Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Circular
1. PURPOSE. This advisory circular (AC) contains methods, techniques, and practices acceptable to the
Administrator for the inspection and repair of nonpressurized areas of civil aircraft, only when there are no
manufacturer repair or maintenance instructions. This data generally pertains to minor repairs. The repairs
identified in this AC may only be used as a basis for FAA approval for major repairs. The repair data may
also be used as approved data, and the AC chapter, page, and paragraph listed in block 8 of FAA form 337
when:
a. the user has determined that it is appropriate to the product being repaired;
3. REFERENCE: Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations part 43, section 43.13(a) states that each
person performing maintenance, alteration, or preventive maintenance on an aircraft, engine, propeller, or
appliance shall use the methods, techniques, and practices prescribed in the current manufacturers maintenance
manual or Instructions for Continued Airworthiness prepared by its manufacturer, or other methods, techniques,
or practices acceptable to the Administrator, except as noted in section 43.16. FAA inspectors are prepared to
answer questions that may arise in this regard. Persons engaged in the inspection and repair of civil aircraft
should be familiar with 14 CFR part 43, Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, Rebuilding, and Alteration, and
part 65, Subparts A, D, and E of Certification: Airmen Other Than Flight Crewmembers, and the applicable
airworthiness requirements under which the aircraft was type certificated.
4. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The FAA would like to thank the following persons and organization for their
assistance in producing AC 43.13-1B: Richard Finch, Richard Fischer, Michael Grimes, Ray Stits, William A.
Watkins, and the SAE, Aerospace Electronics and Electrical Systems Division. Acknowledgment is also
extended to all in the aviation community who commented on the document.
CONTENTS
Paragraph Page
1-1. General..........................................................................................................................................................1-1
1-2. Woods...........................................................................................................................................................1-1
1-4. Adhesives......................................................................................................................................................1-3
1-18. General..........................................................................................................................................................1-9
SECTION 3. INSPECTION
1-27. General........................................................................................................................................................1-11
SECTION 4. REPAIRS
1-36. General........................................................................................................................................................1-15
Figure 1-4. Consideration of Grain Direction When Making Scarf Joints ............................................1-15
Figure 1-8. Method of Splicing Box Spar Flanges (Plate Method) .......................................................1-20
Page iii
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Paragraph Page
Figure 1-10. Method of Reinforcing a Longitudinal Crack and/or Local Damage in a Solid Spar.........1-22
1-64. General........................................................................................................................................................1-35
1-66. Precautions..................................................................................................................................................1-35
2-1. General..........................................................................................................................................................2-1
2-2. Problem Areas ..............................................................................................................................................2-1
2-3. Aircraft Fabric-Synthetic..............................................................................................................................2-1
2-4. Aircraft Fabric-Natural.................................................................................................................................2-2
Table 2-1. Cotton and Linen Fabrics...........................................................................................................2-3
2-5. Recovering Aircraft ......................................................................................................................................2-2
Table 2-2. Cotton and Linen, Tapes and Threads.......................................................................................2-4
2-6. Preparation of the Structure for Covering ....................................................................................................2-2
2-7. Fabric Seams.................................................................................................................................................2-5
Figure 2-1. Fabric Seams..............................................................................................................................2-7
Figure 2-2. Typical Methods of Attaching Fabric........................................................................................2-8
2-8. Covering Methods ........................................................................................................................................2-9
Page iv
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Paragraph Page
Figure 2-4. Standard External Modified Seine Knot Used for Single and Double Rib Lacing.............2-11
Figure 2-9a. Alternate Sequence to Tie a Modified Seine Knot for Rib Lacing .....................................2-16
Figure 2-9b. Alternate Sequence to Tie a Modified Seine Knot for Rib Lacing .....................................2-17
Figure 2-9c. Alternate Sequence to Tie a Modified Seine Knot for Rib Lacing .....................................2-18
Figure 2-11. Blindstitch Lacing - Square Knot Secured with Half Hitches.............................................2-20
2-20. General........................................................................................................................................................2-25
2-30. General........................................................................................................................................................2-33
2-42. General........................................................................................................................................................2-37
Page v
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Paragraph Page
3-1. General..........................................................................................................................................................3-1
3-2. Fiberglass Laminate Repairs ........................................................................................................................3-1
Figure 3-1. Typical Laminate (Facing) Repair .........................................................................................3-2
Figure 3-2. Typical Core and Facing Repair ............................................................................................3-2
Figure 3-3. Typical Stepped Joint Repair.................................................................................................3-3
3-3. Repairing Holes ............................................................................................................................................3-3
Figure 3-4. Preparing the Fiberglass Sandwich........................................................................................3-3
Figure 3-5. Scarfed Repair to a Nonstructural Laminated Fiberglass Component ..................................3-4
Figure 3-6. Balanced Layup Same as Original Number of Plies, Plus One Extra Ply.............................3-4
Figure 3-7. Typical Scarf Joint Repair .....................................................................................................3-5
Figure 3-8. Carefully Cut Through Each Layer of Fiberglass Cloth and
Remove it From the Damaged Area ......................................................................................3-5
3-4. Sample Bagging and Curing Process ...........................................................................................................3-5
Figure 3-9. Sample Bagging Layup Cross Section...................................................................................3-6
3-5.3-9. [RESERVED.].................................................................................................................................. 3-8
Figure 3-12. Cross Section of Bonded and Bolted Overlap Repairs .......................................................3-11
3-18. General........................................................................................................................................................3-15
3-21. Heating........................................................................................................................................................3-16
Page vi
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Paragraph Page
3-40. General........................................................................................................................................................3-23
3-41. Protection....................................................................................................................................................3-24
Page vii
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Paragraph Page
4-50. General........................................................................................................................................................4-11
4-56. Setback........................................................................................................................................................4-13
Table 4-7. K-Chart for Determining Setback for Bends Other Than 90 Degrees ................................4-15
Figure 4-3. Methods of Determining Setbacks for Bends Other Than 90 Degrees...............................4-16
4-57. Riveting.......................................................................................................................................................4-14
Figure 4-5. Rivet Hole Spacing and Edge Distance for Single-Lap Sheet Splices................................4-20
Figure 4-12. Typical Repair Method for Tubular Members of Aluminum Alloy....................................4-28
Figure 4-13. Typical Repair for Buckled or Cracked Metal Wing Rib Capstrips ...................................4-29
Figure 4-14. Typical Metal Rib Repairs (Usually Found on Small and Medium-Size Aircraft).............4-30
Page viii
9/27/01 AC 43.13-1B CHG 1
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Paragraph Page
Figure 4-20. Example of Intermediate Frame Stringer Splice (Material 2017-T3 AL Alloy).................4-41
Figure 4-21. Typical Methods of Repairing Cracked Leading and Trailing Edges
Figure 4-23. Typical Methods of Repairing Cracked Frame and Stiffener Combination .......................4-44
Figure 4-24. Typical Repairs to Rudder and to Fuselage at Tail Post .....................................................4-45
4-61. Castings.......................................................................................................................................................4-40
Table 4-12. Current and Polarity Selection for Inert Gas Welding ........................................................4-54
Figure 4-26. Common Defects to Avoid when Fitting and Welding Aircraft Certification Cluster........4-55
Figure 4-28. Basic Gas-Welding Flames: Each has Distinctive Shape, Color and Sound.
Figure 4-29. Set TIG Welder to DC Current, Straight Polarity for Welding Mild Steel,
Figure 4-30. Set TIG to AC Current for Welding Aluminum and Magnesium .......................................4-58
4-88. Brazing........................................................................................................................................................4-59
Figure 4-34. Finger Patch Repairs for Members Dented at a Cluster ......................................................4-64
Page ix
AC 43.13-1B CHG 1 9/27/01
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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Page ix-a
9/27/01 AC 43.13-1B CHG 1
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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Figure 4-42. Streamline Tube Splice Using Round Tube (Applicable to Landing Gear) .......................4-74
(Applicable to Wing and Tail Surface Brace Struts and Other Members) .........................4-75
Figure 4-44. Streamline Tube Splice Using Split Insert (Applicable to Landing Gear)..........................4-76
Figure 4-45. Streamline Tube Splice Using Plates (Applicable to Landing Gear)..................................4-77
Figure 4-47. Landing Gear Assemblies that Cannot be Repaired by Welding ........................................4-79
4-111. General........................................................................................................................................................4-81
SECTION 1. GENERAL
5-1. General..........................................................................................................................................................5-1
5-5. Flaws.............................................................................................................................................................5-2
5-15. General..........................................................................................................................................................5-9
5-17. Borescopes..................................................................................................................................................5-10
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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5-40. General........................................................................................................................................................5-19
5-42. Applications................................................................................................................................................5-20
5-60. General........................................................................................................................................................5-29
Page xi
AC 43.13-1B CHG 1 9/27/01
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Paragraph Page
Penetrant Inspection.............................................................................................................5-35
5-73. General........................................................................................................................................................5-37
5-74. Limitations..................................................................................................................................................5-37
5-81. Flaws...........................................................................................................................................................5-39
5-89. General........................................................................................................................................................5-41
Figure 5-21. Examples of Bonded Structure Configurations and Suggested Inspection Coverage ........5-47
Page xii
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Paragraph Page
5-105. General........................................................................................................................................................5-53
SECTION 9. ACOUSTIC-EMISSION
5-112. General........................................................................................................................................................5-53
5-113. Applications................................................................................................................................................5-54
5-120. General........................................................................................................................................................5-54
5-127. General........................................................................................................................................................5-54
5-134. General........................................................................................................................................................5-55
SECTION 1. GENERAL
6-1. General..........................................................................................................................................................6-1
Figure 6-1. Simplified Corrosion Cell Showing Conditions which Must Exist for
Electrochemical Corrosion ...........................................................................................................................6-2
Figure 6-2. Elimination of Corrosion by Application of an Organic Film to Metal Surface...................6-2
6-2. Factors Influencing Corrosion......................................................................................................................6-1
6-3. Common Corrosive Agents ..........................................................................................................................6-3
6-4. Micro-Organisms..........................................................................................................................................6-3
6-5.6-10. [RESERVED.]................................................................................................................................ 6-4
6-11. General..........................................................................................................................................................6-5
Page xiii
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Paragraph Page
6-29. General........................................................................................................................................................6-11
6-37. Cladding......................................................................................................................................................6-12
6-39. Shot-Peening...............................................................................................................................................6-12
6-63. General........................................................................................................................................................6-15
Page xiv
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Paragraph Page
6-89. General........................................................................................................................................................6-17
6-113. General........................................................................................................................................................6-21
6-132. General........................................................................................................................................................6-25
6-136. Examples of Removing Corrosion From Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys ............................................6-26
6-148. General........................................................................................................................................................6-29
Page xv
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Paragraph Page
6-164. General........................................................................................................................................................6-35
6-206. General........................................................................................................................................................6-41
SECTION 14. HANDLING AND CARE OF AIRCRAFT RECOVERED FROM WATER IMMERSION
6-220. General........................................................................................................................................................6-43
6-223. Airframe......................................................................................................................................................6-43
SECTION 1. RIVETS
7-1. General..........................................................................................................................................................7-1
SECTION 2. SCREWS
7-14. General..........................................................................................................................................................7-3
Page xvi
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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SECTION 3. BOLTS
7-34. General..........................................................................................................................................................7-5
7-35. Bolts..............................................................................................................................................................7-5
7-36. Identification.................................................................................................................................................7-5
7-41. Standard Aircraft Hex Head Bolts (AN3 through AN20) ...........................................................................7-7
7-45. Internal Wrenching Bolts (NAS144 through NAS158 and NAS172 through NAS176)..........................7-10
7-46. Internal Wrenching Bolts (MS20004 through MS20024) and Six Hole,
SECTION 4. NUTS
7-63. General........................................................................................................................................................7-11
Table 7-2. Minimum Prevailing Torque Values for Reused Self-Locking Nuts..................................7-12
Page xvii
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Paragraph Page
SECTION 5. WASHERS
7-85. General........................................................................................................................................................7-15
7-88. Ball Socket and Seat Washers (AN950 and AN955) ................................................................................7-15
SECTION 6. PINS
SECTION 7. SAFETYING
7-122. General........................................................................................................................................................7-19
Figure 7-4a. Securing Oil Caps, Drain Cocks, and Valves ......................................................................7-22
Figure 7-7. Alternate Method for Securing with Cotter Pins .................................................................7-26
7-140. General........................................................................................................................................................7-27
Page xviii
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Paragraph Page
SECTION 9. TURNBUCKLES
7-165. General........................................................................................................................................................7-41
7-179. General........................................................................................................................................................7-43
Page xix
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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SECTION 1. ENGINES
8-1. General..........................................................................................................................................................8-1
8-2. Special Inspection.........................................................................................................................................8-1
8-3. Crankshaft Inspection and Repair Requirements .........................................................................................8-3
8-4. Replacement Parts in Certificated Engines ..................................................................................................8-3
8-5. Oil System Lines Inspection.........................................................................................................................8-4
8-6. Oil Filter Inspection......................................................................................................................................8-4
8-7. Cylinder Hold-Down Nuts and Cap Screws ................................................................................................8-4
8-8. Reuse of Safetying Devices..........................................................................................................................8-4
8-9. Self-Locking Nuts for Aircraft Engines and Accessories ............................................................................8-4
8-10. Metallizing....................................................................................................................................................8-5
8-11. Plating ...........................................................................................................................................................8-5
Table 8-1. Current Engine and Maximum Permissible Cylinder Barrel Oversize .................................8-6
8-12. Corrosion ......................................................................................................................................................8-6
8-13. Engine Run-In...............................................................................................................................................8-6
8-14. Compression Testing of Aircraft Engine Cylinders.....................................................................................8-6
Figure 8-1. Schematic of Differential Pressure Compression Tester .......................................................8-7
8-15. Spark Plugs ...................................................................................................................................................8-8
Figure 8-2. Chart of Spark Plug Temperature Ranges .............................................................................8-9
Figure 8-3. Hot and Cold Spark Plugs....................................................................................................8-10
Figure 8-4. Spark Plug Reach.................................................................................................................8-10
Figure 8-5. Method of Checking Spark Plug Gap..................................................................................8-10
8-16. Operational Problems .................................................................................................................................8-11
Figure 8-6. Typical Carbon-Fouled Spark Plug .....................................................................................8-12
Figure 8-6a. Typical Lead-Fouled Spark Plug .........................................................................................8-12
Figure 8-6b. Typical Oil-Fouled Spark Plug ............................................................................................8-13
Figure 8-6c. Typical Spark Plug with Cracked Core Nose......................................................................8-13
Figure 8-6d. Typical Worn Out Spark Plug .............................................................................................8-14
Figure 8-6e. Typical Spark Plug with Bridged Electrodes ......................................................................8-14
Figure 8-7. Spark Plug Well Flashover ..................................................................................................8-14
8-17. Spark Plug Pre-Reconditioning Inspection ................................................................................................8-14
8-18. Ignition Harnesses Inspection.....................................................................................................................8-14
Figure 8-8. Typical Method of Clamping Leads ....................................................................................8-15
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9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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8-30. General........................................................................................................................................................8-19
8-45. General........................................................................................................................................................8-23
Figure 8-14. Typical Muffler Wall Failure. (A. Complete Muffler Assembly with
Heat Shroud Removed; B. Detail View of Failure; C. Cross Section of
Failed Muffler.) ....................................................................................................................8-24
Figure 8-15. Typical Muffler Wall Fatigue Failure. (A. Complete Muffler Assembly
with Heat Shroud Partially Removed; B. Detailed View of Failure.) .................................8-25
Figure 8-16. Typical Fatigue Failure of Muffler End Plate at Stack Inlet ...............................................8-25
Figure 8-19. Failed Internal Baffle Partially Obstructing the Muffler Outlet ..........................................8-27
Figure 8-20. Failed Internal Baffle Completely Obstructing the Muffler Outlet .....................................8-27
8-49. Inspection....................................................................................................................................................8-26
Page xxi
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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8-51. Turbo-Supercharger....................................................................................................................................8-27
8-71. General........................................................................................................................................................8-29
Figure 8-24. Method of Repairing Surface Cracks, Nicks, etc., on Aluminum-Alloy Propellers ...........8-30
Figure 8-29. Repair of Fixed-Pitch Hub and Propeller with Elongated or Damaged Bolt Holes ...........8-35
8-79.8-90. [RESERVED.]....................................................................................................................................8-35
8-91. General........................................................................................................................................................8-37
8-107 General........................................................................................................................................................8-41
Figure 8-30. Propeller Tracking (Wood Block or Cowling Fixture Shown) ...........................................8-42
8-109. Vibration.....................................................................................................................................................8-41
Page xxii
9/27/01 AC 43.13-1B CHG 1
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
Paragraph Page
9-1. General..........................................................................................................................................................9-1
9-2. General Inspection........................................................................................................................................9-1
9-3. Cleaning and Lubricating .............................................................................................................................9-1
9-4. Fixed-Gear Inspection ..................................................................................................................................9-1
Table 9-1. Bungee Cord Color Codes .....................................................................................................9-2
9-5. Inspection of Retractable Landing Gear.......................................................................................................9-3
9-6. Emergency Systems......................................................................................................................................9-3
9-7. Landing Gear Components...........................................................................................................................9-4
9-8. Floats and Skis..............................................................................................................................................9-5
Figure 9-1. A Typical Ski Installation ......................................................................................................9-6
9-9. Inspection and Repair of Floats and Skis .....................................................................................................9-7
9-10. Types of Landing Gear Problems.................................................................................................................9-8
Figure 9-2. Typical Bolt Cracks ...............................................................................................................9-8
Figure 9-3. Typical Cracks Near Bolt Holes ............................................................................................9-8
Figure 9-4. Typical Bolt Hole Cracks ......................................................................................................9-9
Figure 9-5. Typical Rod-End Cracks........................................................................................................9-9
Figure 9-6. Typical Torque Tube Bolt Hole Elongation..........................................................................9-9
9-11. Special Inspections .......................................................................................................................................9-9
9-12. Retraction Tests ............................................................................................................................................9-9
9-13. Tire and Tube Maintenance..........................................................................................................................9-9
9-14. Tire Inspection and Repair .........................................................................................................................9-10
Figure 9-7. Examples of Tread Wear Indicating Over-Inflation and Under-Inflation...........................9-11
9-15. Inflation of Tires.........................................................................................................................................9-11
9-16. Personal Safety ...........................................................................................................................................9-11
9-17. Disassemble the Wheel...............................................................................................................................9-11
9-18. Reassembling the Wheel ............................................................................................................................9-12
9-19. Slippage ......................................................................................................................................................9-12
9-20. Wheel Inspection ........................................................................................................................................9-12
9-21. Wheel Installation.....................................................................................................................................9-12a
9-22.9-24. [RESERVED.]............................................................................................................................ 9-12
9-25. General........................................................................................................................................................9-13
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AC 43.13-1B CHG 1 9/27/01
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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9-48. Inspection....................................................................................................................................................9-37
9-49. Maintenance................................................................................................................................................9-38
9-60. General........................................................................................................................................................9-45
SECTION 1. TERMINOLOGY
10-1. General........................................................................................................................................................10-1
Figure 10-5. Empty Weight and Empty Center of Gravity - Tail-Wheel Type Aircraft..........................10-6
Page xxiv
9/27/01 AC 43.13-1B CHG 1
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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Figure 10-6. Empty Weight and Empty Weight Center of Gravity - Nosewheel Type Aircraft .............10-7
10-14. General......................................................................................................................................................10-11
Figure 10-10. Example of Check of Most Forward Weight and Balance Extreme .................................10-14
Figure 10-11. Example of Check of Most Rearward Weight and Balance Extreme ...............................10-16
Figure 10-13. Loading Conditions: Determination of the Fuel and Baggage Permissible
with Maximum Passengers ................................................................................................10-18
Figure 10-14. Loading Conditions: Determination of the Fuel and the Number and
Location of Passengers Permissible with Maximum Baggage..........................................10-19
Figure 10-16. Example of Moment and Weight Changes Resulting From Equipment Changes ............10-21
Figure 10-17. Sample Weight and Balance Report to Determine Empty Weight Center of Gravity......10-22
Figure 10-18. Sample Weight and Balance Report Including an Equipment Change
for Aircraft Fully Loaded...................................................................................................10-23
11-1. General........................................................................................................................................................11-1
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AC 43.13-1B CHG 1 9/27/01
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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11-15. General........................................................................................................................................................11-5
11-30. General......................................................................................................................................................11-11
11-47. General......................................................................................................................................................11-15
11-53. Switches....................................................................................................................................................11-16
11-54. Relays........................................................................................................................................................11-19
11-66. General......................................................................................................................................................11-21
Table 11-7. Examples of Determining Required Wire Size Using Figure 11-2...................................11-22
Table 11-8. Examples of Determining Maximum Run Length Using Figure 11-3 ..............................11-22
Page xxvi
9/27/01 AC 43.13-1B CHG 1
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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Table 11-10. Current Carrying Capacity and Resistance of Aluminum Wire ........................................11-24
11-70.11-75. [RESERVED.].....................................................................................................................11-34a
11-76. General......................................................................................................................................................11-35
11-90.11-95. [RESERVED.]..............................................................................................................................11-41
11-96. General......................................................................................................................................................11-43
Page xxvii
AC 43.13-1B CHG 1 9/27/01
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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11-121. Precautions................................................................................................................................................11-52
11-135. General......................................................................................................................................................11-55
11-136. Support......................................................................................................................................................11-55
11-146. General......................................................................................................................................................11-57
11-155. General......................................................................................................................................................11-61
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9/27/01 AC 43.13-1B CHG 1
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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11-167 General......................................................................................................................................................11-65
11-174. General......................................................................................................................................................11-67
11-185. General......................................................................................................................................................11-71
11-186. Grounding.................................................................................................................................................11-71
Table 11-16. Bolt and Nut Bonding or Grounding to Flat Surface ........................................................11-78
11-194. Lightning Protection for Antennas and Air Data Probes .........................................................................11-81
11-196. Cleaning....................................................................................................................................................11-81
11-205. General......................................................................................................................................................11-83
11-207. Identification and Information Related to the Wire and Wiring Diagrams .............................................11-83
Page xxix
AC 43.13-1B CHG 1 9/27/01
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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11-223.11-229. [RESERVED.].................................................................................................................11-90a
11-230. General......................................................................................................................................................11-91
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CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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11-248. General....................................................................................................................................................11-101
Table 11-24. Minimum Bending Radii for Flexible Aluminum or Brass Conduit...............................11-102
11-260. General....................................................................................................................................................11-103
11-271. General....................................................................................................................................................11-105
12-1. General........................................................................................................................................................12-1
12-8. General........................................................................................................................................................12-3
Page xxxi
AC 43.13-1B CHG 1 9/27/01
CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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12-19. Altimeters....................................................................................................................................................12-7
12-28.12-36. [RESERVED.]..............................................................................................................................12-11
Figure 12-1. Venturi System For Providing Airflow Through Gyro Instruments .................................12-15
Figure 12-2. Instrument Vacuum System Using a Wet-Type Vacuum Pump .......................................12-17
Figure 12-4. Instrument Pressure System Using a Dry-Type Air Pump ................................................12-18
12-51. General......................................................................................................................................................12-19
12-64.12-69. [RESERVED.].............................................................................................................................12-23
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CONTENTS (CONTINUED)
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12-70. General......................................................................................................................................................12-25
TABLE 1-1. Selection and Properties of Aircraft Wood. (See notes following table.)
Maximum
Species of Wood Strength proper- permissible Remarks
ties as compared grain deviation
to spruce (slope of grain)
1. 2. 3. 4.
Spruce(Picea) Sitka (P. Excellent for all uses. Considered as standard for
Sitchensis) Red (P. Rubra) 100% 1:15 this table.
White (P. Glauca).
May be used as substitute for spruce in same sizes
or in slightly reduced sizes providing reductions are
Douglas Fir Exceeds spruce. 1:15 substantiated. Difficult to work with handtools.
(Pseudotsuga Taxifolia). Some tendency to split and splinter during fabrica-
tion and considerable more care in manufacture is
necessary. Large solid pieces should be avoided
due to inspection difficulties. Gluing satisfactory.
Slightly exceeds Satisfactory characteristics with respect to work-
Noble Fir spruce except 1:15 ability, warping, and splitting. May be used as di-
(Abies Nobiles). 8% deficient in rect substitute for spruce in same sizes providing
shear. shear does not become critical. Hardness some-
what less than spruce. Gluing satisfactory.
Slightly exceeds Less uniform in texture than spruce. May be used
Western Hemlock spruce. 1:15 as direct substitute for spruce. Upland growth su-
(Tsuga Heterpphylla). perior to lowland growth. Gluing satisfactory.
Properties be- Excellent working qualities and uniform in proper-
Pine, Northern White (Pinus tween 85 % and ties, but somewhat low in hardness and shock-
Strobus). 96 % those of 1:15 resisting capacity. Cannot be used as substitute
spruce. for spruce without increase in sizes to compensate
for lesser strength. Gluing satisfactory.
May be used as substitute for spruce in same sizes
White Cedar, Port Orford Exceeds spruce. 1:15 or in slightly reduced sizes providing reductions are
(Charaecyparis Lawsoni- substantiated. Easy to work with handtools. Glu-
ana). ing difficult, but satisfactory joints can be obtained
if suitable precautions are taken.
Poplar, Yellow (Liriodendrow Slightly less than Excellent working qualities. Should not be used as
Tulipifera). spruce except in 1:15 a direct substitute for spruce without carefully ac-
compression counting for slightly reduced strength properties.
(crushing) and Somewhat low in shock-resisting capacity. Gluing
shear. satisfactory.
1. Defects Permitted.
a. Cross grain. Spiral grain, diagonal grain, or a combination of the two is acceptable providing the grain does
not diverge from the longitudinal axis of the material more than specified in column 3. A check of all four faces of the
board is necessary to determine the amount of divergence. The direction of free-flowing ink will frequently assist in
determining grain direction.
b. Wavy, curly, and interlocked grain. Acceptable, if local irregularities do not exceed limitations specified for
spiral and diagonal grain.
c. Hard knots. Sound, hard knots up to 3/8 inch in maximum diameter are acceptable providing: (1) they are
not projecting portions of I-beams, along the edges of rectangular or beveled unrouted beams, or along the edges of
flanges of box beams (except in lowly stressed portions); (2) they do not cause grain divergence at the edges of
the board or in the flanges of a beam more than specified in column 3; and (3) they are in the center third of the
beam and are not closer than 20 inches to another knot or other defect (pertains to 3/8 inch knotssmaller knots
may be proportionately closer). Knots greater than 1/4 inch must be used with caution.
d. Pin knot clusters. Small clusters are acceptable providing they produce only a small effect on grain direction.
e. Pitch pockets. Acceptable in center portion of a beam providing they are at least 14 inches apart when they
lie in the same growth ring and do not exceed 1-1/2 inches length by 1/8 inch width by 1/8 inch depth, and providing
they are not along the projecting portions of I-beams, along the edges of rectangular or beveled unrouted beams, or
along the edges of the flanges of box beams.
f. Mineral streaks. Acceptable, providing careful inspection fails to reveal any decay.
TABLE 1-1. Selection and Properties of Aircraft Wood. (See notes following table.) (continued)
2. Defects Not Permitted.
a. Cross grain. Not acceptable, unless within limitations noted in 1a.
b. Wavy, curly, and interlocked grain. Not acceptable, unless within limitations noted in 1b.
c. Hard knots. Not acceptable, unless within limitations noted in 1c.
d. Pin knot clusters. Not acceptable, if they produce large effect on grain direction.
e. Spike knots. These are knots running completely through the depth of a beam perpendicular to the annual
rings and appear most frequently in quarter-sawed lumber. Reject wood containing this defect.
f. Pitch pockets. Not acceptable, unless within limitations noted in 1e.
g. Mineral streaks. Not acceptable, if accompanied by decay (see 1f).
h. Checks, shakes, and splits. Checks are longitudinal cracks extending, in general, across the annual rings.
Shakes are longitudinal cracks usually between two annual rings. Splits are longitudinal cracks induced by artificially
induced stress. Reject wood containing these defects.
i. Compression wood. This defect is very detrimental to strength and is difficult to recognize readily. It is char-
acterized by high specific gravity, has the appearance of an excessive growth of summer wood, and in most species
shows little contrast in color between spring wood and summer wood. In doubtful cases reject the material, or sub-
ject samples to toughness machine test to establish the quality of the wood. Reject all material containing compres-
sion wood.
j. Compression failures. This defect is caused from the wood being overstressed in compression due to natu-
ral forces during the growth of the tree, felling trees on rough or irregular ground, or rough handling of logs or lumber.
Compression failures are characterized by a buckling of the fibers that appear as streaks on the surface of the piece
substantially at right angles to the grain, and vary from pronounced failures to very fine hairlines that require close
inspection to detect. Reject wood containing obvious failures. In doubtful cases reject the wood, or make a further
inspection in the form of microscopic examination or toughness test, the latter means being the more reliable.
k. Decay. Examine all stains and discoloration carefully to determine whether or not they are harmless, or in a
stage of preliminary or advanced decay. All pieces must be free from rot, dote, red heart, purple heart, and all other
forms of decay.
(1) Refer to the aircraft maintenance or (3) Plastic resin glue (urea-formalde-
repair manual for specific instructions on ac- hyde resin glue) has been used in wood aircraft
ceptable adhesive selection for use on that type for many years. Caution should be used due to
aircraft. possible rapid deterioration (more rapidly than
wood) of plastic resin glue in hot, moist envi-
(2) Adhesives meeting the requirements ronments and under cyclic swell-shrink stress.
of a Military Specification (Mil Spec), Aero- For these reasons, urea-formaldehyde should
space Material Specification (AMS), or Tech- be considered obsolete for all repairs. Any
nical Standard Order (TSO) for wooden air- proposed use of this type adhesive should be
craft structures are satisfactory providing they discussed with the appropriate FAA office
are found to be compatible with existing prior to using on certificated aircraft.
structural materials in the aircraft and the fab-
rication methods to be used in the repair. (4) Federal Specification MMM-A-
181D and Military Specification MIL-A-22397
b. Common types of adhesives that are both describe a required series of tests that
or have been used in aircraft structure fall into verify the chemical and mechanical properties
two general groups: casein and synthetic- of resorcinol. Resorcinol is the only known
resins. Adhesive technology continues to adhesive recommended and approved for use
evolve, and new types (meeting the require- in wooden aircraft structure and fully meets
ments of paragraph 1-4a) may become avail- necessary strength and durability requirements.
able in the future. Resorcinol adhesive (resorcinol-formaldehyde
resin) is a two-part synthetic resin adhesive
(1) Casein adhesive performance is consisting of resin and a hardener. The appro-
generally considered inferior to other products priate amount of hardener (per manufacturers
available today, modern adhesives should be instruction) is added to the resin, and it is
considered first. stirred until it is uniformly mixed; the adhesive
is now ready for immediate use. Quality of fit
CAUTION: Casein adhesive deterio- and proper clamping pressure are both critical
rates over the years after exposure to to the achievement of full joint strength. The
moisture in the air and temperature adhesive bond lines must be very thin and uni-
variations. Some modern adhesives form in order to achieve full joint strength.
are incompatible with casein adhesive.
If a joint that has previously been CAUTION: Read and observe mate-
bonded with casein is to be rebonded rial safety data. Be sure to follow the
with another type adhesive, all traces manufacturers instructions regarding
of the casein must be scraped off be- mixing, open assembly and close as-
fore the new adhesive is applied. If sembly times, and usable temperature
any casein adhesive is left, residual al- ranges.
kalinity may cause the new adhesive to
fail to cure properly. (5) Phenol-formaldehyde adhesive is
commonly used in the manufacturing of air-
(2) Synthetic-resin adhesives comprise craft grade plywood. This product is cured at
a broad family which includes plastic resin elevated temperature and pressure; therefore, it
glue, resorcinol, hot-pressed Phenol, and ep- is not practical for use in structural repair.
oxy.
surfaces. Sanding should never be continued spread onto the wood surface. Once pot life
to the extent that it alters the flatness of the has expired, the remaining adhesive must be
surface. Very light sanding may also improve discarded. Do not add thinning agents to the
the wetting of the adhesive to very hard or adhesive to extend the life of the batch.
resinous materials.
b. Open assembly time is the period from
b. Wetting tests are useful as a means of the moment the adhesive is spread until the
detecting the presence of wax, old adhesive, parts are clamped together. Where surfaces
and finish. A drop of water placed on a sur- are coated and exposed freely to the air, some
face that is difficult to wet and thus difficult to adhesives experience a much more rapid
bond will not spread or wet the wood rapidly change in consistency than when the parts are
(in seconds or minutes). The surface may be laid together as soon as the spreading has been
difficult to wet due to the presence of wax, ex- completed.
posure of the surface to heat and pressure as in
the manufacture of hot press bonded plywood, c. Closed assembly time is the period
the presence of synthetic resins or wood ex- from the moment that the structure parts are
tractives, or simply chemical or physical placed together until clamping pressure is ap-
changes in the wood surface with time. Good plied. The consistency of the adhesive does
wettability is only an indication that a surface not change as rapidly when the parts are laid
can be bonded satisfactorily. After performing together.
wetting tests, allow adequate time for wood to
dry before bonding. Preliminary bonding tests d. Pressing (or clamping) time is the pe-
and tests for bond strength are the only posi- riod during which the parts are pressed tightly
tive means of actually determining the bonding together and the adhesive cures. The pressing
characteristics of the adhesive and material time must be sufficient to ensure that joint
combinations. (See paragraph 1-29h.) strength is adequate before handling or ma-
chining the bonded structure.
1-7. APPLYING THE ADHESIVE. To
make a satisfactory bonded joint, spread the NOTE: Follow the adhesive manufac-
adhesive in a thin, even layer on both surfaces turers instructions for all time limits
to be joined. It is recommended that a clean in the bonding process. If the recom-
brush be used and care taken to see that all sur- mended open or closed assembly peri-
faces are covered. Spreading of adhesive on ods are exceeded, the bond process
only one of the two surfaces is not recom- should not be continued. Discard the
mended. Be sure to read and follow the adhe- parts if feasible. If the parts cannot be
sive manufacturers application instructions. discarded, remove the partially cured
adhesive and clean the bond line per
1-8. ASSEMBLY TIME IN BONDING. adhesive manufacturers instructions
Resorcinol, epoxy, and other adhesives cure as before application of new adhesive.
a result of a chemical reaction. Time is an im-
portant consideration in the bonding process. 1-9. BONDING TEMPERATURE. Tem-
Specific time constraints are as follows: perature of the bond line affects the cure rate
of the adhesive. Some adhesive types, such as
a. Pot life is the usable life of the adhesive resorcinol, require a minimum temperature
from the time that it is mixed until it must be which must be maintained throughout the
curing process. Each type of adhesive requires a. Hand nailing is used rather extensively
a specific temperature during the cure cycle, in the bonding of ribs and in the application of
and the manufacturers recommendations plywood skins to the wing, control surfaces,
should be followed. and fuselage frames. Small brass screws may
also be used advantageously when the par-
1-10. CLAMPING PRESSURE. ticular parts to be bonded are relatively small
and do not allow application of pressure by
a. Use the recommended pressure to means of clamps. Both nails and screws pro-
squeeze adhesive out into a thin, continuous duce adverse after effects. There is consider-
film between the wood layers. This forces air able risk of splitting small parts when install-
from the joint and brings the wood surfaces ing nails or screws. Metal fasteners also pro-
into intimate contact. Pressure should be ap- vide vulnerable points for moisture to enter
plied to the joint before the adhesive becomes during service.
too thick to flow and is accomplished by
means of clamps, presses, or other mechanical b. On small joints using thin plywood for
devices. gussets or where plywood is used as an outer
skin, the pressure is usually applied by nailing
b. Nonuniform clamping pressure or stapling. Thin plywood nailing strips are
commonly results in weak and strong areas in often used to spread the nailing pressure over a
the same joint. The amount of pressure re- larger area and to facilitate removal of the nails
quired to produce strong joints in aircraft as- after the adhesive has cured.
sembly operations varies with the type of ad-
hesive used and the type of wood to be c. The size of the nails must vary with
bonded. Typical pressures when using resor- the size of the members. If multiple rows of
cinol may vary from 125 to 150 pounds per nails are required, the nails should be 1 inch
square inch for softwoods and 150 to apart in rows spaced 1/2 inch apart. The nails
200 pounds per square inch for hardwoods. in adjacent rows should be staggered. In no
Insufficient pressure or poorly machined wood case should the nails in adjacent rows be more
surfaces usually result in thick bond lines, than 3/4 inch from the nearest nail. The length
which indicate a weak joint, and should be of the nails should be such that they penetrate
carefully guarded against. Some epoxy adhe- the wood below the joint at least 3/8 inch. In
sives require much less clamping pressure to the case of small members, the end of the nail
produce acceptable joint strength. Be sure to should not protrude through the member below
read and follow the manufacturers instruc- the joint. Hit the nails with several light
tions in all cases. strokes, just seating the head into the surface
of the gusset. Be careful not to crush the wood
1-11. METHOD OF APPLYING PRES- with a heavy hammer blow.
SURE. The methods of applying pressure to
joints in aircraft bonding operations range d. In some cases the nails are removed
from the use of brads, nails, small screws, and after adhesive cure, while in others the nails
clamps; to the use of hydraulic and electrical are left in place. The nails are employed for
power presses. The selection of appropriate clamping pressure during adhesive cure and
clamping means is important to achieving must not be expected to hold members to-
sound bond joints. gether in service. In deciding whether to re
move nails after assembly, the mechanic limited pressure area of the clamps, especially
should examine adjacent structure to see when one member is thin (such as plywood).
whether nails remain from original manufac- The strip or block should be at least twice as
ture. thick as the thinner member being bonded.
SECTION 3. INSPECTION
1-27. GENERAL. Inspection of wooden service. Although none of the older adhesives
structure includes some methods, equipment, have been specifically found to fail by simple
and awareness of failure modes which are aging, the mechanic is advised to inspect all
unique to wooden aircraft. accessible joints carefully.
and the wood structure). The mechanic should These odors are indicative of the presence of
also look for evidence of swelling or warpage moisture and associated fungal growth and
of the aircrafts wood structure, which would decay.
indicate underlying damage or decay. Par-
ticular attention should be paid to the wood f. Visual inspection requires looking at
structure immediately beneath the upper sur- the wood structure both externally and inter-
faces, especially under areas that are finished nally for visual signs of decay or physical
in dark colors, for signs of deteriorating adhe- damage. Any accumulations of dirt, bird nests,
sives. Cracks in wood spars are often hidden or rodent nests are likely places to hold mois-
under metal fittings or metal rib flanges and ture and promote decay.
leading edge skins. Any time a reinforcement
plate exists that is not feathered out on its (1) The mechanic should remove any
ends, a stress riser exists at the ends of the such accumulations that are found and inspect
plate. A failure of the primary structure can be the area for signs of decay. Decay will appear
expected to occur at this point. as a dark discoloration or gray stains running
along the grain and often a swelling of the
b. Tapping the wood structure with a wood member if still wet. Fittings will be
light plastic hammer or screwdriver handle imbedded in the wood instead of flush.
should produce a sharp solid report. If the
suspect area sounds hollow and soft, further (2) Highly suspected structurally dam-
inspection is warranted by the following meth- aged areas are shown in figure 1-3. A list of
ods. most likely areas to incur structural damage in-
clude the following:
c. Probe the area in question, if accessi-
ble, with a sharp metal tool. The wood struc- (a) Check front and rear spars for
ture should be solid and firm. If the suspect compression cracks adjacent to the plywood
area feels soft and mushy the mechanic should reinforcing plates, where the lift struts attach,
assume that the area is rotted. Disassembly of and at the rib attach points on either side of the
the structure is warranted at this point. strut attach points. Triple-check these areas
and the spar to fuselage attach points for
d. Prying the area of a bond joint will re- cracks if the wingtip has contacted the ground,
veal any mechanical separation of the joint. If a hangar wall, etc.
the mechanic detects any relative movement
between two adjacent wood members, a failure (b) Check all metal fittings which
of the bond is evident. Any loose fittings attach to wooden structure for looseness, cor-
should arouse the mechanics suspicion, and rosion, cracks, or warps. Areas of particular
the fittings should be removed to check for interest are strut attach fittings, spar butt fit-
elongated bolt holes. Disassembly is war- tings, aileron and flap hinges, jury strut fit-
ranted for further inspection. tings, compression struts, pulley brackets, and
any landing gear fittings.
e. Odor is an important indicator of pos-
sible deterioration. During the initial inspec- (c) Check front and rear spars for
tion, as the access panels are being removed longitudinal cracks at the ends of the plywood
from the structure, the mechanic should be reinforcement plates where the lift struts at-
aware of any areas that smell musty or moldy. tach. Triple-check this area if the wing has en-
countered any kind of ground strike.
