stroke in each direction of travel. Those slide valves requiring
positioners to regulate product flow shall be shown on the attached drawings and/or data
sheets.
5.5 Pressure and vacuum relief valves shall be located on the suction and pressure lines of
each system and shall be furnished and mounted by the VENDOR. Valves shall be set
for either maximum pressure rating of the blower or installed motor KW whichever
governs. Valves shall be sized to allow continuous safe operation of blower while valves
are relieving.
5.6 Each vacuum or pull system shall include a tap for a vacuum gage located immediately
upstream of the blower air inlet flange unless noted elsewhere in the drawings. Heavy
duty, vibration resistant vacuum gages with connecting tubing and pulsation snubbers
shall be furnished by VENDOR mounted on a free standing pedestal that is firmly
connected to he blower package base.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 271
PROCESS MANUAL
5.7 Each "push" system shall include a tap for a pressure gage located immediately
downstream of the blower air discharge silencer unless noted otherwise in the drawings.
Heavy duty, vibration resistant pressure gages with connecting tubing and pulsation
snubbers shall be furnished by VENDOR mounted on a free standing pedestal that is
firmly connected to the blower package base. On both the intake and discharge of ALL
blowers or associated piping, a spare 3/8 inch coupling with plug shall be provided.
5.8 In cases where a brass body, vacuum or pressure gage tap, temperature indicator or
thermowell is used, an isolating bushing made of stainless steel shall be used between
the tap or indicator and the screwed coupling welded to the air piping.
5.9 Except as noted elsewhere, instrument connections shall be 1"-3000 pounds forged
aluminum screwed half coupling to alloy 6061-T6. Teflon tape is to be used for thread
compound for SS to aluminum screwed joints.
5.10 Product entry to tanks shall be through "target boxes" supplied by others.
5.11 Aluminum piping and flanges shall be isolated from carbon steel bolting and pipe
supports with stainless steel shims.
5.12 Deleted
5.13 The equipment furnished under this specification shall be designed and fabricated by a
manufacturer regularly engaged in the manufacture of pneumatic conveying systems and
auxiliary equipment.
5.14 VENDOR shall bid equipment similar in mechanical design and detail to equipment
previously designed and constructed by the VENDOR which has demonstrated a
minimum of two (2) years of successful operation in similar service.
6.0 INSPECTION
Materials furnished by the VENDOR shall be subject to inspection, test and/or rejection by
PURCHASER. Any rejection by the inspector shall be final; however, his inspection and
acceptance shall in no way release the VENDOR from guarantee as to materials, workmanship,
performance or compliance with this specification.
7.0 GUARANTEE
VENDOR shall guarantee equipment and piping proposed and/or furnished against defective
design, material and workmanship as specified.
The VENDOR shall be required to guarantee that all pipe, equipment and components of all
systems covered by this specification will be designed and arranged and be of sufficient capacity
and/or size to perform all of the transfers at the conveying rates as defined in Paragraph 3.7.
VENDOR shall guarantee equipment proposed and/or furnished against defective design,
material and workmanship in accordance with the terms of the "Request for Quotation" and/or
"Purchase
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 272
PROCESS MANUAL
Order." In addition, VENDOR shall guarantee the performance of the equipment proposed
and/or furnished with regard to the mechanical design requirements set forth in this specification.
8.0 EXCEPTIONS
Unless specific exceptions are listed under the heading "Exceptions" in the VENDOR's proposal
with a description of proposed substitution or exception, it shall be mutually understood that the
proposal is based on equipment and piping which fully complies with the requirements and intent
of this specification.
9.0 BLOWER PACKAGES
9.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing blowers, inlet filter silencers, and
discharge silencers for dilute phase pneumatic conveying of polyethylene pellets or
granules.
9.2 Service
9.2.1 "Push" type blowers will draw ambient air through intake filters and silencers and
discharge through discharge silencers conveying air to pneumatic conveying
systems.
9.2.2 "Pull" type blowers will draw air from pneumatic conveying systems and
discharge through discharge silencers to atmosphere. Intake silencers shall be
supplied as required to meet noise level of Fluor Specification SP-4682-100-1.
9.3 Design Requirements
Blowers shall be furnished complete, each with its own bed plate or fabricated plate or
cast iron frame as may be the case. The bed plate or frame shall be sized to act as a
common base for the blower, motor silencers and belt or coupling guards. VENDOR
shall mount motor, blower, sheaves, V-belts, silencers coupling and/or belt guards as a
complete assembly unit. See data sheets attached as part of this specification. The
attachment of intake and discharge silencers shall be sufficiently rigid to project blowers
from the effects of piping forces and moments induced by module sea shipping loads,
dead and live loads, wind or seismic loads, thermal expansion loads, and piping
vibrations, etc. Where intake silencers are not furnished on pull type blowers, allowable
piping loads shall be furnished by VENDOR on dimensional outlines, or PURCHASER's
piping flexibility shall be reviewed and approved by VENDOR.
9.4 Mechanical Design
9.4.1 Blowers shall be positive displacement type machines and shall be furnished
complete with sheaves, V-belt drives and belt guards, or direct coupled drive, to
VENDOR's standard. Gear boxes are not preferred and should be avoided if
possible. Blowers that do require direct drive shall be equipped with thrust
bearing(s). For blowers with motors larger than 150 kW (200 H.P), belt drives
shall not be used.
SECTION 8.0
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9.4.2 Blowers shall be designed and rated for continuous operation. Rotors shall be
statically balanced and complete rotor sets shall be dynamically balanced.
Pressure lubrication systems and oil coolers are not preferred and should be
avoided if possible.
9.4.3 All blowers shall be sized so the gear feet per minute shall not exceed 90 percent
of rated maximum and blower r/min shall not exceed 95 percent of rated
maximum conditions.
9.4.4 All blowers shall be equipped with heavy duty seals designed for high
temperature use with intermediate venting to prevent contamination of the air
stream by lubricants, either direct or air-borne. Labyrinth type seals are
acceptable, and mechanical seals should be avoided if possible.
9.4.5 Each vacuum or "pull" system shall include a heavy duty, vibration resistant
vacuum gauge (Ashcroft Duragauge 1279 or equal) and snubber and vacuum
relief valve(s) located immediately upstream of the blower or silencer (if used)
inlet flange.
9.4.6 All blowers shall be timed for service intended.
9.4.7 Vacuum systems shall be equipped with discharge silencers.
9.4.8 Each pressure or "push" system shall include a heavy duty, vibration resistant
pressure gauge (Ashcroft Duragauge 1279 or equal) and snubber, and relief
valve(s) located downstream of the discharge muffler.
9.4.9 Pressure systems shall be equipped with the discharge silencer immediately
downstream from the blower discharge, and the intake filter and silencer
immediately upstream.
9.4.10 Air intake filters, intake silencers, and discharge silencers shall be selected and
sized by the VENDOR to limit blower noise level to conform with Fluor
Specifica-tion SP-4682-100-1, "Noise Limits for Mechanical Equipment."
Acoustical enclosures shall not be utilized to effect sound attenuation. Pulsation
and vibration affects on downstream or upstream equipment shall also be
considered in silencer design. All silencers shall be welded in accordance with
Section 9 of the ASME code.
9.4.11 Intake filters for blower packages shall be replaceable panel/cartridge type.
VENDOR shall describe the filter proposed and specify an efficiency that will
ensure operation of the blowers and system requirements as defined under the
"Guarantee" portion of this specification. VENDOR shall make every effort to
provide intake filters such that the same basic element(s) can be used on all
blower packages to minimize spares inventory. VENDOR shall furnish and
mount a differential pressure indicator (Midwest Instruments or equal) to indicate
pressure drop across the filter media. Also, an additional 3/8 inch coupling with
plug shall be provided on the clean side of the element(s).
9.4.12 All V-belts shall be static conducting.
SECTION 8.0
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9.4.13 All blowers shall have an impact resistant oil level sight glass in an easily viewed
position.
9.4.14 Vacuum and pressure relief valves shall be non-adjustable spring type (Kunkle
or equal) sized to relieve the full volume of the blower. Valve setting shall be set
at the maximum safe continuous value for the blower or the motor, whichever
governs.
9.4.15 Minimum instrumentation for V-belt blowers shall include a high air temperature
switch, pressure or vacuum gages, and on blowers equipped with pressure
lubrication, an oil pressure and temperature indicator and a low oil pressure
switch.
9.4.16 VENDOR shall provide completed PURCHASER instrument data sheets to

