FRAGBUST- InternationalJournal of Blasting and Fragmentation 2(1998):2iS233

A numerical study of some aspects of the spherical

charge cratering theory

P.D. Katsabanis & Liqing Liu

Departiiierit of Afining Engineering, Queens Utiiversit): Kingston. Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada

ABSTRACT Numerical modelling of crater blasting Suggests that the placement of the initiation
point in the explosive charge has significant influence on the final blasting results while initiation
at the gravity centre is not recommended. When an explosive charge is initiated from its gravity
centre, the rock mass is loaded uniformly in all directions from the charge resulting in considerable
energy loss. It was found that when the explosive charge is initiated from one end, the stress waves
in the rock mass superimpose in the direction of detonation wave propagation, resulting in a loading
wave in the other end which has higher peak value, longer duration and lower frequency than that
at the initiation end. Blasting results were found to improve as the lengthldiamctcr ratio increases
from near 1, while the optimum occurs at ratios between 5.33 and 11.47.

KEYWORDS: cratering, spherical charge, blasting. numerical simulation.

I INTRODUCTION

Over the last few decades, cratering studies have played an important role in the
development of blasting theories. The most noted practical contributions may be
attributed to Livingston (1962), Lang (1976), Lang et al. (1977) and Bauer et al.
(1965).
Regarding the mechanisms involved in the formation of a crater, there have been
mainly two viewpoints. One assumes that the formation is dominated by the high
pressure of the explosion gas while the other emphasizes the role of the stress wave.
Livingstons spherical charge cratering theory emphasizes the role of the detona-
tion gases. According to this theory, when a spherical or near spherical charge
(length / diameter ratio not exceeding 6 ) is detonated, the borehole pressure pro-
duced by the high temperature gases formed by the chemical reaction is applied to
the entire surface area of the chamber where the explosive is confined. Due to its
longer duration, the gas pressure dominates the process of breaking the rock.
Since the time of Livingston, numerous cratering studies have been published.
The research work so far (Duvall & Atchison 1957, Simha 1987, Brinkman 1987,
Hommert et al. 1987) suggests that in crater blasting of competent rocks, the stress
wave generated by the detonation of the explosive charge plays a more important role
in the rock breakage mechanisms than the expanding gaseous products of detonation.
This makes modelling of the formation of a crater and its fragment size distribution
possible using a wave code. The present study uses a constitutive damage model
that was developed by the authors (Liu & Katsabanis 1995, 1996) and its purpose

0 1998 A.A.Balkema, Postbus 1675, Rotterdam, Netherlands

220 P.D. Katsabariis & L..Liii

is to critically examine some important aspects of the spherical charge cratering

theory. Problems studied include the influence of the initiation point and the optimum
length/diameter ratio of the explosive charge on the dynamic fracture process of the
rock material. Investigations into these problems are of significant importance to
the blasting theory, and modifications in these aspects would noticeably improve
productivity without extra cost in blasting operations.

1.1 Damage niodel, rock ayd explosive properties

A new damage model based on the constitutive relationships between explosive load-
ing and rock mass reaction was used in this study. In this model, it is assumed that the
pre-existing micro-cracks in the rock mass are activated and grow in number under
the action of volumetric tensile strain larger than a critical value. The degradation of
the material's stiffness resulting from the growth of micro cracks is measured by the
probability of fracture which is obtained by integrating a crack density function over
time. This is what is defined as damage in this study and ranges from 0 (undamaged
material) to 1 (fully damaged material). In order to form fragments, regions influ-
enced by the micro cracks coalesce. The minimum damage value, describing micro
crack coalescence in the model, is equal to 0.632. Fragment size is calculated con-
sidering the equilibrium between kinetic energy and fracture surface energy, with the
changes in.loading rate, stiffness and material density taken into account. The model
was coded as user routines for the finite element program ABAQUS/Explicit (ver-
sion 5.4, Hibbitt et al. 1994). It was calibrated by field tests including axisymmetric
crater blasting and small scale bench blasting while simulation results obtained with
this model satisfactorily reproduced actual blasting results. The details of. the model
work are reported in the publications by the authors (Liu & Katsabanis 1995, 1996a).
Numerical modelling of crater blasting showed that the formation of a crater takes
place in three stages (Liu 1996). In the first stage, a thin layer of rock material sur-
rounding the explosive charge fails under the high pressure in the explosive chamber,
forming a crushed zone. Then, a damage zone surrounding the charge (lower dam-
age zone) is formed under the action of the tensile stresses which are developed
behind the outgoing pressure wave in response to the action of the radial pressure.
The pressure wave appears as a ring in the rock mass. When the upper part of the
pressurized ring reaches the free face, it is reflected there and causes rock failure by
reflected tensile stresses, forming another damage zone (upper damage zone) close
to the surface.