(d) Check ribs on either side of strut physical damage or decay. When removing
attach points for missing or loose rib-to-spar metal fasteners from wood, check for evidence
attach nails. of corrosion. Any corrosion present indicates
the presence of moisture and the strong prob-
(e) Check ribs on either side of strut ability of decay in the adjoining wood
attach points for cracks where the cap strips structure.
pass over and under the spars.
(k) Any wooden member that has
(f) Check for cracked leading edge been overstressed is subject to compression
skin and/or failed nose ribs in the area directly failure (e.g., ground loop). Compression
in front of the jury strut. cracking and failure of the wood spars in cer-
tain aircraft are a continuing problem. Com-
(g) Check the brackets which attach pression failures are defined as failure of wood
the struts to the spars for cracks. fibers on a plane perpendicular to the wood fi-
bers longitudinal axis. If undetected, com-
(h) Check the aileron, flap hinge, and pression failures may result in structural failure
hinge brackets for cracks and loose or missing of the wing during flight. Compression cracks
rivets. have been found emanating from the upper
surfaces of the wing spars and progressing
(i) Check all exposed end grain downward.
wood, particularly the spar butts, for cracking
or checking. Checking, or splitting, of wood (l) The usual locations for cracks
spar butts is common on aircraft based in arid have been the front spar at both ends of the
areas. reinforcement plate for the lift strut and the
front spar rib attach points, both inboard and
outboard of the spar reinforcement plate; and
the rear spar lift strut and rib attach points. An
inspection of both the front and rear spars for
compression cracks is recommended.
SECTION 4. REPAIRS
1-36. GENERAL. The basic standard for both parts accurately. The strength of the
any aircraft repair is that the repaired structure joints depends upon good joint design and a
must be as strong as the original structure and thin, uniform bond line. Make the scarf cut in
be equivalent to the original in rigidity and the general direction of the grain slope as
aerodynamic shape. Repairs should be made shown in figure 1-4.
in accordance with manufacturer specifications
whenever such data is available.
Splicing under minor fittings such as drag of the aircraft. Care should be taken that any
wire, antidrag wire, or compression strut fit- replacement spars accurately match the manu-
tings is acceptable under the following condi- facturers original design.
tions:
1-42. SPLICING OF BOX SPAR WEBS.
a. The reinforcement plates of the splice Always splice and reinforce plywood webs
should not interfere with the proper attachment with the same type of plywood as found on the
or alignment of the fittings. Do not alter the original part. Do not use solid wood to replace
locations of pulley support brackets, bellcrank plywood webs. Plywood is stronger in shear
support brackets, or control surface support than solid wood of the same thickness due to
brackets. Plates are to be tapered off, as de- the grain direction of the individual plies. The
picted in figure 1-2. face-grain of plywood replacement webs and
reinforcement plates must be in the same di-
b. The reinforcement plate may overlap rection as the original member to ensure that
drag wire, antidrag wire, or compression strut the new web will have the required strength.
fittings, if the reinforcement plates are on the (The method of splicing plywood webs is
rear face of the rear spar or the front face of the shown in figure 1-9.)
front spar. In such cases, it will be necessary
to install slightly longer bolts. The front face 1-43. REPLACING SOLID-TYPE SPARS
reinforcement plate should not overlap drag WITH LAMINATED-TYPE SPARS. Solid
strut fittings, except when it does not require spars may be replaced with laminated spars or
sufficient shortening of compression struts or vice versa, provided the material is of the same
changes in drag-truss geometry, to prevent high quality. External reinforcements (ply-
adjustment for proper rigging. Even though wood or solid) must always be replaced as on
take up is sufficient, it may be necessary to the original member.
change the angles on the fittings. (Acceptable
methods for splicing the various types of spars 1-44. SPAR LONGITUDINAL CRACKS
are shown in figure 1-4 through figure 1-9.) AND LOCAL DAMAGE. Cracked spars
Reinforcement plates must be used as indi- (except box spars) may be repaired by bonding
cated on all scarf repairs to spars and the plates of spruce or plywood of sufficient
slopes of scarves shown are minimum slopes. thickness to develop the longitudinal shear on
both sides of the spar. Extend the plates well
1-41. SPAR REPLACEMENT. Replace- beyond the termination of the cracks, as shown
ment of spars is a major repair. Spars may be in figure 1-10. A method of repairing small
replaced by new parts made by the manufac- local damage to either the top or bottom side
turer or the holder of a Parts Manufacturer Ap- of a spar is also shown in figure 1-10.
proval (PMA) for that part. Owner-produced
spars may be installed providing they are made a. Longitudinal Cracking of Wood
from a manufacturer-approved drawing. Also, Wing Spars of Aircraft Operating in Arid
a spar may be made by reference to an existing Regions. Aircraft having wood spars and op-
spar providing sufficient evidence is presented erating in arid regions may develop longitudi-
to verify that the existing spar is an original nal spar cracks in the vicinity of the plywood
part, and that all materials and dimensions can reinforcement plates. These cracks result from
be determined. The dimensions and type of the tendency of the spar to shrink when drying
wood used are critical to the structural strength takes place. Plywood resists this tendency to
shrink and causes the basic spar stock to split satisfactory to perform repair rather than install
(see paragraph 1-2c). Cracks start under the a new spar or section. However, a generally
plywood plates, usually (but not necessarily) at acceptable procedure suitable for all airplane
a bolt hole or cutout, and usually spread in models is not available. Because of the possi-
each direction until they extend a short dis- bility of strength deficiencies contact the
tance beyond the ends of the plates where the manufacturer. In absence of the manufacturer,
resistance to spar shrinkage disappears. the FAA should be contacted for approval be-
Cracks have also been found in the butt end of fore making repairs not in accordance with the
spars. Other factors, which have been found manufacturer-approved instructions or the rec-
conducive to the formation of cracks are poor ommendations of this advisory circular. Lon-
protective finishes, large cutouts, and metal gitudinal cracking or the recurrence of crack-
fittings that utilize two lines of large diameter ing can be minimized by ensuring that the
bolts. moisture content of the solid wood portion is
within the proper range before bonding. In
b. Repairing Cracks Versus Installing a arid desert areas, during bonding the moisture
New Spar. The presence of cracks does not content should be in the range of 6-8 percent
necessarily mean that the spar must be dis- before bonding, but in other areas
carded. If the crack is not too long or too close 10-12 percent is satisfactory. If solid or ply-
to either edge and can be reinforced properly, wood repair stock is procured from another
it will probably be more economical and climatic region, it should be allowed to season,
in the same storage area as the part to be re- the FAA. In many cases, it has been found ad-
paired, for no less than 2 weeks. vantageous to laminate the new section of the
spar, particularly if the spar butts are being re-
c. Preventing Cracks. An important step placed.
in the prevention of longitudinal cracking,
particularly in spar butts, is to ensure that the 1-46. RIB REPAIRS. Ribs may be replaced
wood is thoroughly sealed with a penetrating by new parts made by the manufacturer or the
and highly moisture-resistant finish. Applica- holder of a PMA for that part. Owner-
tion of a thin, slow-curing epoxy adhesive or produced ribs may be installed providing they
sealer can be very effective in slowing or pre- are made from a manufacturer-approved
venting moisture changes in spar butts. drawing or by reference to an existing original
rib. A rib may be made by reference to an ex-
1-45. ELONGATED HOLES IN SPARS. isting rib providing sufficient evidence is pre-
In cases of elongated bolt holes in a spar, or sented to verify that the existing rib is an
cracks in the vicinity of bolt holes, splice in a original part and that all materials and dimen-
new section of spar, or replace the spar en- sions can be determined. The contour of the
tirely. If hole elongation or cracking is mini- rib is important to the safe flying qualities of
mal and the bolt holes are for noncritical fit- the aircraft, and care should be taken that any
tings, repair (rather than replacement) may be replacement ribs accurately match the manu-
feasible. Obtain approval for any such repair facturers original design.
from the manufacturer or a representative of
a. Rib Repair Methods. Acceptable assumed to be cracked through the cap strips,
methods of repairing damaged ribs are shown web member, and compression member in the
in figure 1-11. Wood ribs should not be nailed illustration. Cut the compression member as
to wood spars by driving nails through the rib shown in figure 1-12(D). Cut and replace the
cap strips, as this weakens the rib materially. aft portion of the cap strips, and reinforce as
The attachment should be by means of adhe- shown in figure 1-11. The plywood side plates
sive with cement coated, barbed, or spiraled are bonded on, as indicated in figure 1-12(A).
nails driven through the vertical rib members These plates are added to reinforce the dam-
on each face of the spar. aged web.
A, B, C, D = ORIGINAL DIMENSIONS
1. AFTER INSERTED WEB HAS BEEN BONDED IN PLACE, BOND COVER STRIPS OVER ENTIRE LENGTH OF
WEB SPLICE JOINTS.
2. SECTIONAL SHAPE OF FILLER BLOCKS MUST CONFORM EXACTLY TO TAPER OF SPAR. THEY MUST
NOT BE TOO TIGHTLY FITTED, FOR WEDGING ACTION WILL LOOSEN EXISTING BONDS OF WEBS TO
FLANGES. IF TOO LOOSELY FITTED, CRUSHING OF WEB WILL OCCUR WHEN CLAMPING.
3. DIRECTION OF FACE GRAIN OF INSERTED WEB SECTION AND COVER STRIPS TO BE SAME AS
ORIGINAL WEB.
FIGURE 1-10. Method of reinforcing a longitudinal crack and/or local damage in a solid spar.
for determining which process of bending temperature of this form may be as high as
should be used for the curvature being consid- 149 C (300 F), if necessary, without danger
ered. of damage to the plywood. The plywood
should be left on the heated form only long
a. Plywood, after softening, may be bent enough to dry to room conditions.
on a cold ventilated form, or it may be bent
over the leading edge near the area being 1-50. REPAIRS TO DOUBLE CURVA-
patched if space permits. In either method the TURE PLYWOOD SKIN. The molded ply-
repair part should be allowed to dry completely wood necessary for a repair to a damaged ply-
on the form. When bending plywood over a wood skin of double curvature cannot be made
leading edge, drying may be hastened by lay- from flat plywood unless the area to be re-
ing a piece of coarse burlap over the leading paired is very small or is of exceedingly slight
edge before using it as a bending form. To double curvature; therefore, molded plywood
speed drying, a fan may be used to circulate air of the proper curvature must be on hand before
around the repair part. the repair can be made. If molded plywood of
the proper curvature is available, the repair
b. In bending pieces of small radii or to may be made using the same procedure as on
speed up the bending of a large number of single curvature skins.
parts of the same curvature, it may be neces-
sary to use a heated bending form. The surface
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
1-51. TYPES OF PATCHES. There are of the taper. The difference between the radii
four types of patches: splayed patch, surface is 5T (5 times the thickness of the skin). If one
(or overlay) patch, scarf patch, and plug patch. leg of the dividers has been sharpened to a
They are all acceptable for repairing plywood chisel edge, the dividers may be used to cut the
skins. inner circle.
a. Splayed Patch. Small holes with their (2) Taper the hole evenly to the outer
largest dimensions not over 15 times the skin mark with a chisel, knife, or rasp.
thickness, in skins not more than 1/10 inch in
thickness, may be repaired by using a circular (3) Prepare a circular tapered patch to
splayed patch as illustrated in figure 1-13. The fit the prepared hole, and bond the patch into
term splayed is used to denote that the edges place with face-grain direction matching that
of the patch are tapered, but the slope is of the original surface.
steeper than is allowed in scarfing operations.
(4) Use waxed paper or plastic wrap,
(1) Lay out the patch according to fig- (cut larger than the size of the patch) between
ure 1-13. Tack a small piece of plywood over the patch and the plywood pressure plate. This
the hole for a center point and draw two circles prevents excess adhesive from bonding the
with a divider, the inner circle to be the size of pressure plate to the skin. Center the pressure
the hole and the outer circle marking the limits plate carefully over the patch.
(6) Fill, sand, and refinish the patch. (2) Nail strip or small screw clamping
is often the only method available for bonding
b. Surface Patch. Plywood skins that are scarf joints in plywood skin repairs. It is es-
damaged between or along framing members sential that all scarf joints in plywood be
may be repaired by surface or overlay patches backed with plywood or solid wood to provide
as shown in figure 1-14. Surface patches lo- adequate nail holding capacity. The face-grain
cated entirely aft of the 10 percent chord line, direction of the plywood patch must be the
or which wrap around the leading edge and same as that of the original skin.
terminate aft of the 10 percent chord line, are
permissible. Surface patches may have as (3) If the back of a damaged plywood
much as a 50 inch perimeter and may cover as skin is accessible (such as a fuselage skin), it
much as 1 frame (or rib) space. Trim the dam- should be repaired with a scarf patch, follow-
aged skin to a rectangular or triangular shape ing the details shown in figure 1-15. When-
and round the corners. The radius of rounded ever possible, the edges of the patch should be
corners must be at least 5 times the skin thick- supported as shown in section C-C of fig-
ness. Bevel the forward edges of patches lo- ure 1-15. When the damage follows or ex-
cated entirely aft of the 10 percent chord line tends to a framing member, the scarf may be
to 4 times the skin thickness. The face-grain supported as shown in section B-B of fig-
direction must be the same as the original skin. ure 1-15. Damages that do not exceed
Cover completed surface patches with fabric to 25 times the skin thickness in diameter after
match surrounding area. The fabric must being trimmed to a circular shape and are not
overlap the original fabric at least 2 inches. less than 15 times the skin thickness to a
framing member, may be repaired as shown in
c. Scarf Patch. A properly prepared and figure 1-15, section D-D.
inserted scarf patch is the best repair for dam-
aged plywood skins and is preferred for most (a) The backing block is carefully
skin repairs. Figure 1-15 shows the details and shaped from solid wood and fitted to the inside
dimensions to be used when installing typical surface of the skin, and is temporarily held in
scarf skin patches, when the back of the skin is place with nails.
accessible. Follow figure 1-16 when the back
of the skin is not accessible. The scarf slope (b) Use waxed paper or plastic wrap
of 1 in 12, shown in both figures, is the steep- to prevent bonding of the backing block to the
est slope permitted for all kinds of plywood. If skin.
the radius of curvature of the skin at all points
(c) A hole, the exact size of the in- remove and replace the old gusset plate with a
side circle of the scarf patch, is made in the new saddle gusset, or it may be necessary to
block, and is centered over the trimmed area of nail a saddle gusset over the original gusset.
damage.
(c) Attach nailing strips to hold
(d) The block is removed, after the backing strips in place while the adhesive sets.
adhesive on the patch has set, leaving a flush Use a bucking bar, where necessary, to provide
surface to the repaired skin. support for nailing. After the backing strips
are fully bonded, install the patch.
(4) Steps in making a scarf patch when
the back of the skin is not accessible are as d. Plug Patch. Either oval or round plug
follows: patches may be used on plywood skins pro-
vided the damage can be covered by the
(a) After removing damaged sec- patches whose dimensions are given in fig-
tions, install backing strips, as shown in fig- ure 1-17 and figure 1-18. The plug patch is
ure 1-16, along all edges that are not fully strictly a skin repair, and should be used only
backed by a rib or a spar. To prevent warping for damage that does not involve the support-
of the skin, backing strips should be made of a ing structure under the skin. The face-grain di-
soft-textured plywood, such as yellow poplar rection of the finished patch must match the
or spruce rather than solid wood. All junctions surrounding skin.
between backing strips and ribs or spars should
have the end of the backing strip supported by (1) Steps in making an oval plug patch
a saddle gusset of plywood. are as follows:
(b) If needed, nail and bond the new (a) Explore the area about the hole to
gusset plate to rib. It may be necessary to be sure it lies at least the width of the oval
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
doubler from a rib or a spar. Refer to fig- (f) Apply adhesive to remaining sur-
ure 1-17 for repair details. face of the doubler and to the mating surface
on the patch. Lay the patch in position over
(b) Prepare a patch and a doubler of the doubler, and screw the pressure plate to the
the same species plywood as the surrounding patch assembly using a small nail to line up the
skin using the dimensions shown in fig- holes that have been previously made with
ure 1-17. patch and plate matching. No. 4 round head
screws are used. Lead holes in the plywood
(c) Lay the oval plug patch over the doubler are not necessary. Waxed paper or
damage and trace the patch onto the skin. Saw plastic wrap between the plate and patch pre-
to the line, and trim the hole edges with a knife vents adhesive from bonding the plate to the
and sandpaper. patch. No clamps or further pressure need be
applied, as the nailing strips and screws exert
(d) Mark the exact size of the patch ample pressure.
on one surface of the oval doubler and apply
adhesive to the area outside the line. Insert (2) Round plug patches may be made
doubler through the hole and bring it, adhesive by following the steps in figure 1-18. The
side up, to the underside of the skin with the steps are identical to those for making the oval
pencil outline of the patch matching the edges patch except for the insertion of the doubler.
of the hole. If the curvature of the surface to In using the round patch, where access is from
be repaired is greater than a rise of 1/8 inch in only one side, the round doubler cannot be in-
6 inches, the doubler should be preformed by serted unless it has been split.
hot water or steam bending to the approximate
curvature. As an alternative to preforming of 1-52. FABRIC PATCH. Small holes not
the 1/4 inch stock, the doubler may be lami- exceeding 1 inch in diameter, after being
nated from two thicknesses of 1/8 inch ply. trimmed to a smooth outline, may be repaired
by doping a fabric patch on the outside of the
(e) Apply nailing strips outlining the plywood skin. The edges of the trimmed hole
hole to apply bonding pressure between dou- should first be sealed, and the fabric patch
bler and skin. Use a bucking bar to provide should overlap the plywood skin by at least
support for nailing. When two rows of nails 1 inch. Holes nearer than 1 inch to any frame
are used, stagger nail spacing. Allow adhesive member, or in the leading edge or frontal area
to cure. of the fuselage, should not be repaired with
fabric patches.
DIMENSIONS
A B C
SMALL CIRCULAR PLUG PATCH 2 5/8 2 1 3/8
LARGE CIRCULAR PLUG PATCH 3 7/8 3 2 1/8
1-63. [RESERVED.]
1-53.
1-51. TYPES OF PATCHES. There are of the taper. The difference between the radii
four types of patches: splayed patch, surface is 5T (5 times the thickness of the skin). If one
(or overlay) patch, scarf patch, and plug patch. leg of the dividers has been sharpened to a
They are all acceptable for repairing plywood chisel edge, the dividers may be used to cut the
skins. inner circle.
a. Splayed Patch. Small holes with their (2) Taper the hole evenly to the outer
largest dimensions not over 15 times the skin mark with a chisel, knife, or rasp.
thickness, in skins not more than 1/10 inch in
thickness, may be repaired by using a circular (3) Prepare a circular tapered patch to
splayed patch as illustrated in figure 1-13. The fit the prepared hole, and bond the patch into
term splayed is used to denote that the edges place with face-grain direction matching that
of the patch are tapered, but the slope is of the original surface.
steeper than is allowed in scarfing operations.
(4) Use waxed paper or plastic wrap,
(1) Lay out the patch according to fig- (cut larger than the size of the patch) between
ure 1-13. Tack a small piece of plywood over the patch and the plywood pressure plate. This
the hole for a center point and draw two circles prevents excess adhesive from bonding the
with a divider, the inner circle to be the size of pressure plate to the skin. Center the pressure
the hole and the outer circle marking the limits plate carefully over the patch.
(6) Fill, sand, and refinish the patch. (2) Nail strip or small screw clamping
is often the only method available for bonding
b. Surface Patch. Plywood skins that are scarf joints in plywood skin repairs. It is es-
damaged between or along framing members sential that all scarf joints in plywood be
may be repaired by surface or overlay patches backed with plywood or solid wood to provide
as shown in figure 1-14. Surface patches lo- adequate nail holding capacity. The face-grain
cated entirely aft of the 10 percent chord line, direction of the plywood patch must be the
or which wrap around the leading edge and same as that of the original skin.
terminate aft of the 10 percent chord line, are
permissible. Surface patches may have as (3) If the back of a damaged plywood
much as a 50 inch perimeter and may cover as skin is accessible (such as a fuselage skin), it
much as 1 frame (or rib) space. Trim the dam- should be repaired with a scarf patch, follow-
aged skin to a rectangular or triangular shape ing the details shown in figure 1-15. When-
and round the corners. The radius of rounded ever possible, the edges of the patch should be
corners must be at least 5 times the skin thick- supported as shown in section C-C of fig-
ness. Bevel the forward edges of patches lo- ure 1-15. When the damage follows or ex-
cated entirely aft of the 10 percent chord line tends to a framing member, the scarf may be
to 4 times the skin thickness. The face-grain supported as shown in section B-B of fig-
direction must be the same as the original skin. ure 1-15. Damages that do not exceed
Cover completed surface patches with fabric to 25 times the skin thickness in diameter after
match surrounding area. The fabric must being trimmed to a circular shape and are not
overlap the original fabric at least 2 inches. less than 15 times the skin thickness to a
framing member, may be repaired as shown in
c. Scarf Patch. A properly prepared and figure 1-15, section D-D.
inserted scarf patch is the best repair for dam-
aged plywood skins and is preferred for most (a) The backing block is carefully
skin repairs. Figure 1-15 shows the details and shaped from solid wood and fitted to the inside
dimensions to be used when installing typical surface of the skin, and is temporarily held in
scarf skin patches, when the back of the skin is place with nails.
accessible. Follow figure 1-16 when the back
of the skin is not accessible. The scarf slope (b) Use waxed paper or plastic wrap
of 1 in 12, shown in both figures, is the steep- to prevent bonding of the backing block to the
est slope permitted for all kinds of plywood. If skin.
the radius of curvature of the skin at all points
(c) A hole, the exact size of the in- remove and replace the old gusset plate with a
side circle of the scarf patch, is made in the new saddle gusset, or it may be necessary to
block, and is centered over the trimmed area of nail a saddle gusset over the original gusset.
damage.
(c) Attach nailing strips to hold
(d) The block is removed, after the backing strips in place while the adhesive sets.
adhesive on the patch has set, leaving a flush Use a bucking bar, where necessary, to provide
surface to the repaired skin. support for nailing. After the backing strips
are fully bonded, install the patch.
(4) Steps in making a scarf patch when
the back of the skin is not accessible are as d. Plug Patch. Either oval or round plug
follows: patches may be used on plywood skins pro-
vided the damage can be covered by the
(a) After removing damaged sec- patches whose dimensions are given in fig-
tions, install backing strips, as shown in fig- ure 1-17 and figure 1-18. The plug patch is
ure 1-16, along all edges that are not fully strictly a skin repair, and should be used only
backed by a rib or a spar. To prevent warping for damage that does not involve the support-
of the skin, backing strips should be made of a ing structure under the skin. The face-grain di-
soft-textured plywood, such as yellow poplar rection of the finished patch must match the
or spruce rather than solid wood. All junctions surrounding skin.
between backing strips and ribs or spars should
have the end of the backing strip supported by (1) Steps in making an oval plug patch
a saddle gusset of plywood. are as follows:
(b) If needed, nail and bond the new (a) Explore the area about the hole to
gusset plate to rib. It may be necessary to be sure it lies at least the width of the oval
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
doubler from a rib or a spar. Refer to fig- (f) Apply adhesive to remaining sur-
ure 1-17 for repair details. face of the doubler and to the mating surface
on the patch. Lay the patch in position over
(b) Prepare a patch and a doubler of the doubler, and screw the pressure plate to the
the same species plywood as the surrounding patch assembly using a small nail to line up the
skin using the dimensions shown in fig- holes that have been previously made with
ure 1-17. patch and plate matching. No. 4 round head
screws are used. Lead holes in the plywood
(c) Lay the oval plug patch over the doubler are not necessary. Waxed paper or
damage and trace the patch onto the skin. Saw plastic wrap between the plate and patch pre-
to the line, and trim the hole edges with a knife vents adhesive from bonding the plate to the
and sandpaper. patch. No clamps or further pressure need be
applied, as the nailing strips and screws exert
(d) Mark the exact size of the patch ample pressure.
on one surface of the oval doubler and apply
adhesive to the area outside the line. Insert (2) Round plug patches may be made
doubler through the hole and bring it, adhesive by following the steps in figure 1-18. The
side up, to the underside of the skin with the steps are identical to those for making the oval
pencil outline of the patch matching the edges patch except for the insertion of the doubler.
of the hole. If the curvature of the surface to In using the round patch, where access is from
be repaired is greater than a rise of 1/8 inch in only one side, the round doubler cannot be in-
6 inches, the doubler should be preformed by serted unless it has been split.
hot water or steam bending to the approximate
curvature. As an alternative to preforming of 1-52. FABRIC PATCH. Small holes not
the 1/4 inch stock, the doubler may be lami- exceeding 1 inch in diameter, after being
nated from two thicknesses of 1/8 inch ply. trimmed to a smooth outline, may be repaired
by doping a fabric patch on the outside of the
(e) Apply nailing strips outlining the plywood skin. The edges of the trimmed hole
hole to apply bonding pressure between dou- should first be sealed, and the fabric patch
bler and skin. Use a bucking bar to provide should overlap the plywood skin by at least
support for nailing. When two rows of nails 1 inch. Holes nearer than 1 inch to any frame
are used, stagger nail spacing. Allow adhesive member, or in the leading edge or frontal area
to cure. of the fuselage, should not be repaired with
fabric patches.
DIMENSIONS
A B C
SMALL CIRCULAR PLUG PATCH 2 5/8 2 1 3/8
LARGE CIRCULAR PLUG PATCH 3 7/8 3 2 1/8
1-63. [RESERVED.]
1-53.
misalignment when mating the parts. It is abrasion, weather, and sunlight. (See chap-
preferable to leave some unsealed areas rather ter 2.) Tests have shown that the interior tem-
than risk weakening the joint by accidental perature of wooden aircraft structures can
overlap of the sealer into the bonded areas. reach 185 F when the aircraft is finished in a
Wherever possible, apply sealer to the margins dark color and parked outdoors on a hot, still
after the adhesive has cured. As an example, day. Exposure to prolonged high temperature
the lower skin of a wing bay would be in- is detrimental to wood, adhesives, and finishes.
stalled first, leaving access from above to ap- Wood loses approximately 25 percent of its
ply sealer. All low spots (where moisture strength at 125 F. For this reason, the me-
would collect) are well sealed. The top skin chanic should consider temperature effects
would be installed last, so that the only un- when selecting finish colors or looking for ar-
sealed margins would be on upper surfaces eas of likely deterioration. The lowest tem-
where moisture is least likely to collect. peratures are found when the aircraft is fin-
ished in white or very light colors, while
e. An alternative to the previous para- darker colors produce higher temperatures. A
graph is to use an approved epoxy coating and general trend toward higher temperatures may
compatible epoxy adhesive. Apply the coat- be seen when exterior colors are yellow, pink,
ing, allowing 1/4 inch margins as in the previ- light blue, aluminum, purple, blue, light green,
ous paragraph. After the coating has cured, orange, tan, red, green, brown, and black. A
apply epoxy adhesive to joint surfaces, and lighter shade of a particular color helps to re-
overlap the adhesive onto the sealer. Close duce temperatures.
joint and clamp. The epoxy adhesive will
bond satisfactorily to the coating and ensure a 1-69. FINISHING OF END GRAIN SUR-
complete coverage of the wood surfaces. Use FACES. End grain portions of wooden mem-
only approved and compatible adhesives and bers are much more absorbent than side grain.
coatings for this method. Because of this extreme vulnerability to mois-
ture entry, it is necessary to take extra precau-
1-67. FINISHING OF INTERIOR SUR- tions to seal end grain.
FACES. Finish repaired ribs, spars, interior of
plywood skin, and other internal members, in- a. Apply at least one thinned coat of ac-
cluding areas of contact between metal and ceptable sealer to ensure maximum penetra-
wood, by applying one thinned coat (for pene- tion, and then follow with as many full
tration into wood grain) of varnish or other ac- strength coats as necessary to achieve a
ceptable finish, followed by two full coats. smooth, glossy coating. Depending on the
Protect built-up box spars and similar closed type wood to be finished, two to four full coats
structures on the interior in the same way. will be required. A final coat of aluminized
Where better protection is required, as on the varnish may be applied to end grain surfaces.
surfaces of wheel wells and the bottoms of If the surfaces are to be finished with dope or
hulls below the floor boards, an additional coat lacquer, a dope-proof sealer, similar to Federal
of aluminized sealer consisting of 12 to Specification TT-V-109, or epoxy sealer
16 ounces of aluminum paste per gallon of should be used.
sealer, may be applied.
b. Exposed end grain includes such sur-
1-68. FINISHING OF EXTERIOR SUR- faces as spar butts, skin edges, areas around
FACES. Exterior surfaces require more pro- vent holes, inspection holes, fittings, and ex-
tection than interior areas due to the effects of posed scarfed or tapered surfaces.
1-70. FINISHING WITH FABRIC OR proper penetration, and at least one spray coat
TAPE. A number of systems for exterior fin- of clear dope. The dried spray coat may be
ishing have STC approval and are manufac- sanded with fine sandpaper to obtain a
tured under a PMA. Follow the product manu- smoother finish. Complete the refinishing of
facturer's instructions for the system used. the surface by application of a topcoat as re-
quired to match the adjacent area.
a. If the finish surrounding the repair is
a traditional dope system, seal the wood grain 1-71. SEALING OF BOLT HOLES. Bolt
with a suitable solvent resistant one-part var- holes in wooden structure provide a vulnerable
nish, commonly described as dope proof, or entry point for moisture. Variations in mois-
a two-part epoxy varnish. Follow with two ture content around bolt holes can lead to de-
coats of clear dope, and allow sufficient drying cay or splitting. In addition, excessive mois-
time between coats. ture at bolt holes promotes corrosion of the
bolts. Sealing of the wood surfaces in bolt
b. Apply a third coat of clear dope and holes can be accomplished by application of
lay a piece of pinked-edge airplane cloth into varnish or other acceptable sealer into the open
the wet film. All air bubbles should be worked hole. The sealer must be allowed to dry or
out by brushing to ensure maximum adhesion. cure thoroughly prior to bolt installation.
When dry, apply one brush coat, to ensure
1-79. [RESERVED.]
1-72.
2-1. GENERAL. Cotton and Irish linen fab 2-3. AIRCRAFT FABRIC-SYNTHETIC.
rics were the airframe coverings of choice
from WWI through the 1950s. However, in a. STC-Approved Covering Materials.
creases in cost and the short lifespan of natural There is a wide selection of STC-approved
fabrics became the driving factors which re covering materials available which utilize
sulted in almost 100 percent replacement of synthetic fabric falling within the generic class
original airframe fabrics by man-made, Polyester and may vary in characteristics.
STC-approved, polyester, and glass filament Difference in the fabric may be denier, tenac
fabric. ity, thread count, weight, shrink, tension, and
weave style.
2-2. PROBLEM AREAS.
b. Polyester Filaments. Polyester Fila
a. Deterioration. Polyester fabric dete ments are manufactured by polymerization of
riorates only by exposure to ultraviolet radia various select acids and alcohols, then extrud
tion as used in an aircraft covering environ ing the resulting molten polymers through
ment. When coatings completely protect the spinnerets to form filaments. The filaments
fabric its service life is infinite. Therefore, it is are heat stretched to reduce to the desired
very important to thoroughly protect the denier or size. It is the heat stretching that im
structure from deterioration before covering parts a memory in the filaments causing them
and provide adequate inspection access to all to try and return to their original shorter length
areas of fabric-covered components to allow when reheated at a controlled temperature.
inspection for corrosion, wood rot, and mice Overheating will cancel the memory and melt
infestation. Multiple drain holes in the lower the filaments.
ends of all fabric-covered sections also provide
needed ventilation to remove condensation. c. Covering Procedures. Coating types,
covering accessories, and covering procedures
b. Tension. Polyester fabric obtains also may vary; therefore, the covering proce
maximum tension on an airframe at 350 F, dures given in the pertinent manuals must be
and will not be excessive on aircraft originally followed to comply with the STC. The FAA
covered with natural fabric and 12 coats of STC-approved installation takes precedence
Nitrate or Butyrate Dope. However, dope ap over instructions in this advisory circular.
plied over full heat-tauted fabric can develop
excess tension after aging and damage light d. Installation. Initial installation of
aircraft structures. Coatings other than dope polyester fabric is similar to natural fabric.
will not increase fabric tension after aging. The fabric is installed with as little slack as
The heat-tauting instructions given in the possible, considering fittings and other protru
manual of each STC-approved covering proc sions. It may be sewn into an envelope, in
ess should be followed. stalled as a blanket, or installed by cementing
to the airframe with a fabric cement. Each
STC may differ in the cement seam overlap,
type of sewn seam, heat shrinking procedures,
and temperature.
a. Battery Box Treatment. An asphaltic, with a # 44 (0.086) drill bit. Size 6 screws,
rubber-based acid-proof coating should be ap drill bit size # 36 (0.1065), may be installed in
plied to the structure in the area of a battery stripped or worn holes drilled for
box, by brush, for additional protection from size 4 screws, usually without redrilling. Worn
battery acid. Control cables routed in the area holes for wire clips and wire barbs should be
of the battery box should be coated with redrilled a minimum 1-1/2 hole distance from
paralketone. the original locations using a drill jig to ensure
correct spacing, with the appropriate size drill
b. Worn Holes. Oversized screw holes or bit. Drill bit size # 30 (0.128) may be used to
worn size 4 self-tapping screw holes through redrill oversize holes for 1/8-inch diameter
ribs and other structures used to attach fabric blind rivets a minimum 1-1/2 hole diameter
may be redrilled a minimum 1-1/2 hole di distance from the original location.
ameter distance from the original hole location
c. Fairing Precautions. Aluminum and stainless steel parts need not be dope-
leading edge replacement fairings installed in proofed.
short sections may telescope during normal
spar bending loads or from thermal expansion (1) A solvent-sensitive primer on fer
and contraction. This action may cause a rous metal and aluminum alloy components
wrinkle to form in the fabric, at the edge of the which will be in contact with fabric may be
lap joint. Leading edge fairing sections may protected from solvent damage by overcoating
be fastened together with rivets or screws to with a two-part epoxy primer. Epoxy primer
prevent telescoping after installation. Trailing meeting MIL-P-53022B is acceptable.
edges should be adequately secured to prevent
movement and wrinkles. (2) Small metal or wood surfaces, such
as rib caps, to which fabric will not be dope
d. Dope Protection. Solvents found in bonded as a part of the particular fabric at
nitrate and butyrate dope will penetrate, wrin tachment procedure may be protected from
kle, lift, or dissolve most one-part wood var dope damage by cellophane tape or aluminum
nishes and one-part metal primers. All wood foil.
surfaces that come in contact with doped fabric
should be treated with a protective coating e. Chafe Protection. Fabric and finishing
such as aluminum foil, cellulose tape, or dope- tape is often cut through with sandpaper over
proof paint to protect them against the action sharp edges during the coating and finishing
of the solvents in the dope. This can also be procedure and later polishing. All sharp metal
accomplished by recoating with a suitable, edges or protruding screws, nails, rivets, and
solvent resistant two-part epoxy varnish, which bolt heads should be covered with an anti-
will be impervious to solvent penetration and chafe tape to prevent cutting and wearing
damage after curing. Clad aluminum through the fabric after installation. Use
appropriate non-bleeding cotton adhesive glass fiber deck cloth instead of fabric, no
coated tape, finishing tape, or strips of fabric, sealer or dope should be applied to the ply
cut from the fabric being used to cover the air wood as it would inhibit penetration of epoxy
craft, doped in place. resin.
(1) Small holes cut through the fabric to (1) Sand plywood surfaces as needed to
accommodate flying wires, control cables, and remove old loose dope or varnish residue to
fittings, must be reinforced with finishing tape provide a clean bonding surface. Remove any
or fabric patches cut from the same fabric used oil, grease, or other contamination with a suit
for the covering. able solvent such as naphtha. Small, rough ar
eas and irregularities in the plywood surface
(2) Areas needing additional chafe pro and around any plywood repairs may be filled
tection such as control cables routed firm and smoothed with an appropriate commercial
against the fabric surface should be protected grade wood filler. Filling large warp depres
with patches cut from cotton duck, leather, or sions on plywood surfaces with a wood filler
plastic. These patches may be sewn, doped, or for cosmetic purposes is not acceptable.
cemented in place, as appropriate.
(2) After cleaning and sanding all ply
(3) Any drag and anti-drag wires in the wood surfaces, seal the wood grain with a suit
wings should be protected from chafing at able solvent resistant two-part epoxy varnish.
cross points. After the varnish has thoroughly dried, apply
two brush or spray coats of clear dope, allow
f. Inter-Rib Bracing. Use a woven fabric ing sufficient drying time between coats.
tape of the same quality and width as that used
for the rib lace reinforcing, where so incorpo 2-7. FABRIC SEAMS. Seams parallel to
rated in the wing design by the original aircraft the line of flight are preferable; however,
manufacturer. When the original routing for spanwise seams are acceptable.
the inter rib bracing is not known, the tape will
be routed diagonally, alternating between the a. Sewn Seams.
top and bottom of each rib cap on each succes
sive rib, if a single pair, half way between the (1) Machine-sewn seams should be
front and rear spars. The number of tape pairs double stitched using any of the styles illus
will duplicate the original aircraft manufac trated in figure 2-1 A, B, C, or D. A machine-
turers installation. Tapes will be routed con sewn seam used to close an envelope at a
tinuously from the wing butt to the wingtip wingtip, wing trailing edge, empennage and
bow, with one turn of tape around each inter control surface trailing edge, and a fuselage
mediate rib cap strip. Care should be given to longeron may be made with a single stitch
position the tape so as not to interfere with when the seam will be positioned over a
control cables, bellcranks or push-pull rods. structure. (See figure 2-1 E.) The envelope
size should accommodate fittings or other
g. Preparation of Plywood Surfaces for small protrusions with minimum excess for in
Covering. Prior to covering plywood sur stallation. Thick or protruding leading edge
faces, prepare the surface by sanding, cleaning, sewn seams should be avoided on thin airfoils
and applying sealer and dope. When plywood with a sharp leading edge radius because they
surfaces are to be covered with light weight may act as a stall strip.
(2) Hand sew, with plain overthrow or that will minimize any protrusions. Cover the
baseball stitches at a minimum of four stitches seams with finishing tape at least 3 inches
per inch, or permanent tacking, to the point wide, centering the tape on the seam.
where uncut fabric or a machine-sewn seam is
reached. Lock hand sewing at a maximum (7) Sewn seams parallel to the line of
of 10 stitch intervals with a double half hitch, flight (chordwise) may be located over ribs.
and tie off the end stitch with a double half However, careful attention must be given to
hitch. At the point where the hand-sewing or avoid damage to the seam threads by rib lace
permanent tacking is necessary, cut the fabric needles, screws, rivets, or wire clips that are
so that it can be doubled under a minimum of used to attach the fabric to the rib. Cover
3/8 inch before sewing or permanent tacking is chordwise seams with a finishing tape at least
performed. (See figure 2-2.) 3 inches wide with the tape centered on the
seam.
(3) After hand sewing is complete, any
temporary tacks used to secure the fabric over b. Doped Seams.
wood structures may be removed.
(1) For an overlapped and doped span-
(4) Cover a sewn spanwise seam on a wise seam on a wings leading edge, overlap
wings leading edge with a minimum 4-inch the fabric at least 4 inches and cover with fin
wide pinked-edged surface tape with the tape ishing tape at least 4 inches wide, with the tape
centered on the seam. centered at the outside edge of the overlap
seam.
(5) Cover a spanwise-sewn seam at the
wing trailing edge with pinked-edge surface (2) For an overlapped and doped span-
tape that is at least 3 inches wide. For aircraft wise seam at the trailing edge, lap the fabric at
with never-exceed speeds in excess of least 3 inches and cover with pinked-edge sur
200 mph, cut V notches at least 1 inch in depth face tape at least 4 inches wide, with the tape
and 1/4 inch in width in both edges of the sur centered on the outside edge of the overlap
face tape when used to cover spanwise seams seam.
on trailing edges of control surfaces. Space
notches at intervals not exceeding 6 inches. (3) For an overlapped and doped seam
On tape less than 3 inches wide, the notches on wingtips, wing butts, perimeters of wing
should be 1/3 the tape width. In the event the control surfaces, perimeters of empennage sur
surface tape begins to separate because of poor faces, and all fuselage areas, overlap the fabric
adhesion or other causes, the tape will tear at a 2 inches and cover with a finishing tape that is
notched section, thus preventing progressive at least 3 inches wide, centered on the outside
loosening of the entire length of the tape which edge of the overlap seam.
could seriously affect the controllability of the
aircraft. A loose tape acts as a trim tab only on (4) For an overlapped and doped seam
a movable surface. It becomes a spoiler on a on a wings leading edge, on aircraft with a
fixed surface and has no effect at the trailing velocity never exceed (Vne) speed up to and
edge other than drag. including 150 mph, overlap the fabric 2 inches
and cover with a finishing tape that is at least
(6) Make spanwise-sewn seams on the 3 inches wide, with the tape centered on the
wings upper or lower surfaces in a manner outside edge of the overlap seam.