PURCHASER for approval prior to instrument ordering.
9.4.17 Drive motors will be furnished by PURCHASER and installed on the base by
VENDOR.
9.4.18 Assemblies furnished under this section shall be equipped with nameplates of
stainless material showing equipment number, design conditions (pressure and
temperature and air volume), test conditions (pressure) and PURCHASER's
drawing number. In addition, PURCHASER's item number shall be stenciled in
38 mm high (1-1/2 inches) black characters for rapid identification.
9.5 Performance Data
For each blower proposed, VENDOR shall furnish complete performance data. As a
minimum, the data shall include graphs showing operating speed versus power required
and operating speed versus inlet capacity (in m3n/hr). For push blowers, these graphs
should show curves for standard inlet conditions and discharge conditions from 0.14 bar
gage (2 psig) to maximum discharge pressure in 0.14 bar (2 psi) increments. For pull
blowers, the graphs should show curves for discharge to standard atmospheric
conditions and inlet conditions from 50 mm Hg (2 inch) vacuum to maximum vacuum in
50 mm Hg (2 inch) increments. VENDOR shall also furnish graphs showing "Slip r/min"
versus discharge pressure for push blowers and "Slip r/min" versus inlet vacuum for pull
blowers. "Slip r/min" is defined as the blower speed required to maintain the pressure
differential across the blower without net air movement through the blowers.
10.0 LINE HEAT EXCHANGERS
10.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing Heat Exchangers for installation in
dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems for polyethylene pellets or granules.
10.2 Service
Heat Exchangers furnished under this specification will be used in pneumatic conveying
systems to cool discharge air from positive displacement blowers and will be located
between blower discharge silencers and line filters. Liquid coolant will be seawater.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 275
PROCESS MANUAL
Heat Exchangers shall be furnished as complete factory assembled units ready for
jobsite installation. See data sheets attached as part of this specification. VENDOR
shall make every effort to minimize the number of differently sized tube bundles to
minimize spares inventory.
10.4.1 Exchanger shells shall be of aluminum or galvanized carbon steel.
10.4.2 Shell covers and tube or coil bundles shall be readily removable without
disconnection of the pneumatic pipe system.
10.4.3 Exchangers shall be equipped with high point air vents and large drain couplings.
10.4.4 Connections 50 mm (2 inch) and larger shall be flanged nozzles. Connections