Table 1. Parameters of the rock material (granite) modelled.

E (GPa) v p (t/m3) uc (MPa) a ( X 10") 0 Oc (X I(lc (N/ hf2/' x I d )
51.8 0.33 2.55 215 7 2 0.1411 3.1

Table 2. JWL equation of state parameters of emulsion modelled.

~ ~~~~ ~

A (GPa) B (GPa) RI Rz w Eo (J/kg xl0'l) VOD(m/s) p, (g/cm3)

214.36 0.182 4.2 0.9 0.15 3.2 5500 1.31
 A iiuinerical smdy of soriie aspects of the spherical charge cratering theory 221

In this study, the rock material modelled was granite at the test site of Queens
University. Its physical properties used in the calculations are listed in Table 1. The
explosive modelled was a typical emulsion with JWL (Jones-Wilkins-Lee) equation
of state parameters listed in Table 2. In all the calculations presented in this paper, the
amount of explosive used was kept unchanged at 4 kg. The simulation of cratering
was simplified as an axisymmetric problem.

2 IMPORTANCE OF THE INITIATION POINT

The influence of the initiation point of the explosive charge on the final blasting
results has received very little attention. According to the spherical charge cratering
theory, one of the advantages of a spherical charge over a cylindrical one is that
the forces.produced by a spherical charge are directed outward uniformly from the
centre of the charge (Lang et al. 1977). Therefore, to ensure the uniformity in the
loading process, it was suggested that the best initiation point is the centre of the
,sphere. In practical applications, it has been emphasized that the detonator or primer
should be placed at the gravity centre of the explosive charge in order to maximize
productivity. This point has been discussed in textbooks (Persson et al. 1994) and
practised in blasting operations (LeBlanc et al. 1995) and its correctness has never
been questioned. To examine the influence of the initiation point, an emulsion charge
with a diameter of 90 mm, length of 480 mm and weight of 4 kg is assumed buried
with its centre of gravity 1.36 m below the ground surface in granite. The charge has
.a length/diameter ratio of 5.33 which is within the definition of a near-spherical
charge according to the theory. The physical occurrences in the rock mass when the
explosive charge is initiated from the bottom, centre and top are demonstrated in the
following.

2.1 IiIJlieiice011 the pressurized ring

In crater blasting, when an explosive charge is detonated in the rock mass, a thin
layer of rock material in the explosive chamber fails under compression, forming a
crushed zone. Rock material outside the crushed zone is compressed under the action
of the pressure front, forming a pressurized ring which travels at the dilatation wave
velocity. A material point is first compressed and absorbs energy when the pressurized
ring passes it. Since the pressure in the pressurized ring is compressive in nature but
lower than the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), neither compressive nor tensile
failure occur in the rock mass. However, two tensile stress components are developed
in response to the action of the radial pressure. After the passage of the pressurized
ring, the stress state is dominated by the tensile components. Since the tensile strength
is much lower than the compressive one, tensile failure occurs following the passage
of the pressurized ring. When the pressurized ring meets the free face, it is reflected
and turns tensile i n ,nature, causing material failure near the free face. Thus two
damage zones are developed, one surrounding the explosive charge and the other
close to the free face of the blast.
Although rock material in the pressurized ring is compressed elastically and there
is no material failure involved, all the energy available for subsequent tensile failure
222 P.D. Katsabmiis & L. Liii