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
(5) For an overlapped and doped seam (1) An alternative method, when fabric
on the perimeter of a wing (except a leading of sufficient width is available, is to sew to
edge), perimeters of wing control surfaces, pe gether, side-by-side, two sections of fabric,
rimeters of empennage surfaces, and all areas placing the seams spanwise on the leading
of a fuselage, on aircraft with a Vne speed up edge, then fit and sew the wingtip and trailing
to and including 150 mph, overlap the fabric edge in the same manner as the multiple piece
1 inch and cover with a finishing tape that is at chordwise envelope.
least 3 inches wide, centered on the outside
edge of the overlap seam. (2) An envelope may be developed for
the fuselage in the same manner, with a final
2-8. COVERING METHODS. The closing along a longeron by hand-sewn or
method of fabric attachment should be identi overlapped and doped seams in accordance
cal, as far as strength and reliability are con with the aircraft Vne speed.
cerned, to the method used by the manufac
turer of the airplane being recovered or re b. The Blanket Method. A blanket is
paired. Carefully remove the old fabric from developed by sewing together, side-by-side,
the airframe, noting the location of inspection multiple sections of fabric with the seams
covers, drain grommets, and method of at chordwise or two wide sections of fabric,
tachment. Cotton or linen fabric may be ap side-by-side, placing the seam spanwise on the
plied so that either the warp or fill-threads are leading edge, the same as an envelope. Close
parallel to the line of flight. Either the enve the three remaining sides with a hand-sewn
lope method or blanket method of covering is seam or overlapped and doped seams in accor
acceptable. dance with the aircraft Vne speed. Small
components may be covered by wrapping one
a. The Envelope Method. A wing enve piece of fabric over a straight leading or trail
lope may be developed by two methods. Ma ing edge, then closing three sides with hand-
chine sew together, side by side multiple fabric stitched or overlapped and doped seams in ac
sections, cut to reach chordwise around the cordance with the aircraft Vne speed.
wing, starting and ending at the trailing edge
with a minimum of 1 inch excess length. The NOTE: All overlapped and doped
sewn envelope is then positioned around the seams will be made only over under-
wing and secured with closely spaced T-Head lying supporting structures extending
pins at the wingtip and trailing edge. Excess the full width of the seam.
material may then be trimmed. Carefully re
move the envelope and complete by machine c. Machine-sewn alternate. An alternate
sewing at the wingtip and along the trailing to machine-sewn seams on a wing envelope or
edge, except where the geometry of the wing blanket is to use two sections of wide fabric
(aileron and flap cut out) would prevent the spanwise. Attach the fabric with overlapped
sewn envelope from being reinstalled. After and doped seams at the leading and trailing
reinstalling the envelope, the un-sewn sections edge, wingtip and wing butt, in accordance
and butt end are then closed by hand-sewn or with the aircraft Vne speeds. (Reference para
overlapped and doped seams in accordance graph 2-7 b.) Smaller components may be
with the aircraft Vne speed. (Refer to para covered in the same manner. The fuselage may
graph 2-7 b.) be covered with multiple fabric sections with
overlapped and doped seams on the longerons b. Reinforcing tapes should be of the
or other wide fabric-forming structures in ac appropriate width for hardware attachment
cordance with the aircraft Vne speed. (Refer such as screws, rivets, wire clips, etc., which
ence paragraph 2-7 b.) pierce the center of the tape. Reinforcing tape
under cord lacing should be the same width as
d. Holes in Fabric. Never cut any holes the rib to which the fabric is laced and may be
in the fabric for inspection panels, spar fittings, comprised of multiple widths positioned
or drain grommets; or attach the fabric to the side-by-side to achieve the required width.
airframe with rib lacing screws, rivets, clips, or
rib stitch cord until the fabric has been semi- c. When the aircraft Vne speed is over
tauted and stabilized with several coats of 250 mph, anti-tear strips, cut from the same
dope. quality fabric used to cover the aircraft, are
recommended for use under reinforcing tape
2-9. REINFORCING TAPE. on the entire top surface of the wing and on the
portion of the wings bottom surface in the
a. Reinforcing tape should be securely propeller slipstream. The propeller slipstream
bonded to the fabric surface with dope before is considered to be the propeller diameter plus
cord lacing or installation of hardware. Where one outboard rib. The anti-tear strip should be
multiple attachments are in close proximity, installed completely around the wing, begin
such as on a wing rib, continuous reinforcing ning and ending at the trailing edge in the pro
tape should be installed, extending at least peller slipstream, and installed from the trail
1 inch past the last attachment at each end. ing edge over the leading edge and back under
Random or wide spacing, such as on fuselage to the front spar on the balance of the ribs.
stringers or empennage surfaces, may be rein Anti-tear strips should extend 1/2 inch past the
forced with 2-inch lengths of reinforcing tape wing rib cap edges and be thoroughly bonded
centered on the attachment location. to the fabric with dope before the reinforcing
tape is installed. (See figure 2-3.)
NOTE: When the type of rib lace c. Stationary structures interfering with
knot used by the original aircraft needle routing may be circumvented by align
manufacturer is not known, the modi- ing the needle forward or aft adjacent to the rib
fied seine knot shown in figure 2-4 cap. Pull the needle through the wing and then
through figure 2-9c will be used. return through the same hole and exit at the
desired adjacent location.
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
FIGURE 2-9a. Alternate sequence to tie a modified seine knot for rib lacing.
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
FIGURE 2-9b. Alternate sequence to tie a modified seine knot for rib lacing.
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
Step 9. Pull cord section D perpendicular to the fabric sur- Step 10. After all slack is removed by pulling cord section D,
face to remove all slack in the cord back to the last switch hands and place a thumbnail on the loose
rib lacing knot while working the loose knot to the knot formed on the right-hand side, then secure the
right side. Do not pull cord section E. knot by pulling firmly perpendicular to the fabric
surface on cord section E.
FIGURE 2-9c. Alternate sequence to tie a modified seine knot for rib lacing.
next rib lace location with the cord and knot aircraft manufacturer, should be reinstalled in
remaining on top of the fabric surface as illus the same location and spacing as installed by
trated in figure 2-5, figure 2-6, and figure 2-8. the original aircraft manufacturer. The lace
An alternate method is to route the needle un cord is routed around the stringer, rib cap, or
der the fabric and out through the next lace lo other structure using an appropriate length,
cation, then back down through the wing as single or double pointed, curved needle as il
illustrated in figure 2-9a through figure 2-9c. lustrated in figure 2-11. Blind laces are tied
A modified seine knot is then tied as illustrated with a square knot, then pulled tight and se
in figure 2-4 through figure 2-9c. cured with a half hitch at each side. The lace
may be rotated to place the knot under the fab
(1) Rotate each lace loop to place the ric surface before cutting the cord.
knot at the side of the rib cap to reduce the
protrusion and aerodynamic interference be
fore moving to the next lace location, or the
cord routed under the fabric to the next lace
location as illustrated in figure 2-9a through
figure 2-9c. The end cord is then cut off leav
ing a minimum of 1/4 inch stub. Lacing ten
sion should be uniform.
FIGURE 2-11. Blindstitch lacing - square knot secured with half hitches.
b. When the original lace spacing on the affected by solvents found in adhesives or
empennage surfaces and fuselage, is not dopes, nor do they become brittle because of
known, a maximum spacing of two times the age or cold weather.
spacing shown in figure 2-12 for the slipstream
area (prop wash) on the wings may be used. 2-12. FASTENERS. Several light aircraft
designs employ screws, rivets, or single-wire
c. The installations of fabric attach- metal clips to secure the fabric to the wing.
ments such as screws, rivets, wire clips, and
rib lacing should be delayed until the fabric is a. Screws holding the old fabric can be
stabilized and pulled taut with dope. This ac removed after spinning a small sharpened tube
tion is delayed to avoid pulling wing ribs and around each screw or using a razor blade to cut
other structures out of alignment or tearing the and peel away the finishing tape. Care must be
fabric at attachment points as the fabric be taken not to mark or scribe the underlying
comes taut. All lacing should be installed ad metal or wood structure. Blind rivets through
jacent to the structure to which the fabric is ribs can be removed by drilling in the center to
being laced, to avoid tearing the fabric and/or undercut the head.
creating slack in the cord loop when a load is
applied. Where plastic washers were used by b. Single-wire clips may be removed
the aircraft manufacturer to provide increased without damage to the rib by inserting a wide,
pull-through resistance, under the heads of riv thin screwdriver blade under the clip and care
ets or screws, the same diameter aluminum fully twisting. Apply a lifting force at the clip
washer may be used as replacement. Alumi end to pull it up through the hole.
num washers are used because they are not
NOTE: It is important that any dam- width should be sufficient to bond the fabric a
age found to ribs, such as oversize minimum of 3/8 inch on each side of all fabric
rivet or screw holes, and cracks or attachments. Two inch width tape is normally
breaks in the rib cap, should be tagged used. Tapes over wing rib lacing should ex
immediately for easy location and re- tend a minimum of 1/2 inch past each end of
pair later. any reinforcing tapes. Random or widely-
spaced attachments may be covered by indi
c. When repairs are made to fabric sur vidual sections of fabric or finishing tape.
faces attached by special mechanical methods,
duplicate the original type of fastener. When c. Installation of finishing tapes for ad
self-tapping screws are used for the attachment ditional wear resistance is recommended over
of fabric to the rib structure, observe the fol the edges of all fabric-forming structures. This
lowing procedure: includes fuselage stringers, longerons, leading
and trailing edges, false or nose ribs, control
(1) Redrill the holes where necessary surfaces, and empennage ribs not already cov
due to wear, distortion, etc., and in such cases, ered and protected by a finishing tape that is
use a screw one size larger as a replacement. required to be on a fabric seam or fabric at
tached to the structure. Compound surfaces,
(2) Extend the length of the screw be such as wingtip bow and empennage surfaces,
yond the rib capstrip at least two threads. are more conveniently taped using bias cut
finishing tape, which easily conforms to the
(3) Install a thin washer, preferably compound contour, rather than notching linear
aluminum, under the heads of screws and dope cut tape to fit the surface. Bias cut tape will be
pinked-edge tape over each screw head. reduced to approximately two thirds the origi
nal cut width when pulled tight around a
2-13. FINISHING TAPE. wingtip bow and should be considered when
selecting the width of tape for the various lo
a. Finishing tape (surface tape) is in cations.
stalled after the fabric has been pulled taut
with the initial dope application. This proce d. Finishing tapes are applied by coating
dure is performed to prevent ripples from the fabric surface over which the tape will be
forming in fabric panels adjacent to newly ap applied with dope, applying the tape over the
plied tapes. Ripple formation is caused by the wet dope film, then brushing the tape firmly
inability of the combined tape and fabric to onto the fabric surface. This action will assure
tighten uniformly with adjacent fabric when a good bond by thoroughly saturating and wet
additional dope is applied. ting the finishing tape.
b. In addition to the tape widths re- 2-14. INSPECTION RINGS AND DRAIN
quired to be installed over fabric seams speci GROMMETS.
fied in paragraph 2-7, finishing tape should be
installed as weather protection over all rib a. Inspection Rings. Inspection access is
lacing, screws, rivets, wire clips, or other de provided adjacent to or over every control
vices used to secure fabric. This includes bellcrank, drag-wire junction, cable guide,
wings, control surface ribs, empennage surface pulley, wing fitting, or any other component
ribs, and fuselage stringers, where so installed throughout the aircraft which will be inspected
by the original aircraft manufacturer. Tape or serviced annually. They are installed only
on the bottom side of the wings except where through openings in the sides and top, and
installed on the top surface by the original when flying, everywhere throughout the
manufacturer. structure. Taxiing on wet runways also
splashes water up through any bottom holes.
(1) Cutting the holes may be delayed Therefore, provisions must be made to drain
until needed; however, all covers should be water from the lowest point in each fabric
finished in matching colors with any trim lines panel or plywood component throughout the
and stored until needed. Spraying matching airframe while in a stored attitude. Drain holes
colors a year later is expensive and time con also provide needed ventilation.
suming.
(1) Install drain grommets on the under
(2) The 3-9/16 inch inside diameter side of all components, at the lowest point in
cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) plastic in each fabric panel, when the aircraft is in stored
spection access rings have become popular and attitude. Seaplane grommets, which feature a
bond satisfactorily with Nitrate Dope or Fabric protruding lip to prevent water splashes
Cement. Any metal inspection hole rein through the drain hole, are recommended over
forcements of a particular shape or special de drain holes subject to water splashing on land
sign or size, installed by the original manu planes as well as seaplanes. The appropriate-
facturer, should be reinstalled after cleaning. size holes must be cut through the fabric be
fore installing seaplane grommets. Plastic
(3) Tapes or patches over aluminum drain grommets may be doped directly to the
reinforcements are optional, but recommended fabric surface or mounted on fabric patches
in the prop-wash areas on the wings and for then doped to the covering. Installing a small
ward fuselage bottom. fabric patch over flat grommets to ensure secu
rity is optional. Alternate brass grommets are
(4) Fabric patches over plastic rings are mounted on fabric patches, then doped to the
strongly recommended because plastic is not a fabric.
stable material, becomes brittle at low tem
peratures, and fatigues and cracks from prop (2) After all coating applications and
blast vibration. Plastic rings are often cracked sanding are completed, open all holes through
during removal and installation of spring, clip- flat drain grommets by cutting through the fab
held covers. Patches with a minimum 1-inch ric with a small-blade knife. Do not attempt to
overlap, should be installed with dope. open drain holes by punching with a sharp ob
ject because the drain hole will not remain
b. Drain Grommets. Atmospheric tem open.
perature changes cause the humidity in the air
to condense on the inside of aircraft surfaces 2-19. [RESERVED.]
2-15.
and pool in all low areas. Rainwater enters
2-20. GENERAL. Nitrate dope and bu not necessary to use nitrate dope for the first
tyrate dope are manufactured by treating cel application and butyrate dope for all other ap
lulose, derived from wood pulp or cotton linter plications. The presence of naphtha in nitrate
with select acids, then dissolving in a blend of dope, manufactured in accordance with can
solvents and adding plasticizers for flexibility. celed Mil Specs formulas, causes nitrate dope
After a brush or spray application on fabric, to be incompatible with butyrate dope; there
the film develops tension and strength as the fore, nitrate dope should not be applied over
solvents evaporate. The tension and strength butyrate dope for repairs or refinishing; how
will increase in proportion to the total film ever, butyrate dope may be applied over nitrate
thickness. The fabric functions as a film for dope.
mer and carries no load until a crack develops
in the dope film. An excessively-thick dope NOTE: Nitrate or butyrate dope
film will develop too much tension and may thinners and retarders should not be
warp or damage a light airframe. substituted for each other, nor should
automotive coating-type thinners be
a. Viscosity adjustments for brush or used.
spray applications may also vary between
brands. When the viscosity adjustment ratio is d. Clear dope produces the most tension
not provided or is unclear, the product manu and strength. Aluminum-pigmented dope will
facturer should be contacted for detailed in weigh slightly more than clear dope and de
structions. If instructions cannot be obtained velop less tension and strength for the same
or the source of the dope is unknown, the dope film thickness. Pigmented color finishes will
should be considered suspect and its use is not produce the least tension and strength due to
advised. the higher ratio of plasticizers.
b. Dope, which has been stored for an e. During the coating-buildup procedure,
extended period of time or under adverse con solvents released from each succeeding coat
ditions, should be suspected of becoming will penetrate and be absorbed into the previ
acidic and should be tested before being used ous dope film, temporarily releasing the ten
on cotton or linen fabric. In some cases, fresh sion and increasing the drying time between
production dope has also been found to have a coats as the dope film becomes thicker. If
high acid content and will begin to deteriorate elapsed time between coats exceeds several
cotton or linen in a period of a few months. weeks at temperatures above 70 F, it is rec
The acid content of nitrate or butyrate dope ommended that several spray coats of an ap
should not exceed 0.06 percent, calculated as propriate dope thinner or dope with retarder
acidic acid. An acidity test can be performed and/or rejuvenator added be applied to the
by most testing laboratories if high acid con lightly-sanded, dried dope film to open the sur
tent is suspected. face and provide cohesion for the next coat.
This will reduce the possibility of surface
c. Butyrate dope is superior to nitrate cracks caused by dissimilar tension between
dope in weather exposure tests. However, ni the old and new dope film.
trate dope provides better adhesion to natural
fiber than butyrate dope. The adhesion of bu f. All dope coats through the final finish
tyrate dope to natural fibers is adequate; it is may be applied with a brush; however, brush
marks will be noticeable in the finish. With 2-21. DOPE APPLICATION PROCE-
increasing environmental concerns, high pres DURE (Natural Fabrics).
sure airless and high-volume low-pressure
(HVLP) paint spray equipment is recom a. Step 1. After the cotton or linen fabric
mended over conventional siphon and pressure is installed in accordance with the procedures
pot spraying equipment. High pressure airless specified in paragraphs 2-7 and 2-8, the fabric
and HVLP paint spraying equipment will is wetted with distilled water to remove wrin
greatly reduce paint over-spray and fogging. A kles and fold creases, which will show in a
spray gun, single coat is applied by overlap gloss finish. Water may be applied by rubbing
ping each consecutive pass 50 percent of the with a clean sponge or rag, or by using a paint
fan width. A double coat is applied by re spray gun. Do not use tap water. It may con
peating the coating application in the same di tain minerals which will contaminate the fab
rection, or at a 90angle to the first coat ric.
(cross coat) before the first coat has flashed off
or dried dust free. For safety and helpful tips (1) As water is absorbed by the fibers,
for doping, see tables 2-3 and 2-4. the threads swell, resulting in temporary
tauting of the fabric panel. The fabric should
TABLE 2-3. Safety tips for dope/paint. be allowed to dry before dope application, oth
SAFETY TIPS.
erwise the water in the fibers will interfere
Always ground the aircraft structure while sanding and with the dope penetration and adhesion.
painting.
Do not use an electric drill as a dope/paint mixer.
Wear leather-soled shoes in the dope/painting area.
(2) After the fabric has dried, the first
Have an adequate, approved ventilation system. coat of dope is applied, brushing in one direc
Wear cotton clothes when doping or painting. tion to set the nap with a clean, non-shedding,
Wear an approved face mask or respirator when
spraying.
2-to 6-inch wide, semi-soft, long bristle paint
Follow all the manufacturers instructions. brush.
TABLE 2-4. Tips for doping. (3) To offset the deteriorating effect of
HELPFUL TIPS FOR DOPING. mildew or other fungus on natural fibers, espe
Limits for optimum application of dope: relative hu- cially in damp climates, it is recommended that
midity 20 to 60%; temperature range 65 to 75 F. a fungicide be added to the first coat of dope.
Drying time will vary with temperature, humidity,
amount of thinner used, and whether or not retarder The preferred fungicide is zinc dimethyldithio
was added to the mixture. carbamate powder, which should be prepared
Do not recoat until the surface is completely dry and per the manufacturers instructions. If no
all active solvents have left the dope film.
Spray all coats except the first three or four clear manufacturers instructions are available the
coats, to avoid brush marks. zinc powder may be stirred in at a ratio of
Over thinning is preferred to under thinning. 4 ounces, to one gallon of un-thinned nitrate or
Addition of retarder will produce a smoother coat, but
drying time between coats will be extended. butyrate dope, after the powder is wetted to a
To get a clean line for the trim colors, apply a light paste with a 50/50 ratio of dope and thinner.
coat of clear dope directly on the masking tape prior
to painting. This will help eliminate the trim color
from running under the masking tape. (4) Pre-mixed fungicidal dope, manu
Remember to always bring the dope to room factured in accordance with the formula speci
temperature before using.
fied in MIL-D-7850, will have a transparent
Rubbing compound and wax polish may be applied
after all solvents have escaped (usually 2 weeks, purple tint to indicate the fungicide additive.
depending upon the weather). Dope manufactured with other colors to
identify the manufacturers products sold un e. Step 4. After the covering is a dressed
der proprietary trade names may or may not out, one or more coats of clear dope are
have a fungicidal additive. brushed over all finishing tapes and fabric re
inforcing patches. This will balance the thick
(5) The viscosity of the dope should be ness of the dope film with the previously
adjusted to uniformly wet the fabric, indicated coated areas of the fabric. It is very important
by the fabric becoming translucent so that it that the porosity of the fabric be filled while
penetrates through the fabric but does not drip brushing to avoid pinholes showing in the fin
or run down the opposite side. Any dope-runs ish.
or pooling on the opposite side will shrink and
distort the fabric, and may be visible on the f. Step 5. After drying at least 2 hours at
finished surface. 70 F, a third heavy coat of clear dope is ap
plied over the entire surface, preferably with a
(6) The ideal temperature for application paint spray gun if brush marks are to be
of dope or other coatings is 65 to 75 F and the avoided. After the third coat of dope has dried
humidity should be less than 65 percent. As a at least 2 hours at 70 F, the fabric should be
general rule, each 10 F increase or decrease in taut and the dope film should show a gloss,
ambient temperature will increase or decrease depending upon the dope quality and the ratio
drying time by 100 percent. Dope should be of thinner added. If not, a fourth coat of clear
allowed to warm to room temperature prior to dope may be applied, in the same manner as
attempting to adjust the viscosity. the third coat.
b. Step 2. Depending upon the quality of NOTE: Three to four clear coats of
the dope and the ratio of thinning, the fabric dope film showing a uniform gloss
should start to become taut after the first combined with the aluminum-
brushed coat of dope has dried approximately pigmented coats and finish coats is
1 hour at 70 F. A second, heavier coat is ap considered satisfactory for light air-
plied by cross brushing at 90F=to the first craft up to 9 lb. per square foot wing
coat. Viscosity should be adjusted only as loading. Five to eight clear coats, de-
necessary to brush out a heavy uniform coat. pending upon the quality of the dope
If the fabric is not taut, with all sag removed, and resulting film thickness, are rec-
after the second coat has dried approximately ommended for higher wing loading
2 hours, a third coat may be applied. aircraft to assure the covering does
not stretch and lose tension.
c. Step 3. After the fabric has become
semi-taut and stabilized with the initial dope g. Step 6. After the clear coats are found
application, and the rib lacing and other fabric to be satisfactory, two heavy cross-coats of
attachments are completed as detailed in para aluminum-pigmented dope are applied with a
graphs 2-9 through 2-12, it is ready for spray gun to provide protection from ultravio
dressing out as described in paragraphs 2-13 let (UV) rays. Tests have shown that UV ra
and 2-14. diation will deteriorate cotton, linen, and poly
ester fabric; however, polyester fabric deterio
d. NOTE: Dressing out means applying rates at a rate half that of cotton or linen under
all the finishing tapes, reinforcing patches, in identical exposure conditions. UV radiation
spection access ports, and drain grommets, etc.
does not deteriorate glass fabric. Aluminum- protection along the edges of the finishing
pigmented dope blocks UV radiation and pro tapes and reinforcing patches is maintained.
vides a sanding base. A gauge of ultraviolet
protection in the field is to block all visible i. Step 8. Three coats of pigmented color
light from penetrating through the fabric. finish are applied with a paint spray gun, al
Drying time between the two coats should be lowing adequate drying time between coats.
at least 1 hour at 70 F. The color finish may be wet sanded between
coats, if desired, with a fine grit waterproof
(1) An option to premixed aluminum sandpaper. Adding blush retarder to the final
dope is to use aluminum-pigment paste. Alu dope finish will improve the gloss. After dry
minum paste should be prepared per the manu ing several weeks, a rubbing compound may
facturers instructions. If no manufacturers be used to buff the finish and increase the
instructions are available, mix 3 ounces (by gloss. A periodic application of a wax polish
weight), of 325-mesh aluminum-pigment will help protect the finish from the weather
paste, to 1 gallon of unthinned, clear dope. and environmental pollution.
The aluminum paste should first be mixed to a
cream consistency with a 50/50 ratio of dope NOTE: Drain holes should be opened
and thinner before mixing into the unthinned soon after all finishing is complete to
clear dope. A higher ratio of aluminum- insure drainage and to aid ventilation
pigment added to the dope may cause a loss of of the structure.
primer-coat and finish-coat adhesion, and
peeling may occur especially when high tack (1) When exposed to the sun, dark col
tape is used to mask for the trim colors and ors absorb more sun energy and convert that
registration numbers. energy to heat more easily than light colors.
High temperatures dry out wood structures and
(2) The viscosity of the mixed alumi deteriorate organic materials in an aircraft
num-pigmented dope should be adjusted for structure. Preferably the lighter color shades
satisfactory spray gun application. are applied first and then overcoated with
darker trim and registration number colors.
h. Step 7. After two coats of aluminum-
pigmented dope have dried at least 4 hours at (2) Only high-quality, solvent-resistant
70 F, the surface may be wet sanded with crepe paper or polypropylene masking tape
# 280 grit (or finer) waterproof sandpaper. The should be used to avoid finish bleed under the
aluminum-pigmented dope should be sanded tape edge. Newspaper printing ink may trans
only to develop a smooth surface, not sanded fer to a fresh finish and should not be used for
completely off to the clear dope undercoats. masking paper. Plastic sheeting should not be
Do not sand over screwheads, rib lacing, or used as a dust cover on a fresh finish due to
any structural sharp edges that will quickly cut possible bonding and damage.
through fabric and require patching. Addi
tional coats of aluminum-pigmented dope may 2-22. COVERING OVER PLYWOOD.
be applied and sanded, depending on the final Exposed, stressed plywood surfaces, such as
finish desired. The last coat should not be wings, must be protected from weather
sanded to assure ultraviolet
deterioration with fabric at least equal to that b. After the first dope coat has dried at
used by the original manufacturer. If the qual least 1 hour at 70 F, a second heavy coat of
ity is not known, intermediate-grade fabric, clear dope is applied by brush to fill the fabric
meeting TSO-C14b specification, is accept weave and prevent pinholes. The installation
able. Fabric may be installed in sections with of finish tape around the perimeter of the ply
a 1/2 inch edge overlap without covering the wood surfaces, leading edges, and other wear
overlap with finishing tape. Fabric may also points, is optional but recommended for wear
be installed with the edges butted together, and and chafe protection. The application of alu
the seam covered with a minimum 1-inch wide minum-pigmented dope coating, sanding, and
finishing tape. The seams may be oriented in finish coats will be the same as that specified
any direction, in reference to the line of flight. for fabric panel areas. Reinforcement grom
However, overlapped seams, not covered with mets are not required on drain holes through
a finishing tape, should be oriented rearward. plywood surfaces.
Fabric should be wrapped completely around a
wings leading and trailing edges and other 2-23. COAT-
components, where possible, to provide fabric ING APPLICATION DEFECTS.
to-fabric continuity around all edges to avoid a
poorly-bonded fabric edge from peeling from a. Blushing. The appearance of light
the plywood surface causing serious aerody shaded dull areas on the surface as dope dries
namic consequences. is the result of moisture in the atmosphere
condensing on a surface due to the cooling ef
a. After the plywood surface is pre- fect of the fast-evaporating components of
pared, and the two pre-coats of clear dope dope thinner escaping from the coating.
have dried as recommended in para Blushing can occur at any temperature when
graph 2-6 g, the fabric is pulled snug and the humidity is above 65 percent. There are
bonded with clear dope around the perimeter several ways to remedy this problem. The
of the fabric section. The fabric is then wetted drying time may be slowed by adding up to
with distilled water to remove fold creases, in 1 quart of blush retarder to 1 gallon of dope or
the same manner described for fabric panel ar by increasing the temperature of the dope room
eas. After the water has evaporated, a heavy and eliminating any cooling draft from blow
coat of low-viscosity clear dope is brushed ing across the surface. Blushed surfaces may
firmly through the fabric to soften the under be reworked by spraying several, closely-timed
lying dope pre-coat, insuring a good bond. coats of a 50/50 blend of blush retarder and
Brushing techniques should be accomplished dope thinner to soften and return the dope sur
by moving the brush from one side across to face to the original liquid state. Blush retarder,
the opposite side to remove all air bubbles and mixed with dope, may delay the full drying
thoroughly saturate the fabric. This is indi time by several days, but will eventually es
cated by the plywood grain being easily visible cape from the dope film if the room tempera
through the translucent fabric. Except for very ture is maintained an average of 70 F.
small imperfections or small dents in the ply
wood surface, voids are not permissible be b. Pinholes. Voids between the fabric
tween the fabric and plywood surfaces. Voids threads that are not filled with the first coats of
may allow the fabric to balloon from the ply dope are called pinholes. They may be caused
wood surface, creating adverse handling char by fabric contamination, such as oil or finger
acteristics.
prints, but are usually the result of improper (6) Wrong thinner used and drying too
dope application. Pinholes are usually found fast.
in a second layer of fabric such as finishing
tapes and reinforcing patches or over underly (7) Spray gun not properly adjusted.
ing, non-porous structures; such as leading The spray gun should be adjusted to a uniform
edges, turtle decks, and plywood surfaces. spray pattern with the material atomized to de
Any non-porous structure under fabric will act posit fine, wet particles that merge and form a
as a backstop and will resist complete dope smooth film.
penetration into the fabric. Microscopic cavi
ties between the backstop and fabric collect d. Blisters. One or more of the following
escaping solvent vapors during the drying pro conditions my cause blisters:
cess and balloon up through the surface leav
ing pinholes, or become pinholes when the top (1) Freshly coated surface placed in hot
of the balloon is sanded. Moisture, in the fab sunlight or high temperature area to accelerate
ric or on the backstop surface, also interferes drying time, causing the vapor from rapidly
with complete dope penetration, resulting in evaporating solvents to be trapped.
pinholes. The remedy for pinholes, at any
stage before the final finish coat, is to add (2) Excessive high air pressure used to
blush retarder to low viscosity dope and care spray heavy coats which blasts air bubbles
fully brush over the affected surfaces to pene into the coating.
trate into and fill the pinholes. Discontinue
brushing after five or six strokes to avoid (3) Water or oil in air supply.
leaving brush marks.
e. Runs, Sags, and Curtains. These de
c. Orange Peel. A rough spray gun- fects may be caused by one or more of the
applied finish, similar to the texture of an or following conditions:
ange peel, may be caused by one or more of
the following conditions: (1) Viscosity of material being sprayed
is too low.
(1) Viscosity of material being sprayed
is too high. (2) Coats applied too heavily.
(2) Air temperature is too high. (3) Insufficient drying time between
coats.
(3) Spraying in direct sunlight, onto a
hot surface or in a drafty/windy condition, (4) Spray gun held too close to work
which causes a fast solvent evaporation. surface.
(4) Spray gun, tip, cap, and/or needle (5) Improperly adjusted spray gun.
are not properly matched for the type material
being sprayed. f. Spray Gun Laps and Streaks. These
defects may be caused by one or more of the
(5) Volume of air available from the following conditions:
compressor not sufficient for spray gun.
(1) Spray gun not properly adjusted to (4) Viscosity of material being sprayed
spray a wet, smooth surface. is too high.
(2) Overspray on a partially-dried sur (5) Metallic finishes sprayed too heav
face. ily allowing metallic pigments to move or flow
after deposit, causing a marbled appearance.
(3) Spray pattern not sufficiently over
lapped on each pass. 2-29. [RESERVED.]
2-24.
2-30. GENERAL. All components of the (2) Loose or wrinkled polyester fabric
covering should be inspected for general con- covering, finished with coatings other than
dition. Loose finishing tape and reinforcing dope, may be caused by inadequate or exces-
patches; chafing under fairings; brittle, crack- sive heat application; excess slack when the
ing, peeling, or deteriorated coatings; fabric fabric was installed; or bent or warped struc-
tears and rock damage; broken or missing rib ture. Polyester fabric which does not meet air-
lacing; and rodent nests are unacceptable. The craft quality specifications will very likely be-
entire fabric covering should be uniformly taut come loose after a short period of time.
with no loose or wrinkled areas, or excess ten-
sion which can warp and damage the airframe. (3) Glass fabric covering should be
tested with a large suction cup for rib lacing
a. Excess Tension. There are no methods cord failure and reinforcing tape failure caused
or specifications for measuring acceptable fab- by chafing on all wing ribs and other structural
ric tension other than observation. Excess ten- attachments throughout the airframe. Particu-
sion may warp critical components, such as lar attention should be given to the area within
longerons, wing rib, and trailing edges out of the propeller slipstream. If failure is indicated
position, weakening the airframe structure. by the covering lifting from the static position,
the rib lacing cord and reinforcing tape must
(1) Excess tension with cotton, linen, be reinstalled with double the number of origi-
and glass fiber fabric covering is usually nal laces.
caused by excessive dope film on a new cov-
ering, or continuous shrinking of an originally NOTE: Temporary wrinkles will de-
satisfactory dope film as the plasticizers mi- velop in any fabric coated and fin-
grate from the dope with age. Heat from sun ished with dope, when moisture from
exposure accelerates plasticizer migration. rain, heavy fog, or dew is absorbed
into a poor-quality dope film, causing
(2) Excess tension with polyester fabric, the film to expand. Temporary wrin-
coated with dope, is usually caused by the kles may also develop with any type of
combined tension of the heat tautened polyes- thick coatings, on any type of fabric,
ter fabric and continuous shrinking of the dope when an aircraft is moved from a cold
film as the plasticizers migrate from the dope storage area to a warm hangar or
with age. parked in the warming sunshine,
causing rapid thermal expansion of
b. Loose Fabric. Fabric that flutters or the coating.
ripples in the propeller slipstream, balloons, or
is depressed excessively in flight from the c. Coating Cracks. Fabric exposed
static position, is unacceptable. through cracks in the coating may be initially
tested for deterioration by pressing firmly with
(1) Loose or wrinkled cotton, linen, and a thumb to check the fabrics strength. Natural
glass fabric covering may be caused by inade- fibers deteriorate by exposure to ultraviolet ra-
quate dope film; poor quality dope; fabric in- diation, mildew, fungus from moisture, high
stalled with excess slack; or by a bent, broken, acid-content rain, dew, fog, pollution, and age.
or warped structure. Polyester filaments will deteriorate by expo-
sure to UV radiation.
(1) Glass fabric will not deteriorate back side of cotton or linen fabric indicates a
from UV exposure, but will be deteriorated by fungicide was present in the dope to resist de-
acid rain, dew fallout, and chaffing if loose in terioration by fungus and mildew.
the prop blast area.
b. Polyester fabric conforming to
(2) Cotton, linen, and glass fabric cov- TSO-C14b or TSO-C15d is whiter in color
erings are dependent solely on the strength and than cotton or linen. The fabric styles adapted
tautening characteristics of the dope film to for use as aircraft covering have a variety of
carry the airloads. Dope coatings on heat- thread counts, up to ninety-four (94), depend-
tautened polyester fabric will also absorb all ing on the manufacturing source, weight, and
the airloads because the elongation of polyes- breaking strength. Polyester is a monofilament
ter filaments are considerably higher than the and will not have any nap or filament ends
dope film. Polyester fabric that is coated with showing.
materials other than dope, is dependent solely
on the heat tautening and low-elongation char- c. Glass fabric is manufactured white in
acteristics of the polyester filaments to develop color, and one source is precoated with a blue-
tension and transmit the airloads to the air- tinted dope as a primer and to reduce weave
frame without excess distortion from a static distortion during handling. Thread count will
position. be approximately 36 threads per inch. Glass
fabrics are monofilament and will not have any
(3) Cracks in coatings will allow any nap or filament ends showing unless they are
type of exposed fabric to deteriorate. Cracks inadvertently broken.
should be closed by sealing or removing the
coatings in the immediate area and replace d. When a small fabric sample can be
with new coatings, or recover the component. removed from the aircraft and all the coatings
removed, a burn test will readily distinguish
2-31. FABRIC IDENTIFICATION. between natural fabric, polyester, and glass
Cotton Fabric meeting TSO-C15 or TSO-C14 fabric. Cotton and linen will burn to a dry ash,
can be identified by an off-white color and polyester filaments will melt to a liquid and
thread count of 80 to 94 for TSO-C14b and continue burning to a charred ash, and glass
80 to 84 for TSO-C15d in both directions. filaments, which do not support combustion,
will become incandescent over a flame.
a. Aircraft linen conforming to British
specification 7F1 may be identified by a 2-32. COATING IDENTIFICATION.
slightly darker shade than cotton fabric and ir- Nitrate or butyrate dope must be used to de-
regular thread spacing. The average thread velop tension on cotton, linen, and glass fab-
count will be about the same as Grade A fabric rics. When a small sample can be removed,
(TSO-C15d). The non-uniformity of the linen burn tests will distinguish nitrate dope-coated
thread size is also noticeable, with one thread fabric from butyrate dope-coated fabric by its
half the size of the adjacent thread. When immediate ignition and accelerated combus-
viewed under a magnifying glass, the ends of tion. Butyrate dope will burn at less than
the cotton and linen fiber nap may be seen on one-half the rate of nitrate dope. Coating types
the backside. The nap is also seen when the other than nitrate or butyrate dope may have
coating is removed from the front or outside been used as a finish over dope on cotton,
surface. A light-purple color showing on the linen, and glass fiber fabric coverings.
a. If the fabric type is determined to be width, regardless of the fabric grade. Fabric
polyester, coating identification should start installed on aircraft with a wing loading of
by reviewing the aircraft records and inspect- 9 lb. per square foot and over, or a Vne of
ing the inside of the wings and the fuselage for 160 mph and over, will be considered unair-
the required fabric source identification stamps worthy when the breaking strength has deterio-
for covering materials authorized under the rated below 56 lb. per inch width.
STC. The manual, furnished by the holder of
the STC-approved fabric, should be reviewed c. Fabric installed on a glider or sail-
to determine whether the coatings are those plane with a wing loading of 8 lb. per square
specified by the STC. foot and less, and a Vne of 135 mph or less,
will be considered unairworthy when the fabric
b. Coating types, other than those breaking strength has deteriorated below 35 lb.
authorized by the original STC, may have been per inch width, regardless of the fabric grade.
used with prior FAA approval, and this would
be noted in the aircraft records. The presence 2-34. FABRIC TESTING. Mechanical de-
of dope on polyester can be detected by a sam- vices used to test fabric by pressing against or
ple burn test. piercing the finished fabric are not FAA ap-
proved and are used at the discretion of the
2-33. STRENGTH CRITERIA FOR mechanic to base an opinion on the general
AIRCRAFT FABRIC. Minimum perform- fabric condition. Punch test accuracy will de-
ance standards for new intermediate-grade fab- pend on the individual device calibration, total
ric are specified in TSO-C14b, which refer- coating thickness, brittleness, and types of
ences AMS 3804C. Minimum performance coatings and fabric. Mechanical devices are
standards for new Grade A fabric are specified not applicable to glass fiber fabric that will
in TSO-C15d, which references AMS 3806D. easily shear and indicate a very low reading
regardless of the true breaking strength. If the
a. The condition of the fabric covering fabric tests in the lower breaking strength
must be determined on every 100-hour and an- range with the mechanical punch tester or if
nual inspection, because the strength of the the overall fabric cover conditions are poor,
fabric is a definite factor in the airworthiness then more accurate field tests may be made.
of an airplane. Fabric is considered to be air- Cut a 1-1/4-inch wide by 4-inch long sample
worthy until it deteriorates to a breaking from a top exposed surface, remove all coat-
strength less than 70 percent of the strength of ings and ravel the edges to a 1-inch width.
new fabric required for the aircraft. For exam- Clamp each end between suitable clamps with
ple, if grade-A cotton is used on an airplane one clamp anchored to a support structure
that requires only intermediate fabric, it can while a load is applied (see table 2-1) by add-
deteriorate to 46 pounds per inch width ing sand in a suitable container suspended a
(70 percent of the strength of intermediate fab- few inches above the floor. If the breaking
ric) before it must be replaced. strength is still in question, a sample should be
sent to a qualified testing laboratory and
b. Fabric installed on aircraft with a breaking strength tests made in accordance
wing loading less than 9 lb. per square foot with American Society of Testing Materials
(psf), and a Vne less than 160 mph, will be (ASTM) publication D5035.
considered unairworthy when the breaking
strength has deteriorated below 46 lb. per inch
NOTE: ASTM publication D1682 has is cracked, it may be treated with rejuvenator, a
been discontinued but is still referred mixture of very potent solvents and plasticiz-
to in some Aerospace Material Speci- ers, to restore its resilience. The surface of the
fication (AMS). The grab test method fabric is cleaned and the rejuvenator sprayed
previously listed in ASTM D1682, sec- on in a wet coat, and the solvents soften the
tions 1 through 16, has been super- old finish so the plasticizers can become part
seded by ASTM publication D5034. of the film. When the rejuvenator dries, the
The strip testing method (most com- surface should be sprayed with two coats of
monly used in aircraft) previously aluminum-pigmented dope, then sanded and a
listed in ASTM D1682, sections 17 third coat of aluminum-pigmented dope ap-
through 21, has been superseded by plied, followed with the colored-dope finish.