20 mm (3/4 inch) to 38 mm (1-1/2 inches) shall be permanently weld attached
screwed couplings. No connections shall be smaller than 20 mm (3/4 inch).
10.4.5 Supports for exchangers are required and shall be shop welded. Holes for
anchor bolts shall be slotted on one support to allow for expansion if necessary.
10.4.6 Tube coil shall be hydrostatically tested prior to installation, and shell space shall
be hydrostatically tested after installation of the tube coil. Test shall be based on
not less than 1-1/2 times the operating pressures for both air and water side.
10.4.7 Tubes shall be 90 cu/10 ni or admiralty for seawater service with compatible fins.
Tube diameter and wall thickness shall be indicated by VENDOR. Assume a
fouling factor for seawater of .0004 m2oC/W (.0025 ft2oF hr/btu).
10.4.8 Units shall be constructed per ASME Code. Longitudinal seams shall be spot
checked per UW-52 of ASME Code. A code stamp is not required.
10.4.9 Design water flow velocity shall be 1.22 m/sec minimum and 2.44 m/sec
maximum (4 ft/sec to 8 ft/sec). Discharge air temperature shall not exceed 50oC
(122oF), with an alternate design using 40oC (104oF).
10.4.10 Air outlet and inlet nozzles shall be equipped with high quality vibration and
impact resistant air temperature indicators, with stem lengths that protrude into
the air piping half of the pipe diameter.
10.4.11 Side inlet and outlet nozzles of cooler tubes 2 inches and larger shall be
equipped with one X 1 inch and one X 3/4 inch - 3000 pounds forged steel full
coupling for temperature and pressure sensor connections.
10.4.12 In cases where a brass body, vacuum or pressure gauge, temperature indicator
or thermowell is used, an isolating bushing made of stainless steel shall be used
between the gauge or indicator and the aluminum screwed coupling welded to
the air piping.
SECTION 8.0
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PROCESS MANUAL
10.4.13 Assemblies furnished under this specification shall be equipped with nameplates
of stainless material showing item number, drawing number, design conditions
(pressure and temperature) and test conditions (pressure). In addition, drawing
number shall be stenciled in 38 mm (1-1/2 inches) high black characters for rapid
identification.
10.4.14 VENDOR shall furnish two 3/8 inch pipe couplings with plugs in the air ducting,
one on each side of the cooling tube bundle.
11.0 LINE FILTERS
11.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing Pneumatic Line Filters for installation
in dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems for polyethylene pellets or granules.
11.2 Service
The Line Filters will be used to remove air-borne particles in pneumatic conveying
systems and will be installed on the discharge side of the "push" blowers.
11.3.1 Line Filters shall employ sufficient effective filtration area so that pressure drop
shall not exceed 64 mm (2-1/2 inches) water column.
11.3.2 Filters shall be 100 percent efficient for removal of air-borne particles of
5 microns and larger.
11.3.3 All filters of this type shall be designed to use the same size and type of dust
bags. See data sheets attached as part of this specification-
11.4.1 Metallic parts of filters in direct contact with air shall be of aluminum or type 300
series stainless steel.
11.4.2 Filters shall be of all welded construction.
11.4.3 Inlet flanges shall be located on the side of the filter body. Outlet flanges shall
be centrally located at the top of the filter body.
11.4.4 Filters shall be equipped with a VENDOR's standard diameter cleanout, centrally
located at bottom of filter. No shaker or backwash device is required.
11.4.5 Bag collars shall be welded to tube sheets and tube sheets shall be welded to
housings.
SECTION 8.0
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PROCESS MANUAL
11.4.6 Filters shall be equipped with not less than two (2) pressure tight, hinged
man-way doors located 90o to inlet flange.
11.4.7 Air flow velocity across filter bags shall not exceed 2.43 m/min (8 ft/min).
11.4.8 Filter material shall be continuous multifilament dacron polyester and shall
conform to the following:
Weight: 105 gm/m2 (4.7 oz/yd2)
Thread Count: 72 x 60 (ends/picks)
Weave: 3 x 1 twill
Air Permeability: 0.12 m3/sec-m2 @ 12 mm H2O

(24 ft /min/ft2 @ 0.5" H2O)
3
11.4.9 Construction of filter bags shall be such that no raw edges are exposed to the
product carrying air stream. All bag attachments to support brackets shall be
made by using polypropylene sash cord completely enclosed by covering seam
of the bag material. All sewing thread shall be of continuous monofilament
dacron or equal.
11.4.10 Item numbers as shown on data sheets shall be stamped on nameplates and
stenciled in 38 mm (1-1/2 inches) high black characters on filter bodies.
11.4.11 Design and construction of tube sheets and other internals shall be of sufficient
strength to withstand a pressure drop equal to maximum blower discharge
pressure.
11.4.12 An internal screen or grate shall be provided on the clean air outlet pipe to
prevent bags that may come loose from entering the conveying system.
11.4.13 VENDOR shall furnish and mount a differential pressure indicator (Midwest
Instruments or equal) to indicate pressure drop across the filter media. Also,
additional 3/8 inch pipe couplings with plugs shall be provided, one on each side
of the element.
11.5 Shop Test and Assembly
11.5.1 All filter units shall be individually tested for air leakage at 15 psig.
11.5.2 The line filters shall be thoroughly cleaned and free of grease, weld spatter,
scale, rust and any other foreign material.
12.0 ROTARY FEEDERS
12.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing Rotary Feeders to be installed in
dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems for polyethylene pellets or granules.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 278
PROCESS MANUAL
12.2 Service
The Rotary Feeders will be used to feed polyethylene product into pneumatic conveying
systems and gravity chutes, and to discharge collected fines and streamers into waste
containers.
12.3.1 Feeders shall be of the rotary lock drop through type with flanged inlet and outlet
per data sheet attached.
12.3.2 Differential pressure across the feeders shall be limited to one bar (15 lbs/in2).
12.3.3 Every effort shall be made to minimize the number of different sized feeders. All
feeders for discharging waste material shall be the same size.
12.4.1 Metallic parts of feeders in direct contact with product shall be of machined cast
aluminum or 300 series stainless steel fabrication. Nonmetallic parts in direct
contact with product shall be of Teflon. For feeders discharging to trash bins,
standard packing and iron/steel construction shall be supplied (see data sheets).
12.4.2 Feeder housing shall be stainless steel for product, cast iron for waste (see data
sheets), and shall be ribbed from flange to flange, and shall have motor base
support lugs as an integral part to permit the mounting of the gear motor base
directly to the unit.
12.4.3 Rotors shall be stainless steel for product, carbon steel for waste (see data
sheets), open end type (gussets are acceptable), and shall have not less than a
total of four (4) vanes in contact with the seal between inlet and outlet. Rotor
blade tips for all feeders shall be relieved on all three sides.
12.4.4 Rotors for product and waste shall be tipped with approximately 2.5 mm (0.10
inch) of Ampco Bronze.
12.4.5 Rotor speeds shall not exceed 20 r/min. For variable speed units, speed at
normal rate shall not exceed 20 r/min. For calculating feeder speed, assume
that the feeder pockets are only 65 percent full.
12.4.6 Feeder end plates shall be aluminum for product, cast iron for waste. All
aluminum headplates shall have purge air taps wish lantern rings and
interconnecting piping between both headplates.
12.4.7 Both end plates shall be drilled, tapped and plugged with 25 mm (1 inch)
diameter holes to permit checking rotor clearance.
12.4.8 Maximum clearance between rotor tips and housing I.D. shall be 150 microns
(0.006 inch).
SECTION 8.0
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PROCESS MANUAL
12.4.9 For product rotor bearings shall be outboard of the stuffing boxes. Stuffing
boxes shall be lubricant free type. For waste, bearings shall be mounted in the
headplates with standard packing material (see data sheets).
12.4.10 Feeders with outboard bearings shall have "Drop-Outs" between rotor shroud
and end cover.
12.4.11 Feeder inlets shall be "raked" to minimize shearing of product. Pellet adaptors
are not acceptable.
12.4.12 All stainless steel feeders used in pneumatic conveying systems shall be
supplied with a vent port(s). If specified on a data sheet, a continuous filter sized
for the maximum expected leakage at maximum allowable rotor to housing wear
shall be included. Feeders discharging to waste do not require a vent (see data
sheets).
12.4.13 All internal surfaces shall be free of projections (such as welds) that would tend
to create agglomerates.
12.4.14 Feeders shall be complete with drive gearmotor, chain drive, and guard allowing
visual inspection of the drive without removing the guard.
12.4.15 When specified on data sheets, safety switches (centrifugal type) shall be
provided mounted on the feeder shaft to shutdown other components. The
motion switch shall be single pole double throw with 5 amperes (resistive)
contact rating, and meet electrical area requirements specified in data sheets.
The contacts are to be normally open and switching point shall be fully
adjustable. Complete specifications and adjustment procedure shall be provided
in the data package.
12.4.16 Drive gearmotors shall be rated at least 10 percent above the required KW and
in no circumstance shall motors less than 0.37 KW (l/2 HP) be accepted.
12.4.17 Feeders shall be equipped with nameplates of stainless material. Equipment tag
item numbers shall be stenciled in 38 mm (1-1/'2 inches) high black characters.
12.5.1 Feeders shall be individually shop test run at not less than 1 bar gage (15 psig).
12.5.2 Feeders shall be individually tested for air leakage.
12.5.3 Test results shall be recorded on nameplates. (Leak rate at 1 bar gage
(15 psig)).
12.5.4 The Rotary Feeders and all related equipment shall be thoroughly cleaned and
free of grease, weld spatter, scale, rust, and any other foreign material.
SECTION 8.0
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PROCESS MANUAL
13.0 DIVERTER VALVES
13.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing pneumatically operated diverter
valves for installation in dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems for polyethylene
pellets or granules.
13.2 Service
Valves will be used to divert the flow of polyethylene pellets and granules in a pneumatic
conveying system.
Diverter valves shall be plug or tunnel type with quick acting operators and flange line
connections.
13.4.1 Metallic parts of diverter valves in direct contact with product shall be of
aluminum or 300 series stainless steel fabrication. Nonmetallic parts in direct
contact with product shall be of white neoprene or of teflon.
13.4.2 Valve bodies, end plates and plug type valves shall be of aluminum. VENDOR
shall furnish "oilite" bronze bushings (plug bearings). Product shall be prevented
from direct contact with bronze bushings by the use of closure seals fabricated of
teflon or equal material.
13.4.3 Clearance between O.D. of plug and I.D. of valve body shall be subject to
PURCHASER's approval. In general the clearance shall be 150 micron (0.006
inch) but shall vary with size.
13.4.4 Valves shall be furnished complete with cushioned type pneumatic operators,
adjustable speed control valves, mounting plate, air pressure regulators,
lubricators and filters.
13.4.5 Solenoid valves furnished as part of the diverter valves shall be double acting,
momentary contact type, with epoxy encapsulated continuous duty coils and
conduit connection box. Solenoid shall be pre-wired in to the junction box of
Paragraph 13.4.6.
13.4.6 Limit switches shall be proximity type. VENDOR shall furnish complete control
wiring and conduit to a junction box mounted on valve body.
13.4.7 All electrical and control components shall meet area classification of Class II,
Group G, Division 2.
13.4.8 Diverter valves shall be actuated by way of steel rack and spur gearing, or Bettis
operator or equivalent. In the event of a power failure or air pressure loss, no
change in valve position shall occur.
SECTION 8.0
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13.4.9 VENDOR shall physically mark or stamp each valve to indicate the direction or
position of the plug (eq. "S") with an arrow indicating the position of the plug and
that flow is straight-through and ("D") with an arrow indicating the position of the
plug and that flow is diverted to the branch line. In either case, the direction of
the diverter valve rack extension shall be related to the directional arrow.
13.4.10 Diverter valves shall be designed to prevent "pocketing" or trapping of product