is carried by the pressurized ring. Therefore, the influence of the initiation point on the
fracture process can be found by analysing the status of the pressurized ring. Figure1
shows the pressurized ring at 250 ps after the explosive charge is initiated from its
centre of gravity. Clearly, the pressurized ring is uniformly distributed around the
explosive charge from which it originated. The tensile stress (negative pressure) also
appears quite uniformly behind the ring and it is responsible for the formation of the
lower damage zone surrounding the explosive charge. It is evident that uniformity in
loading the rock.mass has been achieved by placing the initiation point in the centre
of the explosive charge. However, this is not necessarily an advantage.
The shape of the pressurized ring shown in Figure 1 is a hollow sphere in the rock
mass. Therefore, maximum energy utilization is possible only when the rock burden
is also a sphere concentric to the pressurized ring shown in this figure. However, in
cratering, only the ground surface is the free face. Therefore, as the pressurized ring
propagates outward, only its upper part will meet the free face and will be reflected
there, causing rock failure. The side and lower parts of the pressurized ring propagate
in the infinite rock mass, dissipating the energy they carry without breaking the rock
mass. It has been found that the energy distribution in the pressurized ring can be
altered in favour of rock fragmentation by adjusting the placement of the initiation
point.
Figure 2 shows the pressurized ring also at 250 ps generated by the same explosive
charge but initiated from its bottom (position farthest away from.the free face). It is
clear that the thickness of the pressurized ring is not uniform. It is also evident that
high tensile stress is developed and concentrates under the upper part of the pressur-

Figure 1. Pressure contours around the charge 250 ps after initiation when the point of initiation
is the centre of the charge.
 A iiiiiiterical stiidy of soiiie aspects of the spherical charge crateriiig tlieory 223

,Figure 2. Pressure contours around the charge 250 ps after initiation when the point of initiation
is at the bottom of the charge.

ized ring, indicating violent tensile failure in this position. The energy distribution
is characterized by the non-uniformity of the pressurized ring. As mentioned earlier,
the upper part of the pressurized ring travels toward the free face. Since, this part is
now the thickest, it has the maximum energy content. Therefore, the upper part of
the pressurized ring directs the lower damage zone of the crater to develop upward
to the free face which would lead to improved diggability of fragments. Also, when
this part meets the free face, it has the maximum potential for causing damage by
reflection. Consequently, it would result in a larger damage zone and crater radius.
The side and lower parts of the pressurized ring are now very thin, therefore, the
amount of energy carried by them for dissipation in the rock mass is very small.
Apparently, energy waste can be minimized by placing the detonation point at the
bottom of the explosive charge.
The physical occurrences associated with top initiation can be analysed similarly.
It is 'found that the resulted pressurized ring is thicker in its lower part due to en-
hancement in the downward direction, while the upper part tends to disappear. Con-
sequently, the lower damage zone would be directed downward, making it difficult
for excavation. On the other hand, little energy is available for reflection, indicating
that the upper damage zone will be small.

2.2 Irlptreiice on the loading waves

The final status of a material point in the rock mass, i.e. its damage value and
fragment size, is determined by the loading history it has experienced. It was shown
that the placement of the initiation point had obvious influence on the pressurized
224 ED. Kntsnbnnis & L. L i i i

ring and consequently the distribution of the explosive energy. The loading history
of a material point in the rock mass is influenced by the energy distribution in the
ring. To demonstrate this point, two elements A and B from the finite clement model
were sclccted (Fig. 3). Element A is 0.96 m above the gravity centre of the cxplosivc
charge while clement B is 0.96 m below it. Both elements arc 0.51 m away from
the axis of symmetry as shown in I'igurc 3. When the explosive charge is initiated
from its gravity centre, the resulted prcssurc histories are shown in Figurc 4. The
two curves are practically identical in the first 260 11s after initiation while thc slight
diffcrencc is attributed to the small variation in the stiffness of the elements. After
260 )is, clement A is shown to have a tensile stress higher in value and longer in
duration due to thc arrival of the reflection wave from thc ground surfdcc, which
would result in a more complete frncturc than in element B.

0- 1.08m
0.51m I ground

I 1.36rn

ivI

J:.--.'.
axis of

Figure Geornctry c the model.

63 -

40 - - ElernentA

h
2 2 0 -
i .