ASTM publication D5035. When repairing, rejuvenating, and refinishing
covering materials approved under an STC, in-
2-35. REJUVENATION OF THE DOPE structions in the manual furnished by the mate-
FILM. If fabric loses its strength, there is rial supplier should be followed.
nothing to do but remove it and recover the
aircraft. But if the fabric is good and the dope 2-41. [RESERVED.]
2-36.
2-42. GENERAL. All materials used to rib lacing or other methods, the new fabric
make repairs to fabric covering must be of a section should be extended 3 inches past the
quality at least equal to the original materials. structural member.
Workmanship and repair methods must be
made in a manner that will return the fabric NOTE: Before installing new finish-
covering to its original airworthy condition. ing tape, duplicate the original rib
lacing or other attachments without
a. Any combination of seams hand-sewn removing the original rib lacing or at-
and overlapped and doped may be used to tachment. Removing the original fin-
make repairs and install new fabric sections. ishing tape is optional.
(See paragraph 2-7.)
g. When installing large sections of fab-
b. All pigmented dope coats, including ric on a wing or other components, all ma
aluminum-pigmented coats, should be re chine-sewn and/or overlapped and doped
moved to the clear dope preliminary coats be seams should be made in accordance with the
fore installing a new fabric section or finishing guidelines specified in paragraphs 2-7 and 2-8.
tape on the old fabric. The appropriate dope
thinner (see paragraph 2-20) may be applied h. When repairing a covering material
with a brush to soften the old dope. The sof other than cotton or linen, which was ap
tened coats can then be removed down to the proved with the manufacturers type certificate
clear dope coats by scraping with a dull-bladed (TC), or approved under the authority of an
knife while supporting the fabric from the back STC, follow the repair instructions furnished
side. Removing the old dope by sanding is by the aircraft manufacturer or supplier of the
optional. STC-approved covering materials.
c. Avoid allowing dope to run down the 2-43. REPAIR OF TEARS AND ACCESS
back side of the fabric or drip through the wing OPENINGS. When all the original fabric is
onto the back side of the opposite surface, intact, an opening may be repaired by sewing
which will cause cosmetic damage and will the two sides together with a curved needle as
show in a high gloss finish. illustrated in figures 2-13 and 2-14. The fabric
edges should be pulled together uniformly with
d. Repairing a new fabric section over no wrinkles. Before sewing, remove the old
two adjacent wing ribs is considered a major dope coats down to the clear dope coats a dis
repair. A log book entry and an FAA tance of 2 inches on each side of the opening.
Form 337 must be processed accordingly. The hand-sewn thread quality should be at
least equal to that specified in table 2-2 and
e. All fabric patch edges not covered treated with wax (paraffin-free or beeswax) to
with a finishing tape should have a pinked prevent fraying, or use the proper thread on the
edge or a 1/4-inch raveled edge. STC application. After sewing, apply a coat
of clear dope over the cleaned area and install
f. Where the edge of a new fabric sec- a 3-inch wide finishing tape, centered over the
tion will be located within 1 inch of a struc stitches.
tural member to which the fabric is attached by
a. Finishing tapes should be well satu- opening should be trimmed straight on four
rated with dope and smoothed out with no sides to facilitate the installation of straight
voids or wrinkles during installation. After sections of finishing tape over the stitches.
drying for 1 hour at 70 F, additional coats of
clear dope followed with pigmented dope are a. After cutting out the damaged section
applied as detailed in paragraph 2-21. and removing the coatings as detailed in para
graph 2-42, the new fabric section should be
b. If the opening is more than 8 inches sized to allow folding both edges of the fabric
long but less than 16 inches long in any direc back 1/2-inch to increase the stitch tear resis
tion, the finishing tape width should be in tance. Temporarily attach the four corners in
creased to 4 inches. position with thread. Start with a double
thread with a square knot at the end (see fig
c. The finishing tape width should be in ure 2-14) and continue stitching in the manner
creased to 6 inches if the opening is more than described in figures 2-13 and 2-14. When the
16 inches long in any direction, is located on a stitching is complete, wet the new fabric sec
wing top surface, or the aircraft Vne speed is tion as described in paragraph 2-21 to remove
greater than 150 mph. any creases. After drying, apply one coat of
clear dope on the new fabric, as described in
2-44. SEWN-PATCH REPAIR. Openings paragraph 2-21. When the first coat of dope
that cannot be repaired by closing with stitches has dried 1 hour at 70 F, apply a 3-inch wide
may be repaired by sewing in a new fabric finishing tape, centered over the stitches. The
section. The edges of the fabric around the finishing tape should be well saturated with
b. If the opening is more than 8 inches d. If the opening is more than 8 inches
but less than 16 inches long in any direction, but less than 16 inches in length, in any direc
the finishing tape should be 4 inches wide. tion on an aircraft with a Vne speed less than
150 mph, it may be repaired with a doped f. If the opening is more than 16 inches
patch, which is overlapped 1/4 of the opening in length in any direction and the Vne speed is
maximum dimension. The maximum overlap less than 150 mph, the patch overlap should be
should not exceed 4 inches. 4 inches and the finishing tape should be
4 inches in width, centered on the edge of the
e. If the opening is more than 8 inches patch.
but less than 16 inches in length in any direc
tion, the repair is located on a wing top sur g. If the opening is more than 16 inches
face, and the aircraft Vne speed is greater than in length in any direction and the Vne speed is
150 mph, the patch overlap should be 4 inches greater than 150 mph, the patch overlap should
and a 2-inch wide finishing tape installed on be 4 inches and the finishing tape should be
all sides, centered on the edge of the patch. 6 inches in width, centered on the edge of the
patch.
2-51. [RESERVED.]
2-46.
3-1. GENERAL. There is a wide variation part. To make this determination valid, the
in the composition and structural application specimens must be assembled with the same
of laminates, and it is essential that these fac adhesive batch mixture and subjected to curing
tors be given major consideration when any pressure, temperature, and time identical to
restoration activities are undertaken. To a those in the actual repair.
similar extent, there also exist many types of
laminate structure repairs that may or may not 3-2. FIBERGLASS LAMINATE RE-
be suitable for a given condition. For this rea PAIRS. The following repairs are applicable
son, it is important that the aircraft or compo to fiberglass laminate used for non-structural
nent manufacturers repair data be reviewed fairing, covers, cowlings, honeycomb panel
when determining what specific type of repair facings, etc. Prior to undertaking the repair,
is permissible and appropriate for the damage remove any paint by using normal dry sanding
at hand. methods. Bead blasting may be used but cau
tion must be exercised not to abrade the sur
NOTE: Review Material Safety Data faces excessively.
Sheets for material to be used. When
handling materials, prepreg fabrics, NOTE: Chemical paint strippers
or parts with prepared surfaces, ob- must not be used.
serve shelf life. Latex gloves and ap-
proved masks must be worn. NOTE: These repairs are not to be
used on radomes or advanced com-
a. The materials used in the repair of posite components, such as graphite
laminate structures must preserve the strength, (carbon fiber) or Kevlar.
weight, aerodynamic characteristics, or electri
cal properties of the original part or assembly. CAUTION: Sanding fiberglass lami-
Preservation is best accomplished by replacing nates gives off a fine dust that may
damaged material with material of identical cause skin and/or respiratory irrita-
chemical composition or a substitute approved tion unless suitable skin and respira-
by the manufacturer. tion protection is used. Sanding also
creates static charges that attract dirt
b. To eliminate dangerous stress con- or other contaminants.
centrations, avoid abrupt changes in
cross-sectional areas. When possible, for scarf a. Check for voids and delamination by
joints and facings, make small patches round tap testing. (See chapter 5.) When the surface
or oval-shaped, and round the corners of large of a fiberglass laminated structure is scratched,
repairs. Smooth and properly contour aerody pitted, or eroded; first wash with detergent and
namic surfaces. water to remove all of the dirt, wax, or oxide
film. Then scrub the surface with an accept
c. Test specimens should be prepared able cleaner. After the surface is thoroughly
during the actual repair. These can then be cleaned, sand it with 280-grit sandpaper, and
subjected to a destructive test to establish the again use an acceptable cleanser to remove any
quality of the adhesive bond in the repaired sanding residue and moisture. This is
a. The materials used for most bonded (2) When all repair details are in place
repairs require elevated temperatures and pres and ready to be cured, they are enclosed in a
sure, during their cure, to develop full strength. bag of plastic film or thin rubber. Air is re
The following paragraphs describe the opera moved from the bag by a vacuum source so
tions required to enclose the repair in a vac that atmospheric pressure exerts a pressure on
uum bag. When the part to be cured can be the repair as it is cured.
placed in an autoclave, additional pressure and
heat can be applied. For cured-in-place parts, (3) To provide a path to draw off the air
vacuum pressure and portable heat blankets initially inside the bag, layers of fiberglass
usually suffice. cloth or similar noncontaminating materials,
known as breather plies, are placed inside the
(1) When selecting materials, especially bag. When prepreg is being cured as part of
the parting agent film, the temperature at the repair, it is sometimes necessary to bleed
which the repair is to be cured must be known. off excess resin. To do this, layers of fiber
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) film is ideal when the glass cloth or similar materials known as
bonding temperature does not exceed 250 F. bleeder plies are placed over the prepreg.
PVA film has very high tear resistance and may Some repairs have been made with a net resin
be heat-sealed effectively. When the bond prepreg that does not require bleeding, and
temperature is not above 180 F, polyvinyl therefore does not require bleeder plies. Po
chloride film can be used. For temperatures up rous separator plies or film are used between
to 450 F, a polyvinyl fluoride film is used. the prepreg and the bleeder and nonporous
These three types of films are available in a va separator plies or film are used between the
riety of weights and widths. Most nylon bag bleeder and breather plies to control the flow
ging films are used for temperatures up to of resin.
400 F.
(4) Small parts may be envelope bagged cloth over the patch, extending beyond the
(i.e., enclosing the entire part in the bag). prepreg and the adhesive. Smooth to avoid
Larger parts with localized repairs can be wrinkles.
bagged by sealing the surface completely
around the repair areas with sealing tape and (b) With the patch material in place,
applying the bagging material to the sealing place the end of the thermocouple wire next to
tape. the edge of the prepreg. Tape the wire to the
structure inside the bag with heat-resistant
CAUTION: The whole panel must be tape. The tape should not be in contact with
vacuum bagged to prevent delamina- the prepreg or the adhesive.
tion in sandwich skins when using an
oven or autoclave. Contoured parts (c) Place bleeder plies as shown, ex
must be restrained with tooling to tending 2 to 3 inches beyond the patch. The
prevent warpage. number of bleeder plies needed will vary with
the type of resin and the resin content required.
b. When the heat for curing the repair
is provided by a heat blanket, the blanket can (d) Place a layer of nonporous part
be either inside or outside the vacuum bag. ing film over the bleeder plies, cut 1 inch
However, the blanket should be covered to smaller than the bleeder plies. This layer is
minimize heat loss, and the blanket should be intended to stop resin flow from bleeder plies
separated from direct contact with most bag into breather plies while still providing an air
ging materials by layers of fiberglass cloth. flow path when vacuum is applied.
(1) This will prevent localized over (e) If a pressure plate is used, place it
heating that could damage the bag. It is some over the previous separator ply. The plate is
times helpful to place a thin aluminum sheet frequently perforated with small holes to per
under the heating blanket to minimize local mit airflow to the breather plies. Bleeder plies
ized heating. A thin rubber blanket can help may be necessary when using a pressure plate.
smooth the surface of the material being cured.
A pressure plate should be used when two or NOTE: Pressure on the repair will be
more heat blankets are applied to the same re reduced if the pressure plate does not
pair. conform to the repair.
NOTE: Understanding that various (f) Place the heat blanket over the as
resins behave differently during cure, sembly, making sure it extends 3 to 4 inches
the choice of bagging arrangements beyond the material to be cured.
will often vary with the material being
cured. (g) One or more thermocouples
should be in contact with the heat blanket to
(2) The procedure for the bagging ar monitor its temperature. Additional thermo
rangement is as follows: couples should be placed near the curing repair
to monitor the temperature of the curing resin.
(a) Place a peel ply over the patch
material to provide a surface finish for subse (h) When using a heat blanket as the
quent bonding or painting if not previously ac heat source, four to six layers of fiberglass sur
complished. Place a layer of porous separator face breather or the equivalent should be
used over the heat blanket. This will insulate other will be connected to the vacuum source.
and prevent damage to the nylon bagging film. The vacuum probe must sit on the breather
Ensure that the breather plies are in contact plies, but must not touch the patch or adhesive.
with the bleeder plies so that an air passage
exists. NOTE: Place the vacuum gauge on
the opposite side of the vacuum port,
(i) Place a bead of sealing tape where applicable. Do not place vac-
against the parent material around the edge of uum probes near repair area.
the breather plies. Seal the thermocouple
wires to prevent vacuum leakage. (l) Connect the vacuum source and
smooth the bag by hand pressure as the air is
NOTE: Two layers of sealing tape removed. Check for leaks and reseal as neces
may be required in order to provide a sary. A minimum vacuum of 22 inches of
good seal. mercury is required.
(j) Cover with a suitable vacuum (m) Place insulating material over
bag, smoothed to minimize wrinkles. Press the vacuum bag to prevent heat loss.
the bag firmly onto the sealing tape to obtain
an air-tight seal. Place pleats in vacuum bag to (n) Apply power to the heat blanket
allow the bag material to stretch. and control its temperature as specified for the
material being cured.
(k) Install two vacuum probes or
sniffers through openings cut in the bag. One (o) Observe cure time requirements
will be used for the vacuum gauge and the established by the product manufacturer.
3-9. [RESERVED.]
3-5.
3-10. REPAIRS TO METALLIC SAND- d. After locating the extent of the total
WICH SECONDARY STRUCTURE. Mag damaged area by tapping or other nondestruc
nesium, titanium, or stainless steel facings re tive test methods, remove the damaged facing
quire special procedures that are not included and that portion of the core material that is also
in the following methods of repair. Aluminum affected. The depth to which the core must be
alloys such as 7075-T6, 2024-T3, and 2014-T6 removed will depend upon the type of core
are commonly used for the repair of facings for material and the method of repair. The re
sandwich structural parts having aluminum placement core material must be the same
facings. For maximum corrosion resistance, material and core cell size as the original. Fab
use only clad aluminum for repairs to clad ricate core material to shape, keeping the same
aluminum alloy facings. core ribbon or grain direction. When a sub
stitution is permissible, wood or glass-fabric
a. Dents, scratches, or fractures, not ex honey-comb cores are sometimes used in the
ceeding 1/4 inch in largest dimension in alu repair of aluminum honeycomb cores, as they
minum facings, may be repaired with a suit are generally easier to shape. Typical types of
able filler such as viscous epoxy resin. Dents core replacements are shown in figure 3-10.
that are delaminated shall not be filled but re Resin fills can be used to replace the core and
paired. Thoroughly clean the repair area with facing where smaller core damage exists.
fine sandpaper and acetone before applying the Phenolic microballoons, low-density insulating
filler. After the resin has partially cured, re materials, and/or other ingredients are added to
move any excess resin with a sharp plastic lower the density and give greater flexibility.
scraper. When the resin has completely cured,
sand to the original contour. If the damage in e. For the repair of larger holes in which
cluded a fracture, reclean the area around the it is inconvenient to use a face patch because
filled hole and apply a surface patch. of aerodynamic smoothness requirements in
that area, both the core and facing are some
b. Fractures or punctures in one facing times replaced with glass-fiber fabric discs and
and partial damage to the core of an alumi resin. Undercut the core, as shown in fig
num-faced laminate may be repaired by several ure 3-11, in order to obtain a better bonding of
different methods. The technique used will the fill with the facing. Fill the core cavity
depend upon the size of the damage, the with accurately shaped resin-saturated glass
strength required, and the aerodynamic loads cloth discs, and press each ply down to remove
of the area involved. If the repair requires any air bubbles. Special care should be taken
aerodynamic smoothness, the facing sur that the final plies fit well against the under
rounding the repair core cavity may have to be side of the top facing. When the core cavity is
step cut to one-half its thickness. This can be filled, close the cutout in the facing with resin-
done by using a router with an end mill bit and impregnated glass fiber fabric discs that have
a template. been precut to size.
3-17. [RESERVED.]
3-12.
3-18. GENERAL. Plastics cover a broad location away from heating coils, radiators, or
field of organic synthetic resin and may be di steam pipes, and away from such fumes as are
vided into two main classifications thermo found in paint spray booths or paint storage ar
plastics and thermosetting plastics. eas.
NOTE: Wear cotton gloves when FIGURE 3-17. Hanging of acrylic sheets.
handling the plastic to eliminate finger
marks on the soft surface. d. Never use hot water or steam directly
on the plastic to heat it, because this will likely
a. For the best results when cause the acrylic to become milky or cloudy.
hot-forming acrylics, use the temperatures
recommended by the manufacturer. A 3-22. FORMS. Heated acrylic plastic will
forced-air oven should be usedone that is ca mold with almost no pressure, so the forms
pable of operating over a temperature range of used can be of very simple construction.
120 to 374 F (49 to 190 C). If the part gets Forms made of pressed wood, plywood, or
too hot during the forming process, bubbles plaster are adequate to form simple curves, but
may form on the surface and impair the optical reinforced plastic or plaster may be needed to
qualities of the sheet. shape complex or compound curves.
b. For uniform heating, it is best to hang a. Since hot plastic conforms to any
the sheets vertically by grasping them by their waviness or unevenness, the form used must
edges with spring clips and suspending the be completely smooth. To ensure this, sand
clips in a rack. (See figure 3-17.) If the piece the form and cover it with soft cloth such as
is too small to hold with clips, or if there is not outing flannel or billiard felt.
enough trim area, lay the sheets on shelves or
racks covered with soft felt or flannel. Be sure b. The mold should be large enough to
there is enough open space to allow the air to extend beyond the trim line of the part, and
circulate around the sheet and heat it evenly. provisions should be made for holding the hot
plastic snug against the mold as it cools.
c. Small forming jobs, such as landing
light covers, may be heated in a kitchen baking c. A mold can be made for a complex
oven. Infrared heat lamps may be used if they part by using the damaged part itself. If the
are arranged on 7-or 8-inch centers and enough part is broken, tape the pieces together, wax or
of them are used in a bank to heat the sheet grease the inside so the plaster will not stick to
evenly. Place the lamps about 18 inches from it, and support the entire part in sand. Fill the
the material. part with plaster and allow it to harden, and
then remove it from the mold. Smooth out any d. Male And Female Die Forming. This
roughness and cover it with soft cloth. It is requires expensive matching male and female
now ready to use to form the new part. dies. The heated plastic sheet is placed be
tween the dies which are then mated. When
3-23. FORMING METHODS. (See ta the plastic cools, the dies are opened.
ble 3-1.)
e. Vacuum-Forming Without Forms.
a. Simple Curve Forming. Heat the Many aircraft canopies are formed by this
plastic material to the recommended tempera method. In this process a clamp with an
ture, remove it from the heat source, and care opening of the desired shape is placed over a
fully drape it over the prepared form. Care vacuum box and the heated sheet of plastic is
fully press the hot plastic to the form and ei clamped in place. When the air in the box is
ther hold or clamp the sheet in place until it evacuated, the outside air pressure will force
cools. This process may take from ten minutes the hot plastic through the opening and form
to one-half hour. Do not force-cool it. the concave canopy. It is the surface tension of
the plastic that shapes the canopy.
b. Compound-Curve Forming. This
type of forming is normally used for such parts f. Vacuum-Forming With A Female
as canopies or complex wingtip light covers, Form. If the shape needed is other than that
and it requires a great deal of specialized which would be formed by surface tension, a
equipment. There are four commonly used female mold, or form must be used. It is
methods, each having its advantages and dis placed below the plastic sheet and the vacuum
advantages. pump is connected. When air from the form is
evacuated, the outside air pressure will force
c. Stretch Forming. Preheated acrylic the hot plastic sheet into the mold and fill it.
sheets are stretched mechanically over the
form in much the same way as is done with the g. Sawing And Drilling.
simple curved piece. Special care must be
taken to preserve uniform thickness of the (1) Several types of saws can be used
material, since some parts will have to stretch with transparent plastics, however circular
more than others. saws are the best for straight cuts. The blades
(b) The patented Unibit (see fig (a) The cement should be prepared
ure 3-19) is good for drilling small holes in with the correct proportions of components as
aircraft windshields and windows. It can cut given in the manufacturers instructions and
holes from 1/8-to 1/2inch in 1/32inch in thoroughly mixed, making sure neither the
crements and produces good smooth holes mixing container nor mixing paddle adds color
with no stress cracks around their edges. or affects the hardening of the cement.
Clean glass or polyethylene mixing containers is easily done with a strip of cellophane tape
are preferred. placed over the masking tape adhesive. The
tape must be chosen carefully. The adhesive
(b) Because of their short pot life on ordinary cellophane tape prevents the cure
(approximately 45 minutes) Cement PS-30 and of PS-30 and Weld-On 40. Before actual fab
Weld-On 40 must be used quickly once the rication of parts, sample joints should be tried
components are mixed. Time consumed in to ensure that the tape system used will not
preparation shortens the effective working harm the cement. Since it is important for all
time, making it necessary to have everything of the cement to remain in the gap, only con
ready to be cemented before the cements are tact pressure should be used.
mixed. For better handling pour cement
within 20 minutes of mixing. (4) Bubbles will tend to float to the top
of the cement bead in a gap joint after the ce
(c) For maximum joint strength, the ment is poured. These cause no problem if the
final cement joint should be free of bubbles. It bead is machined off. A small wire (not cop
will usually be sufficient to allow the mixed per), or similar objects may be used to lift
cement to stand for 10 minutes before ce some bubbles out of the joint; however, the
menting to allow bubbles to rise to the surface. cement joint should be disturbed as little as
(See figure 3-20.) possible.
repaired and similarly bevel its edges. Install a. Clean the plastic by washing it with
patches in accordance with figure 3-23. Heat plenty of water and mild soap, using a clean,
the plug until soft and press it into the hole soft, grit-free cloth, sponge, or bare hands. Do
without cement and allow to cool to make a not use gasoline, alcohol, benzene, acetone,
perfect fit. Remove the plug, coat the edges carbon tetrachloride, fire extinguisher or deic
with adhesive, and then reinsert in the hole. ing fluids, lacquer thinners, or window clean
Maintain a firm light pressure until the cement ing sprays. These will soften the plastic and
has set. Sand or file the edges level with the cause crazing.
surface, then buff and polish.
b. Plastics should not be rubbed with a
dry cloth since this is likely to cause scratches,
and also to build up an electrostatic charge that
attracts dust particles to the surface. If after
removing dirt and grease, no great amount of
scratching is visible, finish the plastic with a
good grade of commercial wax. Apply the
wax in a thin even coat and bring to a high
polish by rubbing lightly with a soft cloth.
3-39. [RESERVED.]
3-28.
3-40. GENERAL. These repairs are appli polymerizable cement such as PS-30 or
cable to plastic windshields, enclosures, and Weld-On 40, and allow capillary action to fill
windows in nonpressurized airplanes. For the crack completely. Soak the end of a
pressurized airplanes, replace or repair plastic 1/8-inch acrylic rod in cement to form a cush
elements in accordance with the manufac ion and insert it in the stop-drilled hole. Allow
turers recommendation. When windshields the repair to dry for about 30 minutes, and then
and side windows made of acrylic plastics are trim the rod off flush with the sheet.
damaged, they are usually replaced unless the
damage is minor and a repair would not be in d. Polishing and Finishing. Scratches
the line of vision. Repairs usually require a and repair marks, within certain limitations,
great deal of labor. Replacement parts are can be removed from acrylic plastic. No
readily available, so replacement is normally sanding that could adversely affect the plas
more economical than repair. tics optical properties and distort the pilots
vision should be done on any portion of a
a. Minor Repairs. There are times, how windshield.
ever, when a windshield may be cracked and
safety is not impaired. In that case, repairs can (1) If there are scratches or repair marks
be made by stop-drilling the ends of the crack in an area that can be sanded, they may be re
with a # 30 drill (1/8 inch) to prevent the con moved by first sanding the area. Use 320- or
centration of stresses causing the crack to con 400-grit abrasive paper that is wrapped around
tinue. Drill a series of number 40 holes a a felt or rubber pad.
half-inch from the edge of the crack about a
half-inch apart, and lace through these holes (2) Use circular rubbing motions, light
with brass safety wire (see figure 3-24) and pressure, and a mild liquid soap solution as a
seal with clear silicone to waterproof. lubricant. After the sanding is complete, rinse
the surface thoroughly with running water.
b. Temporary Repairs. One way to Then, using a 500-grit paper, continue to sand
make a temporary repair is to stop-drill the lightly. Keep moving to higher grit paper and
ends of the crack, and then drill number sand and rinse until all of the sanding or repair
27 holes every inch or so in the crack. Use marks have been removed.
AN515-6 screws and AN365-632 nuts with
AN960-6 washers on both sides of the plastic. (3) After using the finest abrasive pa
This will hold the crack together and prevent per, use rubbing compound and buff in a cir
further breakage until the windshield can be cular motion to remove all traces of the sand
properly repaired or replaced. (See fig ing.
ure 3-24.)
e. Cleaning. Acrylic windshields and
c. Permanent Repairs. Windshields or windows may be cleaned by washing them
side windows with small cracks that affect with mild soap and running water. Rub the
only the appearance rather than the airworthi surface with your bare hands in a stream of
ness of a sheet, may be repaired by first water. Follow with the same procedure but
stop-drilling the ends of the crack with a with soap and water. After the soap and dirt
# 30 or a 1/8-inch drill. Then use a hypoder have been flushed away, dry the surface with a
mic syringe and needle to fill the crack with soft, clean cloth or tissue and polish it with a
windshield cleaner especially approved for use cover over the windshield. In many cases, this
on aircraft transparent plastics. These cleaners has done more harm than good. This cover
may be purchased through aircraft supply may absorb moisture from the air and give off
houses. harmful vapors, and if it touches the surface of
the plastic it can cause crazing or minute
f. Waxing. A thin coating of wax will fill cracks to form in the windshield. Another
any minute scratches that may be present and hazard in using such a cover is that sand can
will cause rain to form droplets that are easily blow up under the cover and scratch the plas
blown away by the wind. tic.
b. Place the sealing tape around the c. Do not remove the protective paper or
edges of the windshield and install the wind film until the windshield is installed and all of
shield in its frame. Screws that go through the the securing screws are in place.
windshield should be tightened down snug and
then backed out a full turn, so the plastic can 3-47. [RESERVED.]
3-43.
shift as it expands and contracts.
4-1. GENERAL. Proper identification of high temperatures, as this practice will cause
the aircraft structural material is the first step the grain structure to enlarge. The length of
in ensuring that the continuing airworthiness time required for the soaking temperature de
of the aircraft will not be degraded by making pends on the mass of the metal being treated.
an improper repair using the wrong materials. The soaking time is roughly hour per inch of
the diameter of thickness (Ref: Military Tech
a. Ferrous (iron) alloy materials are Order (T.O.) 1-1A-9).
generally classified according to carbon con
tent. (See table 4-1.) 4-2. IDENTIFICATION OF STEEL
STOCK. The Society of Automotive Engi
TABLE 4-1. Ferrous (iron) alloy materials. neers (SAE) and the American Iron and Steel
Institute (AISI) use a numerical index system
MATERIALS CARBON CONTENT
to identify the composition of various steels.
Wrought iron Trace to 0.08% The numbers assigned in the combined listing
Low carbon steel 0.08% to 0.30% of standard steels issued by these groups repre
sent the type of steel and make it possible to
Medium carbon steel 0.30% to 0.60%
readily identify the principal elements in the
High carbon steel 0.60% to 2.2% material.
Cast iron 2.3% to 4.5%
a. The basic numbers for the four digit
series of the carbon and alloy steel may be
b. The strength and ductility, or tough
found in table 4-2. The first digit of the four
ness of steel, is controlled by the kind and
number designation indicates the type to which
quantity of alloys used and also by
the steel belongs. Thus, 1 indicates a carbon
cold-working or heat-treating processes used
steel, 2 a nickel steel, 3 a nickel chromium
in manufacturing. In general, any process that
steel, etc. In the case of simple alloy steels, the
increases the strength of a material will also
second digit indicates the approximate per
decrease its ductility.
centage of the predominant alloying element.
The last two digits usually indicate the mean of
c. Normalizing is heating steel to ap the range of carbon content. Thus, the desig
proximately 150 F to 225 F above the steels nation 1020 indicates a plain carbon steel
critical temperature range, followed by cooling lacking a principal alloying element and con
to below that range in still air at ordinary tem taining an average of 0.20 percent
perature. Normalizing may be classified as a (0.18 to 0.23) carbon. The designation 2330
form of annealing. This process also removes indicates a nickel steel of approximately
stresses due to machining, forging, bending, 3 percent (3.25 to 3.75) nickel and an average
and welding. After the metal has been held at of 0.30 percent, (0.28 to 0.33) carbon content.
this temperature for a sufficient time to be The designation 4130 indicates a chromium-
heated uniformly throughout, remove the metal molybdenum steel of approximately 1 percent
from the furnace and cool in still air. Avoid (0.80 to 1.10) chromium, 0.20 percent
prolonging the soaking of the metal at (0.15 to 0.25) molybdenum, and 0.30 percent
(0.28 to 0.33) carbon.
b. There are numerous steels with higher Number, the temper or condition furnished, or
percentages of alloying elements that do not fit the commercial code marking. Plate and sheet
into this numbering system. These include a are usually marked with specification numbers
large group of stainless and heat resisting al or code markings in rows approximately
loys in which chromium is an essential alloy 5 inches apart. Tubes, bars, rods, and extruded
ing element. Some of these alloys are identi shapes are marked with specification numbers
fied by three digit AISI numbers and many or code markings at intervals of 3 to 5 feet
others by designations assigned by the steel along the length of each piece.
company that produces them. The few exam
ples in table 4-3 will serve to illustrate the The commercial code marking consists of a
kinds of designations used and the general al number which identifies the particular compo
loy content of these steels. sition of the alloy. In addition, letter suffixes
(see table 4-4) designate the basic temper des
c. 1025 welded tubing as per Specification ignations and subdivisions of aluminum alloys.
MIL-T-5066 and 1025 seamless tubing con
forming to Specification MIL-T-5066A are inter TABLE 4-2. Numerical system for steel identification.
changeable. TYPES OF STEELS NUMERALS
AND DIGITS
4-3. INTERCHANGEABILITY OF Plain carbon steel 10XX
STEEL TUBING. Carbon steel with additional sulfur for easy 11XX
machining.
Carbon steel with about 1.75% manganese 13XX
a. 4130 welded tubing conforming to .25% molybdenum. 40XX
Specification MIL-T-6731, and 4130 seam-less 1% chromium, .25% molybdenum 41XX
tubing conforming to Specification MIL-T-6736 2% nickel, 1% chromium, .25% molybdenum 43XX
are interchangeable. 1.7% nickel, .2% molybdenum 46XX
3.5% nickel, .25% molybdenum 48XX
1% chromium steels 51XX
b. NE-8630 welded tubing conforming to
1% chromium, 1.00% carbon 51XXX
Specification MIL-T-6734, and NE-8630 1.5% chromium steels 52XX
seamless tubing conforming to Specification 1.5% chromium, 1.00% carbon 52XXX
MIL-T-6732 are interchangeable. 1% chromium steel with .15% vanadium 61XX
.5% chromium, .5% nickel, .20% molybde- 86XX
num
4-4. IDENTIFICATION OF ALUMINUM. .5% chromium, .5% nickel, .25% molybde- 87XX
To provide a visual means for identifying the num
various grades of aluminum and aluminum 2% silicon steels, .85% manganese 92XX
alloys, such metals are usually marked with 3.25% nickel, 1.20% chromium, .12% mo- 93XX
lybdenum
symbols such as a Government Specification
TABLE 4-3. Examples of stainless and heat-resistant steels nominal composition (percent)
ALLOY DESIGNATION CARBON CHROMIUM NICKEL OTHER GENERAL CLASS OF STEEL
302 0.15 18 9 Austenitic
310 0.25 25 20 Austenitic
321 0.08 18 11 Titanium Austenitic
347 0.08 18 11 Columbium or Austenitic
Tantalum
410 0.15 12.5 Martensitic, Magnetic
430 0.12 17 Ferritic, Magnetic
446 0.20 25 Nitrogen Ferritic, Magnetic
PH15-7 Mo 0.09 15 7 Molybdenum, Precipitation
Aluminum Hardening
17-4 PH 0.07 16.5 4 Copper, Precipitation
Columbium Hardening
or Tantalum
TABLE 4-4. Basic temper designations and subdivisions from aluminum alloys.
1100 0 23
a. Clad aluminum alloys have surface H18 44
3003 0 28
layers of pure aluminum or corrosion-resistant H16 47
aluminum alloy bonded to the core material to 2014 0 45
T6 135
inhibit corrosion. Presence of such a coating 2017 0 45
may be determined under a magnifying glass T6 105
2024 0 47
by examination of the edge surface which will T4 120
show three distinct layers. In aluminum alloys, 2025 T6 110
6151 T6 100
the properties of any specific alloy can be al 5052 0 47
H36 73
tered by work hardening (often called strain- 6061 0 30
hardening), heat treatment, or by a combina T4 65
T6 95
tion of these processes. 7075 T6 135
7079 T6 135
195 T6 75
b. Test for distinguishing heat-treatable 220 T4 75
and nonheat-treatable aluminum alloys. If C355 T6 80
A356 T6 70
for any reason the identification mark of the
alloy is not on the material, it is possible to 4-35. [RESERVED.]
4-24.
distinguish between some heat-treatable alloys
4 inches and less than or equal to 35 percent of 4-38. TRANSFER OF STRESSES WITH-
the control surface span would have a maxi IN A STRUCTURE. An aircraft structure
mum permissible free play of 4 inches x 0.020 must be designed in such a way that it will ac
or 0.080 inches (total motion up and down) cept all of the stresses imposed upon it by the
measured at the trailing edge. Correct any free flight and ground loads without any permanent
play in excess of this amount. deformation. Any repair made must accept the
stresses, carry them across the repair, and then
(2) Care must also be exercised during transfer them back into the original structure.
repair or rework to prevent stress concentration These stresses are considered as flowing
points or areas that could increase the fatigue through the structure, so there must be a con
susceptibility of the trim tab system. Advisory tinuous path for them, with no abrupt changes
Circular (AC) 23.629-1A, Means of Compli in cross-sectional areas along the way. Abrupt
ance with Section 23.629, Flutter, contains changes in cross-sectional areas of aircraft
additional information on this subject. structure that are subject to cycle load
ing/stresses will result in stress concentration
NOTE: If the pilot has experienced that may induce fatigue cracking and eventual
flutter, or thinks he/she has, then a failure. A scratch or gouge in the surface of a
complete inspection of the aircraft highly-stressed piece of metal will cause a
flight control system and all related stress concentration at the point of damage.
components including rod ends,
bearings, hinges, and bellcranks must a. Multirow Fastener Load Transfer.
be accomplished. Suspected parts When multiple rows of rivets are used to se
should be replaced. cure a lap joint, the transfer of stresses is not
equal in each row. The transfer of stress at
4-37. LOAD FACTORS FOR REPAIRS. each row of rivets may be thought of as trans
In order to design an effective repair to a sheet ferring the maximum amount capable of being
metal aircraft, the stresses that act on the transferred without experiencing rivet shear
structure must be understood. failure.
a. Six types of major stresses are known b. Use Of Stacked Doublers. A stacked
and should be considered when making re doubler is composed of two or more sheets of
pairs. These are tension, compression, bend material that are used in lieu of a single,
ing, torsion, shear, and bearing thicker sheet of material. Because the stress
transferred at each row of rivets is dependent
b. The design of an aircraft repair is upon the maximum stress that can be trans
complicated by the requirement that it be as ferred by the rivets in that row, the thickness of
light as possible. If weight were not critical, the sheet material at that row need only be
repairs could be made with a large margin of thick enough to transfer the stress applied.
safety. But in actual practice, repairs must be Employing this principle can reduce the weight
strong enough to carry all of the loads with the of a repair joint.
required factor of safety, but they must not
have too much extra strength. A joint that is 4-49. [RESERVED.]
4-39.
too weak cannot be tolerated, but neither can
one that is too strong because it can create
stress risers that may cause cracks in other lo
cations.
4-50. GENERAL. The airframe of a fixed- or stiffer, which will cause stress concentra
wing aircraft is generally considered to consist tions or alter the resonant frequency of the
of five principal units; the fuselage, wings, structure.
stabilizers, flight control surfaces, and landing
gear. c. All-metal aircraft are made of very
thin sheet metal, and it is possible to restore
a. Aircraft principal structural elements the strength of the skin without restoring its ri
(PSE) and joints are designed to carry loads by gidity. All repairs should be made using the
distributing them as stresses. The elements same type and thickness of material that was
and joints as originally fabricated are strong used in the original structure. If the original
enough to resist these stresses, and must re skin had corrugations or flanges for rigidity,
main so after any repairs. Long, thin elements these must be preserved and strengthened. If a
are called members. Some examples of mem flange or corrugation is dented or cracked, the
bers are the metal tubes that form engine material loses much of its rigidity; and it must
mount and fuselage trusses and frames, beams be repaired in such a way that will restore its
used as wing spars, and longerons and string rigidity, stiffness, and strength.
ers of metal-skinned fuselages and wings.
Longerons and stringers are designed to carry 4-51. RIVETED (OR BOLTED) STEEL
principally axial loads, but are sometimes re TRUSS-TYPE STRUCTURES. Repairs to
quired to carry side loads and bending mo riveted structures may be made employing the
ments, as when they frame cutouts in general principles outlined in the following
metal-skinned structures. Truss members are paragraphs on aluminum alloy structures. Re
designed to carry axial (tension and compres pair methods may also be found in text books
sion) loads applied to their ends only. Frame on metal structures. Methods for repair of the
members are designed to carry side loads and major structural members must be specifically
bending moments in addition to axial loads. approved by the Federal Aviation Administra
Beam members are designed to carry side tion (FAA).
loads and bending moments that are usually
large compared to their axial loads. Beams 4-52. ALUMINUM ALLOY STRUC
that must resist large axial loads, particularly TURES. Extensive repairs to damaged
compression loads, in combination with side stressed skin on monocoque-types of alumi
loads and bending moments are called num alloy structures must be made in accor
beam-columns. Other structural elements such dance with FAA-approved manufacturers in
as metal skins, plates, shells, wing ribs, bulk structions or other FAA-approved source.
heads, ring frames, intercostal members, gus
sets, and other reinforcements, and fittings are a. Rivet Holes. Rivet holes are slightly
designed to resist complex stresses, sometimes larger than the diameter of the rivet. When
in three dimensions. driven, solid rivets expand to fill the hole. The
strength of a riveted joint is based upon the
b. Any repair made on an aircraft struc expanded diameter of the rivet. Therefore, it is
ture must allow all of the stresses to enter, important that the proper drill size be used for
sustain these stresses, and then allow them to each rivet diameter.
return into the structure. The repair must be
equal to the original structure, but not stronger
(1) The acceptable drill size for rivets from corrosion. Remove seized screws by
may be found in Metallic Materials and Ele drilling and use of a screw extractor. Once the
ments for Flight Vehicle Structure screw has been removed, check for structural
(MIL-HDBK-5). cracks that may appear in the adjoining skin
doubler, or in the nut or anchor plate.