while systems are operating and at time of system shutdown.
13.5.1 Complete valve assemblies shall be shop tested for total leakage, leakage
across valve and for functional operation. Leakage tests shall be carried out at 1
bar gage (15 psig).
Results of leakage tests shall be recorded on nameplate.
13.5.2 VENDOR shall furnish valves complete with nameplates of stainless material.
Item numbers shall be stenciled in black 38 mm (1-1/2 inches) high characters.
14.0 PRODUCT RECEIVERS
14.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing Product Receivers (Cyclones) to be
installed in dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems for polyethylene pellets and
granules.
14.2 Service
Vacuum type Product Receivers will be installed in vacuum conveying systems and will
separate product pellets from conveying air. Product will be transferred by way of a
rotary feeder to pressure conveying systems. Conveying air, dust, fines, etc., will be
exhausted to remote bag filters with ultimate air discharge to atmosphere through
positive displacement blowers.
Pressure type Product Receivers will be installed at the terminal end of pressure
conveying systems and will separate product pellets and granules from conveying air.
Product will be transferred by way of a rotary feeder. Conveying air and entrained dust,
fines, etc., will be exhausted to a bag filter.
Product receivers shall be designed to cyclonically separate the product and conveying
air/fines. Cyclone receivers shall be designed to handle both pellets and granules and
shall have a product discharge flange designed to bolt directly to a rotary valve.
14.4.1 Metallic parts of receivers in direct contact with the product shall be aluminum or
300 series stainless steel.
SECTION 8.0
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14.4.2 Receivers shall be cylindrical with a 60o cone bottom designed so that product
discharge connections shall fit directly on the flange of a rotary feeder without the
use of a transition piece.
14.4.3 Receivers shall be constructed for the design pressure of one bar gage for
pressure service and 250 mm Hg for vacuum service.
14.4.4 Internal design of each item shall be free of projections, welds, etc., that would
tend to create agglomerates.
14.4.5 Internal surfaces of receivers and separators, which are contacted by product,
shall be "treated" by sandblasting to reduce creation of floss.
14.4.6 All receivers and shall have only one (1) product inlet connection. A connection
point for a PURCHASER supplied level device must be supplied complete with a
baffle or other suitable device to prevent nuisance tripping of the level indicator.
14.4.7 Receivers shall be equipped with nameplates of stainless material. Item