0 200 400 6CO 800

Time after Initiation. miuo sec

Figure 4. Pressure-timc histories for two elcmcnts in the casc of initiation at the gravity centre.
 A rrirnicr.ical stirdy of soriie cispccts of the sphericnl clinrge crciteririg tI1wt-y 225

0 2CO 400 603 800

Time aBer Initiation. miuo sec.

Figurc 5. Prcssurc-time histories for two elcrncnts in thc casc of initiation at the bottom of the
chxgc.

Figure 5 shows a prominent contrast bctwcen the prcssurc histories whcn the cx-
plosivc charge is bottom initiated. As a result of stress wave enhancement, element A
develops a tensile slress much higher in value and longer in duration than element B.
However, if the charge is top initiated, clcmcnt B has a much higher peak value arid
longer duration than that of clement A.

2.3 IrIJIiiciiccO I I tlic f i n d blristiiig resirlts

The differences in the physical processes as dcscribcd above have significant influ-
encc on the final blasting results. The blasting results i n this study can be evaluated
in terms of the calculatcd total volume of fragments produccd, diggability of the
damage zone and fragment s i x distribution.
Figure 6 shows the prodicted final damage zone wlieri the explosive charge is
initiated from its gravity centre. Due to the uniformity of the loading process, the
lower damage zone is quite uniformly distributcd surrounding the cxplosive chargc.
The radius of the upper damage zone is 1.37 m and the total volume of fragments is
5.1 1 n?. As a comparison, Figure 7 shows the prcdictcd final damage zone when the
explosive charge is bottom initiated. The radius of the upper damage zone is 1.5 m
while the total volume of fragments prcdicted is 6.24 1 1 1 ~ . which is about 77c>
- - 1 ~ more

than the volume produced by mid-point initiation. Whcn the charge is top initiated.
the total volume of fragments produccd is o~ily4.18 m3. Thc results are in good
accordance with the work by Kipp 8: Grady (1980), who calculated the effects of
top initiation using the damage model developed by Sandia National Laboratories.
The effects of the placement of the initiation point as presented abovc were
analyscd using a fixed depth of burial of the explosive charge at 1.36 m. It has been
found that such effects exist at all depths of burial. Figure 8 shows the chaiige in the
volume of fragments produced at different depths of burial whcn the charge is bottom.
mid-point arid top initiated. The emulsion charge simulatcd had a Icngth /diameter
ratio of 5.33. According to the figure, mid-point and top initiation seem to be more
226 P.D. Kcltsabaiiis & L. Liii

Figure 6. Predicted damage contours with central initiation.

Figure 7. Predicted damage contours with bottom initiation.

 06 08 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Dep!h of Burial, rn

Figure 8. Predicted volume of frayicnts as ;i function of the depth of charge for various iniiiution
alternativcs.

productive if the depth of burial is lcss than 1 in. However, such a depth of burial
has no practical mcaning since the volume of fragments produccd is much smallcr
than thc maximum (produccd by bottom initiation iIt a dcpth of 1.2 in). At any
depth of hurial deeper than 1 m. the volume produced by bottom initiation is always
the largest, with the difference ranging from 22-39% of thc volume produccd by
mid-point initiation, whicli is significant. Considcring thc fact that cratcring with
mid-point initiation is very common, thc shift of the initiation point to the bottom of
the charge would result in significant iniprovemcnt in productivity or considerable
reduction in cxplosive consumption.

3 OPTIMUM IENGTH/DIAMETER RATIO OF T I E EXPLOSIVE CHARGE

According to the spherical charge cratering theory, the idcai shape of rile cxplosivc
charge is a sphere. Since a spherical charge has no practical application and the
shape of an explosive charge in a borchole can always be regarded as a cylindcr, it
is emphasizcd by this theory that the optimum Icngth/diameter ratio of the charge
should be 1 because it is the closest in geometry to a sphere. The theory allows
the use of a ratio of no larger than 6 not because it is the optimum but because it
is near-spherical and that a small ratio has no meaning in practical applications.
In this section, the effects of the lengthldiametcr ratio of a cylindrical chargc is
examined using an emulsion charge 4 kg in weight at different depths of burial.
The geometry of the cxplosive charge iinalyscd charlgcs from near-spherical to
typically cylindrical. The main geometrical paramctcrs of an cxplosive charge at
228 ED. Katsabanis & L Liii
Table 3. Geometrical parameters of emulsion charges having the same weight of 4 kg.
~