(2) Avoid drilling oversized holes or
otherwise decreasing the effective tensile areas 4-53. SELECTION OF ALUMINUM
of wing-spar capstrips, wing, fuselage, fin- FOR REPLACEMENT PARTS. All alumi
longitudinal stringers, or highly-stressed ten num replacement sheet metal must be identical
sile members. Make all repairs, or reinforce to the original or properly altered skin. If an
ments, to such members in accordance with other alloy is being considered, refer to the in
factory recommendations or with the specific formation on the comparative strength proper
approval of an FAA representative. ties of aluminum alloys contained in
MIL-HDBK-5.
b. Disassembly Prior to Repairing. If
the parts to be removed are essential to the ri a. Temper. The choice of temper depends
gidity of the complete structure, support the upon the severity of the subsequent forming
structure prior to disassembly in such a manner operations. Parts having single curvature and
as to prevent distortion and permanent damage straight bend lines with a large bend radius
to the remainder of the structure. When rivets may be advantageously formed from
are removed, undercut rivet heads by drilling. heat-treated material; while a part, such as a
Use a drill of the same size as the diameter of fuselage frame, would have to be formed from
the rivet. Drilling must be exactly centered a soft, annealed sheet, and heat-treated after
and to the base of the head only. After drill forming. Make sure sheet metal parts which
ing, break off the head with a pin punch and are to be left unpainted are made of clad (alu
carefully drive out the shank. On thin or un minum coated) material. Make sure all sheet
supported metal skin, support the sheet metal material and finished parts are free from
on the inside with a bucking bar. Removal of cracks, scratches, kinks, tool marks, corrosion
rivet heads with a cold chisel and hammer is pits, and other defects which may be factors in
not recommended because skin damage and subsequent failure.
distorted rivet holes will probably result. In
spect rivet joints adjacent to damaged structure b. Use of Annealed Alloys for Struc
for partial failure by removing one or more tural Parts. The use of annealed aluminum
rivets to see if holes are elongated or the rivets alloys for structural repair of an aircraft is not
have started to shear. recommended. An equivalent strength repair
using annealed aluminum will weigh more
c. Effective Tools. Care must also be than a repair using heat-treated aluminum
taken whenever screws must be removed to alloy.
avoid damage to adjoining structure. When
properly used, impact wrenches can be effec 4-54. HEAT TREATMENT OF ALUMI
tive tools for removal of screws; however, NUM ALLOY PARTS. All structural alumi
damage to adjoining structure may result from num alloy parts are to be heat-treated in accor
excessive vertical loads applied through the dance with the heat-treatment instruction is
screw axis. Excessive loads are usually related sued by the manufacturers of the part. In the
to improperly adjusted impact tools or at case of a specified temper, the sequence of
tempting to remove screws that have seized heat-treating operations set forth in
MIL-HDBK-5 and corresponding specifica sheet before the bending or shaping is per
tions. If the heat-treatment produces warping, formed. Before bending, smooth all rough
straighten the parts immediately after quench edges, remove burrs, and drill relief holes at
ing. Heat-treat riveted parts before riveting, to the ends of bend lines and at corners; to pre
preclude warping and corrosion. vent cracks from starting. Bend lines should
preferably be made to lie at an angle to the
a. Quenching. Quench material from the grain of the metal (preferably 90 degrees).
solution heat-treating temperature as rapidly as
possible after removal from the furnace. c. Bend radii (BR) in inches for a spe
Quenching in cold water is preferred, although cific metal composition (alloy) and temper is
less drastic chilling (hot or boiling water, or determined from table 4-6. For example, the
airblast) is sometimes employed for bulk sec minimum bend radii for 0.016 thick 2024-T6
tions, such as forgings, to minimize quenching (alloy and temper) is found is found to be
stresses. 2 to 4 times the material thickness or
0.032 to 0.064.
b. Reheating at Temperatures Above
Boiling Water. Reheating of 2017 and 4-56. SETBACK.
2024 alloys above 212 F tend to impair the
original heat treatment. Therefore, reheating a. Setback is a measurement used in sheet
above 212 F, including the baking of primers, metal layout. It is the distance the jaws of a
is not acceptable without subsequent complete brake must be setback from the mold line to
and correct heat treatment. form a bend. For a 90 degree bend, the point
is back from the mold line to a distance equal
4-55. BENDING METAL. When describ to the bend radius plus the metal thickness.
ing a bend in aviation, the term bend radii is The mold line is an extension of the flat side of
used to refer to the inside radius. Require a part beyond the radius. The mold line di
ments for bending the metal to various shapes mension of a part, is the dimension made to
are frequently encountered. When a metal is the intersection of mold lines, and is the di
bent, it is subjected to changes in its grain mension the part would have if its corners had
structure, causing an increase in its hardness. no radius. (See figure 4-2.)
TABLE 4-7. K-chart for determining setback for bends other than 90 degrees.
Deg. K Deg. K Deg. K Deg. K Deg: K
1 0.0087 37 0.3346 73 0.7399 109 1.401 145 3.171
2 0.0174 38 0.3443 74 0.7535 110 1,428 146 3.270
3 0.0261 39 0.3541 75 0.7673 111 1.455 147 3.375
4 0.0349 40 0.3639 76 0.7812 112 1.482 148 3.487
5 0.0436 41 0.3738 77 0.7954 113 1.510 149 3.605
6 0.0524 42 0.3838 78 0.8097 114 1.539 150 3.732
7 0.0611 43 0.3939 79 0.8243 115 1.569 151 3.866
8 0.0699 44 0.4040 80 0.8391 116 1.600 152 4.010
9 0.0787 45 0.4142 81 0.8540 117 1.631 153 4.165
10 0.0874 46 0.4244 82 0.8692 118 1.664 154 4.331
11 0.0963 47 0.4348 83 0.8847 119 1.697 155 4.510
12 0.1051 48 0.4452 84 0.9004 120 1.732 156 4.704
13 0.1139 49 0.4557 85 0.9163 121 1.767 157 4.915
14 0.1228 50 0.4663 86 0.9324 122 1.804 158 5.144
15 0.1316 51 0.4769 87 0.9489 123 1.841 159 5.399
16 0.1405 52 0.4877 88 0.9656 124 1.880 160 5.671
17 0.1494 53 0.4985 89 0.9827 125 1.921 161 5.975
18 0.1583 54 0.5095 90 1.000 126 1.962 162 6.313
19 0.1673 55 0.5205 91 1.017 127 2.005 163 6.691
20 0.1763 56 0.5317 92 1.035 128 2.050 164 7.115
21 0.1853 57 0.5429 93 1.053 129 2.096 165 7.595
22 0.1943 58 0.5543 94 1.072 130 2.144 166 8.144
23 0.2034 59 0.5657 95 1.091 131 2.194 167 8.776
24 0.2125 60 0.5773 96 1.110 132 2.246 168 9.514
25 0.2216 61 0.5890 97 1-130 133 2.299 169 10.38
26 0.2308 62 0.6008 98 1.150 134 2.355 170 11.43
27 0.2400 63 0.6128 99 1.170 135 2.414 171 12.70
28 0.2493 64 0.6248 100 1.191 136 2.475 172 14.30
29 0.2586 65 0.6370 101 1.213 137 2.538 173 16.35
30 0.2679 66 0.6494 102 1.234 138 2.605 174 19.08
31 0.2773 67 0.6618 103 1.257 139 2.674 175 22.90
32 0.2867 68 0.6745 104 1.279 140 2.747 176 26.63
33 0.2962 69 0.6872 105 1.303 141 2.823 177 38.18
34 0.3057 70 0.7002 106 1.327 142 2.904 178 57.29
35 0.3153 71 0.7132 107 1.351 143 2.988 179 114.59
36 0.3249 72 0.7265 108 1.376 144 3.077 180 Inf.
(2) The material used for the majority raised cross on the rivet head. Each type of
of solid shank rivets is aluminum alloy. The rivet is identified by a part number to allow the
strength and temper conditions of aluminum user to select the correct rivet. The numbers
alloy rivets are identified by digits and letters are in series and each series represents a par
similar to those used to identify sheet stock. ticular type of head. (See figure 4-4 and ta
The 1100, 2017-T, 2024-T, 2117-T, and ble 4-8.)
5056 rivets are the six grades usually available.
AN-type aircraft solid rivets can be identified (3) An example of identification mark
by code markings on the rivet heads. A rivet ing of rivet follows.
made of 1100 material is designated as an
A rivet, and has no head marking. The MS 20470AD3-5 Complete part number
2017-T alloy rivet is designated as a D rivet MS Military standard number
and has a raised teat on the head. Two dashes 20470 Universal head rivet
on a rivet head indicate a 2024-T alloy desig AD 2117-T aluminum alloy
nated as a DD rivet. The 2117-T rivet is 3 3/32nds in diameter
designated as an AD rivet, and has a dimple 5 5/16ths in length
on the head. A B designation is given to a
rivet of 5056 material and is marked with a
AN
Material A AD D D DD B
Code
AN425
78 X X X X X X
Counter-
Sunk Head
AN426
100 X X X X X X X
Counter-
Sunk Head
MS20426
AN427
100
Counter-
Sunk Head
MS20427
AN430
Round X X X X X X X
Head
MS20470
AN435
Round
Head
MS20613
MS20615
AN 441
Flat Head
AN 442
Flat Head X X X X X X X
MS20470
AN 455
Brazier X X X X X X X
Head
MS20470
AN 456
Brazier X X X X X X X
Head
MS20470
AN 470
Universal X X X X X X X
Head
MS20470
Heat Treat
Before No No Yes No Yes No No
Using
Shear
Strength 10000 30000 34000 38000 41000 27000
psi
Bearing
Strength 25000 100000 113000 126000 136000 90000
psi
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
AN
Material F C M C
Code
AN425
78
Counter-
Sunk Head
AN426 100
Counter- MS 20426
Sunk Head
MS20426
AN427 100
Counter- X X X X
Sunk Head
MS20427
AN430
Round Head
MS20470
AN435
Round Head X X X X X
MS20613
MS20615
MS20613 MS20613 MS20615 MS20615
AN 441 X X X X
Flat Head
AN 442
Flat Head
MS20470
AN 455
Brazier
Head
MS20470
AN 456
Brazier
Head
MS20470
AN 470
Universal
Head
MS20470
Heat Treat
Before Us- No No No No No No No
ing
Shear
Strength 35000 65000 23000 49000 49000 95000
psi
Bearing
Strength 90000 90000
psi
c. Rivet edge distance is defined as the special fasteners may require an FAA field ap
distance from the center of the rivet hole to the proval.
nearest edge of the sheet. Rivet spacing is the
distance from the center of the rivet hole to the f. Blind rivets are used under certain con
center of the adjacent rivet hole. Unless ditions when there is access to only one side of
structural deficiencies are suspected, the rivet the structure. Typically, the locking charac
spacing and edge distance should duplicate teristics of a blind rivet are not as good as a
those of the original aircraft structure. If driven rivet. Therefore, blind rivets are usually
structural deficiencies are suspected, the fol not used when driven rivets can be installed.
lowing may be used in determining minimum
edge distance and rivet spacing. Blind rivets shall not be used:
(1) For single row rivets, the edge dis (1) in fluid-tight areas;
tance should not be less than 2 times the di
ameter of the rivet and spacing should not be (2) on aircraft in air intake areas where
less than 3 times the diameter of the rivet. rivet parts may be ingested by the engine, on
aircraft control surfaces, hinges, hinge brack
(2) For double row rivets, the edge dis ets, flight control actuating systems, wing at
tance and spacing should not be less than the tachment fittings, landing gear fittings, on
minimums shown in figure 4-5. floats or amphibian hulls below the water
level, or other heavily-stressed locations on the
(3) For triple or multiple row rivets, the aircraft;
edge distance and spacing should not be less
than the minimums shown in figure 4-5. CAUTION: For metal repairs to the air
frame, the use of blind rivets must be spe
d. The 2117 rivets may be driven in the cifically authorized by the airframe manu
condition received, but 2017 rivets above facturer or approved by a representative of
3/16 inch in diameter and all 2024 rivets are to the FAA.
be kept packed in dry ice or refrigerated in the
quenched condition until driven, or be reheat (3) Self plugging friction-lock cherry
treated just prior to driving, as they would oth rivets. This patented rivet may be installed
erwise be too hard for satisfactory riveting. when there is access to only one side of the
Dimensions for formed rivet heads are shown structure. The blind head is formed by pulling
in figure 4-6(a), together with commonly the tapered stem into the hollow shank. This
found rivet imperfections. swells the shank and clamps the skins tightly
together. When the shank is fully upset, the
e. When solid shank rivets are impracti stem pulls in two. The stem does not fracture
cal to use, then special fasteners are used. flush with the rivet head and must be trimmed
Special fastening systems used for aircraft and filed flush for the installation to be com
construction and repair are divided into two plete. Because of the friction-locking stem,
types, special and blind fasteners. Special these rivets are very sensitive to vibrations.
fasteners are sometimes designed for a specific Inspection is visual, with a loose rivet standing
purpose in an aircraft structure. The name out in the standard smoking rivet pattern.
special fasteners refers to its job requirement Removal consists of punching out the friction-
and the tooling needed for installation. Use of
locked stem and then treating it like any other vibrations; this in turn, greatly reduces its
rivet. (See figure 4-7.) shear strength. The mechanical-lock rivet was
developed to prevent that problem. Various
(4) Mechanical-lock rivets have a de manufacturers make mechanical-lock fastern
vice on the puller or rivet head which locks the ers such as: Bulbed Cherrylock, CherryMax,
center stem into place when installed. Many Olympic-Loks, and Huck-Loks.
friction-lock rivet center stems fall out due to
FIGURE 4-5. Rivet hole spacing and edge distance for single-lap sheet splices.
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
universal protruding, 100-degree flush coun (9) Common pull-type Pop rivets, pro
tersink, and 100-degree flush shear; and three duced for nonaircraft related applications, are
diameters 1/8, 5/32, and 3/16 inch. The three not approved for use on certificated aircraft
diameters are available in eight different alloy structures or components.
combinations of 2017-T4, A-286, 5056, and
monel. Olympic-Lok lock spindles are made g. Design a new or revised rivet pattern
from the same material as the sleeves. for strength required in accordance with one of
the following:
(8) Huck rivets (see figure 4-11) are
available in two head styles, protruding and (1) The aircraft manufacturers mainte
flush. They are available in four diameters nance manuals.
1/8, 5/32, 3/16, and 1/4 inch. Their diameters
are measured in increments of 1/32 inch and (2) The techniques found in structural
lengths are measured in 1/16 inch increments. text books and using the mechanical properties
They are manufactured in three different com found in MIL-HDBK-5.
binations of alloys: 5056 aluminum sleeve
with 2024 aluminum alloy pin, A-286 corro (3) The specific instructions in para
sion-resistant steel sleeve with an A-286 pin, graphs 4-58g through 4-58n. When following
and a monel 400 sleeve with an A-286 pin. the instruction in paragraphs 4-58g through
The Huck fastener has the ability to tightly 4-58n, the general rule for the diameter of the
draw-up two or more sheets of metal together rivets used to join aluminum sheets is to use a
while being installed. After the take-up of the diameter approximately three times the thick
Huck fastener is completed, the lockring is ness of the thicker sheet. Do not use rivets
squeezed into a groove on the pulling stem. where they would be placed in tension, tending
The anvil or footer (of the installation tool) to pull the heads off; and backup a lap joint of
packs the ring into the groove of the pulling thin sheets with a stiffener section.
stem by bearing against the lockring.
used for patching plywood may be used. The the material. Reinforce the straightened part to
rivet pattern used, however, must follow stan its original shape, depending upon the condi
dard practice to maintain satisfactory strength tion of the material and the magnitude of any
in the sheet. remaining kinks or buckles. If any strain
cracks are apparent, make complete reinforce
g. Splicing of Sheets. The method of ment in sound metal beyond the damaged por
copying the seams at the edges of a sheet may tion.
not always be satisfactory. For example, when
the sheet has cutouts, or doubler plates at an i. Local Heating. Do not apply local
edge seam, or when other members transmit heating to facilitate bending, swaging, flatten
loads into the sheet, the splice must be de ing, or expanding operations of heat-treated
signed as illustrated in the following examples. aluminum alloy members, as it is difficult to
control the temperatures closely enough to
(1) Material: Clad 2024 sheet, prevent possible damage to the metal, and it
0.032 inch thickness. Width of sheet (i.e., may impair its corrosion resistance.
length at splice) = W = 10 inches.
j. Splicing of Stringers and Flanges. It
(2) Determine rivet size and pattern for is recommended that all splices be made in ac
a single-lap joint similar to figure 4-5. cordance with the manufacturers recommen
dations. If the manufacturers recommenda
(a) Use rivet diameter of approxi tions are not available, the typical splices for
mately three times the sheet thickness, various shapes of sections are shown in figures
3 x 0.032 = 0.096-inch. Use 1/8-inch 2117-T4 4-17 through 4-19. Design splices to carry
(AD) rivets (5/32-inch 2117-T4 (AD) would both tension and compression, and use the
be satisfactory). splice shown in figure 4-18 as an example il
lustrating the following principles.
(b) Use the number of rivets re
quired per inch of width W from table 4-10. (1) To avoid eccentric loading and con
(Number per inch 4.9 x .75 = 3.7 or the total sequent buckling in compression, place splic
number of rivets required = 10 x 3.7 or 37 riv ing or reinforcing parts as symmetrically as
ets.) See notes in table. possible about the centerline of the member,
and attach to as many elements as necessary to
(c) Lay out rivet pattern with spacing prevent bending in any direction.
not less than shown in figure 4-5. Referring to
figure 4-5(A), it seems that a double row pat (2) To avoid reducing the strength in
tern with the minimum spacing will give a to tension of the original bulb angle, the rivet
tal of 40 rivets. However, as only 37 rivets are holes at the ends of the splice are made small
required, two rows of 19 rivets each equally (no larger than the original skin attaching riv
spaced over the10 inches will result in a satis ets), and the second row of holes (those
factory splice. through the bulbed leg) are staggered back
from the ends. In general, arrange the rivets in
h. Straightening of Stringers or Inter the splice so that the design tensile load for the
mediate Frames. Members which are slightly member and splice plate can be carried into the
bent may be straightened cold and examined splice without failing the member at the out
with a magnifying glass for cracks or tears to ermost rivet holes.
FIGURE 4-12. Typical repair method for tubular members of aluminum alloy.
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
FIGURE 4-13. Typical repair for buckled or cracked metal wing rib capstrips.
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
FIGURE 4-14. Typical metal rib repairs (usually found on small and medium-size aircraft).
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
FIGURE 4-16. Typical repairs of stressed sheet metal coverings. (Refer to tables 4-9, 4-10, and 4-11 to calculate
number of rivets to be used.)
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
TABLE 4-9. Number of rivets required for splices (single-lap joint) in bare 2014-T6, 2024-T3, 2024-T36, and
7075-T6 sheet, clad 2014-T6, 2024-T3, 2024-T36, and 7075-T6 sheet, 2024-T4, and 7075-T6 plate, bar, rod, tube,
and extrusions, 2014-T6 extrusions.
NOTES:
a. For stringers in the upper surface of a wing, or in a fuselage, 80 percent of the number of rivets shown in the table
may be used.
c. For single lap sheet joints, 75 percent of the number shown may be used.
ENGINEERING NOTES:
a. The load per inch of width of material was calculated by assuming a strip 1 inch wide in tension.
b. Number of rivets required was calculated for 2117-T4 (AD) rivets, based on a rivet allowable shear stress equal to
40 percent of the sheet allowable tensile stress, and a sheet allowable bearing stress equal to 160 percent of the sheet
allowable tensile stress, using nominal bolt diameters for rivets.
c. Combinations of sheet thickness and rivet size above the underlined numbers are critical in (i.e., will fail by) bearing
on the sheet; those below are critical in shearing of the rivets.
d. The number of AN-3 bolts required below the underlined number was calculated based on a sheet allowable tensile
stress of 70,000 psi and a bolt allowable single shear load of 2,126 pounds.
TABLE 4-10. Number of rivets required for splices (single-lap joint) in 2017, 1017 ALCLAD, 2024-T3 ALCLAD
sheet, plate, bar, rod, tube, and extrusions.
NOTES:
a. For stringers in the upper surface of a wing, or in a fuselage, 80 percent of the number of rivets shown in the
table may be used.
c. For single lap sheet joints, 75 percent of the number shown may be used.
ENGINEERING NOTES:
a. The load per inch of width of material was calculated by assuming a strip 1 inch wide in tension.
b. Number of rivets required was calculated for 2117-T4 (AD) rivets, based on a rivet allowable shear stress
equal to percent of the sheet allowable tensile stress, and a sheet allowable bearing stress equal to 160 percent
of the sheet allowable tensile stress, using nominal hole diameters for rivets.
c. Combinations of sheet thickness and rivet size above the underlined numbers are critical in (i.e., will fail by)
bearing on the sheet; those below are critical in shearing of the rivets.
d. The number of AN-3 bolts required below the underlined number was calculated based on a sheet allowable
tensile stress of 55,000 psi and a bolt allowable single shear load of 2,126 pounds.
TABLE 4-11. Number of rivets required for splices (single-lap joint) in 5052 (all hardnesses) sheet.
NOTES:
a. For stringers in the upper surface of a wing, or in a fuselage, 80 percent of the number of rivets shown in
the table may be used.
c. For single lap sheet joints, 75 percent of the number shown may be used.
ENGINEERING NOTES:
a. The load per inch of width of material was calculated by assuming a strip 1 inch wide in tension.
b. Number of rivets required was calculated for 2117-T4 (AD) rivets, based on a rivet allowable shear stress
equal to 70 percent of the sheet allowable tensile stress, and a sheet allowable bearing stress equal to 160
percent of the sheet allowable tensile stress, using nominal hole diameters for rivets.
c. Combinations of sheet thickness and rivet size above the underlined numbers are critical in (i.e., will fail
by) bearing on the sheet, those below are critical in shearing of the rivets.
4-59. REPAIRING CRACKED MEM (3) Replace torn, kinked, or cracked fit
BERS. Acceptable methods of repairing vari tings.
ous types of cracks in structural elements are
shown in figures 4-21 through 4-24. The fol (4) Elongated or worn bolt holes in fit
lowing general procedures apply in repairing tings, which were designed without bushings,
such defects. are not to be reamed oversize. Replace such
fittings, unless the method of repair is ap
a. Drill small holes 3/32 inch (or proved by the FAA. Do not fill holes with
1/8 inch) at the extreme ends of the cracks to welding rod. Acceptable methods of repairing
minimize the possibility of their spreading elongated or worn bolt holes in landing gear,
further. stabilizer, interplane, or cabane-strut ends are
shown in figure 4-25.
b. Add reinforcement to carry the
stresses across the damaged portion and to b. Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Fit
stiffen the joints. (See figures 4-14 through tings.
4-17.) The condition causing cracks to de
velop at a particular point is stress concentra (1) Replace damaged fittings with new
tion at that point in conjunction with repetition parts that have the same material specifica
of stress, such as produced by vibration of the tions.
structure. The stress concentration may be due
to the design or to defects such as nicks, (2) Repairs may be made in accordance
scratches, tool marks, and initial stresses or with data furnished by the aircraft manufac
cracks from forming or heat-treating opera turer, or data substantiating the method of re
tions. It should be noted, that an increase in pair may be submitted to the FAA for ap
sheet thickness alone is usually beneficial but proval.
does not necessarily remedy the conditions
leading to cracking. 4-61. CASTINGS. Damaged castings are to
be replaced and not repaired unless the method
4-60. STEEL AND ALUMINUM FIT of repair is specifically approved by the air
TINGS. craft manufacturer or substantiating data for
the repair has been reviewed by the FAA for
a. Steel Fittings. Inspect for the follow approval.
ing defects.
4-62. SELECTIVE PLATING IN AIR
(1) Fittings are to be free from CRAFT MAINTENANCE. Selective plating
scratches, vise and nibbler marks, and sharp is a method of depositing metal from an elec
bends or edges. A careful examination of the trolyte to the selected area. The electrolyte is
fitting with a medium power (at least held in an absorbent material attached to an in
10 power) magnifying glass is acceptable as an ert anode. Plating contact is made by brushing
inspection. or swabbing the part (cathode) with the elec
trolyte-bearing anode.
(2) When repairing aircraft after an ac
cident or in the course of a major overhaul, in a. Selective Plating Uses. This process
spect all highly-stressed main fittings, as set can be utilized for any of the following rea
forth in the manufacturers instruction manual. sons.
FLANGE LEG
t = .040
W 1 & W 3 = .6 inch
t = .040
d = 1/8 2117-T4 (AD) rivet
W = 2.0 inches
FIGURE 4-20. Example of intermediate frame stringer splice (material 2017-T3 AL alloy).
FIGURE 4-21. Typical methods of repairing cracked leading and trailing edges and rib intersections.
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
FIGURE 4-23. Typical methods of repairing cracked frame and stiffener combination.
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
that have been previously used with reverse alloys. Do not mix solutions from different
current (because of solution contamination). suppliers. This could result in contamination.
(2) Rinse the area in cold, clean tap (1) Electroclean the area using direct
water. current until water does not break on the sur
face. This electroclean process should be ac
(3) Activate the area with reverse cur complished at 12 to 20 volts using the appro
rent, 7 to 10 volts, in conjunction with the priate electrocleaning solution.
proper activating solution until a uniform,
gray-to-black surface is obtained. (2) Rinse the area in cold, clean tap
water.
(4) Rinse thoroughly in cold, clean tap
water. (3) Activate the surface using direct
current for 1 to 2 minutes, using the activating
(5) Immediately electroplate to color solution, and accomplish at 6 to 20 volts.
while the area is still wet, using the appropriate
nickel solution. (4) Do not rinse.
(5) Immediately electroplate the part (2) Rinse the area thoroughly in cold,
using any solutions, except copper or silver. clean tap water.
Both of these require undercoats.
(3) Immediately electroplate the part,
(6) Rinse and dry. using either nickel, chromium, gold, or cad
mium. Other metals require an undercoat of
n. Plating on Cast Iron and one of the above. Plate initially at the highest
High-Carbon Steels (Steels Heat Treated to voltage recommended for the solution so as to
180,000 psi). develop an initial barrier layer. Then reduce to
standard voltage.
(1) Electroclean the area using direct
current until water does not break on the sur (4) Rinse and dry.
face. This electroclean process should be ac
complished at 12 to 20 volts, using the appro (5) Bake the part for 4 hours at 375 F
priate electrocleaning solution. 25 F.
(2) Rinse the area thoroughly in cold, NOTE: Where the solution vendor
clean tap water. provides substantiating data that hy
drogen embrittlement will not result
(3) Reverse-current etch at 8 to from plating with a particular solu
10 volts, using the appropriate etching solu tion, then a postbake is not required.
tion, until a uniform gray is obtained. This substantiating data can be in the
form of aircraft industry manufac
(4) Rinse thoroughly. turers process specifications, military
specifications, or other suitable data.
(5) Remove surface smut with 15 to
25 volts using the appropriate activating solu NOTE: Acid etching should be
tion. avoided, if possible. Where etching is
absolutely necessary, it should always
(6) Rinse thoroughly. be done with reverse current. Use al
kaline solutions for initial deposits.
(7) Electroplate immediately, using any
of the solutions, except copper or silver (both p. Dissimilar Metals and Changing
of these require undercoats). Base. As a general rule, when plating two dis
similar metals, follow the plating procedure for
(8) Rinse and dry. the one with the most steps or activation. If
activating steps have to be mixed, use reverse-
o. Plating on Ultrahigh Strength Steels current activation steps prior to direct-current
(Heat Treated Above 180,000 psi). activation steps.
ability. Acid solutions are to be used for rapid r. Qualification Tests. All brush-plated
buildup and as a laminating structure material surfaces should be tested for adhesion of the
in conjunction with alkaline-type solutions. electrodeposit. Apply a 1-inch wide strip of
Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing tape
(2) Chrome brush-plating solutions do code 250, or an approved equal, with the adhe
not yield as hard a deposit as bath-plating so sive side to the freshly plated surface. Apply
lutions. The hardness is about 600 Brinell as the tape with heavy hand pressure and remove
compared to 1,000 Brinell for hard chrome de it with one quick motion perpendicular to the
posited from a tank. plated surface. Any plating adhering to the
tape should be cause for rejection.
(3) Silver-immersion deposits will form
with no current flowing on most base metals s. Personnel Training for Quality Con
from the silver brush-plating solutions. Such trol. Manufacturers of selective-plating
deposits have poor adhesion to the base metal. equipment provide training in application
Consequently, a flash of a more noble metal techniques at their facilities. Personnel per
should be deposited prior to silver plating to forming selective plating must have adequate
develop a good bond. knowledge of the methods, techniques, and
practices involved. These personnel should be
(4) In general, brush plating gives less certified as qualified operators by the manu
hydrogen embrittlement and a lower fatigue facturers of the products used.
strength loss than does equivalent tank depos
its. However, all brush-plated, ultrahigh 4-73. [RESERVED.]
4-63.
strength steel parts (heat treated above
180,000 psi) should be baked, as mentioned,
unless it is specifically known that embrittle
ment is not a factor.
a. Welding is one of the three commonly g. For other group listing of metal the welder
used methods of joining metals without the use may qualify, refer to Mil-Std-1595A.
of fasteners. Welding is done by melting the
edges of two pieces of metal to be joined and h. Most large business or agencies conduct
allowing the molten material to flow together their own certification tests, or they have an
so the two pieces will become one. outside testing lab validate the certification
tests.
b. Brazing is similar to welding in that heat
is used to join the material; but rather than 4-75. EQUIPMENT SELECTION. Use
melting, the metal is heated only enough to the welding equipment manufacturers infor
melt a brazing rod having a much lower melt mation to determine if the equipment will sat
ing point. When this brazing rod melts, it wets isfy the requirements for the type of welding
the surfaces to be joined, and when it cools operation being undertaken. Disregarding
and solidifies, it bonds the pieces together. such detailed operating instructions may cause
substandard welds. For example, when using
c. Soldering is similar to brazing except that GTAW equipment, a weld can be contami
brazing materials normally melt at tempera nated with tungsten if the proper size electrode
tures above 425 C (800 F), while solders is not used when welding with direct current
melt at temperatures considerably lower. reverse polarity. Another example, the deple
tion of the inert gas supply below the critical
d. The next step in making airworthy weld level causes a reduction in the gas flow and
repairs is to decide the best process to use, will increase the danger of atmospheric con
considering the available state-of-the-art tamination.
welding equipment, and then deciding the cor
rect weld-filler material to use. Before any (a) Electric welding equipment versatility
weld repairs can be made, the metal parts to be requires careful selection of the type current
welded must be cleaned properly, fitted and and polarity to b used. Since the composition
jigged properly, and all defective welds must be and thickness of metals are deciding
removed to prepare for an aircraft quality weld
repair.
4-76. ACCURATELY IDENTIFY THE (b) The weld is tapered smoothly into the
TYPE OF MATERIAL TO BE RE base metal.
PAIRED. If positive identification of the
material is not possible, contact the aircraft (c) No oxide has formed on the base metal
manufacturer or subject the item to a metallur more than 1/2 inch from the weld.
gical laboratory analysis. Before any welding
is attempted, carefully consider the weldability (d) There are no signs of blowholes, poros
of the alloy, since all alloys are not readily ity, or projecting globules. Many military
weldable. The following steels are readily specifications, as well as American Society of
weldable; plain carbon (of the 1000 series), Testing Materials (ASTM) codes, specify ac
nickel steel (of the Society of Automotive En ceptable limits of porosity and other types of
gineers (SAE) 2300 series), chrome-nickel al defects that are acceptable.
loys (of the SAE 3100 series), chrome-
molybdenum steels (of the SAE 4100 series), (e) The base metal shows no signs of pitting,
and low nickel-chrome-molybdenum steel (of burning, cracking, or distortion.
the SAE 8600 series).
(f) The depth of penetration insures fusion of
4-77. PREPARATION FOR WELDING. base metal and filler rod.
a. Hold elements to be welded in a welding (g) The welding scale is removed. The
jig or fixture which is sufficiently rigid to pre welding scale can be removed using a wire
vent misalignment due to expansion and con brush or by sandblasting. Remove any
traction of the heated material and which
positively and accurately positions the
pieces to be welded.
TABLE 4-12. Current and polarity selection for inert gas welding.
ALTERNATING DIRECT
CURRENT CURRENT
With High-
MATERIAL Frequency STRAIGHT
Stabilization Polarity
(2) The 250+ amp arc between the electrode especially stainless steel parts, are joined by
and the work melts the metal at 5,432 F, and one of the forms of electric resistance welding,
a filler rod is manually fed into the molten either spot welding or seam welding.
puddle. A stream of inert gas such as argon or
helium flows out of the torch and envelopes a. Spot Welding. Two copper electrodes are
the arc, thereby preventing the formation of held in the jaws of the spot welding machine,
oxides in the puddle. and the material to be welded is clamped be
tween them. Pressure is applied to hold the
(3) The versatility of TIG welding is in electrodes tightly together, and electrical cur
creased by the power supply that is used. Di rent flows through the electrodes and the mate
rect current of either polarity or alternating rial. The resistance of the material being
current may be used. (See figures 4-29 welded is so much higher than that of the cop
and 4-30.) per electrodes that enough heat is generated to
melt the metal. The pressure on the electrodes
forces the molten spots in the two pieces of
metal to unite, and this pressure is held after
the current stops flowing long enough for the
metal to solidify. Refer to MIL HDBK-5 for
joint construction and strength data. The
amount of current, pressure, and dwell time are
all carefully controlled and matched to the type
of material and the thickness to produce the cor
rect spot welds. (See figure 4-31.)
replace the bar-shaped electrodes. The metal and its alloys, a neutral flame is preferred, but
to be welded is moved between them, and if difficulties are encountered, a slightly re
electric pulses create spots of molten metal duced flame is preferred to an oxidizing flame.
that overlap to form the continuous seam.
e. The filler rod can now be brought near
4-88. BRAZING. Brazing refers to a group the tip of the torch, causing the molten bronze
of metal-joining processes in which the bond to flow over a small area of the seam. The
ing material is a nonferrous metal or alloy with base metal must be at the flowing temperature
a melting point higher than 425 C (800 F), but of the filler metal before it will flow into the
lower than that of the metals being joined. joint. The brazing metal melts when applied to
Brazing includes silver brazing (erroneously the steel and runs into the joint by capillary at
called silver soldering or hard soldering), cop traction. In braze welding, the rod should
per brazing, and aluminum brazing. continue to be added, as the brazing pro
gresses, with a rhythmic dipping action; so that
NOTE: Never weld over a previously the bead will be built to a uniform width and
brazed joint. height. The job should be completed rapidly
and with as few passes of the rod and torch as
a. Brazing requires less heat than welding possible.
and can be used to join metals that are dam
aged by high heat. However, because the f. When the job is finished, the metal
strength of brazed joints is not as great as should be allowed to cool slowly. After cool
welded joints, brazing is not used for structural ing, remove the flux from the parts by im
repairs on aircraft. In deciding whether braz mersing them for 30 minutes in a lye solution.
ing of a joint is justified, it should be remem
bered that a metal, which will be subjected to a (1) Copper brazing of steel is normally done
sustained high temperature in use, should not in a special furnace having a controlled atmos
be brazed. phere, and at a temperature so high that field
repairs are seldom feasible. If copper brazing
b. A brazing flux is necessary to obtain a is attempted without a controlled atmosphere,
good union between the clean base metal and the copper will probably not completely wet
the filler metal. There are a number of readily and fill the joint. Therefore, copper brazing in
available manufactured fluxes conforming to any conditions other than appropriately con
AWS and AMT specifications. trolled conditions is not recommended.
c. The base metal should be preheated (a) The allowable shear strength for copper
slowly with a mild flame. When it reaches a brazing of steel alloys should be 15 thousand
dull-red heat (in the case of steel), the rod pounds per square inch (kpsi), for all condi
should be heated to a dark (or purple) color tions of heat treatment.
and dipped into the flux. Since enough flux
adheres to the rod, it is not necessary to spread (b) The effect of the brazing process on the
it over the surface of the metal. strength of the parent or base metal of steel
alloys should be considered in the structural
d. A neutral flame is used in most brazing design. Where copper furnace brazing is em
applications. However, a slightly oxidizing ployed, the calculated allowable strength of
flame should be used when copper-zinc, cop-
per-zinc-silicon, or copper-zinc-nickel-silicon
filler alloys are used. When brazing aluminum
the base metal, which is subjected to the tem process of keeping oxide away from the metal
peratures of the brazing process, should be in and aids the flow of solder.
accordance with table 4-14.
(d) In figure 4-32, three types of joints for
TABLE 4-14. Calculated allowable strength of base silver brazing are shown; flanged butt, lap, and
metal. edge joints. If a lap joint is used, the amount
Material Allowable Strength of lap should be determined according to the
Heat-treated material (in Mechanical properties of strength needed in the joint. For strength equal
cluding normalized) used normalized material to that of the base metal in the heated zone, the
in as-brazed amount of lap should be four to six times the
condition
Heat-treated material (in Mechanical properties
metal thickness.
cluding normalized) corresponding to heat
reheat-treated during or treatment performed
after brazing
(3) The torch can be shut off simply by (c) To tin the soldering iron, it is first heated
closing the acetylene off first and allowing the to a bright red, and then the point is cleaned
gas remaining in the torch tip to burn out. (by filing) until it is smooth and bright. No
Then turn off the oxygen valve. If the torch is dirt or pits should remain on its surface. After
not to be used again for a long period, the the soldering iron has been mechanically
pressure should be turned off at the cylinder. cleaned, it should be reheated sufficiently to
The hose lines should then be relieved of pres melt solder and chemically cleaned by rubbing
sure by opening the torch needle valves and it firmly on a block of sal ammoniac (ammo
the working pressure regulator, one at a time, nium chloride). Rosin flux paste may also be
allowing the gas to escape. Again, it is a good used. Solder is then applied to the point and
practice to relieve the oxygen pressure and wiped with a clean cloth.
then the acetylene pressure. The hose should
then be coiled or hung carefully to prevent (d) A properly tinned copper iron has a thin
damage or kinking. unbroken film of solder over the entire surface
of its point.
(4) Soft soldering is used chiefly for copper,
brass, and coated iron in combination with (e) Soft solders are chiefly alloys of tin and
mechanical seams; that is, seams that are riv lead. The percentages of tin and lead vary
eted, bolted, or folded. It is also used where a considerably in various solder, with a corre
leak-proof joint is desired, and sometimes for sponding change in their melting points, rang
fitting joints to promote rigidity and prevent ing from 145-311 C (293-592 F).
corrosion. Soft soldering is generally per Half-and-half (50/50) solder is a general pur
formed only in very minor repair jobs. This pose solder and is most frequently used. It
process is used to join electrical connections contains equal proportions of tin and lead, and
because it forms a strong union with low elec it melts at approximately 182 C (360 F).
trical resistance.