Numbers shall be clearly stamped thereon. In addition, Item Numbers shall be
stenciled in 38 mm (1-1/2 inches) high black characters.
14.5.1 For pressure service, receivers shall be individually tested for leaks at not less
than 1 bar gage (15 psig) internal air pressure, checking for leaks with a solution
of soap and water. For vacuum service, receivers shall be individually tested at
a vacuum of 250 mm (20 inches) mercury column.
15.0 KNIFE GATE VALVES
15.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing pneumatically operated Knife Gate
Valves for installation at storage bin discharge points.
15.2 Service
Knife Gate Valves will be used to control the flow of product material from bins to
pneumatic conveying systems.
In the fully closed position, valves must isolate the conveyor systems during bin
washdown to prevent the ingress of air, dirt or water.
See data sheets attached as part of this specification.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 283
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15.4.1 Metallic parts of valves in direct contact with product shall be of machined cast
aluminum or type 304 stainless steel fabrication. Nonmetallic parts in direct
contact with product shall be of teflon or as specified.
15.4.2 Valves shall have manufacturer's standard flanged inlets and outlets.
15.4.3 Valve gates shall be of type 304 stainless steel.
15.4.4 Gland packing shall be square braided asbestos, teflon impregnated, and glands
shall be of cast machined aluminum.
15.4.5 Shaft bearings shall be flanged nylon.
15.4.6 Limit switches shall be proximity type. VENDOR shall furnish complete control
wiring and conduit to a junction box mounted on valve body.
15.4.7 Solenoid valves furnished as part of the Knife Gate Valves shall be single
solenoid four way valves with epoxy encapsulated continuous duty coils and
conduit connection box. Solenoid shall be pre-wired to the junction box of
Paragraph 15.4.6.
15.4.8 Pneumatic cylinders shall be heavy duty, double acting, fully adjustable from 0 to
full stroke length, with cushion control at rod ends.
15.4.9 VENDOR shall furnish valves complete with speed control. Valves shall be set
initially for a ten (10) second full stroke in each direction.
15.4.10 Valves shall be electrically complete, and equipped with "fail-safe" mechanisms
to close valves in the event of power or air failure. All auxiliary air tanks,
pressure sensors, etc., that make up a complete unit shall be supplied.
15.4.11 Valves that must also function as flow metering devices shall be equipped with
infinitely adjustable Bailey type positioners supplied with pressure gages for
remote stroke adjustment control (input signal will be 0.2 to 1.0 barg) so that
stroke may be limited from fully closed to any designated opening.
15.4.12 500 micron thick (20 mil) polyethylene film shall be fitted between aluminum and
mounted dissimilar metals.
15.4.13 Valves shall be equipped with nameplates of stainless material, 50 mm x 75 mm

(2" x 3"). Item numbers shall be stencilled in 38 mm (1-1/2") high black
characters.
15.4.14 Knife Gate valves shall be electrically connected by VENDOR to a single junction
box mounted on valve unit. Electrical components shall meet area classification
of Class II, Group G, Division 2.
SECTION 8.0
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15.5.1 Complete valve assemblies shall be shop tested for functional operation. The
"fail-safe" closing feature on valves so equipped shall also be shop tested and
operation verified for both air and power loss conditions.
15.5.2 The Knife Gate valves and all related equipment shall be thoroughly cleaned and
free of grease, weld spatter, scale, rust and any other foreign material.
16.0 BIN AND SILO VENT COLLECTOR
16.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for dust collectors which will be used for bin and
silo vent dust collection.
16.2 Service
The filters will separate pneumatic conveying air from dust, fines, and streamers created
by pneumatic conveying of polyethylene pellets and granules.
16.3.1 The dust collector furnished under this specification shall be continuous duty
fabric type, equipped with a reverse et cleaning system. All filters of this type
shall use the same size and type of dust bag. The dust collector shall be
designed for continuous 24 hours per day operation.
16.3.2 Clean pressure drop shall not exceed 50 mm (2 inches) water column.
16.3.3 The particulate emission shall not exceed 3.1 grain per dry normal cubic meter of
air.
16.4 Dust Characteristics
Material: Polyethylene Dust*
Bulk Density: 30 to 60 kg/m3 (1.9 to 3.8 lbs/ft3)
Particle Density: 0.92 g/cm3
Angle of Repose: 65o to 75o from Horizontal
Temperature: 43oC (110oF) maximum
Properties: Light chips and shavings, sluggish flowability, slightly