Length/diarneter ratio 1.03 3.0 5.33 8.21 11.47 15.08 32.45

Length, rnrn 160 327 480 640 800 960 1600
Diameter, mm 155.9 109 90 78 69.12 63.66 49.3

different lengthldiameter ratios are listcd in Table 3. The detonation velocity of the
emulsion explosive in the diameter ranges listed in this table was assumed to be a
constant (5500 m / s).

3.1 The loading process of a near-spherical charge

When a near-spherical explosive charge is initiated, the loading process to the rock
mass is quite uniform since the chcmical energy is released in a relatively short
time and all the energy initially acts upon a relatively small area and propagates
outward from this area. As a result, the influence of the initiation point, as described
in the previous section, seems to be less obvious and the loading process tends
to be uniform. As analysed previously, uniformity in the loading process is not
an advantage but a disadvantage. The use of a spherical charge has unfavourable
influence on the formation of both the lower and upper damagc zones. Due to the
uniformity in loading, the lower damagc zone is developed surrounding the gravity
centre of the charge. Another way of looking into the loading process is by examining
the strain rate which has been experienced by a material point. According to Grady &
Kipp (1980). Grady (1985) and Boade ct al. (1985), in a dynamic fracture process,
the dynamic fracture strcss and fragment size are related to the strain rate. As a
general rule for brittle materials, the higher the loading rate, the higher the fracture
stress and the smaller the size of the fragments. Consequently, a material point which
experiences a higher loading rate consumes more energy in the fracture process and
is broken into smallcr fragments than a material point which experiences a lower
loading rate in the same loading process. Therefore, a contour of the loading rate
of all the material points in a finite element model is in fact a good description of
the explosivc cncrgy consumption in the model. Figure 9 shows the contours of the
maximum strain rate loaded by the explosive chargc (length/ diameter ratio of 1.03,
buried 1.36 m below the ground surface and bottom initiated). It can be observed
that material points outside the crushed zonc having a loading rate ranging from
33.3-1OO/s are distributed quite uniformly surrounding the charge despite the fact
that it is bottom initiated, suggesting a significant amount of the energy is consumed
uniformly in the area contoured. As a comparison, Figure 10 shows the contours of
the maximum strain rate with an explosive charge having a Icngth/diarneter ratio of
15.08 in ratio, with its centre of mass at the same depth (1.36 m) as in the previous
case. Now the contours arc dirccted more favourably toward the free face, indicating
that dynamic fracture takes place mainly in the contoured area which is just below
the free face.
With the increase in the length/diameter ratio, the uniformity in the loading
process gradually disappears. When the ratio is increased to 5.33, the pressurized
ring is already quite non-uniform when its upper part reaches the free face, with
the upper part obviously strengthened in case of bottom initiation, as illustrated in
 A riimerical stirdy 'ofsoiiie aspects of the spherical charge cratering theory 229

Figure 9. Contours of strain rates (/s) for a charge with aspect ratio of 1.

Figure 10. Contours of strain rates (/s) for a charge with aspect ratio of 15.
Figure 2. In the sense that the influence of the initiation point becomes increasingly
important with the increase in the Icngthldiaineter ratio, it seems quite unreasonable
for a charge having a ratio of G to he classified as 'near-spherical'. With the increase
in the ratio, the energy loss from the side and bottom parts will he significantly
reduced as long as the charge is bottom initiated. However, further increase in thc
ratio would result in other forms of energy loss due to the formation of the crushed
zonc and the high loading rate.