(f) The application of the melted solder re
(a) Soft solder gradually yields under a quires somewhat more care than is apparent.
steadily applied load and should not be used The parts to be soldered should be locked to
unless the transmitted loads are very low. It gether or held mechanically or manually while
should never be used as a means of joining tacking. To tack the seam, the hot copper iron
structural members. is touched to a bar of solder, then the drops of
solder adhering to the copper iron are used to
(b) A soldering iron is the tool used in sol tack the seam at a number of points. The film
dering. Its purpose is to act as a source of heat of solder between the surfaces of a joint must
for the soldering operation. The bit, or work be kept thin to make the strongest joint.
ing face, is made from copper since this metal
will readily absorb heat and transmit it to the (g) A hot, well-tinned soldering copper iron
work. Figure 4-33 shows a wedge-shaped bit. should be held so that its point lies flat on the
metal (at the seam), while the back of the cop
per iron extends over the seam proper at a
45-degree angle, and a bar of solder is touched
to the point. As the solder
FIGURE 4-33. Electric soldering iron.
melts, the copper iron is drawn slowly along AWS specification number are shown in ta
the seam. As much solder as necessary is ble 4-15.
added without raising the soldering copper iron
from the job. The melted solder should run 4-91. REPAIR OF TUBULAR MEM
between the surfaces of the two sheets and BERS.
cover the full width of the seam. Work should
progress along the seam only as fast as the sol a. Inspection. Prior to repairing tubular
der will flow into the joint. members, carefully examine the structure sur
rounding any visible damage to insure that no
4-89. AIRCRAFT PARTS NOT TO BE secondary damage remains undetected. Sec
WELDED. ondary damage may be produced in some
structure, remote from the location of the pri
a. Brace Wires and Cables. Do not weld mary damage, by the transmission of the dam
aircraft parts whose proper function depends aging load along the tube. Damage of this na
upon strength properties developed by cold- ture usually occurs where the most abrupt
working. Among parts in this classification change in direction of load travel is experi
are streamlined wire and cables. enced. If this damage remains undetected,
subsequent normal loads may cause failure of
b. Brazed and Soldered Parts. Do not the part.
weld brazed or soldered parts as the brazing
mixture or solder will penetrate and weaken b. Location and Alignment of Welds.
the hot steel. Unless otherwise noted, welded steel tubing
may be spliced or repaired at any location
c. Alloy Steel Parts. Do not weld alloy steel along the length of the tube. To avoid distor
parts such as aircraft bolts, turnbuckle ends, tion, pay particular attention to the proper fit
etc., which have been heat treated to improve and alignment.
their mechanical properties.
c. Members Dented at a Cluster. Repair
d. Nos. 2024 and 7075 Aluminum. Do not dents at a steel-tube cluster joint by welding a
weld these two aluminum alloys (that are often specially formed steel patch plate over the
used in aircraft construction) because the heat dented area and surrounding tubes. (See fig
from the welding process will cause severe ure 4-34.) To prepare the patch plate, cut a
cracking. The 2024 aluminum is most often section of steel sheet of the same material and
used in wing skins, fuselage skins, and in most thickness as the heaviest tube damaged. Trim
structured airframe parts. The 7075 aluminum the reinforcement plate so that the fingers ex
is most often used in machined fittings such as tend over the tubes a minimum of 1.5 times the
wing-spar attachments, landing-gear attach respective tube diameter. (See figure 4-34.)
ments, and other structural parts. Remove all the existing finish on the damaged
cluster-joint area to be covered by the rein
4-90. WELDING ROD SELECTION. forcement plate. The reinforcement plate may
Most aircraft repair shops that are prepared to be formed before any welding is attempted, or
make weld repairs should have the basic se it may be cut and tack-welded to one or more
lection of welding rods available. The best of the tubes in the cluster joint, then heated
rods to stock, the metals they weld, and the and formed around the joint to produce a
smooth contour. Apply sufficient heat to the
plate while forming so that there is generally a
gap of no more than 1/16 inch from the con-
tour of the joint to the plate. In this operation formed by any two adjacent fingers of the
avoid unnecessary heating, and exercise care to plate. After the plate is formed and tack
prevent damage at the point of the angle welded to the cluster joint, weld all the plate
edges to the cluster joint.
d. Members Dented in a Bay. Repair tube diameter, do not involve more than 1/4 of
dented, bent, cracked, or otherwise damaged the tube circumference, and are not longer than
tubular members by using a split-sleeve rein tube diameter.
forcement. Carefully straighten the damaged
member, and in the case of cracks, drill (2) Dents are free from cracks, abrasions,
No. 40 (0.098) inch stop holes at the ends of and sharp corners.
the crack.
(3) The dented tubing can be substantially re
4-92. REPAIR BY WELDED SLEEVE. formed, without cracking, before application
This repair is outlined in figure 4-35. Select a of the patch.
length of steel tube sleeve having an inside di
ameter approximately equal to the outside di b. Punctured Tubing. Holes are not longer
ameter of the damaged tube and of the same than tube diameter and involve not more than
material, and at least the same wall thickness. 1/4 of tube circumference.
Diagonally cut the sleeve reinforcement at a
30-degree angle on both ends so that the 4-95. SPLICING TUBING BY INNER
minimum distance of the sleeve from the edge SLEEVE METHOD. If the damage to a
of the crack or dent is not less than 1-1/2 times structural tube is such that a partial replace
the diameter of the damaged tube. Cut through ment of the tube is necessary, the inner-sleeve
the entire length of the reinforcement sleeve, splice is recommended; especially where a
and separate the half-sections of the sleeve. smooth tube surface is desired. (See fig
Clamp the two sleeve sections to the proper ure 4-37.)
positions on the affected areas of the original
tube. Weld the reinforcement sleeve along the a. Make a diagonal cut when removing the
length of the two sides, and weld both ends of damaged portion of the tube, and remove the
the sleeve to the damaged tube. (See fig burr from the edges of the cut by filing or
ure 4-35.) The filling of dents or cracks with similar means. Diagonally cut a replacement
welding rod in lieu of reinforcing the member steel tube of the same material and diameter,
is not acceptable. and at least the same wall thickness, to match
the length of the removed portion of the dam
4-93. REPAIR BY BOLTED SLEEVE. aged tube. At each end of the replacement
Do not use bolted-sleeve repairs on welded tube allow a 1/8-inch gap from the diagonal
steel-tube structure unless specifically author cuts to the stubs of the original tube. Select a
ized by the manufacturer or the FAA. The length of steel tubing of the same material, and
tube area removed by the bolt holes, in this at least the same wall thickness, and of an out
type of repair, may prove critical. side diameter equal to the inside diameter of
the damaged tube. Fit this inner-sleeve tube
4-94. WELDED-PATCH REPAIR. Dents material snugly within the original tube, with a
or holes in tubing may be repaired by using a maximum diameter difference of 1/16 inch.
patch of the same material, one gauge thicker. From this inner-sleeve tube material cut two
(See figure 4-36.) sections of tubing, each of such a length that
the ends of the inner sleeve will be a minimum
a. Dented Tubing. distance of 1-1/2-tube diameters from the
nearest end of the diagonal cut.
(1) Dents are not deeper than 1/10 of
b. If the inner sleeve fits very tightly in the the original tube. The clearance between inside
replacement tube, chill the sleeve with dry ice diameter of the sleeve and the outside diameter
or cold water. If this is insufficient, polish of the original tube may not exceed 1/16 inch.
down the diameter of the sleeve with emery
cloth. Tack the outer and inner replacement b. From this outer-sleeve tube material, cut
tubes using rosette welds. Weld the inner diagonally (or fishmouth) two sections of tub
sleeve to the tube stubs through the 1/8-inch ing, each of such length that the nearest end of
gap, forming a weld bead over the gap. the outer sleeve is a minimum distance of
1-1/2-tube diameters from the end of the cut
4-96. SPLICING TUBING BY OUTER on the original tube. Use a fishmouth sleeve
SLEEVE METHOD. If partial replacement wherever possible. Deburr the edges of the
of a tube is necessary, make the outer-sleeve sleeves, replacement tube, and the original
splice using a replacement tube of the same di tube stubs.
ameter. Since the outer-sleeve splice requires
the greatest amount of welding, it should be c. Slip the two sleeves over the replacement
used only when the other splicing methods are tube, align the replacement tube with the origi
not suitable. Information on the replacement nal tube stubs, and slip the sleeves over the
by use of the outer-sleeve method is given in center of each joint. Adjust the sleeves to suit
figure 4-38 and figure 4-39. the area and provide maximum
reinforcement.
a. Remove the damaged section of a tube
utilizing a 90-degree cut. Cut a replacement d. Tack weld the two sleeves to the re
steel tube of the same material, diameter, and placement tube in two places before welding.
at least the same wall thickness to match the Apply a uniform weld around both ends of one
length of the removed portion of the damaged of the reinforcement sleeves and allow the
tube. This replacement tube must bear against weld to cool; then, weld around both ends of
the stubs of the original tube with a total toler the remaining reinforcement tube. Allow one
ance not to exceed 1/32 inch. The outer-sleeve sleeve weld to cool before welding the re
tube material selected must be of the same maining tube to prevent undue warping.
material and at least the same wall thickness as
4-97. SPLICING USING LARGER DI least the same wall thickness, having an inside
AMETER REPLACEMENT TUBES. The diameter approximately equal to the outside
method of splicing structural tubes, as shown diameter of the damaged tube. Fit this re
in figure 4-40, requires the least amount of placement tube material snugly around the
cutting and welding. However, this splicing original tube with a maximum diameter differ
method cannot be used where the damaged ence of 1/16 inch. From this replacement tube
tube is cut too near the adjacent cluster joints, material, cut a section of tubing diagonally (or
or where bracket-mounting provisions make it fishmouth) of such a length that each end of
necessary to maintain the same replacement the tube is a minimum distance of 1-1/2-tube
tube diameter as the original. As an aid to in diameters from the end of the cut on the origi
stalling the replacement tube, squarely cut the nal tube. Use a fishmouth cut replacement
original damaged tube leaving a minimum tube wherever possible. Deburr the edges of
short stub equal to 2-1/2-tube diameters on one the replacement tube and original tube stubs.
end and a minimum long stub equal to If a fishmouth cut is used, file out the sharp ra
4-1/2-tube diameters on the other end. Select a dius of the cut with a small round file.
length of steel tube of the same material and at
Spring the long stub of the original tube from d. Large Difference in Longeron Diameter
the normal position, slip the replacement tube Each Side of Fitting. Figure 4-41 (D) as
over the long stub, and then back over the sumes that there is 1/4-inch difference in the
short stub. Center the replacement tube be diameter of the longeron on the two sides of
tween the stubs of the original tube. Tack the fitting. The section of longeron forward
weld one end of the replacement tube in sev (left) of the fitting is cut at 30 degrees, and a
eral places, then weld completely around the section of tubing of the same size as the tube
end. In order to prevent distortion, allow the and of such length as to extend well to the rear
weld to cool completely, then weld the re (right) of the fitting is slipped through it. One
maining end of the replacement tube to the end is cut at 30 degrees to fit the 30-degree
original tube. scarf at left, and the other end fishmouthed.
This makes it possible to insert a tube of
4-98. REPAIRS AT BUILT-IN FUSE proper diameter to form an inside sleeve for
LAGE FITTINGS. Make splices in accor the tube on the left of the fitting and an outside
dance with the methods described in para sleeve for the tube on the right of the fitting.
graphs 4-86 through 4-92. Repair built-in fu
selage fittings in the manner shown in fig 4-99. ENGINE-MOUNT REPAIRS. All
ure 4-41. The following paragraphs outline the welding on an engine mount must be of the
different methods as shown in figure 4-41. highest quality, since vibration tends to ac
centuate any minor defect. Engine-mount
a. Tube of Larger Diameter Than Origi members should preferably be repaired by us
nal. A tube (sleeve) of larger diameter than ing a larger diameter replacement tube, tele
the original is used in the method shown in scoped over the stub of the original member,
figure 4-41 (A). The forward splice is a and using fishmouth and rosette welds. How
30-degree scarf splice. Cut the rear longeron ever, 30-degree scarf welds in place of the
(right) approximately 4 inches from the cen fishmouth welds will be considered acceptable
terline of the joint and fit a 1 inch long spacer for engine-mount repair work.
over the longeron, and edge weld this spacer
and longeron. Make a tapered V cut ap a. Repaired engine mounts must be checked
proximately 2 inches long in the aft end of the for accurate alignment. When tubes are used
outer sleeve, and swage the end of the outer to replace bent or damaged ones, the original
sleeve to fit the longeron and weld. alignment of the structure must be maintained.
When drawings are not available, this can be
b. Tube of Same Diameter as Original. In done by measuring the distance between points
the method shown in figure 4-41 (B) the new of corresponding members that have not been
section is the same size as the longeron distorted.
forward (left) of the fitting. The rear end
(right) of the tube is cut at 30 degrees and b. Grind out all cracked welds.
forms the outside sleeve of the scarf splice. A
sleeve is centered over the forward joint as in c. Use only high-grade metallurgically con
dicated. trolled (mc) welding rods for engine-mount re
pairs.
c. Simple Sleeve. In figure 4-41 (C), it is as
sumed the longeron is the same size on each
side of the fitting. It is repaired by a sleeve of
larger diameter than the longeron.
d. If all members are out of alignment, re found in figure 4-43. Repair similar members
ject the engine mount and replace with one made of round tubes using a standard splice, as
supplied by the manufacturer or one which was shown in figure 4-35, figure 4-37, or fig
built to conform to the manufacturers draw ure 4-38.
ings. The method of checking the alignment
of the fuselage or nacelle points should be re a. Location of Splices. Steel-brace struts
quested from the manufacturer. may be spliced at any point along the length of
the strut provided the splice does not overlap
e. Repair minor damage, such as a crack part of an end fitting. The jury-strut attach
adjacent to an engine-attachment lug, by rew ment is not considered an end fitting; there
elding the ring and extending a gusset or a fore, a splice may be made at this point. The
mounting lug past the damaged area. Engine- repair procedure and workmanship minimize
mount rings which are extensively damaged distortion due to welding and the necessity for
must not be repaired, unless the method of re subsequent straightening operations. Observe
pair is specifically approved by the FAA, or every repaired strut carefully during initial
the repair is accomplished in accordance with flights to ascertain that the vibration charac
FAA-approved instructions. teristics of the strut and attaching components
are not adversely affected by the repair. A
f. If the manufacturer stress relieved the wide range of speed and engine-power combi
engine mount after welding it, the engine nation must be covered during this check.
mount should be re-stress relieved after the
weld repairs are made. b. Fit and Alignment. When making re
pairs to wing and tail surface brace members,
4-100. BUILT-UP TUBULAR WING OR ensure to proper fit and alignment to avoid
TAIL-SPARS. Repair built-up tubular wing distortion.
or tail-spars by using any of the applicable
splices and methods of repair shown in fig 4-102. LANDING GEAR REPAIR.
ure 4-35 through figure 4-45, provided the
spars are not heat treated. In the case of heat- a. Round Tube Construction. Repair
treated spars, the entire spar assembly would landing gears made of round tubing using
have to be reheat treated to the manufacturers standard repairs and splices as shown in fig
specifications after completion of the repair. ure 4-35 and figure 4-41.
In general, this will be found less practicable
than replacing the spar with one furnished by b. Streamline Tube Construction. Repair
the manufacturer or holder of the PMA for the landing gears made of streamlined tubing by
part. either one of the methods shown in fig
ure 4-42, figure 4-44, or figure 4-45.
4-101. WING-BRACE STRUTS AND
TAIL-BRACE STRUTS. In general, it will c. Axle Assemblies. Representative types of
be found advantageous to replace damaged repairable and nonrepairable landing gear axle
wing-brace struts made either from rounded or assemblies are shown in figures 4-46 and 4-47.
streamlined tubing with new members pur The types as shown in A, B, and C of this fig
chased from the original manufacturer. How ure are formed from steel tubing and may be
ever, there is no objection, from an airworthi repaired by the applicable method
ness point of view, to repairing such members
in a proper manner. An acceptable method of
repair, if streamlined tubing is used, will be
S.L. Size A B C D
1 .375 .563 1.340 .496
1- .375 .688 1.670 .619
1- .500 .875 2.005 .743
1- .500 1.000` 2.339 .867
2 .500 1.125 2.670 .991
2- .500 1.250 3.008 1.115
2- .500 1.375 3.342 1.239
ROUND INSERT TUBE (B) SHOULD BE AT LEAST OF SAME MATERIAL AND ONE GAUGE THICKER
THAN ORIGINAL STREAMLINE TUBE (C).
FIGURE 4-42. Streamline tube splice using round tube (applicable to landing gear).
d. shown in figure 4-35 through figure 4-45. (2) The oleo portion of the structure is gen
However, it will always be necessary to ascer erally heat treated after welding, and is per
tain whether or not the members are heat fectly machined to ensure proper functioning
treated. The axle assembly as shown in fig of the shock absorber. These parts would be
ure 4-47 is, in general, of a nonrepairable type distorted by welding after machining.
for the following reasons.
4-103. REPAIRS TO WELDED ASSEM
(1) The axle stub is usually made from a BLIES. These repairs may be made by the
highly heat-treated nickel alloy steel and care following methods.
fully machined to close tolerances. These
stubs are usually replaceable and must be re a. A welded joint may be repaired by cut
placed if damaged. ting out the welded joint and replacing it with
one properly gusseted. Standard splicing pro
cedures should be followed.
S.L. Size A B C
1 7.324 .572 1.340
1- 9.128 .714 1.670
1- 10.960 .858 2.005
1- 12.784 1.000 2.339
2 14.594 1.144 2.670
2- 16.442 1.286 3.008
2- 18.268 1.430 3.342
FIGURE 4-43. Streamline tube splice using split sleeve (applicable to wing and tail surface brace struts and other
members).
S.L. Size A B C L
1 .382 .572 1.340 5.160
1- .476 .714 1.670 6.430
1- .572 .858 2.005 7.720
1- .667 1.000 2.339 9.000
2 .763 1.144 2.670 10.300
2- .858 1.286 3.008 11.580
2- .954 1.430 3.342 12.880
FIGURE 4-44. Streamline tube splice using split insert (applicable to landing gear).
S.L. Size A B C 6A
1 .572 .382 1.340 3.430
1- .714 .476 1.670 4.280
1- .858 .572 2.005 5.150
1- 1.000 .667 2.339 6.000
2 1.144 .762 2.670 6.860
2- 1.286 .858 3.008 7.720
2- 1.430 .954 3.342 8.580
FIGURE 4-45. Streamline tube splice using plates (applicable to landing gear).
4-110. [RESERVED.]
4-105.
g. Use oxy-fuel equipment only with the b. Wear protective gloves, sleeves,
gases for which it is intended. aprons, and lace-up shoes to protect skin and
clothing from sparks and slag.
h. DO NOT open an acetylene cylinder
valve more than approximately 1-1/2 turns and CAUTION: Keep all clothing and
preferably no more than 3/4 of a turn. Keep protective apparel absolutely free of
the cylinder wrench, if one is required, on the oil or grease.
cylinder valve so, if necessary, the cylinder
may be turned off quickly. 4-116. FIRST-AID KITS. Always keep a
special welders first-aid kit where it is easily
i. On all gases except acetylene, open the accessible. Burns are the most common
cylinder valve completely to seal the cylinder welding accidents.
back-seal packing.
4-128. [RESERVED.]
4-117.
j. Never test for gas leaks with a flame.
Use an approved leak-detector solution.
SECTION 1. GENERAL
5-1. GENERAL. The field of NDI is too techniques, and practices acceptable to the
varied to be covered in detail in this Advisory administrator. If the maintenance instructions
Circular (AC). This chapter provides a brief include materials, parts, tools, equipment, or
description of the various Nondestructive test apparatus necessary to comply with indus-
Testing (NDT) used for inspection of aircraft, try practices then those items are required to be
powerplant, and components in aircraft in- available and used as per part 43.
spection. The effectiveness of any particular
method of NDI depends upon the skill, experi- 5-3. NDT LEVELS. Reference Air Trans-
ence, and training of the person(s) performing port Association (ATA) Specification 105-
the inspection process. Each process is limited Guidelines For Training and Qualifying Per-
in its usefulness by its adaptability to the par- sonnel In Nondestructive Testing Methods.
ticular component to be inspected. Consult the
aircraft or product manufacturers manuals for a. Level I Special.
specific instructions regarding NDI of their
products. (Reference AC 43-3, Nondestructive Initial classroom hours and on-the-job training
Testing in Aircraft, for additional information shall be sufficient to qualify an individual for
on NDI. certification for a specific task. The individual
must be able to pass a vision and color percep-
The product manufacturer or the Federal tion examination, a general exam dealing with
Aviation Administration (FAA) generally standards and NDT procedures, and a practical
specifies the particular NDI method and pro- exam conducted by a qualified Level II or
cedure to be used in inspection. These NDI Level III certificated person.
requirements will be specified in the manu-
facturers inspection, maintenance, or overhaul b. Level I/Level II.
manual; FAA Airworthiness Directives (AD);
Supplemental Structural Inspection Documents The individual shall have an FAA Airframe
(SSID); or manufacturers service bulletins and Powerplant Mechanic Certificate, com-
(SB). However, in some conditions an alter- plete the required number of formal classroom
nate NDI method and procedure can be used. hours, and complete an examination.
This includes procedures and data developed
by FAA certificated repair stations under Ti- c. Level III.
tle 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations,
(14 CFR), part 145. (1) The individual must have graduated
from a 4 year college or university with a de-
5-2. APPROVED PROCEDURES. Ti- gree in engineering or science, plus 1 year of
tle 14 CFR, part 43 requires that all mainte- minimum experience in NDT in an assignment
nance be performed using methods, tech- comparable to that of a Level II in the applica-
niques, and practices prescribed in the current ble NDT methods: or
manufacturers maintenance manual or in-
structions for continued airworthiness prepared (2) The individual must have 2 years of
by its manufacturer, or other methods, engineering or science study at a university,
college, or technical school, plus 2 years of flaws. The following paragraphs classify and
experience as a Level II in the applicable NDT discuss the types of flaws or anomalies that
methods: or may be detected by NDI.
(3) The individual must have 4 years of a. Corrosion. This is the electrochemical
experience working as a Level II in the appli- deterioration of a metal resulting from chemi-
cable NDT methods and complete an exami- cal reaction with the surrounding environment.
nation. Corrosion is very common and can be an ex-
tremely critical defect. Therefore, NDI per-
5-4. TRAINING, QUALIFICATION, AND sonnel may devote a significant amount of
CERTIFICATION. The success of any NDI their inspection time to corrosion detection.
method and procedure depends upon the
knowledge, skill, and experience of the NDI b. Inherent Flaws. This group of flaws is
personnel involved. The person(s) responsible present in metal as the result of its initial so-
for detecting and interpreting indications, such lidification from the molten state, before any
as eddy current, X-ray, or ultrasonic NDI, must of the operations to forge or roll it into useful
be qualified and certified to specific FAA, or sizes and shapes have begun. The following
other acceptable government or industry stan- are brief descriptions of some inherent flaws.
dards, such as MIL-STD-410, Nondestructive
Testing Personnel Qualification and Certifica- (1) Primary pipe is a shrinkage cavity
tion, or Air Transport Association (ATA) that forms at the top of an ingot during metal
Specification 105-Guidelines for Training and solidification, which can extend deep into the
Qualifying Personnel in Nondestructive Test- ingot. Failure to cut away all of the ingot
ing Methods. The person should be familiar shrinkage cavity can result in unsound metal,
with the test method, know the potential types called pipe, that shows up as irregular voids in
of discontinuities peculiar to the material, and finished products.
be familiar with their effect on the structural
integrity of the part. (2) Blowholes are secondary pipe holes
in metal that can occur when gas bubbles are
5-5. FLAWS. Although a specific discus- trapped as the molten metal in an ingot mold
sion of flaws and processes will not be given solidifies. Many of these blowholes are clean
in this AC, the importance of this area should on the interior and are welded shut into sound
not be minimized. Inspection personnel metal during the first rolling or forging of the
should know where flaws occur or can be ex- ingot. However, some do not weld and can
pected to exist and what effect they can have in appear as seams or laminations in finished
each of the NDI test methods. Misinterpreta- products.
tion and/or improper evaluation of flaws or
improper performance of NDI can result in (3) Segregation is a nonuniform distri-
serviceable parts being rejected and defective bution of various chemical constituents that
parts being accepted. can occur in a metal when an ingot or casting
solidifies. Segregation can occur anywhere in
All NDI personnel should be familiar with the the metal and is normally irregular in shape.
detection of flaws such as: corrosion, inherent However, there is a tendency for some con-
flaws, primary processing flaws, secondary stituents in the metal to concentrate in the liq-
processing or finishing flaws, and in-service uid that solidifies last.
(4) Porosity is holes in a materials sur- (4) Cooling cracks can occur in casting
face or scattered throughout the material, due to stresses resulting from cooling, and are
caused by gases being liberated and trapped as often associated with changes in cross sections
the material solidifies. of the part. Cooling cracks can also occur
when alloy and tool steel bars are rolled and
(5) Inclusions are impurities, such as subsequently cooled. Also, stresses can occur
slag, oxides, sulfides, etc., that occur in ingots from uneven cooling which can be severe
and castings. Inclusions are commonly caused enough to crack the bars. Such cracks are gen-
by incomplete refining of the metal ore or the erally longitudinal, but not necessarily straight.
incomplete mixing of deoxidizing materials They can be quite long, and usually vary in
added to the molten metal in the furnace. depth along their length.
(6) Shrinkage cracks can occur in cast- (5) Flakes are internal ruptures that can
ings due to stresses caused by the metal con- occur in metal as a result of cooling too rap-
tracting as it cools and solidifies. idly. Flaking generally occurs deep in a heavy
section of metal. Certain alloys are more sus-
c. Primary Processing Flaws. Flaws ceptible to flaking than others.
which occur while working the metal down by
hot or cold deformation into useful shapes (6) Forging laps are the result of metal
such as bars, rods, wires, and forged shapes are being folded over and forced into the surface,
primary processing flaws. Casting and weld- but not welded to form a single piece. They
ing are also considered primary processes al- can be caused by faulty dies, oversized dies,
though they involve molten metal, since they oversized blanks, or improper handling of the
result in a semi-finished product. The follow- metal in the die. They can occur on any area
ing are brief descriptions of some primary of the forging.
processing flaws:
(7) Forging bursts are internal or exter-
(1) Seams are surface flaws, generally nal ruptures that occur when forging opera-
long, straight, and parallel to the longitudinal tions are started before the material to be
axis of the material, which can originate from forged reaches the proper temperature
ingot blowholes and cracks, or be introduced throughout. Hotter sections of the forging
by drawing or rolling processes. blank tend to flow around the colder sections
causing internal bursts or cracks on the sur-
(2) Laminations are formed in rolled face. Too rapid or too severe a reduction in a
plate, sheet, or strip when blowholes or inter- section can also cause forging bursts or cracks.
nal fissures are not welded tight during the
rolling process and are enlarged and flattened (8) A hot tear is a pulling apart of the
into areas of horizontal discontinuities. metal that can occur in castings when the metal
contracts as it solidifies.
(3) Cupping is a series of internal metal
ruptures created when the interior metal does (9) A cold shut is a failure of metal to
not flow as rapidly as the surface metal during fuse. It can occur in castings when part of the
drawing or extruding processes. Segregation metal being poured into the mold cools and
in the center of a bar usually contributes to the does not fuse with the rest of the metal into a
occurrence. solid piece.
(10) Incomplete weld penetration is a similar processes. The following are brief de-
failure of the weld metal to penetrate com- scriptions of some secondary processing or
pletely through a joint before solidifying. finishing flaws.
(11) Incomplete weld fusion occurs in (1) Machining tears can occur when
welds where the temperature has not been high working a part with a dull cutting tool or by
enough to melt the parent metal adjacent to the cutting to a depth that is too great for the mate-
weld. rial being worked. The metal does not break
away clean, and the tool leaves a rough, torn
(12) Weld undercutting is a decrease in surface which contains numerous short dis-
the thickness of the parent material at the toe continuities that can be classified as cracks.
of the weld caused by welding at too high a
temperature. (2) Heat treating cracks are caused by
stresses setup by unequal heating or cooling of
(13) Cracks in the weld metal can be portions of a part during heat treating opera-
caused by the contraction of a thin section of tions. Generally, they occur where a part has a
the metal cooling faster than a heavier section sudden change of section that could cause an
or by incorrect heat or type of filler rod. They uneven cooling rate, or at fillets and notches
are one of the more common types of flaws that act as stress concentration points.
found in welds.
(3) Grinding cracks are thermal type
(14) Weld crater cracks are star shaped cracks similar to heat treating cracks and can
cracks that can occur at the end of a weld run. occur when hardened surfaces are ground. The
overheating created by the grinding can be
(15) Cracks in the weld heat-affected caused by the wheel becoming glazed so that it
zone can occur because of stress induced in the rubs instead of cutting the surface; by using
material adjacent to the weld by its expansion too little coolant; by making too heavy a cut;
and contraction from thermal changes. or by feeding the material too rapidly. Gener-
ally, the cracks are at right angles to the direc-
(16) A slag inclusion is a nonmetallic tion of grinding and in severe cases a complete
solid material that becomes trapped in the weld network of cracks can appear. Grinding cracks
metal or between the weld metal and the base are usually shallow and very sharp at their
metal. roots, which makes them potential sources of
fatigue failure.
(17) Scale is an oxide formed on metal
by the chemical action of the surface metal (4) Etching cracks can occur when
with oxygen from the air. hardened surfaces containing internal residual
stresses are etched in acid.
d. Secondary Processing or Finishing
Flaws. This category includes those flaws as- (5) Plating cracks can occur when hard-
sociated with the various finishing operations, ened surfaces are electroplated. Generally,
after the part has been rough-formed by roll- they are found in areas where high residual
ing, forging, casting or welding. Flaws may be stresses remain from some previous operation
introduced by heat treating, grinding, and involving the part.
e. In-Service Flaws. These flaws are (5) Delamination is the term used to de-
formed after all fabrication has been completed fine the separation of composite material lay-
and the aircraft, engine, or related component ers within a monolithic structure. Ultrasonic is
has gone into service. These flaws are attrib- the primary method used for the detection of
utable to aging effects caused by either time, delamination in composite structures.
flight cycles, service operating conditions, or
combinations of these effects. The following 5-6. SELECTING THE NDI METHOD.
are brief descriptions of some in-service flaws. The NDI method and procedure to be used for
any specific part or component will generally
(1) Stress corrosion cracks can develop be specified in the aircraft or component
on the surface of parts that are under tension manufacturers maintenance or overhaul
stress in service and are also exposed to a cor- manuals, SSIDs, SBs, or in ADs.
rosive environment, such as the inside of wing
skins, sump areas, and areas between two NOTE: Some ADs refer to SBs
metal parts of faying surfaces. which may, in turn, refer to manufac-
turers overhaul or maintenance
(2) Overstress cracks can occur when a manuals.
part is stressed beyond the level for which it
was designed. Such overstressing can occur as a. Appropriate Method. The appropriate
the result of a hard landing, turbulence, acci- NDI method may consist of several separate
dent, or related damage due to some unusual or inspections. An initial inspection may indicate
emergency condition not anticipated by the de- the presence of a possible flaw, but other in-
signer, or because of the failure of some re- spections may be required to confirm the
lated structural member. original indication. Making the correct NDI
method selection requires an understanding of
(3) Fatigue cracks can occur in parts the basic principles, limitations, and advan-
that have been subjected to repeated or tages and disadvantages of the available NDI
changing loads while in service, such as riv- methods and an understanding of their com-
eted lap joints in aircraft fuselages. The crack parative effectiveness and cost.
usually starts at a highly-stressed area and
propagates through the section until failure oc- b. Other Factors. Other factors affecting
curs. A fatigue crack will start more readily the inspection are:
where the design or surface condition provides
a point of stress concentration. Common (1) The critical nature of the
stress concentration points are: fillets; sharp component;
radii; or poor surface finish, seams, or grinding
cracks. (2) The material, size, shape, and
weight of the part;
(4) Unbonds, or disbonds, are flaws
where adhesive attaches to only one surface in (3) The type of defect sought;
an adhesive-bonded assembly. They can be the
result of crushed, broken, or corroded cores in (4) Maximum acceptable defect limits
adhesive-bonded structures. Areas of unbonds in size and distribution;
have no strength and place additional stress on
the surrounding areas making failure more (5) Possible locations and orientations
likely. of defects;
(6) Part accessibility or portability; and the manufacturer or the FAA has not specified
a particular NDI method to be used.
(7) The number of parts to be inspected.
5-7. TYPES OF INSPECTIONS. Nonde-
c. Degree of Inspection. The degree of structive testing methods are techniques used
inspection sensitivity required is an important both in the production and in-service environ-
factor in selecting the NDI method. Critical ments without damage or destruction of the
parts that cannot withstand small defects and item under investigation. Examples of NDI
could cause catastrophic failure require the use methods are as follows:
of the more sensitive NDI methods. Less criti-
cal parts and general hardware generally re- a. Visual inspection
quire less-sensitive NDI methods.
b. Magnetic particle
d. Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS).
The various materials used in NDI may contain c. Penetrants
chemicals, that if improperly used, can be haz-
ardous to the health and safety of operators and d. Eddy current
the safety of the environment, aircraft, and en-
gines. Information on safe handling of materi- e. Radiography
als is provided in MSDS. MSDS, conforming
to Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations f. Ultrasonic
(29 CFR), part 1910, section 1200, or its
equivalent, must be provided by the material g. Acoustic emission
supplier to any user and must be prepared ac-
cording to FED-STD-313. h. Thermography
5-14. [RESERVED.]
5-8.
5-15. GENERAL. Visual inspection is the equivalent agency as suitable for use in haz-
oldest and most common form of NDI for air- ardous atmospheres such as aircraft fuel tanks.
craft. Approximately 80 percent of all NDI Military Specification MIL-F-3747E, flash-
procedures are accomplished by the direct vis- lights: plastic case, tubular (regular, explosion-
ual methods. This inspection procedure may proof, explosion-proof heat resistant, traffic di-
be greatly enhanced by the use of appropriate recting, and inspection-light), provides re-
combinations of magnifying instruments, quirements for flashlights suitable for use in
borescopes, light sources, video scanners, and aircraft inspection. However, at the present
other devices discussed in this AC. Visual in- time, the flashlights covered by this specifica-
spection provides a means of detecting and ex- tion use standard incandescent lamps and there
amining a wide variety of component and ma- are no standardized performance tests for
terial surface discontinuities, such as cracks, flashlights with the brighter bulbs: Krypton,
corrosion, contamination, surface finish, weld Halogen, and Xenon. Each flashlight manu-
joints, solder connections, and adhesive dis- facturer currently develops its tests and pro-
bonds. Visual inspection is widely used for vides information on its products in its adver-
detecting and examining aircraft surface tising literature. Therefore, when selecting a
cracks, which are particularly important be- flashlight for use in visual inspection, it is
cause of their relationship to structural failures. sometimes difficult to directly compare prod-
Visual inspection is frequently used to provide ucts. The following characteristics should be
verification when defects are found initially considered when selecting a flashlight: foot-
using other NDI techniques. The use of opti- candle rating; explosive atmosphere rating;
cal aids for visual inspection is beneficial and beam spread (adjustable, spot, or flood); effi-
recommended. Optical aids magnify defects ciency (battery usage rate); brightness after
that cannot be seen by the unaided eye and also extended use; and rechargeable or standard
permit visual inspection in inaccessible areas. batteries. (If rechargeable, how many hours of
continuous use and how long is required for
5-16. SIMPLE VISUAL INSPECTION recharging?) If possible, it would be best to
AIDS. It should be emphasized that the eye- take it apart and inspect for quality of con-
mirror-flashlight is a critical visual inspection struction and to actually use the flashlight like
process. Aircraft structure and components it would be used in the field. Inspection flash-
that must be routinely inspected are frequently lights are available in several different bulb
located beneath skin, cables, tubing, control brightness levels:
rods, pumps, actuators, etc. Visual inspection
aids such as a powerful flashlight, a mirror (1) Standard incandescent (for long-
with a ball joint, and a 2 to 10 power magni- battery life).
fying glass are essential in the inspection proc-
ess. (2) Krypton (for 70 percent more light
than standard bulbs).
a. Flashlights. Flashlights used for air-
craft inspection should be suitable for indus- (3) Halogen (for up to 100 percent more
trial use and, where applicable, safety ap- light than standard bulbs).
proved by the Underwriters Laboratory or
(4) Xenon (for over 100 percent more
light than standard bulbs).
experience on corrosion detection on aircraft of parts, corrosion, and damage. If the con-
structure and engine materials. (Reference: figuration or location of the part conceals the
AC 43-4A, Corrosion Control for Aircraft, for area to be inspected, use visual aids such as a
additional information on corrosion. mirror or borescope.
c. Lighting. Provide adequate lighting to (1) Surface cracks. When searching for
illuminate the selected part or area. surface cracks with a flashlight, direct the light
beam at a 5 to 45 degree angle to the inspec-
d. Personal Comfort. Personal comfort tion surface, towards the face. (See fig-
(temperature, wind, rain, etc.) of the inspector ure 5-2.) Do not direct the light beam at such
can be a factor in visual inspection reliability. an angle that the reflected light beam shines di-
rectly into the eyes. Keep the eyes above the
e. Noise. Noise levels while conducting a reflected light beam during the inspection.
visual inspection are important. Excessive Determine the extent of any cracks found by
noise reduces concentration, creates tension, directing the light beam at right angles to the
and prevents effective communication. All crack and tracing its length. Use a 10-power
these factors will increase the likelihood of er- magnifying glass to confirm the existence of a
rors. suspected crack. If this is not adequate, use
other NDI techniques, such as penetrant, mag-
f. Inspection Area Access. Ease of ac- netic particle, or eddy current to verify cracks.
cess to the inspection area has been found to
be of major importance in obtaining reliable (2) Other surface discontinuities. In-
visual inspection results. Access consists of spect for other surface discontinuities, such as:
the act of getting into an inspection position discoloration from overheating; buckled,
(primary access) and doing the visual inspec- bulging, or dented skin; cracked, chafed, split,
tion (secondary access). Poor access can affect or dented tubing; chafed electrical wiring; de-
the inspectors interpretation of discontinuities, laminations of composites; and damaged pro-
decision making, motivation, and attitude. tective finishes.
5-24. [RESERVED.]
5-19.
(3) A reference standard is required for before performing the eddy current corrosion
the calibration of Eddy Current test equipment. inspection. The following are typical eddy
A reference standard is made from the same current equipment requirements for corrosion
material as that which is to be tested. A refer- inspection.
ence standard contains known flaws or cracks
and could include items such as: a flat surface a. Use a variable frequency instrument
notch, a fastener head, a fastener hole, or a with frequency capability from 100 Hz to
countersink hole. 40 kHz.
5-39. [RESERVED.]
5-32.
TABLE 5-2. Listing of commonly accepted standards and specifications for magnetic particle inspection.
NUMBER TITLE
ASTM STANDARDS
ASTM A275/A275 M-96 Standard Test Method for Magnetic Particle Examination of Steel Forgings.
1995
ASTM A456/A456 M Rev. A. Standard Specification for Magnetic Particle Examination of Large Crankshaft
Forgings. 1995
ASTM D96 Standard Test Methods for Water and Sediment in Crude Oils by Centrifuge
Method (Field Procedure). 1988
ASTM E125-63 (1993) Standard Reference Photographs for Magnetic Particle Indications on Ferrous
Castings. (Revised 1993) 1963
ASTM E1316-95C Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examination. 1995 (Replaces ASTM
E269).
SAE-AMS
SPECIFICATIONS
AMS 2300G Premium Aircraft-Quality Steel Cleanliness Magnetic Particle Inspection Proce-
dure. 1991 (Revised 1995)
MAM 2300A Premium Aircraft Quality Steel Cleanliness Magnetic Particle Inspection Proce-
dure Metric (SI) Measurement. 1992
AMS 2303C Aircraft Quality Steel Cleanliness Martensitic Corrosion Resistant Steels Mag-
netic Particle Inspection Procedure. 1993
MAM 2303A Aircraft Quality Steel Cleanliness Martensitic Corrosion Resistant Steels Mag-
netic Particle Inspection Procedure Metric (SI) Measurement. 1993
AMS 2641 Vehicle, Magnetic Particle Inspection Petroleum Base. 1988
AMS 3040B Magnetic Particles, Nonfluorescent, Dry Method. 1995
AMS 3041B Magnetic Particles, Nonfluorescent, Wet Method, Oil Vehicle, Ready-To-Use.
1988
AMS 3042B Magnetic Particles, Nonfluorescent, Wet Method, Dry Powder. 1988
AMS 3043A Magnetic Particles, Nonfluorescent, Wet Method, Oil Vehicle, Aerosol Packaged.
1988
AMS 3044C Magnetic Particles, Fluorescent, Wet Method, Dry Powder. 1989
AMS 3045B Magnetic Particles, Fluorescent, Wet Method, Oil Vehicle Ready-to-Use. 1989
AMS 3046B Magnetic Particles, Fluorescent, Wet Method, Oil Vehicle, Aerosol Packaged.
1989
U.S. GOVERNMENT
SPECIFICATIONS
(7) The intensity of the longitudinal field strength induced within a part by a given
shots is kept just below the level at which applied magnetizing force. The factors vary
leakage fields develop across sharp changes of considerably, making it difficult to establish
section, such as radii under bolt heads, threads, rules for magnetizing during examination.
and other sharp angles in parts. This does not Technique requirements are best determined
apply when checking chrome-plated parts for on actual parts having known defects.
grinding cracks.
a. A magnetization indicator, such as a
(a) For example, longitudinal mag- Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI), should
netization of a round steel bar would be pro- be used to verify that adequate magnetic flux
duced by placing the DC coil around the bar. strength is being used. It effectively indicates
After application of the magnetic particles, ei- the internally-induced field, the field direction,
ther during or subsequent to magnetization, and the quality of particle suspension during
discontinuities perpendicular to the longitudi- magnetization.
nal axis of the bar would be disclosed.
b. The level of magnetization required
(b) When a yoke is used, the portion for detection of service-related defects in most
of the part between the ends of the yoke com- cases can be lower than that required for mate-
pletes the path of the magnetic lines of force. rial and manufacturing control. Contact the
This results in a magnetic field between the manufacturer for correct specifications.
points of contact.