cohesive, generates static electricity.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 285
PROCESS MANUAL
Typical Particle Size Distribution:
Screen Analysis WT %
+20 Mesh 6*
-20 +30 Mesh 5
-30 +60 Mesh 45
-60 +100 Mesh 17
-100 +140 Mesh 10
-140 +200 Mesh 12
-200 Mesh 5
*Contains varying amounts of streamers (Angel Hair).
16.5.1 Dust collector design shall be suitable for dust tight or operation and outdoor
installation.
16.5.2 The plenum, housing, and hopper sections shall be aluminum. The bag retainers
shall be type 304 stainless steel. All gasketing shall be white neoprene.
16.5.3 The dust collector shall be designed for continuous operation with automatic
reverse jet bag cleaning devices. VENDOR furnished items shall include
diaphragm valves, solenoid valves, timer, air header and surge tank, and
compressed air shutoff valve.
16.5.4 Filter media shall be 16 ounce polypropylene felt with hi-gloss finish and
complete with stainless steel ground wires for the elimination of electrostatic
charge buildup. Bags shall be equipped with type 304 stainless steel quick
disconnect clamps.
16.5.5 If required for maintenance, the VENDOR shall furnish a service platform and
supports.
16.5.6 Dust tight hinged access door as required for general inspection, maintenance,
and bag replacement shall be furnished by VENDOR.
Instruments or equal) to indicate pressure drop across the filter media. Also, an
additional 3/8 inch pipe coupling with plug shall be provided on the filter body.
16.5.8 Each unit shall be equipped with grounding wire to ground the bags to prevent
the buildup of electrostatic charges.
16.5.9 The dust collector shall be of factory welded construction with a full size bolting
flange for direct connection to the bin or silo. The air outlet shall be located in
the top or roof of the dust collector and equipped with a weather hood and bird
screen.
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16.5.10 A safety grate shall be included just below the bags to prevent personnel, tools,
bags, etc., from falling into the bin or silo.
16.6 Shop Tests and Assembly
Completed filter unit shall be shop tested to verify timer and solenoid valve operation.
17.0 PRODUCT DUST FILTERS
17.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing Product Dust Filters to be installed in
dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems for polyethylene pellets and granules.
17.2 Service
Filters will be installed on the intake side of vacuum blowers at the terminal end of "Pull"
conveying systems or on the discharge side of Pellet Receivers of "Push" conveying
systems.
Filters will remove product dust from conveying air, prior to air entering the blower on
"Pull" systems and prior to air discharge to atmosphere on "Push" systems.
The discharge of collected material will be through a rotary air lock to a trash bin.
17.3.1 Filters shall be bag type, equipped with reverse air jet cleaning system. All filters
of this type shall use the same size and type of dust bag.
17.3.2 The dust collector shall be designed for continuous 24 hours per day operation.
17.3.3 Filters shall employ sufficient effective filtration area so that clean pressure drop
will not exceed 50 mm (2 inches) water column.
air.
Material Classification: Polyethylene Dust
Particle Density: 0.92 g/cm3 2 percent
Properties: Free flowing, granular slightly cohesive
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 287
PROCESS MANUAL
Temperature Local Ambient
Retained On WT %
20 Mesh 13.9
30 Mesh 22.7
60 Mesh 64.0
100 Mesh 82.0
140 Mesh 93.2
200 Mesh 98.8
17.5.1 Metallic parts of filters may be of epoxy coated carbon steel.
17.5.2 Filter shall be provided with "dust-tight" flanges and shall be equipped with a
suitable rotary discharge valve designed to act as an air lock and also to control
the dust discharge from the collector. Dust discharge valves shall be flanged
and designed for bolting directly to the discharge connection on the hopper.
Discharge side of valves shall not be less than 1060 mm (42 inches) from ground
level. The clear space between support members shall be least 1 m (39 inches).
17.5.3 Outlets shall be centrally located on top of housing.
17.5.4 A minimum of two (2) manway doors shall be provided.
17.5.5 Filters shall be shall be clearly. Numbers shall be black characters provided with
nameplates and Item Numbers stamped thereon. In addition, Item stenciled in
38 mm (1-1/2 inches) high on filter bodies.
diaphragm valves, solenoid valves, timer, air header and surge tank and
housing. Tube plate "pinched" between flanges is an acceptable alternative.
17.5.8 Filter material shall be polyester twill and shall conform to the following:
Weight: 224 gm/m2 (10 oz/yd2)
Weave: 3/1 twill
Air Permeability: 0.127 m3/sec-m2 (25 SCFM/ft2)
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 288
PROCESS MANUAL
17.5.9 Construction of filter bags shall be such that no raw edges are exposed to the air
stream. All bag attachments to support brackets shall be made by using
polypropylene sash cord completely enclosed by a covering seam of the bag
material. All sewing thread shall be of continuous monofilament "Dacron" or
equal.
17.5.10 Design and construction of tube sheet and other internals shall be of sufficient
strength to withstand a pressure drop equal to maximum blower suction vacuum
in the event of blockage of the tube sheet.
the buildup of electrostatic charges. A rupture disc or similar explosion relief
device is required.
Instruments or equal) to indicate pressure differential across the media. Also,
additional 3/8 inch pipe couplings with plugs shall be provided one on each side
of the element.
17.6.1 For pressure service, filters shall be individually tested for leaks at not less than
1 bar gage (15 psig) internal air pressure, checking for leaks with a solution of
soap and water. For vacuum service, filters shall be individually tested at a
vacuum of 250 mm. (20 inches) mercury column.
17.6.2 Results of above shop tests shall be recorded on nameplate
17.6.3 Filters shall be thoroughly cleaned and free of grease, weld spatter, scale, rust
and any other foreign material.
18.0 VACUUM SYSTEM INTAKE FILTERS
18.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing Vacuum System Intake Filters for
installation in dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems for polyethylene pellets or
granules.
18.2 Service
The Intake Filters will be used to remove air-borne particles from supply air at the inlet
end of the vacuum pneumatic conveying pipe systems.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 289
PROCESS MANUAL
shall not exceed 50 mm (2 inches) water column.
18.3.2 Filters shall be 100 percent efficient for removal of air-borne particles of
5 microns and larger.
18.3.3 All filters of this type shall use the same size and type of dust bag.
18.4.1 Metallic parts of filters in direct contact with air shall be of aluminum or
300 series stainless steel. Shell thickness shall be not less than 5 mm
(3/16 inch).
18.4.2 Filters shall be of all welded construction.
18.4.3 Inlets shall be fitted with aluminum bird screens.
18.4.4 Outlet connection shall be located near the top of the filter.
housings.
18.4.6 Filters shall be equipped with not less than two (2) quick opening manway doors.
18.4.7 Air flow velocity across filters shall not exceed 2.43 m/min (8 ft/min).
18.4.8 Filter material shall be continuous multifilament dacron polyester fiber and shall
conform to the following:
Weight: 105 gm/m2 (4.7 oz/yd2)
Weave: 3/1 twill
Air Permeability: 0.35 m3/sec-m2 @ 12 mm water column;