3.2 Tlic loadiiig proccss of (I typical cjliriilriccil chargr

For a cylindrical charge which has a given amount of explosive, the surfacc area
increases with the increase of the Icngthldianieter ratio, making the loading process
different than that of a 'near-spherical' one. Figure 1 1 sliows the change in the load-
ing \\'iivcS of the same rnaterial point loaded by explosive cliarges having different
lengthldiainetcr ratios. The charges have the same depth of burial (1.36 m). Tlic ma-
terial point is element h4 shown in Figurc 3 located at the same depth as the gravity
centre (1.36 rn) of the explosive charge and I .08 in away from the axis of symmetry.
It is clearly shown that the peak pressure of thc loading \vaves decreases steadily
with the increiisc i n the lengthldiameter ratio. Due to such a shrinkage i n the range
that can be effectively influenced by the loading wave, the effects of superposition
of the stress waves travelling in the same direction bccoinc less important than in
the case of a small ratio (however, larger than the 'near-spherical' case). There i1rC
two inain aspects which make blasting with a cylindrical charge less productive.
First, the energy output from an cxplosivc charge of large ratio is distributed to a
larger surface area causing an increased energy loss in the formation of the crushed
zone and second, also due to siich an increase in the surface area, a larger volume
is loaded under high loading rates.

0 zco 420 623 eco loco

Time after Ini'Ja6on. miuo sec.

Figurc I I . Pressure-time historics at thc same point of the grid for charges witti various aspcct
ratios.
 A ritriiierical study of some aspects of the spherical cliarge crateririg theory 231

3.3 Optiriiiuii leiigth/diaiiieter ratio

The optimum length/diameter ratio of the explosive charge is the ratio at which the
maximum volume of fragments is obtained. In the calculations, since the energy out-
put of the explosive charge at different ratios and depths of burial is kept unchanged,
the optimum point is obtained when the energy loss is minimized and the energy
utilization in rock fragmentation is maximized. To find out the optimum range of
this ratio, a series of calculations were conducted with the same amount of explosive
(4 kg emulsion) but with varied length/diameter ratios and depths of burial. The
simulation results are plotted in Figure 12. It is shown that for each length/diameter
ratio, there is a peak value at a certain depth of burial. The maximum volume of
fragments (8.02 m3) is obtained with a ratio of 8.21 at a depth of burial of 1.2 m.
This ratio along with the ratios of 5.33 and 11.47 tend to produce significantly more
fragments than the rest of the cases. With these ratios, the range of the optimum
depth of burial lies in the range of 1.0 to 1.4 m. The simulation results seem to
confirm the numerical findings by Kipp & Grady (1980) in studying the blasting
effects of 80 g C-4 explosive in oil shale using their damage model. They reported
that when the charge had a length/diameter ratio of 8 and was bottom initiated, the
volume of fragments produced was almost twice of that produced by a spherical
charge.
According to the simulation results presented here, the maximum volume of frag-
ments can be obtained with an explosive charge whose length/diameter ratio lies in
the range between 5.33-1 1.47.

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6

* -. . .. . .. -
. . . . . .

7 - ....

. .
" " ' 1 * 1 ' 1 ' 1 '
2 2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6
Depth of Burialof the Explosive Charge, m

Figure 12. Calculated crater volumes as a function of depth of charge for charges of diffeenf. aspect
ratios.
232 P.D. Katsabaiiis & L. Liir

4 CONCLUSIONS
Some basic and important problems of the spherical charge cratering theory have
been studied in this work. The following conclusions may be reached:
(1) In crater blasting, the placement of the initiation point in the explosive charge
has significant influence on the loading process and the final blasting results.
(2) When an explosive charge is initiated from its gravity centre, the explosive
energy is uniformly distributed into the rock mass. Uniformity in the loading process
is not an advantage but a disadvantage because a significant amount of the energy
is dissipated into the rock mass without contribution to rock breaking.
(3) When the explosive charge is initiated from one end, the stress waves super-
impose at the other end. The other end has higher energy content and its loading
wave is characterized by higher peak value, lower frequency and longer duration.
(4)In crater blasting, the best initiation point is not the gravity centre of the.
explosive charge, but the point in the charge which is farthest away from the free
face.
( 5 ) The energy loss associated with the formation of the crushcd zone and high
loading rates tends to increase with the increase in the lengthldiameter ratio of the
explosive charge.
(6) A spherical charge does not produce the maximum volume of fragrncnts.
Instead, under the simulation conditions of this study, the optimum length/diameter
ratio lies in the range of 5.33-1 1.47.

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