NOTE: If the examination must be
c. Permanent Magnets and Electro- performed with less current than is
magnetic Yoke. The stability of the magnetic desired because of part size or equip-
field generated by permanent magnets requires ment limitations, the lower field
some agitation of the oxide particles within the strength can be partially accommo-
field. The wet method is considered most sat- dated by reducing the area of exami-
isfactory. Use a well-agitated plastic squirt nation for each magnetization, or the
bottle for the most effective application of the examination can be supplemented by
magnetic particle suspension. When the di- using electromagnetic yokes. Examine
rection of possible cracks in a suspect area is only 4 inches on either side of a coil
not known, or would not necessarily be normal instead of 6, or apply additional mag-
to the lines of force between the poles of the netization around the periphery of a
magnet, reposition the magnet to the best ad- hollow cylinder when using an inter-
vantage and recheck. Usually, two shots, nal conductor.
90 degrees apart are required. The part must
be demagnetized between each magnetization 5-50. SPECIAL EXAMINATION TECH-
when the field direction is changed unless the NIQUES.
next shot is at least 10 percent stronger than
the previous shot, if this is the case demagneti- a. Magnetic Rubber. Magnetic rubber
zation is not necessary. formulations using finely divided magnetic
particles in a silicone rubber base are used for
5-49. DETERMINATION OF FIELD the inspection of screw, bolt, or other bore
STRENGTH. Factors such as part size, holes, which are not easily accessible. The
shape, magnetic properties of the material, and liquid silicone rubber mixture is poured into
the method of magnetization will affect the holes in magnetic parts to be inspected.
Curing time for silicone rubbers varies from sections, that cause obscuring and nonrelevant
about 30 minutes and up depending upon the indications during normal examination prac-
particular silicone rubber, the catalyst, and the tices. The procedure provided herein is the
amount of catalyst used to produce the curing most sensitive method for detecting the early
reaction. beginnings of in-service fatigue cracks in the
sharp, internal radii of ferro-magnetic parts.
b. Curing. While curing is taking place, Magnetic particle examination equipment may
the insides of the hole must be maintained in be used; however, alternating fields are not re-
the required magnetized state. This can be ac- liable to provide the necessary high level of re-
complished using a permanent magnet, a DC sidual magnetism. Optical aids are necessary
yoke, an electromagnet, or some other suitable to realize the maximum sensitivity provided by
means. Whatever method of magnetization is this magnetic particle procedure. Low-power
used, the leakage fields at any discontinuities (10x-30x) binocular microscopes are recom-
inside the holes must be maintained long mended. As a minimum, pocket magnifiers of
enough to attract and hold in position the mag- 7 to 10 power may be used with the following
netic particles until a partial cure takes place. procedure.
A two-step magnetizing procedure has been
developed. (1) Thoroughly clean the part at the
sharp radii and fillets where soils, greases, and
(1) The first magnetization is accom- other contaminants tend to accumulate and at
plished for a short time in one direction fol- other places where they might be overlooked
lowed by a second at 90 degrees to the first for during a casual or hasty examination.
the same length of time. This procedure must
be repeated for whatever period of time is (2) The residual method should be used
needed until the cure prevents particle mobil- as an aid in particular problem areas, even
ity. Magnetization in two directions though it is not considered the best practice in
90 degrees apart ensures formation of indica- most of the instances. The conventional wet
tions at discontinuities in all directions inside continuous methods should be used initially
the holes. for overall examination and the residual tech-
nique should be applied only for supplemental,
(2) After curing, the rubber plugs, local examination of the sharp radii. It should
which are exact replicas of the holes, are re- not be applied except in those cases where
moved and visibly examined for indications nonrelevant indications have proven to be a
which will appear as colored lines against the problem in the initial examination.
lighter colored background of the silicone rub-
ber. Location of any discontinuities or other (3) Methods of magnetization should be
surface imperfections in the holes can be de- done according to standard procedures; how-
termined from the location of the indications ever, alternating fields should not be used, and
on the plugs. The magnetic rubber inspection the level of magnetizing force imposed should
method is covered in detail in Air Force Tech- usually be increased above the normal levels to
nical Order 33B-1-1, section XI. ensure a higher residual field within the part.
small parts such as rod end fittings in a con- NOTE: Circular magnetism cannot
tainer of suspension, which has just been be read with a field meter since it is an
stirred for about 30 seconds, is an excellent internal magnetic field. However, if
method. the last shot, was a coil shot the meter
can read it if a magnetic field is pres-
(5) Check for the presence of particle ent.
accumulation in the sharp radii. It is necessary
that the level of magnetization and the particle a. Demagnetization. Demagnetize be-
application result in the formation of nonrele- tween successive magnetization of the same
vant indications. Lack of indications will re- part, to allow finding defects in all directions,
quire remagnetization to a higher level, more and whenever the residual magnetism inter-
care in applying the particles, or both. feres with the interpretation of the indications.
Also, demagnetize all parts and materials after
(6) Wash the parts in a clean suspension completion of magnetic particle examination.
vehicle only enough to remove the weakly- Test all parts at several locations and parts for
held particle accumulations causing the non- residual magnetism of complex configuration
relevant indications. Particles at true cracks at all significant changes in geometry. Repeat
will be more strongly held and will persist if demagnetization if there is any appreciable de-
the washing is gently done. This can be ac- flection of the field indicator needle.
complished by flowing or directing a stream of
liquid vehicle over the part, or for a small (1) AC method. Hold the part in the
component, by gently stirring in a container of AC demagnetizing coils and then move the
the vehicle. Closely observe the removal of part slowly and steadily through the coils and
the nonrelevant particle accumulations in the approximately 3 to 4 feet past the coils. Re-
region to be examined to avoid excessive peat this process until the part loses its residual
washing. If washing is prolonged beyond the magnetism. Rotate and tumble parts of com-
minimum needed to remove the nonrelevant plex configuration as they are passed through
indications, the small defect indications may the coils.
also be washed away. A few trials will help to
develop the best method and time required for (2) DC method. Place the part in the
washing. same relative position as when magnetized and
apply reversing DC current. Gradually reduce
(7) Check for crack indications with the current to zero and repeat the process until
optical magnification and ample lighting. The the residual magnetic field is depleted.
smaller indications that are attainable by this
procedure cannot be reliably seen or evaluated b. Post-Examination Cleaning.
with the unaided eye.
(1) When oil suspensions are used, sol-
5-51. DEMAGNETIZATION AND POST- vent clean or remove the part until all magnetic
EXAMINATION CLEANING. Parts should particles and traces of oil are removed.
be magnetized longitudinally last before de-
magnetizing.
(2) When parts or materials have been (5) After magnetic particle examination
examined using water suspension methods, has been completed, restore any removed fin-
completely remove the water by any suitable ishes according to the manufacturers repair
means, such as an air blast, to ensure that the manual.
parts are dried immediately after cleaning.
Thoroughly rinse the part with a detergent- NOTE: Visible penetrant is often
base cleaner until all magnetic particles are used interchangeably by NDI person-
removed. Then rinse in a solution of water nel with fluorescent penetrant. How-
and rust inhibitor. ever, the chemical within most com-
mon red dye penetrants will neutralize
(3) For cadmium-plated parts an air- the fluorescence of the chemicals used
water vapor blast may be used to remove any in that method. Therefore, a thorough
remaining magnetic particle residue. cleaning of all magnetic particles is
mandatory.
(4) After final cleaning and drying, use
temporary protective coatings, when necessary, 5-59. [RESERVED.]
5-52.
to prevent corrosion.
TABLE 5-4. Fluorescent and visible penetrant inspection general processing procedures flowsheet.
METHOD USE
Mechanical Methods
Abrasive tumbling Removing light scale, burrs, welding flux, braze stopoff, rust, casting mold, and
core material; should not be used on soft metals such as aluminum, magnesium,
or titanium.
Dry abrasive grit Removing light or heavy scale, flux, stopoff, rust, casting mold and core material,
blasting sprayed coatings, carbon deposits: In general, any brittle deposit. Can be fixed
or portable (may peen metal over defect).
Wet abrasive grit Same as dry except, where deposits are light, better surface and better control of
blast dimensions are required.
Wire brushing Removing light deposits of scale, flux, and stopoff (may mask defect by displac-
ing metal).
High pressure water Ordinarily used with an alkaline cleaner or detergent; removing typical machine
and steam shop contamination, such as cutting oils, polishing compounds, grease, chips,
and deposits from electrical discharge machining; used when surface finish must
be maintained.
Ultrasonic cleaning Ordinarily used with detergent and water or with a solvent; removing adhering
shop contamination from large quantities of small parts.
Chemical Methods
Alkaline cleaning Removing braze stopoff, rust, scale, oils, greases, polishing material, and carbon
deposits; ordinarily used on large articles where hand methods are too laborious;
also used on aluminum for gross metal removal.
Acid cleaning Strong solutions for removing heavy scale; mild solutions for light scale; weak
(etching) solutions for removing lightly smeared metal.
Molten salt bath Conditioning and removing heavy scale; not suitable for aluminum, magnesium,
cleaning or titanium.
Solvent Methods
Solvent wiping Same as for vapor degreasing except a hand operation; may employ nonhalo-
genated (nonchlorinated) solvents; used for localized low-volume cleaning.
e. Salt Baths. Molten salt baths are used i. Developer Application. Apply devel-
in removing heavy, tightly-held scale and ox- oper after excess penetrant is removed and,
ide from low alloy steels, nickel, and cobalt- where required, the surface is dried. Apply the
base alloys, and some types of stainless steel. developer in a thin uniform layer over the sur-
They cannot be used on aluminum, magne- face to be inspected. Developer acts like a
sium, or titanium alloys.
blotter to assist the natural capillary action of penetrant inspection. This residue could
bleed-out of the penetrant from discontinuities interfere with subsequent part processing, or if
and to spread the penetrant at discontinuity left on some alloys, it could increase their sus-
surface edges to enhance bleed-out indications. ceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement, inter-
After the developer is applied, allow sufficient granular corrosion, and stress corrosion during
time for the penetrant to be drawn out of any service.
discontinuities. Follow the manufacturers
recommendations. 5-64. TECHNICAL STANDARDS. Two
of the more generally accepted aerospace in-
j. Inspection for Discontinuities. After dustry standards are the MIL-I-25135E, In-
the penetrant has sufficiently developed, visu- spection Materials, Penetrants (see table 5-6)
ally inspect the surface for indications from and ASTM-E-1417. The penetrant materials
discontinuities. Evaluate each indication ob- specification (MIL-I-25135E) is used to pro-
served to determine if it is within acceptable cure penetrant materials and the process con-
limits. Visible penetrant inspection is per- trol specification (MIL-STD-6866) is used to
formed in normal visible white light, whereas establish minimum requirements for conduct-
fluorescent penetrant inspection is performed ing a penetrant inspection. Table 5-6 provides
in black (ultraviolet) light. a partial listing of commonly-accepted stan-
dards and specifications for penetrant inspec-
k. Post-Cleaning. Remove inspection tion.
material residues from parts after completion
TABLE 5-6. Listing of commonly accepted standards and specifications for penetrant inspection.
NUMBER TITLE
ASTM STANDARDS
ASTM-E-165 Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant Inspection Method
ASTM -E-270 Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Liquid Penetrant Inspection
ASTM -E-1135 Standard Method for Comparing the Brightness of Fluorescent Penetrants
ASTM -E-1208 Standard Method for Fluorescent Liquid Penetrant Examination Using the Lipophilic Post-Emulsification
Process
ASTM -E-1209 Standard Method for Fluorescent Penetrant Examination Using the Water Washable Process
ASTM -E-1210 Standard Method for Fluorescent Penetrant Examination Using the Hydrophilic Post-Emulsification Process
ASTM -E-1219 Standard Method for Fluorescent Penetrant Examination Using the Solvent Removable Process
ASTM -E-1220 Standard Method for Visible Penetrant Examination Using the Solvent Removable Method
ASTM -E-2512 Compatibility of Materials with Liquid Oxygen (Impact-Sensitivity Threshold Technique)
SAE-AMS
SPECIFICATIONS
AMS-2647 Fluorescent Penetrant Inspection - Aircraft and Engine Component Maintenance
US GOVERNMENT
SPECIFICATIONS
MIL-STD-271 Requirements for Nondestructive Testing
MIL-STD-410 Nondestructive Testing Personnel Qualifications and Certifications
MIL-STD-1907 Inspection, Liquid Penetrant and Magnetic Particle, Soundness Requirements for Materials, Parts and Welds
MIL-STD-6866 Inspection, Liquid Penetrant
MIL-STD-728/1 Nondestructive Testing
MIL-STD-728/3 Liquid Penetrant Testing
MIL-STD-25135E Inspection Materials, Penetrants
QPL-25135 Qualified Products List of Materials Qualified Under MIL-I-25135
T.O. 33B-1-1 U.S. Air Force/Navy Technical Manual, Nondestructive Testing Methods
OTHER
PUBLICATIONS
SNT-TC-1A Personnel Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive Testing and Recommended Training Courses
ATA No. 105 Guidelines for Training and Qualifying Personnel in Nondestructive Methods,
Metals Handbook, Nondestructive Evaluation, and Quality Control
Ninth Edition,
Volume 17
5-72. [RESERVED.]
5-65.
a. The ability to inspect for both internal radiation output of portable sources may re-
and external flaws. quire long exposure times of the radiographic
film. This limits field usage to sources of
b. The ability to inspect covered or hid- lower activity that can be transported. The
den parts or structures. output of portable x-ray sources may also limit
field inspection of thick sections, particularly
c. The ability to detect significant varia- if a portable x-ray tube is used. Portable x-ray
tions in composition. tubes emit relatively low-energy (300 kev) ra-
diation and are limited in the radiation output.
d. Provides a permanent recording of Both of these characteristics of portable x-ray
raw inspection data. tubes combine to limit their application to the
inspection of sections having the adsorption
5-81. FLAWS. Certain types of flaws are equivalent of 75 mm (3 inches) of steel maxi-
difficult to detect by radiography. Cracks can- mum. Portable linear accelerators and be-
not be detected unless they are essentially tatrons that provide high-energy (> 1 MeV)
along the axis of the radiation beam. Tight x-rays can be used for the radiographic field
cracks in thick sections may not be detected at inspection of thicker sections.
all, even when properly oriented. Minute dis-
continuities such as: inclusions in wrought 5-83. SAFETY. Radiographic safety re-
material, flakes, microporosity, and microfis- quirements can be obtained from; the OEMs
sures may not be detected unless they are suf- manual, FAA requirements, cognizant FAA
ficiently segregated to yield a detectable gross ACO engineers, and radiation safety organiza-
effect. Delaminations are nearly impossible to tions such as the Nuclear Regulatory Commis-
detect with radiography. Because of their un- sion (NRC). Information in radiation safety
favorable orientation, delaminations do not publications can be used as a guide to ensure
yield differences in adsorption that enable that radiation exposure of personnel involved
laminated areas to be distinguished from de- in radiographic operations is limited to safe
laminated areas. levels, and to afford protection for the general
public.
5-82. FIELD INSPECTION. The field in-
spection of thick sections can be a time- 5-88. [RESERVED.]
5-84.
consuming process, because the effective
Note:
All dimensions in inches followed by centimeters in parentheses.
FIGURE 5-18. Example of position fixture and shoe.
(3) Underlying structures contain dif- containing: closure members, core splices,
ferences in; core material, cell size, thickness, stepped skins, and internal ribs similar to the
and height, back skin material and thickness, test part if bonded areas over or surrounding
doublers (material and thickness), closure these details are to be inspected.
member attachments, foam adhesive, steps in
skins, internal ribs, and laminates (number of (2) The reference standard must contain
layers, layer thickness, and layer material). bonds of good quality except for controlled ar-
eas of unbond fabricated as explained below.
(4) The top only or top and bottom skin
of a bonded structure may be accessible. (3) The reference standard must be
bonded using the adhesive and cure cycle pre-
b. Application of Ultrasonic Inspection. scribed for the test part.
Application to bonded structures must be ex-
amined in detail because of the many inspec- e. Types of Defects. Defects can be sepa-
tion methods and structural configurations. rated into five general types to represent the
The advantages and limitations of each in- various areas of bonded sandwich and laminate
spection method should be considered, and structures as follows:
reference standards (representative of the
structure to be inspected) should be ultrasoni- (1) Type I. Unbonds or voids in an
cally inspected to verify proposed techniques. outer skin-to-adhesive interface.
c. Internal Configuration. Complete in- (2) Type II. Unbonds or voids at the
formation on the internal configuration of the adhesive-to-core interface.
bonded test part must be obtained by the in-
spector. Drawings should be reviewed, and (3) Type III. Voids between layers of a
when necessary, radiographs of the test part laminate.
should be taken. Knowledge of details such as
the location and boundaries of doublers, ribs, (4) Type IV. Voids in foam adhesive or
etc., is required for valid interpretation of ul- unbonds between the adhesive and a closure
trasonic inspection results. The boundaries of member at core-to-closure member joints.
internal details should be marked on the test
part using a grease pen or other easily remov- (5) Type V. Water in the core.
able marking.
f. Fabrication of NDI Reference Stan-
d. Reference Standards. Standards can dards. Every ultrasonic test unit should have
be a duplicate of the test part except for the sample materials that contain unbonds equal to
controlled areas of unbond. As an option, the sizes of the minimum rejectable unbonds
simple test specimens, which represent the for the test parts. Information on minimum
varied areas of the test part and contain con- rejectable unbond sizes for test parts should be
trolled areas of unbond, can be used. Refer- obtained from the OEMs manuals, FAA re-
ence standards must meet the following re- quirements, or the cognizant FAA Aircraft
quirements. Certification Office (ACO) engineer. One or
more of the following techniques can be used
(1) The reference standard must be in fabricating reference defects; however, since
similar to the test part regarding material, ge- bonding materials vary, some of the methods
ometry, and thickness. This includes may not work with certain materials.
(1) Standards for Types I, II, III, and IV suggested methods contained in figure 5-21
unbonds can be prepared by placing discs and table 5-7 are for reference only. Details of
of 0.006 inch thick (maximum) Teflon sheets the inspection coverage and inspections for a
over the adhesive in the areas selected for un- particular assembly should be obtained from
bonds. For Type II unbonds, the Teflon is the OEMs manuals, or other FAA-approved
placed between the core and adhesive. The requirements.
components of the standard are assembled and
the assembly is then cured. h. Inspection Methods. Table 5-8 lists
the various inspection methods for bonded
(2) Types I, II, and III standards can structures along with advantages and disad-
also be produced by cutting flat-bottomed vantages of each inspection method.
holes of a diameter equal to the diameter of the
unbonds to be produced. The holes are cut 5-95. BOND TESTING INSTRUMENTS.
from the back sides of bonded specimens, and Standard ultrasonic inspection instruments can
the depths are controlled to produce air gaps at be used for bond testing as previously noted;
the applicable interfaces. When using this however, a wide variety of bond testing in-
method, patch plates can be bonded to the rear struments are available for adaptation to spe-
of the reference standard to cover and seal cific bonded structure inspection problems.
each hole.
a. General Principle. Two basic operat-
(3) Type II standards can be produced ing principles are used by a variety of bond
by locally undercutting (before assembly) the testers for single-sided bond inspection.
surface of the core to the desired size unbond.
The depth of the undercut should be sufficient (1) Ultrasonic resonance. Sound waves
to prevent adhesive flow causing bonds be- from a resonant transducer are transmitted into
tween the undercut core and the skin. and received from a structure. A disbond in
the structure will alter the sound wave charac-
(4) Type IV standards can be produced teristics, which in turn affect the transducer
by removing the adhesive in selected areas impedance.
prior to assembly.
(2) Mechanical impedance. Low-
(5) Type V standards can be produced frequency, pulsed ultrasonic energy is gener-
by drilling small holes in the back of the stan- ated into a structure. Through ultrasonic me-
dard and injecting varying amounts of water chanical vibration of the structure, the imped-
into the cells with a hypodermic needle. The ance or stiffness of the structure is measured,
small holes can then be sealed with a small analyzed, and displayed by the instrumenta-
amount of water-resistant adhesive. tion.
FIGURE 5-21. Examples of bonded structure configurations and suggested inspection coverage.
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
TABLE 5-7. Acceptable ultrasonic inspection methods associated with the example bonded structure configurations
shown in figure 5-21.
3 Refer to 1 for methods. If all these methods fail to have sufficient penetration
power to detect reference defects in the reference standard, then the ringing
method, applied from both sides, should be used. Otherwise, the ringing method
is unacceptable.
4 Either
(a) Ringing, on each skin of the doubler.
or
(b) Through-transmission
or
(c) Damping.
5 Ringing.
6 Through-transmission. Dotted Line represents beam direction.
7 Either
(a) Through-transmission
or
(b) Damping.
NOTE
A variety of ultrasonic testing methods and instruments are available for adaptation to specific inspection
problems. Other bond inspection instruments can be used if detailed procedures are developed and
proven on the applicable reference standards for each configuration of interest. Some representative in-
struments, which can be used for the inspection of bonded structures are; the Sondicator, Harmonic Bond
Tester, Acoustic Flaw Detector, Audible Bond Tester, Fokker Bond Tester, 210 Bond Tester, and Bon-
dascope 2100.
INSPECTION METHOD
operated near a surface edge. Edge effects on is a constant, the time between these signals is
vibration paths give a test reading that may be directly proportional to the thickness. Cali-
misinterpreted. To avoid edge effects, the test bration procedures are used to obtain direct
probe should be moved so that the inspection readout of test part thickness.
path follows the surface edge, giving a con-
stant edge for the test probe to inspect. Edge c. Thickness Measurement Instrument
effects are more pronounced in thicker mate- Types. Pulse-echo instruments designed ex-
rial. To interpret meter readings correctly, the clusively for thickness measurements are gen-
operator should determine whether there are erally used in lieu of conventional pulse-echo
variations in the thickness of the material. instruments; however, some conventional
pulse-echo instruments also have direct thick-
c. Probe Sending Signal. With the ex- ness measurement capabilities. Conventional
ception of the Sondicator models, the test pulse-echo instruments without direct thick-
probes of the testers emit a sending signal that ness measuring capabilities can also be used
radiates in a full circle. The sending signal of for measuring thickness by using special pro-
the Sondicator probe travels from one trans- cedures.
ducer tip to the other. For this reason, the test
probe should be held so that the transducer tips d. Thickness Measurement Ranges.
are at right angles to the inspection path. Dependent upon the instrument used and the
When inspecting honeycomb panels with a material under test, material thickness
Sondicator model, the transducer tips should from 0.005 inches to 20 inches (or more) can
be moved consistently in the direction of the be measured with pulse-echo instruments de-
ribbon of the honeycomb or at right angles to signed specifically for thickness measuring.
the ribbon so that a constant subsurface is pre-
sented. 5-97. LEAK TESTING. The flow of a
pressurized gas through a leak produces sound
5-96. THICKNESS MEASUREMENTS. of both sonic and ultrasonic frequencies. If the
Ultrasonic inspection methods can be used for gas leak is large, the sonic frequency sound it
measurement of material thickness in aircraft produces can probably be detected with the ear
parts and structures. or with such instruments as stethoscopes or
microphones; however, the ear and these in-
a. Applications. Ultrasonic thickness struments have limited ability to detect and lo-
measurements are used for many applications, cate small leaks. Ultrasonic leak detectors are
such as: checking part thickness when access frequently used to detect leaks that cannot be
to the back side is not available; checking large detected by the above methods, because they
panels in interior areas where a conventional are very sensitive to ultrasonic energy and, un-
micrometer cannot reach; and in maintenance der most conditions, background noise at other
inspections for checking thickness loss due to frequencies does not affect them.
wear and/or corrosion.
a. Standard Method. A standard method
b. Pulse-Echo Method. The most com- of testing for leaks using ultrasonics is pro-
monly used ultrasonic thickness measurement vided in ASTM E 1002. The method covers
method. The ultrasonic instrument measures procedures for calibration, location, and esti-
time between the initial front and back surface mated measurements of leakage by the ultra-
signals or subsequent multiple back reflection sonic technique (sometimes called ultrasonic
signals. Since the velocity for a given material translation).
5-104. [RESERVED.]
5-98.
5-105. GENERAL. Tap testing is widely changes in geometry, in which case a standard
used for a quick evaluation of any accessible of some sort is required. The entire area of
aircraft surface to detect the presence of de- interest must be tapped. The surface should be
lamination or debonding. dry and free of oil, grease, and dirt. Tap test-
ing is limited to finding relatively shallow de-
a. The tap testing procedure consists of fects in skins with a thickness less than
lightly tapping the surface of the part with a .080 inch. In a honeycomb structure, for ex-
coin, light special hammer with a maximum of ample, the far side bondline cannot be evalu-
2 ounces (see figure 5-22), or any other suit- ated, requiring two-side access for a complete
able object. The acoustic response is com- inspection. This method is portable, but no re-
pared with that of a known good area. cords are produced. The accuracy of this test
depends on the inspectors subjective inter-
b. A flat or dead response is consid- pretation of the test response; therefore, only
ered unacceptable. The acoustic response of a qualified personnel should perform this test.
good part can vary dramatically with
5-111. [RESERVED.]
5-106.
SECTION 9. ACOUSTIC-EMISSION
5-120. GENERAL. Thermography is an NDI heated or cooled. The greater the materials
technique that uses radiant electromagnetic resistance to heat flow, the more readily the
thermal energy to detect flaws. The presence flow can be identified due to temperature dif-
of a flaw is indicated by an abnormal tem- ferences caused by the flaw.
perature variant when the item is subjected to
normal heating and cooling conditions inherent 5-126. [RESERVED.]
5-121.
to the in-service life, and/or when artificially
5-134. GENERAL. Shearography was de- test part is properly stressed. Shearography
veloped for strain measurements. The process has been developed into a useful tool for NDI.
now provides a full-field video strain gauge, It can be used easily in a hangar environment,
in real time, over large areas. It is an en- while meeting all laser safety concerns. Other
hanced form of holography, which requires applications include the testing of honeycomb
the part to be under stress. A laser is used for structures, such as flaps and control surfaces.
illumination of the part while under stress. Shearography offers a great increase in the
The output takes the form of an image proc- speed of inspection by allowing on-aircraft in-
essed video display. This technique has been spections of structures without their removal,
used effectively in locating defects, such as as well as inspections of large areas in just
disbonds and delaminations, through multiple seconds.
bondlines. It is capable of showing the size
and shape of subsurface anomalies when the 5-140. [RESERVED.]
5-135.
SECTION 1. GENERAL
6-1. GENERAL. The purpose of this chap 6-2. FACTORS INFLUENCING COR-
ter is to provide information that will help ROSION.
maintenance personnel prevent, control, iden
tify, and treat various types of corrosion. (Re a. Some factors which influence metal
fer to AC 43-4A, Corrosion Control For Air corrosion and the rate of corrosion are:
craft for a more in-depth study on the detection
and treatment of corrosion.) (1) Type of metal;
a. Corrosion is a natural occurrence that (2) Heat treatment and grain direction;
attacks metal by chemical or electrochemical
action and converts it back to a metallic com (3) Presence of a dissimilar, less corro
pound. dible metal;
are less resistant and also at boundaries be ily), such as magnesium and aluminum, cor
tween regions, resulting in the formation of rode easily. The most noble metals (those
pits and intergranular corrosion. Metals have a which do not lose electrons easily), such as
wide range of corrosion resistance. The most gold and silver, do not corrode easily.
active metals, (those which lose electrons eas
FIGURE 6-1. Simplified corrosion cell showing conditions which must exist for electrochemical corrosion.
c. Corrosion is quickened by high- structive are sulfuric acid (battery acid), halo
temperature environments that accelerate gen acids (hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, and hy
chemical reactions and increase the concentra drobromic), nitrous oxide compounds, and or
tion of water vapor in the air. ganic acids found in the wastes of humans and
animals.
d. Electrolytes (electrically-conducting
solutions) form on surfaces when condensa b. Alkalies, as a group, are not as corro
tion, salt spray, rain, or rinse water accumulate. sive as acids. Aluminum and magnesium al
Dirt, salt, acidic gases, and engine exhaust loys are exceedingly prone to corrosive attack
gases can dissolve on wet surfaces, increasing by many alkaline solutions unless the solutions
the electrical conductivity of the electrolyte, contain a corrosion inhibitor. Substances par
thereby increasing the rate of corrosion. ticularly corrosive to aluminum are washing
soda, potash (wood ashes), and lime (cement
e. When some of the electrolyte on a dust).
metal surface is partially confined, (such as
between faying surfaces or in a deep crevice) c. The major atmospheric corrosive
the metal around this area corrodes more rap agents are oxygen and airborne moisture.
idly. This type of corrosion is called an oxygen Corrosion often results from the direct action
concentration cell. Corrosion occurs more of atmospheric oxygen and moisture on metal
rapidly because the reduced oxygen content of nd the presence of additional moisture often
the confined electrolyte causes the adjacent accelerates corrosive attack, particularly on
metal to become anodic to other metal surfaces ferrous alloys. The atmosphere may also con
on the same part that are immersed in electro tain other corrosive gases and contaminants,
lyte or exposed to air. particularly industrial and marine salt spray.
f. Slime, molds, fungi, and other living d. The corrosiveness of water depends
organisms (some microscopic) can grow on on the type and quantity of dissolved mineral
damp surfaces. Once they are established, the and organic impurities and dissolved gasses
area usually remains damp, increasing the pos (particularly oxygen) in the water. One char
sibility of corrosion. acteristic of water that makes it corrosive is its
conductivity. Physical factors, such as water
g. Manufacturing processes such as ma temperature and velocity also have a direct
chining, forming, welding, or heat treatment bearing on its corrosiveness.
can leave residual stress in aircraft parts and
can cause cracking in a corrosive environment. 6-4. MICRO-ORGANISMS.
is not present. The metabolism of these bacte d. Microbial growth must be removed
ria requires them to obtain part of their suste completely to avoid corrosion. Microbial
nance by oxidizing inorganic compounds, such growth should be removed by hand with a firm
as iron, sulfur, hydrogen, and carbon monox non-metallic bristle brush and water. Removal
ide. The resultant chemical reactions cause of microbial growth is easier if the growth is
corrosion. kept wet with water. Microbial growth may
also be removed with steam at 100 psi. Pro
b. Fungi are the growths of micro tective clothing must be used when using
organisms that feed on organic materials. steam for removing microbial growth.
While low humidity does not kill microbes, it
slows their growth and may prevent corrosion 6-10. [RESERVED.]
6-5.
damage. Ideal growth conditions for most mi
cro-organisms are temperatures between
68 and 104 F (20 and 40 C) and relative hu
midity between 85 and 100 percent.
6-14. CONCENTRATION CELL COR- cells are under gaskets, wood, rubber, and
ROSION. Concentration cell corrosion, (also other materials in contact with the metal sur
known as Crevice Corrosion) is corrosion of face. Corrosion will occur at the area of low
metals in a metal-to-metal joint, corrosion at oxygen concentration (anode). Alloys such as
the edge of a joint even though the joined met stainless steel are particularly susceptible to
als are identical, or corrosion of a spot on the this type of crevice corrosion.
metal surface covered by a foreign material.
Metal ion concentration cells and oxygen con 6-15. ACTIVE-PASSIVE CELLS. Metals
centration cells are the two general types of which depend on a tightly adhering passive
concentration cell corrosion. (See figure 6-6.) film, usually an oxide, for corrosion protection
are prone to rapid corrosive attack by active-
a. Metal Ion Concentration Cells. The passive cells. Active-passive cells are often re
solution may consist of water and ions of the ferred to as a type of concentration cell corro
metal which is in contact with water. A high sion. However, the active-passive cell is actu
concentration of the metal ions will normally ally two forms of corrosion working in con
exist under faying surfaces where the solution junction. The corrosive action usually starts as
is stagnant, and a low concentration of metal an oxygen concentration cell. As an example,
ions will exist adjacent to the crevice which is salt deposits on the metal surface in the pres
created by the faying surface. An electrical ence of water containing oxygen can create the
potential will exist between the two points; the oxygen cell. The passive film will be broken
area of the metal in contact with the low con beneath the salt crystals. Once the passive
centration of metal ions will be anodic and film is broken, the active metal beneath the
corrode, and the area in contact with the high film will be exposed to corrosive attack. (See
metal ion concentration will be cathodic and figure 6-7.) Rapid pitting of the active metal
not show signs of corrosion. will result. This reaction can become locally
intense due to several factors. First the reac
b. Oxygen Concentration Cells. The tion is augmented by the affected area, since
solution in contact with the metal surface will the proportion of the exposed base metal is
normally contain dissolved oxygen. An oxy small compared to the surrounding non
gen cell can develop at any point where the reactive metal. This effectively concentrates
oxygen in the air is not allowed to diffuse into the focal point of the reaction, often resulting
the solution, thereby creating a difference in in deep pits in a short time and a greater rate of
oxygen concentration between two points. corrosion.
Typical locations of oxygen concentration
at a stress level far below the fatigue limit of Application of a lubricant or installation of a
an uncorroded part, even though the amount of fretting-resistant material between the two sur
corrosion is relatively small. faces can reduce fretting corrosion.
6-29. GENERAL. In the repair of aircraft, high-strength steel parts. High-strength nuts
apply corrosion proofing of the same type or and bolts are susceptible to failure from hydro
equivalent to that originally applied unless the gen embrittlement. Because of the potential
repair would result in increased susceptibility failures of embrittled parts, careful control
to corrosion, in which case use additional cor over the heat treatment, grinding, preplate
rosion protection measures. The following is a cleaning, plating, and post-plate baking of
list of the most commonly-used corrosion- high-strength parts is necessary.
proofing techniques.
6-32. PHOSPHATE RUST-PROOFING.
6-30. ANODIZING AND RELATED This process is commercially known as
PROCESSES. In anodizing, aluminum alloys Parkerizing, Bonderizing, Granodizing, etc.
are placed in an electrolytic bath causing a thin The coating placed on the part is used to pro
film of aluminum oxide to form on the surface tect steel parts after machining and before
of the aluminum. This is resistant to corrosion painting.
and affords a good paint base. However, other
processes, which do not provide as good a cor 6-33. CHROME-PICKLE TREATMENT.
rosive protection as anodizing, are good paint Magnesium parts which have been immersed
bases. The processes are: or brushed with a solution of nitric acid and
sodium dichromate will be protected for tem
a. Alkaline cleaning followed by chromic porary storage. The coating will also serve as
acid dip; a bond for subsequent organic finishes. Sealed
chrome-pickle treatment is used on magnesium
b. Alcoholic phosphoric acid cleaner; and parts for long term protection. Diluted chro
mic acid is a touch-up treatment. It is less
c. Alkaline dichromate treatment. critical to apply and can be applied over previ
ously-applied thin chromate films.
6-31. PLATING. Steels are commonly
plated with other metals to prevent corrosion. 6-34. DICHROMATE TREATMENT.
Plating is accomplished by placing the article This treatment consists of boiling magnesium
in an electrolytic bath. Metals used in plating parts in a solution of sodium dichromate. It
vary in the corrosion protection they afford provides good paint base and protective quali
steel. For instance, in platings that corrode be ties on all standard wrought magnesium alloys
fore steel, such as zinc or cadmium, slight except the magnesium-thorium alloys. Acid
breaks or cracks throughout the plating will pickling of the magnesium surface prior to ap
not result in rusting of the exposed steel. With plication of the dichromate treatment is re
the surface metal corroded, the steel is pro quired if maximum corrosion resistance of the
tected. However, when the steel corrodes finish is expected.
faster than the plate metal, such as chromium,
the amount of protection depends on the tight 6-35. STANNATE IMMERSION TREAT-
ness of the plating. Post-plate bake treatment MENT. Stannate immersion treatment deposits
to relieve hydrogen embrittlement is a neces a layer of tin. It is a protective paint base for
sary part of replating procedures for magnesium alloy parts which contain inserts
and fasteners of a dissimilar metal such as
brass, copper, or steel. This treatment cannot 6-40. ORGANIC COATINGS. Zinc chro
be used with parts containing aluminum inserts mate primer, enamels, chlorinated rubber com
or fasteners because the high alkalinity of the pounds, etc., are organic coatings commonly
bath attacks the aluminum. used to protect metals.
6-49. [RESERVED.]
6-43.
paint. Apply with a cloth or a soft brush d. Most parts of landing gear wheels are
soaked in the mixture. made from magnesium or aluminum alloys
which corrode rapidly unless carefully pro
(3) Wipe off excess mixture. When ap tected. When the aircraft operates near salt
plying the mixture take care that as little as water and off coral beaches, the corrosion can
possible is deposited on exhaust pipes or col be very rapid. Inspect wheels to determine the
lector rings to avoid a fire hazard when the en paint condition.
gine is started. Keep the ignition wires, pro
peller anti-icer feed hose, tires, and other rub e. Refinish portions of a wheel where
ber parts free of the mixture. paint has deteriorated, peeled, or chipped.
b. Where maximum corrosion protection f. Except for friction and bearing sur
is desired on stationary parts, use exterior sur faces, apply a protective coating to all parts of
face corrosion preventive compound, Specifi wheels and brake assemblies.
cation MIL-C-16173, grade I.
6-62. [RESERVED.]
6-52.
c. Wipe the exposed portion of the land
ing gear shock strut piston with a cloth soaked
in the applicable hydraulic fluid.
6-63. GENERAL. This guide provides a b. Remove any foreign material from
general inspection checklist for those parts or bilge and inspect for corrosion.
surfaces that can be visually inspected without
disassembly of the aircraft. It is intended for 6-68. WHEEL WELLS AND LANDING
use in establishing corrosion inspection areas GEAR. Inspect wheel well area and landing
for which the manufacturer has not provided a gear components for damage to exterior finish
recommended corrosion inspection program. coating and corrosion. Particular attention
The manufacturers recommended corrosion should be given to exposed surfaces of struts,
inspection program will take precedence over oleos, arms, links, and attaching hardware;
this guideline. These inspections should be axle interiors, exposed position indicator
accomplished in conjunction with other pre switches and other electrical equipment; crev
ventive maintenance. ices between stiffeners, ribs, and lower skin
surfaces; magnesium wheels, particularly
6-64. EXHAUST TRAIL AREAS. around bolt heads, lugs, and wheel web areas;
and exposed rigid tubing at B nuts and fer
a. Visually inspect paint in areas of the rules under clamps, and tubing identification
exhaust trails for damage. tapes.
f. Inspect thick alloy skin surfaces for b. Replace any defective, damaged,
pitting, intergranular corrosion, and exfoliation twisted, or bulging hoses.
of the metal. Look for white or gray deposits
around countersunk fastener heads and raised 6-74. SANDWICH PANELS. Inspect
areas or bumps under the paint film. edges of sandwich panels for damage to the
corrosion protection finish or sealant and for
g. Inspect composite skins for corrosion corrosion.
of attachment fasteners.
6-75. CONTROL CABLES.
6-70. WATER ENTRAPMENT AREAS.
Inspect area around edge of drain holes for cor a. Inspect control cables for bare spots in
rosion and ensure that drain holes are not the preservative coating and corrosion.
blocked by debris.
b. If external corrosion is found, relieve
6-71. ENGINE FRONTAL AREAS. tension on the cable and check internal strands
for corrosion. Cables with corrosion on inter
a. Inspect reciprocating engine cylinder nal strands should be replaced. External cor
fins, engine cases, and cooling air ducts for rosion should be removed by a clean, dry,
damage to exterior finish and corrosion. coarse rag or fiber brush. A preservative
should be applied after removal of external
b. Inspect radiator cooler cores for cor corrosion.
rosion.
6-76. INTEGRAL FUEL CELLS.
6-72. ELECTRONIC PACKAGE COM-
PARTMENTS. a. Inspect top coat finish for breaks,
peeling, lifting of surface, or other damage.
a. Inspect circuit-breakers, contact
points, and switches for evidence of moisture b. Inspect aircraft structure for top coat
and corrosive attack. finish damage from pitting or intergranular
corrosion.
b. Treatment of corrosion in electrical
and electronic components should be done by 6-77. ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS.
or supervised by qualified personnel familiar
with the function of the unit involved. a. Inspect electrical connectors for
breaks in potting compound and corrosion of
6-73. FLEXIBLE HOSE ASSEMBLIES. pins and wires.
6-88. [RESERVED.]
6-78.
6-89. GENERAL. General safety precau when cleaning, stripping, etching, or conver
tions for handling materials with hazardous sion coating overhead surfaces.
physical properties are outlined in the follow
ing paragraphs. They also address emergency (6) When mixing alkalies with water or
procedures for immediate treatment of person other substance, use containers that are made
nel who have inadvertently come into contact to withstand heat generated by this process.
with harmful materials. All personnel respon
sible for using or handling hazardous materials (7) Wash any paint stripper, etchant, or
should be thoroughly familiar with the infor conversion coating material immediately from
mation in the following paragraphs. body, skin, or clothing.