(70 SCFM/ft2 @ 0.5 inch)
material. All sewing thread shall be of continuous monofilament dacron or equal.
18.4.10 No shaker or backwash device is required.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 290
PROCESS MANUAL
18.4.11 Filters shall be equipped with nameplates of stainless material. Item Numbers,
test condition, etc., shall be stamped thereon. In addition, Item Numbers shall be
stenciled in 38 mm (1-1/2 inches) high black characters.
18.4.12 Design and construction of the tube sheet and other internals shall be of
sufficient strength to withstand a pressure drop equal to maximum blower suction
vacuum in the event of blockage of the tube sheet.
18.4.13 An internal screen or grate shall be provided on the clean air outlet pipe to
prevent bags that may come loose from entering the pneumatic conveying
systems.
Instruments or equal) to indicate pressure drop across the filter media. Also, an
additional 3/8 inch pipe coupling with plug shall be provided on the clean side of
the filter.
18.5.1 Filters shall be individually inspected to verify the mechanical design and
assembly.
18.5.2 All filters shall be individually tested for air leakage and vacuum tested to 250
mm (20 inches absolute pressure) mercury column.
18.5.3 The intake filters shall be thoroughly cleaned and free from grease, weld spatter,
scale, rust and any other foreign material.
19.0 PRODUCT FILTER-RECEIVERS
19.1 Scope
This section covers the requirements for furnishing Product Filter Receivers to be
installed in dilute phase pneumatic conveying systems for polyethylene pellets and
granules.
19.2 Service
Filter-Receivers will be installed at the transfer point from vacuum conveying systems to
pressure conveying systems.
Filter-Receivers will remove product dust from conveying air, and act as a transfer point
from vacuum to pressure systems. Product inlet pipe shall tangentially enter the
receiver.
The discharge of collected material will be through a rotary air lock to a pressure
conveying system.
19.3.1 Filters shall be bag type, equipped with reverse air let cleaning system. All filters
of this type shall use the same size and type of dust bag.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 291
PROCESS MANUAL
19.3.2 The dust collector shall be designed for continuous 24 hours per day operation.
will not exceed 50 mm (2 inches) water column.
19.3.4 Internal design of each receiver shall be free of projections, welds, etc., that
would tend to create agglomerates. Surfaces which will contact the product shall
be sandblasted to reduce the creation of floss.
air.
Material Classification: Polyethylene Dust
Particle Density: 0.92 g/cm3 2 percent
Properties: Free flowing, granular slightly cohesive
Temperature: Local Ambient
Retained On WT %
20 Mesh 13.9
30 Mesh 22.7
60 Mesh 64.0
100 Mesh 82.0
140 Mesh 93.2
200 Mesh 98.8
19.5.1 Metallic parts of filters shall be of aluminum or 300 series stainless steel.
19.5.2 Filter shall be provided with "dust-tight" flanges and shall be equipped with a
suitable rotary feeder valve. Rotary feeders shall be flanged and designed for
bolting directly to the discharge connection on the hopper.
19.5.3 Outlets shall be centrally located on top of housing.
19.5.4 A minimum of two (2) manway doors shall be provided.
19.5.5 Filters shall be provided with nameplates and Item Numbers shall be clearly
stamped thereon. In addition, Item Numbers shall be stenciled in 38 mm (1-1/2
inches) high black characters on filter bodies.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 292
PROCESS MANUAL
diaphragm valves, solenoid valves, timer, air header and surge tank and
housing. Tube plate "pinched" between flanges is an acceptable alternative.
19.5.8 Filter material shall be polyester twill and shall conform to the following:
Weight: 224 gm/m2 (10 oz/yd2)
Weave: 3/1 twill
Air Permeability: 0.127 m3/sec-m2 (25 SCFM/ft2)
material. All sewing thread shall be of continuous monofilament "Dacron" or
equal.
19.5.10 Design and construction of tube sheet and other internals shall be of sufficient
strength to withstand a pressure drop equal to maximum blower suction vacuum
in the event of blockage of the tube sheet.
the buildup of electrostatic charges. A rupture disc or similar explosion relief
device is required.
Instruments or equal) to indicate pressure differential across the media. Also,
additional 3/8 inch pipe couplings with plugs shall be provided one on each side
of the element.
19.6.1 For vacuum service, filters shall be individually tested at a vacuum of 250 mm
(20 inches absolute pressure) mercury column.
19.6.2 Results of above shop tests shall be recorded on nameplate.
19.6.3 Filters shall be thoroughly cleaned and free of grease, weld spatter, scale, rust
and any other foreign material.
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 293
PROCESS MANUAL
8.8 INDEXES TO FIGURES AND TABLES (NARRATIVE AND APPENDICES)
8.8.1 Index of Figures
Figure No. Title

8-1 Vertical Conveying Phase Diagram
8-2 Choking Velocity Phenomena
8-3 Schematic of Solid Build-Up From Dilute to Dense Phase
8-4 Horizontal Conveying Phase Diagram
8-4A Flow Regimes and Pressure Drop for Horizontal and Vertical Pipelines
8-4B Modes of Cocurrent Gas-Solids Flow in Horizontal Pipes
8-5(a) Dilute Phase Flow at Velocities Slightly Above the Conveying Velocity
8-5(b) Flow at Higher Velocities Where Particles have Formed a Uniform
Suspension
8-6 Positive Low Pressure System (2 to 15 psig)
8-7 Vacuum System
8-8 "Pull-Push" Conveying, One Prime Mover
8-8A "Pull-Push" Conveying System, Vacuum/Pressure with One Prime Mover
8-9 "Pull-Push" Conveying, Two Prime Movers
8-9A "Pull-Push" Conveying System, Vacuum/Pressure with Two Prime Movers
8-10 Dense Phase System Transport Mechanism at Low Velocity
8-11 Single Plug Blow Tank
8-12 Material Flowrate Against Time for a Single Plug Blow Tank System
8-13 Air Supply Proportioned Between the Fluidizing and Supplementary Air
Lines to Improve Control
8-14 Top Discharge Blow Tank Showing Internal Discharge Pipe Positioned
Above Fluidizing Membrane
8-15 Dense Phase ("Air Knife") System, Divides the Stream Into Discrete Plugs
8-16 Plug Prevention with Injection of Secondary Air
8-17 Plug Elimination Using Bypassing Air
8-18 Plug Prevention by Controlled Secondary Air
8-19 Parallel Blow Tanks
8-20 Continuous Blow Tank Operation with Two Pressure Tanks In Line Beneath
a Supply Hopper
8-21A Screw Feeder with Air Jet
8-21B Air-Swept Double Entry Rotary Feeder
8-22A System Design and Selection
8-22B System Design and Selection
8-22C System Design and Selection
8-22D System Design and Selection
8-22E System Design and Selection
8-22F Design Conditions for Conveying Various Solids Materials
8-23 Conveying Characteristics for Cement Conveyed through a Pipeline 50 m
Long, 75 mm Diameter, Having a Total of Nine Bends at 90 Degrees
8-24 Experimental Determination of Minimum Conveying Conditions for Cement
Conveyed through a Pipeline 100 m Long, 50 mm Diameter, Having a Total
of 17 Bends
8-25 Algorithm for Pneumatic Conveying System Design Based on the Use of
Test Data
8-26 Algorithm for Pneumatic Conveying System Rating Based on Use of Test
Data
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 294
PROCESS MANUAL
Figure No.
Title
8-27 Influence of Pipeline Bends Expressed as Equivalent Length of Straight
Horizontal Pipeline
8-28 Approximate Operating Pressure Ranges for Conveying Line Feeding
Devices
8-29 Comparison of Material Flowrate Versus Conveying Distance for Different
Types of Feeder
8-30 Rotary Valve
8-31(a) Off-Site Valve
8-31(b) Blow Through Valve
8-32 Gate-Lock Valve
8-33 Suction Nozzle, Used in Negative Pressure Systems Where only the Top
Surface of the Material is Accessible
8-34 The Range of Air Movers Commonly Used in Pneumatic Conveying
8-35 Air Mover Operating Characteristics
8-36 Particle Size Distribution Before and After Conveying
8-37A Nomograph for Determining Vent Areas Based on ST Classification
[VDI (1979)]: PSTAT =
0.1 barg.
8-37B ibid 0.2
barg.
8-37C ibid 0.5
barg.
8-38A Nomograph for Determining Vent Areas Based on KST Values
[VDI (1979)]: PSTAT = 0.1
barg.
8-38B ibid 0.2
barg.
8-38C ibid 0.5
barg.
8-39 Method of Using Nomographs
8-40 An Example of the Comparison of Vent Areas Determined From ST and KST
Nomographs
8-41 The Effect of Vent Ducts on the Pressure in a Vented Vessel [VDI (1979)]
8-42 Vent on Top of Cyclone
8-43 Vent on Top of Cyclone Vortex Tube
APPENDICES
8-44 Dilute Phase Conveying Velocities
8-45 Shortcut Method Pressure Drop Chart
8-46 Pressure Drop for Solids Reacceleration in Pneumatic Conveying Through
90 Elbows in Horizontal-to-Vertical Flow
8-47 ICI/Warren Spring and Surface Tension Particle Classification Systems for
Conveyability (Curves based on ambient air for motive gas)
8-48 Superficial Velocity vs. Particle Diameter. Definition of the Constant "C" in
Equation 1
8-49 Graphical Solution of ICI/Warren Springs Pressure Drop Equation
8-50 Minimum Air Rates for Conveying Powders and Granular Solids
SECTION 8.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 295
PROCESS MANUAL
8.8.2 Index of Tables
Table No. Title

8-1 Guidelines for the Selection of Material Feeders
8-2 Air Leakage Through Fuller Rotary Valves
8-3 Air Movers for Positive Pressure Systems
8-4 Air Movers for Vacuum Systems
8-5 Dust Explosion Data
8-6 Vent Ratio Data - Small Vessels
8-7 Vent Ratio Data - Large Vessels
8-8 Relative Merits of Inert Gases
APPENDICES
8-9A Typical Solids Loading in Pneumatic Transfer Lines
8-9B Conveying Distance versus Average Velocity
8-10 Standard Pipe Dimensions
8-11 Bulk Solid Material Characteristics (Coefficients of Friction for Various
Materials Sliding on Steel) (Appendix 9)
8-12 Angle of Repose for Various Bulk Materials (Appendix 10)
8-13 Dilute Phase Conveying Velocities for Various Materials
8-14 Dense Phase Conveying Velocity for Various Materials
8-15 U.S. Sieve Series
8-16 Tyler Standard Screens
8-17 I.M.M. Screens
8-18 British Standard Sieves

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SECTION TOC

FLUOR DANIEL PIPING HYDRAULICS AND SPECIFICATION

2.0 PIPE SIZING AND SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES

3.0 SINGLE PHASE FLOW

4.0 TWO-PHASE (GAS-LIQUID) FLOW

5.0 THREE-PHASE (GAS-LIQUID-SOLID) FLOW

6.0 NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID FLOW

7.0 SLURRY (LIQUID-SOLID) FLOW

7.2 TEST DATA REQUIRED

8.0 PNEUMATIC CONVEYING - SEPARATE COVER

8.5.3 Sizing of Vents - Basic Methods

8.0 PNEUMATIC CONVEYING

Pneumatic Conveying vs. Mechanical Systems

Advantages over Mechanical

Fewer moving parts

Dense Phase vs. Dilute Phase

Advantages of Dense Over Dilute Phase

Reduced wear from abrasive products

Requires multiple systems for multiple pickups

Pneumatic conveying systems have a variety of applications including unloading of

8.2 GAS-SOLIDS FLOW THEORY

An appreciation of the nature of two-phase gas-solid flow within an enclosed duct

There is a distinct difference in the flow and transport characteristics of gas-solid

8.2.2 Vertical Upward Flow

The phase diagram in vertical conveying is illustrated in Figure 8-1. It consists of

VERTICAL CONVEYING PHASE DIAGRAM

Moving Bed Flow - The product is transported upwards as a packed

As the suspension density increases, the distance between particles decreases.

8.2.3 Horizontal Flow

Consider first a simple situation involving conveying a relatively coarse material

CHOKING VELOCITY PHENOMENA

SCHEMATIC OF SOLID BUILD-UP FROM DILUTE TO DENSE PHASE

MODES OF COCURRENT GAS-SOLIDS FLOW IN HORIZONTAL PIPES

HORIZONTAL CONVEYING PHASE DIAGRAM

As applicable to pneumatic conveying, the effective single particle saltation

a. The minimum velocity needed to move the particle, though without

b. The minimum velocity required to transport a particle by rolling or

c. The minimum velocity required to transport an injected particle, without

d. The minimum velocity required to pick up a particle from rest on the

e. The minimum velocity required to pick up a particle from a layer of

f. Conditions a to e correspond to increasing velocities in that order.

The factor of 2 - 2 between criteria c and e is in agreement with

8.2.4 Material Characteristics

Some powders, especially refractories, are highly abrasive. Abrasive powders

Other considerations include whether the material is toxic, carcinogenic, an

A summary of design problems, the principle effects of a materials

Design Problem Principle Effects Approach to Solution

Temperature Sensitivity Product damage. Cool conveying medium.

8.2.5 Design Calculation Methods

a. Fluor Daniel Short-cut Method

Dense phase design calculation methods include various graphical phase

a. Phase Diagram Method (Graphical)

8.3 TYPES OF PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS

8.3.1 Dilute Phase Systems

Positive pressure systems

They may be further divided into open and closed systems.

a. Positive Pressure Systems

Positive pressure systems involve a gas mover forcing gas through a

Axial or centrifugal fans; or

Air mover selection is discussed in Section 8.4.5.

Positive pressure systems are especially suited for delivery to multiple

A simple positive pressure system is depicted in Figure 8-6.

Vacuum systems operate according to the same principle as positive

Despite such disadvantages vacuum systems are ideally suited for a