(4) Clean water for emergency use (12) Equipment should be effectively
should be available in the immediate work area grounded where any flammable materials are
before starting work. being used.
(5) Avoid prolonged or repeated contact (13) If materials (acid, alkali, paint re
with the skin of solvents, cleaners, etchants mover, or conversion coatings) are spilled on
(acid), or conversion coating material (Alodine equipment and/or tools, treat immediately by
solution). Rubber or plastic gloves should be rinsing with clean water, if possible, and /or
worn. Goggles or plastic face shields and suit neutralizing acids with baking soda and alka
able protective clothing should be worn lies with a weak (5 percent) solution of acetic
acid in water.
(15) All equipment should be cleaned b. The work areas, equipment, and com
after work has been completed. ponents should be clean and free of chips, grit,
dirt, and foreign materials.
(16) Check and follow all applicable re
strictions and requirements on the use of sol c. Do not mark on any metal surface with
vents, primers, and top coats. a graphite pencil or any type of sharp, pointed
instrument. Temporary markings (defined as
(17) Check and follow all applicable re markings soluble in water or methyl chloro
strictions and requirements for use and dis form) should be used for metal layout work or
posal of waste material. marking on the aircraft to indicate corroded ar
eas.
b. Blasting. The following precautions
should be taken when using any type of blast d. Graphite should not be used as a lu
ing equipment: bricant for any component. Graphite is ca
thodic to all structural metals and will generate
(1) Operators should be adequately galvanic corrosion in the presence of moisture,
protected with complete face and head cover especially if the graphite is applied in dry
ing equipment, and provided with pure form.
breathing air.
(2) Static-ground the dry abrasive e. Footwear and clothing should be in
blaster and the material to be blasted. spected for metal chips, slivers, rivet cuttings,
dirt, sand, etc., and all such material removed
(3) Magnesium cuttings and small before walking or working on metal surfaces
shavings can ignite easily and are an extreme such as wings, stabilizers, fuel tanks, etc.
hazard. Fires of this metal must be extin
guished with absolutely dry talc, calcium car f. Do not abrade or scratch any surface
bonate, sand, or graphite by applying the pow unless it is an authorized procedure. If sur
der to a depth of 1/2 inch over the metal. faces are accidentally scratched, the damage
should be assessed and action taken to remove
(4) Titanium alloys and high-tensile the scratch and treat the area.
strength steel create sparks during dry abrasive
blasting. Care should be taken to ensure that g. Coated metal surfaces should not be
hazardous concentrations of flammable vapors polished for aesthetic purposes. Buffing
do not exist. would remove the protective coating and a
brightly polished surface is normally not as
6-91. CORROSION CONTROL WORK corrosion resistant as a non-polished surface
PROCEDURES. The effectiveness of corro unless it is protected by wax or paint.
sion control depends on how well basic work
procedures are followed. The following com
mon work practices are recommended:
6-112. [RESERVED.]
6-92.
6-113. GENERAL. When active corrosion (1) Remove battery(s), liquid oxygen
is found, a positive inspection and rework pro generator container (if installed), and external
gram is necessary to prevent any further dete hydraulic and electric power.
rioration. The following methods of assessing
corrosion damage and procedures for rework (2) Install all applicable safety pins,
of corroded areas could be used during cleanup flags, and jury struts.
programs. In general, any rework would in
volve the cleaning and stripping of all finish e. Protect the pitot-static ports, louvers,
from the corroded area, removal of corrosion airscoops, engine opening, wheels, tires, mag
products, and restoration of surface protective nesium skin panels, and airplane interior from
film. moisture and chemical brightening agents.
METALS OR RESTRICTIONS OPERATION ABRASIVE PAPER OR CLOTH ABRASIVE ALUMINUM STAINLESS PUMICE 350 ABRASIVE
MATERIALS TO FABRIC OR STEEL MESH OR WHEEL
BE ALUMINUM SILICON GARNET PAD FINER
PROCESSED OXIDE CARBIDE
ALUMINUM AL- DO NOT USE CORROSION 150 GRIT 7/0 GRIT VERY FINE
LOYS SILICON REMOVAL OR FINER OR FINER AND X X X
EXCEPT CLAD CARBIDE OR FAIRING ULTRA FINE
ALUMINUM ABRASIVE FINISHING 400 X X
a. Materials. Do not use harmful clean bicarbonate (baking soda) per gallon of fresh
ing, polishing, brightening, or paint-removing water. Apply generously until bubbling stops
materials. Use only those compounds that and let solution stay on the area for 5 to
conform to existing government or established 6 minutes, but do not allow it to dry. For
industry specifications or that have been spe nickel-cadmium batteries, sponge the area with
cifically recommended by the aircraft manu a solution of 6 ounces of monobasic sodium
facturer. Observe the product manufacturers phosphate per gallon of fresh water. Sponge
recommendations concerning use. area again with clean fresh water and dry sur
face with compressed air or clean wiping
b. Chemical Cleaners. Chemicals must cloths.
be used with great care in cleaning assembled
aircraft. The danger of entrapping corrosive 6-118. STANDARD METHODS. Several
materials in faying surfaces and crevices standard mechanical and chemical methods are
counteracts any advantages in their speed and available for corrosion removal. Mechanical
effectiveness. Use materials that are relatively methods include hand sanding using abrasive
neutral and easy to remove. mat, abrasive paper, or metal wool; and pow
ered mechanical sanding, grinding, and buff
c. Removal of spilled battery acid. The ing, using abrasive mat, grinding wheels,
battery, battery cover, battery box and adjacent sanding discs, and abrasive rubber mats. The
areas will be corroded if battery acid spills method used depends upon the metal and de
onto them. To clean spilled battery acid, brush gree of corrosion. The removal method to use
off any salt residue and sponge the area with on each metal for each particular degree of
fresh water. For lead-acid batteries, sponge the corrosion is outlined in the following section.
area with a solution of 6 ounces of sodium
6-131. [RESERVED.]
6-119.
6-132. GENERAL. Aluminum and alumi with structural adhesive or sealant to the same
num alloys are the most widely used material level and contour as the original skin. When
for aircraft construction. Aluminum appears areas are small enough that structural strength
high in the electro-chemical series of elements has not been significantly decreased, no other
and corrodes very easily. However, the forma work is required prior to applying the protec
tion of a tightly-adhering oxide film offers in tive finish.
creased resistance under most corrosive condi
tions. Most metals in contact with aluminum b. When corrosion removal exceeds the
form couples that undergo galvanic corrosion limits of the structural repair manual, contact a
attack. The alloys of aluminum are subject to DER or the aircraft manufacturer for repair in
pitting, intergranular corrosion and inter- structions.
granular stress corrosion cracking. In some
cases the corrosion products of metal in con c. Where exterior doublers are installed,
tact with aluminum are corrosive to aluminum. it is necessary to seal and insulate them ade
Therefore, aluminum and its alloys must be quately to prevent further corrosion.
cleaned and protected.
d. Doublers should be made from alclad,
6-133. SPECIAL TREATMENT OF when available, and the sheet should be ano
ANODIZED SURFACES. Anodizing is the dized (preferred) or a chemical conversion coat
most common surface treatment of aluminum applied after all cutting, drilling, and counter
alloy surfaces. The aluminum sheet or casting sinking has been accomplished.
is made the positive pole in an electrolyte bath
in which chromic acid or other oxidizing e. All rivet holes should be drilled, coun
agents produce a supplemental protective ox tersunk, surface treated, and primed prior to
ide film on the aluminum surface. The ano installation of the doubler.
dized surface coating offers the alloy a great
deal of protection as long as it is not damaged. f. Apply a suitable sealing compound in
Once the film is damaged, it can only be par the area to be covered by the doubler. Apply
tially restored by chemical surface treatment. sufficient thickness of sealing compound to fill
Therefore exercise care to avoid breaking of all voids in the area being repaired.
the protective film, particularly at the edges of
the sheet. g. Install rivets wet with sealant. Suffi
cient sealant should be squeezed out into holes
6-134. REPAIR OF ALUMINUM ALLOY so that all fasteners, as well as all edges of the
SHEET METAL. After extensive corrosion repair plate, will be sealed against moisture.
removal the following procedures should be
followed: h. Remove all excess sealant after fasten
ers are installed. Apply a fillet sealant bead
a. If water can be trapped in blended ar around the edge of the repair. After the sealant
eas, chemical conversion coat in accordance has cured apply the protective paint finish to
with MIL-C-81706 and fill the blended area the reworked area.
manufactures instructions before use. Type I (d) Allow the solution to remain on
has a 1 year shelf life; therefore it shall not be the surface for approximately 12 minutes and
used after 1 year from the date of manufacture. then rinse away with clean tap water. For pit
ted or heavily-corroded areas the compound
2 Type II Powdered concentrate will be more effective if applied warm
materials should be dissolved in the volume of (140 F) followed by vigorous agitation with a
water specified on the kit. These materials non-metallic acid-resisting brush or aluminum
have an indefinite shelf life in the dry state. oxide abrasive nylon mat. Allow sufficient
Once mixed, they should be used within dwell time, 12 to 15 minutes, before rinsing.
90 days. After each application examine the pits and/or
corroded area to determine if another applica
(b) Mix MIL-C-38334 in wood, tion is required with a 4 to 10 power magnify
plastic, or plastic-lined containers only. Wear ing glass. (Select the power depending on the
acid-resistant gloves, protective mask and distance available to make the inspection.)
protective clothing when working with this Corrosion still on the area will appear as a
acid compound. If acid contacts the skin or powdery crust slightly different in color than
eyes, flush immediately with water. the uncorroded base metal. Darkening of area
due to shadows and reaction from the acid re
(c) Apply MIL-C-38334 solution by mover should not be considered.
flowing, mopping, sponging, brushing, or
wiping. When applying the solution to large (e) Once the corrosion has been re
areas, begin the application at the lowest area moved and the area well-rinsed with clean
and work upward, applying the solution with a water, a chromate conversion coating such as
circular motion to disturb the surface film and MIL-C-81706 or MIL-C-5541 alodine 1200,
ensure proper coverage. If pumping is re must be applied immediately thereafter.
quired, pumps, valves, and fittings should be
manufactured from 18-8 stainless steel or e. Remove moderate to heavy corrosion
plastic. with one of the following.
(b) When mechanically removing f. Inspect the area for remaining corro
corrosion from aluminum, especially aircraft sion. Repeat procedure if any corrosion re
skin thinner than 0.0625 inch, extreme care mains.
must be used. Vigorous, heavy, continuous
abrasive grinding can generate enough heat to NOTE: If corrosion remains after the
cause metallurgical change. If heat damage is second attempt, use a stronger
suspected, hardness tests or conductivity tests method, e.g., chemical to mechanical.
must be accomplished to verify condition of
the metal. The use of powered rotary files g. Using a blend ratio of 20:1 (length to
should be limited to heavy corrosion and depth) blend and finish the corrosion rework
should not be used on skin thinner than area with progressively finer abrasive paper
0.0625 inch. until 400-grit paper is used.
(b) Do not use this method for parts f. Remove moderate to heavy corrosion by
containing copper and steel-based inserts (un one of the following means.
less the inserts are masked off) and where it
might come into contact with adhesive bonded (1) Powered Corrosion Removal.
skins or parts.
(a) Powered corrosion removal can
(3) The following solution may be used be accomplished using pneumatic drill motor
to remove surface oxidation and light corro with either an aluminum-oxide-impregnated
sion products from magnesium surfaces. abrasive wheel, flap brush, or rubber grinding
wheel with an abrasive value to approximately
(a) Solution Composition and Op 120 grain size.
eration:
(b) Also a rotary file with fine flutes
1 Chromium Trioxide. 24 oz. can be used for severe or heavy corrosion
product buildup on metals thicker than
2 (O-C-303, Type II). Water to 0.0625 inch. If a flap brush or rotary file is
Make 1 gal. Reaction Time 1 to 15 min. used, it should only be used on one type of
metal. Do not use either a hand or rotary car
3 Operation Temperature. (Solu bon steel brush on magnesium.
tion can be operated at room temperature for a
longer reaction time if desired.) 190 to 202 F. (c) Pneumatic sanders are acceptable
if used with disk or paper of aluminum oxide.
4 Container Construction. Lead- When using sanders, use extra care to avoid
lined steel, stainless steel, or 1100 aluminum. over heating aircraft skins thinner than
0.0625 inch.
(b) Mask off nearby operating
mechanisms, cracks and plated steel to keep (d) Do not use rotary wire brushes on
the solution from attacking them. magnesium.
(c) Apply chromic acid solution care WARNING: Cuttings and small
fully to the corroded area with an acid-resistant shavings from magnesium can ignite
brush. easily and are an extreme fire hazard.
Fires of this metal must be extin-
(d) Allow the solution to remain on guished with absolutely dry talc, cal-
the surface for approximately 15 minutes. cium carbonate, sand, or graphite by
Agitation may be required. applying the powder to a depth of
1/2 inch over the metal.
(e) Thoroughly rinse the solution
from the surface with plenty of clean water. (2) Blasting. Abrasive blasting is an
approved method of corrosion removal on
(f) Repeat the preceding sequence as magnesium alloys of a thickness greater than
necessary until all corrosion products have 0.0625 inch. Remove heavy corrosion prod
been removed and the metal is a bright metal ucts by hand brushing with a stainless steel or
lic color. fiber brush followed by vacuum abrasive
blasting with glass beads, (Spec. MIL-G-9954) k. Apply Chromic Acid Brush-on Pre
sizes 10-13; or grain abrasive (Spec. treatment.
MIL-G-5634), types I or III at an air pressure
of 10 to 35 psi (if suction equipment is used, (1) Chemical pretreatment such as the
use a 50 percent higher pressure). Upon com following chromic acid solution (Conversion
pletion of blasting, inspect for the presence of coat conforming to Spec. MIL-M-3171,
corrosion in the blast area. Give particular at type VI) provides a passive surface layer with
tention to areas where pitting has progressed an inhibitive characteristic that resists corro
into intergranular attack. This is necessary be sive attack and also provides a bond for subse
cause abrasive blasting has a tendency to close quent coatings. Properly-applied magnesium
up streaks of intergranular corrosion rather pretreatment tend to neutralize corrosion me
than remove them if the operator uses an im dia in contact with the surface.
proper impingement angle. If the corrosion
has not been removed in a total blasting time (2) The chromic acid brush-on pre
of 60 seconds on any one specific area, other treatment may be applied to all magnesium
mechanical methods of removal should be parts that require touch-up. This treatment is
utilized. generally used in refinishing procedures or
when parts and assemblies are too large to be
CAUTION: When blasting magne- immersed. This treatment is less critical to ap
sium alloys, do not allow the blast ply than the other brush-on treatments. It is
stream to dwell on the same spot relatively inexpensive and not as harmful when
longer than 15 seconds. Longer dwell trapped in faying surfaces.
times will cause excessive metal re-
moval. (a) Solution Composition and Op
eration:
g. Inspect the reworked area to ensure
that no corrosion products remain. If corrosion 1 Distilled Water 1 gal.
products are found, repeat method used and
re-inspect. 2 Chromic Acid (CrO3) 1.3 oz.
(b) Add chemicals to water in the or NOTE: Too long an exposure to the
der shown. brush-on solution produces coatings
that will powder and impair adhesion
(c) Stir vigorously for at least of applied paint finish/films.
15 minutes, either mechanically or by air agi
tation, to ensure that the solution is saturated (f) Observe the coating closely dur
with calcium sulfate. (Let solution stand for ing the treatment for color changes, rinsed with
15 minutes before decanting.) cold running water when the desired condi
tion/color is reached and air dried. Preparation
(d) Prior to use, decant solution and use of test panels made of the same mate
(avoid transfer of undissolved calcium sulfate) rial and under the same conditions, before
into suitable containers (polyethylene or glass). starting the actual treating operation may be
used as to determine the application time re
(e) Apply solution by brush, swab, or quired to produce the required coating. A
flow on using low-pressure spray (non good coating is uniform in color/density, ad
atomizing) until the metal surface becomes a heres well and is free of loose powder.
dull color (the color can vary from green-
brown, brassy, yellow-brown to dark-brown). l. Apply primer and top coat finish
For good paint adhesion, a dark-brown color
free of powder is considered best. The color m. Remove masking and protective cov
may vary in using different vendors materials. erings.
6-163. [RESERVED.]
6-153.
6-164. GENERAL. One of the most famil such as fine grit aluminum oxide, metallic
iar kinds of corrosion is red iron rust. Red iron wool, or fine buffing compounds.
rust results from atmospheric oxidation of steel
surfaces. Some metal oxides protect the un b. Undesirable methods include the use
derlying base metal, but red rust is not a pro of any power tool because the danger of local
tective coating. Its presence actually promotes overheating and the formation of notches that
additional attack by attracting moisture from could lead to failure. The use of chemical cor
the air and acts as a catalyst to promote addi rosion removers is prohibited, without engi
tional corrosion. neering authorization, because high-strength
steel parts are subject to hydrogen embrittle
a. Red rust first shows on bolt heads, ment.
hold down nuts, and other unprotected aircraft
hardware. Red rust will often occur under 6-166. SPECIAL TREATMENT OF
nameplates that are secured to steel parts. Its STAINLESS STEEL. Stainless steels are of
presence in these areas is generally not dan two general types: magnetic and nonmagnetic.
gerous. It has no immediate effect on the
structural strength of any major components. a. Magnetic steels are of the ferritic or
However, it shows a general lack of mainte martensitic types and are identified by num
nance and may indicate attack in more critical bers in the 400-series. Corrosion often occurs
areas. on 400-series stainless steels and treatment is
the same as specified in high-strength steels.
b. When paint failures occur or me (See paragraph 6-165.)
chanical damage exposes highly-stressed steel
surfaces to the atmosphere, even the smallest b. Non-magnetic stainless steels are of
amount of rusting is potentially dangerous and the austenitic type and are identified by num
should be removed immediately. bers in the 300-series. They are much more
corrosion resistant than the 400-series steels,
6-165. SPECIAL TREATMENT OF particularly in a marine environment.
HIGH-STRENGTH STEEL. (High-strength
steels heat treated above Rockwell C40, (1) Austenitic steels develop corrosion
180,000 psi tensile strength). Any corrosion resistance by an oxide film, which should not
on the surface of a highly-stressed steel part is be removed even though the surface is discol
potentially dangerous, and the careful removal ored. The original oxide film is normally
of corrosion products is mandatory. Surface formed at time of fabrication by passivation. If
scratches or change in surface structure from this film is broken accidentally or by abrasion,
overheating can cause sudden failure of these it may not restore itself without repassivation.
parts. The removal of corrosion products is
required and will be performed carefully and (2) If any deterioration or corrosion
completely. does occur on austenitic steels, and the struc
tural integrity or serviceability of the part is af
a. Acceptable methods include careful fected, it will be necessary to remove the part.
use of mild abrasive mats, cloths, and papers,
a. Prepare the area for rework. h. Fair depressions using a blend ratio
of 20:1. Clean area using 240-grit paper.
b. Positively identify the metal as steel Smooth area with 300-grit paper and give final
and establish its heat-treated value. polish with 400-grit paper.
c. Clean the area and strip paint if re i. Determine depth of faired depression
quired. to ensure that rework limits have not been ex
ceeded.
NOTE: Use of acid-based strippers,
chemical removers, or chemical con- j. Clean reworked area with dry cleaning
version coatings are not permitted on solvent. Do not use kerosene.
steel parts without engineering
authorization. k. Apply protective finish or specific or
ganic finish as required.
d. Determine extent of corrosion damage.
NOTE: Steel surfaces are highly-
e. Remove residual corrosion by hand reactive immediately following corro-
sanding with mild abrasive mats, cloths, and sion removal; consequently, primer
papers, such as fine aluminum oxide grit. coats should be applied within 1 hour
after sanding.
f. Remove heavy deposits of corrosion
products by approved mechanical methods for l. Remove masking and protective cover
that particular form of steel and/or stainless ings.
steel.
6-178. [RESERVED.]
6-168.
(1) Stainless steel wool or hand brush. (4) Hand polish with aluminum polish
and soft cloth.
(2) Abrasive mats, cloths, and papers
with either aluminum oxide or silicon carbide c. Titanium surfaces are susceptible to
grit. hydrogen embrittlement that can induce stress
corrosion and associated pitting. Therefore,
(3) Dry abrasive blasting using glass chemicals such as fire-resistant hydraulic flu
beads (spec. MIL-G-9954) sizes 10-13 or ids must be controlled. Chlorinated hydrocar
Aluminum oxide (spec. MIL-G-21380, type I, bon solvents and chemical corrosion removers
grades A or B) at a blast pressure of 40 to are prohibited from use on titanium and tita
50 psi (if using suction equipment use nium alloys.
50 percent higher pressure).
6-192. [RESERVED.]
6-182.
WARNING: Dry abrasive blasting of
titanium alloys creates sparking. En-
sure that hazardous concentrations of
flammable vapors are not present.
6-193. CHROMIUM AND NICKEL- over both steel and copper alloys. Protection
PLATED PARTS. Nickel and chromium is provided by a sacrificial process in which
platings are used extensively as protective and the cadmium is attacked rather than the un
wear-resistant coatings over high-strength steel derlying base material. Properly functioning
parts (landing gear journals, shock strut pis cadmium surface coatings may show mottling,
tons, etc.). Chromium and nickel plate provide ranging from white to brown to black spots on
protection by forming a somewhat impervious their surfaces. These show the sacrificial pro
physical coat over the underlying base metal. tection being offered by the cadmium coat, and
When breaks occur in the surface, the protec under no condition should such spotting be
tion is destroyed. removed merely for appearance sake. In fact,
cadmium will continue to protect even when
a. The amount of reworking that can be actual breaks in the coating develop and bare
performed on chromium and nickel-plated steel or exposed copper surfaces appear.
components is limited.
a. When the breakdown of the cad-
b. The rework should consist of light mium plating occurs and the initial appear
buffing to remove corrosion products and pro ance of corrosion products on the base metal
duce the required smoothness. The buffing develops, some mechanical cleaning of the
should not take the plating below the mini area may be necessary but shall be limited to
mum allowable thickness. removal of the corrosion products from the
underlying base material.
c. Whenever a chromium or nickel-plated
component requires buffing, coat the area with b. Under no condition should such a
a corrosion-preventive compound, if possible. coating be cleaned with a wire brush. If pro
tection is needed, a touch-up with primer or a
d. When buffing exceeds the minimum temporary preservative coating should be ap
thickness of the plating, or the base metal has plied. Restoration of the plate coating cannot
sustained corrosive attack, the component be done in the field.
should be removed and replaced.
c. Zinc coatings offer protection in an
e. The removed component can be re identical manner to cadmium, and the correc
stored to serviceable condition by having the tive treatment for failure is generally the same
old plating completely stripped and replated in as for cadmium-plated parts. However, the
accordance with acceptable methods and amount of zinc on aircraft structures is very
specifications. limited and usually does not present a mainte
nance problem.
6-194. CADMIUM AND ZINC-PLATED
PARTS. Cadmium plating is used extensively 6-205. [RESERVED.]
6-195.
in aircraft construction as a protective finish
6-219. [RESERVED.]
6-209.
b. Prompt action is the most important a. Major accessories, engine parts, etc.,
factor following recovery of an aircraft from should be removed and all surfaces flushed
water-immersion. Components of the aircraft with fresh water, preferably hot. If facilities
which have been immersed, such as the are available, immerse the removed parts, time
powerplant, accessories, airframe sections, permitting, in hot water or hot oil, 180 F, for a
actuating mechanisms, screws, bearings, short time. Soft water is preferred. Change
working surfaces, fuel and oil systems, wiring, the water frequently. All parts must be com
radios, and radar should be disassembled, as pletely dried by air blast or other means. If no
necessary, and the contaminants completely heat-drying facility is available, wipe the
removed. cleaned parts with suitable drying cloths.
a. The fabric from fabric-covered sur g. All drain plugs or drive screws in tu
faces should be removed and replaced. bular structures should be removed and the
structure blown out with compressed air. If
b. Clean the aircraft interior and exterior water has reached the tubular interiors, care
using steam under pressure with steam clean fully flush with hot fresh water and blow out
ing compound. Direct the steam into all seams water with compressed air. Roll the structure
and crevices where corrosive water may have as necessary to remove water from pockets.
penetrated. Avoid steam cleaning electrical Fill the tubes with hot linseed oil, approxi
equipment, such as terminal boards and re mately 180 F, drain oil and replace drain
lays. plugs or drive screws.
c. Areas that have been steam cleaned h. Clean sealed wood, metallic, and other
should be rinsed immediately with either hot non-metallic areas, excluding acrylic plastics,
or cold fresh water. with warm water. Replace wood, metalite, and
other porous materials exposed to water-
d. Touch up all scratches and scars on immersion unless surfaces are adequately
painted surfaces using zinc chromate primer or sealed to prevent penetration by water. Virtu
preservative. ally all solvents and phenolic type cleaning
agents are detrimental to acrylics and will ei
e. Undrained hollow spaces or fluid en ther soften the plastic or cause crazing.
trapment areas should be provided temporary
draining facilities by drilling out rivets at the i. Remove instruments and radios and ap
lowest point. Install new rivets after drainage. plicable cables and plumbing, and repair and
inspect as necessary.
f. Remove and replace all leather, fabric
upholstery, and insulation. Plastic or rubber 6-234. [RESERVED.]
6-224.
foam that cannot be cleaned of all corrosive
water must be replaced.
AND TURNBUCKLES
SECTION 1. RIVETS
a. Standard solid-shank rivets and the a. Rivets made with 2117-T4 are the
universal head rivets (AN470) are used in air- most commonly used rivets in aluminum alloy
craft construction in both interior and exterior structures. The main advantage of 2117-T4 is
locations. All protruding head rivets may be that it may be used in the condition received
replaced by MS20470 (supersedes AN470) without further treatment.
rivets. This has been adopted as the standard
for protruding head rivets in the United States. b. The 2017-T3, 2017-T31, and 2024-T4
rivets are used in aluminum alloy structures
b. Roundhead rivets (AN430) are used in where strength higher than that of the 2117-T4
the interior of aircraft except where clearance rivet is needed. See Metallic Materials and
is required for adjacent members. Elements for Flight Vehicle Structures
(MIL-HDBK-5) for differences between the
c. Flathead rivets (AN442) are used in types of rivets specified here.
the interior of the aircraft where interference of
adjacent members does not permit the use of c. The 1100 rivets of pure aluminum are
roundhead rivets. used for riveting nonstructural parts fabricated
from the softer aluminum alloys, such as 1100,
d. Brazierhead rivets (AN455 and 3003, and 5052.
AN456) are used on the exterior surfaces of
aircraft where flush riveting is not essential. d. When riveting magnesium alloy
structures, 5056 rivets are used exclusively
e. Countersunk head rivets MS20426 due to their corrosion-resistant qualities in
(supersedes AN426 100-degree) are used on combination with the magnesium alloys.
the exterior surfaces of aircraft to provide a
smooth aerodynamic surface, and in other ap- e. Mild steel rivets are used primarily in
plications where a smooth finish is desired. riveting steel parts. Do not use galvanized
The 100-degree countersunk head has been rivets on steel parts subjected to high heat.
adopted as the standard in the United States.
Refer to MIL-HD BK5 Metallic Materials and f. Corrosion-resistant steel rivets are
Elements for Fight Vehicle Structures, and used primarily in riveting corrosion-resistant
U.S.A.F./Navy T./O. 1-1A-8, Structural Hard- steel parts such as firewalls, exhaust stack
ware. bracket attachments, and similar structures.
SECTION 2. SCREWS
SECTION 3. BOLTS
d. Add the friction drag torque to the 7-41. STANDARD AIRCRAFT HEX
desired torque. This is referred to as final HEAD BOLTS (AN3 THROUGH AN20).
torque, which should register on the indicator These are all-purpose structural bolts used for
or setting for a snap-over type torque wrench. general applications that require tension or
shear loads. Steel bolts smaller than
e. Apply a smooth even pull when ap- No. 10-32, and aluminum alloy bolts smaller
plying torque pressure. If chattering or a jerk- than 1/4 inch diameter, should not be used in
ing motion occurs during final torque, back off primary structures. Do not use aluminum bolts
the nut and retorque. or nuts in applications requiring frequent re-
moval for inspection or maintenance.
NOTE: Many applications of bolts in
aircraft/engines require stretch checks 7-42. DRILLED HEAD BOLTS (AN73
prior to reuse. This requirement is THROUGH AN81). The AN drilled head
due primarily to bolt stretching bolt is similar to the standard hex bolt, but has
caused by overtorquing. a deeper head which is drilled to receive safety
wire. The physical differences preventing di-
f. When installing a castle nut, start rect interchangeability are the slightly greater
alignment with the cotter pin hole at the mini- head height, and longer thread length of the
mum recommended torque plus friction drag AN73 through AN81 series. The AN73
torque. through AN81 drilled head bolts have been su-
perseded by MS20073, for fine thread bolts
NOTE: Do not exceed the maximum and MS20074 for coarse thread bolts. AN73,
torque plus the friction drag. If the AN74, MS20073, and MS20074 bolts of like
hole and nut castellation do not align, thread and grip lengths are universally, func-
change washer or nut and try again. tionally, and dimensionally interchangeable.
Exceeding the maximum recom-
mended torque is not recommended. 7-43. ENGINE BOLTS. These are hex
head bolts (AN101001 through AN101900),
g. When torque is applied to bolt heads drilled shank hex head bolts (AN101901
or capscrews, apply the recommended torque through AN102800), drilled hex head (one
plus friction drag torque. hole) bolts (AN102801 through AN103700),
and drilled hex head (six holes) bolts
h. If special adapters are used which (AN103701 through AN104600). They are
will change the effective length of the torque similar to each other except for the holes in the
wrench, the final torque indication or wrench head and shank. Hex head bolts (AN104601
setting must be adjusted accordingly. Deter- through AN105500), drilled shank hex head
mine the torque wrench indication or setting bolts (AN105501 through AN106400), drilled
with adapter installed as shown in figure 7-2. hex head (one hole) bolts (AN106401 through
AN107300), and drilled hex head (six holes)
i. Table 7-1 shows the recommended bolts (AN107301 through AN108200) are
torque to be used when specific torque is not similar to the bolts described in para-
supplied by the manufacturer. The table in- graph 7-42, except that this series is manufac-
cludes standard nut and bolt combinations, tured from corrosion-resistant steel.
currently used in aviation maintenance. For
further identification of hardware, see chap-
ter 7, section 11.
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
CAUTION
THE FOLLOWING TORQUE VALUES ARE DERIVED FROM OIL FREE CADMIUM PLATED THREADS.
Thread Size Tension type nuts Shear type nuts MS20364 Nuts MS20365 and Nuts MS20364 and
MS20365 and AN310 and AN320 (24,000 psi in AN310 (90,000 psi in AN320 (54,000 psi in
(40,000 psi in bolts) bolts) bolts) bolts)
The above torque values may be used for all cadmium-plated steel nuts of the fine or coarse thread series which
have approximately equal number of threads and equal face bearing areas.
* Estimated corresponding values.
7-44. CLOSE-TOLERANCE BOLTS. of bolt may require light tapping with a mallet
Close-tolerance, hex head, machine bolts to set the bolt shank into the bolt hole.
(AN173 through AN186), 100-degree counter-
sunk head, close-tolerance, high-strength bolts NOTE: Elimination of friction in in-
(NAS333 through NAS340), hex head, close- terference fit applications may some-
tolerance, short thread, titanium alloy bolts times be attained by placing the bolt
(NAS653 through NAS658), 100-degree in a freezer prior to installation.
countersunk flathead, close-tolerance titanium When this procedure is used, the bolt
alloy bolts (NAS663 through NAS668), and should be allowed to warm up to am-
drilled hex head close-tolerance titanium alloy bient temperature before torquing.
bolts (NAS673 through NAS678), are used in
applications where two parts bolted together CAUTION: Caution must be exer-
are subject to severe load reversals and vibra- cised in the use of close-tolerance bolts
tion. Because of the interference fit, this type for all critical applications, such as
landing gear, control systems, and MS9039), and drilled twelve point head ma-
helicopter rotary controls. Do not chine bolts (MS9088 through MS9094), are
substitute for close-tolerance fasteners similar to the (NAS624 through NAS644); but
without specific instructions from the are made from different steel alloys, and their
aircraft manufacturer or the FAA. shanks have larger tolerances.
SECTION 4. NUTS
7-63. GENERAL. Aircraft nuts are avail- e. Metal locknuts are constructed with
able in a variety of shapes, sizes, and material either the threads in the locking insert, out-of-
strengths. The types of nuts used in aircraft round with the load-carrying section, or with a
structures include castle nuts, shear nuts, plain saw-cut insert with a pinched-in thread in the
nuts, light hex nuts, checknuts, wingnuts, and locking section. The locking action of the all-
sheet spring nuts. Many are available in either metal nut depends upon the resiliency of the
self-locking or nonself-locking style. Typical metal when the locking section and load-
nut types are shown in table 7-13. Refer to the carrying section are engaged by screw threads.
aircraft manufacturers structural repair man- Metal locknuts are primarily used in high tem-
ual, the manufacturers engineering depart- perature areas.
ment, or the FAA, before replacing any nut
with any other type. f. Fiber or nylon locknuts are con-
structed with an unthreaded fiber or nylon
7-64. SELF-LOCKING NUTS. These nuts locking insert held securely in place. The fiber
are acceptable for use on certificated aircraft or nylon insert provides the locking action be-
subject to the aircraft manufacturers recom- cause it has a smaller diameter than the nut.
mended practice sheets or specifications. Two Fiber or nylon self-locking nuts are not in-
types of self-locking nuts are currently in use, stalled in areas where temperatures exceed
the all-metal type, and the fiber or nylon type. 250 F. After the nut has been tightened, make
sure the bolt or stud has at least one thread
a. DO NOT use self-locking nuts on parts showing past the nut. DO NOT reuse a fiber
subject to rotation. or nylon locknut, if the nut cannot meet the
minimum prevailing torque values. (See ta-
b. Self-locking castellated nuts with ble 7-2.)
cotter pins or lockwire may be used in any
system. g. Self-locking nut plates are produced in
a variety of forms and materials for riveting or
c. Self-locking nuts should not be used welding to aircraft structures or parts. Certain
with bolts or screws on turbine engine air- applications require the installation of self-
planes in locations where the loose nut, bolt, locking nuts in channel arrangement permit-
washer, or screw could fall or be drawn into ting the attachment of many nuts in a row with
the engine air intake scoop. only a few rivets.
TABLE 7-2. Minimum prevailing torque values for re- (3) Iridescent Dichromate. Cadmium-
used self-locking nuts. plated work is dipped in a solution of sodium
FINE THREAD SERIES dichromate and takes on a surface film of basic
MINIMUM PREVAILING chromium chromate which resists corrosion.
THREAD SIZE TORQUE Finish is yellow to brown in color.
7/16 - 20 8 inch-pounds
1/2 - 20 10 inch-pounds NOTE: Cadmium-plated nuts are re-
9/16 - 18 13 inch-pounds
5/8 -18 18 inch-pounds
stricted for use in temperatures not to
3/4 - 16 27 inch-pounds exceed 450 F. When used in tem-
7/8 - 14 40 inch-pounds peratures in excess of 450 F, the
1 - 14 55 inch-pounds cadmium will diffuse into the base ma-
1-1/8 - 12 73 inch-pounds terial causing it to become very brittle
1-1/4 - 12 94 inch-pounds
and subject to early failure.
COARSE THREAD SERIES
THREAD SIZE MINIMUM PREVAILING
TORQUE
b. Silver plating. Silver plating is applied
7/16 - 14 8 inch-pounds to locknuts for use at higher temperatures.
1/2 - 13 10 inch-pounds Important advantages are its resistance to ex-
9/16 - 12 14 inch-pounds treme heat (1,400 F) and its excellent lubri-
5/8 - 11 20 inch-pounds cating characteristics. Silver resists galling
3/4 - 10 27 inch-pounds and seizing of mating parts when subjected to
7/8 - 9 40 inch-pounds
1-8 51 inch-pounds
heat or heavy pressure.
1-1/8 - 8 68 inch-pounds
1-1/4 - 8 88 inch-pounds c. Anodizing for Aluminum. An inor-
ganic oxide coating is formed on the metal by
a. Cadmium-Plating. This is an electro- connecting the metals and anodes in a suitable
lytically deposited silver-gray plating which electrolyte. The coating offers excellent corro-
provides exceptionally good protection against sion resistance and can be dyed in a number of
corrosion, particularly in salty atmosphere, but colors.
is not recommended in applications where the
temperature exceeds 450 F. The following d. Solid Lubricant Coating. Locknuts
additional finishes or refinements to the basic are also furnished with molybdenum disulfide
cadmium can be applied. for lubrication purposes. It provides a clean,
dry, permanently-bonded coating to prevent
(1) Chromic Clear Dip. Cadmium sur- seizing and galling of threads. Molybdenum
faces are passivated, and cyanide from the disulfide is applied to both cadmium and sil-
plating solution is neutralized. The protective ver-plated parts. Other types of finishes are
film formed gives a bright, shiny appearance, available, but the finishes described in this
and resists staining and finger marks. chapter are the most widely used.
(2) Olive Drab Dichromate. Cadmium- 7-66. CASTLE NUT (AN310). The castle
plated work is dipped in a solution of chromic nut is used with drilled shank hex head bolts,
acid, nitric acid, acetic acid, and a dye which clevis bolts, drilled head bolts, or studs that are
produces corrosion resistance. subjected to tension loads. The nut has slots or
castellations cut to accommodate a cotter pin
or safety wire as a means of safetying.
SECTION 5. WASHERS
7-85. GENERAL. The type of washers used CAUTION: Lock washers are not to
in aircraft structure are plain washers, , and be used on primary structures, secon-
special washers. Typical washer types are dary structures, or accessories where
shown in table 7-14. failure might result in damage or dan-
ger to aircraft or personnel.
7-86. PLAIN WASHERS (AN960 AND
AN970). Plain washers are widely used with 7-88. BALL SOCKET AND SEAT
hex nuts to provide a smooth bearing surface, WASHERS (AN950 AND AN955). Ball
act as a shim to obtain the proper grip length, socket and seat washers are used in special ap-
and to position castellated nuts in relation to plications where the bolt is installed at an an-
drilled cotter pin holes in bolts. Use plain gle to the surface or when perfect alignment
washers under lock washers to prevent damage with the surface is required. These washers
to bearing surfaces. Cadmium-plated steel are used together as a pair.
washers are recommended for use under
boltheads and nuts used on aluminum alloy or 7-89. TAPER PIN WASHERS (AN975).
magnesium structures to prevent corrosion. Taper pin washers are used with the threaded
The AN970 steel washer provides a larger taper pin. NAS143 and MS20002 washers are
bearing surface than the plain type, and is often used with NAS internal wrenching bolts and
used in wooden structures under boltheads and internal wrenching nuts. They may be plain or
nuts to prevent local crushing of the surface. countersunk. The countersunk washer (desig-
nated as NAS143C and MS20002C) is used to
7-87. LOCKWASHERS (AN935 AND seat the bolthead shank radius, and the plain
AN936). Lock washers may be used with ma- washer is used under the nut.
chine screws or bolts whenever the self-
locking or castellated type nut is not applica- 7-100. [RESERVED.]
7-90.
ble. Do not use lock washers where frequent
removal is required, in areas subject to corro-
sion, or in areas exposed to airflow. Use a
plain washer between the lock washer and
material to prevent gouging the surface of the
metal.
SECTION 6. PINS
7-101. TAPER PINS. Plain (AN385) and vibration or repeated load conditions (espe-
threaded (AN386) taper pins are used in joints cially in soft materials, such as aluminum al-
which carry shear loads and where the absence loys and magnesium). They should not be
of play is essential. The plain taper pin is usu- used in an aircraft component or system where
ally drilled and secured with wire. The the loss or failure of the pin might endanger
threaded taper pin is used with a taper-pin safe flight.
washer (AN975) and shear nut (safetied with a
cotter pin) or self-locking nut (if undrilled). b. The joints where spring pins are used
Typical pin types are shown in table 7-15. for fastening shall be designed like riveted and
bolted joints. Spring pins should not be mixed
7-102. FLATHEAD PINS (AN392 with other structural fasteners in the same
THROUGH AN406). Commonly called a joint. These pins, for primary structural appli-
clevis pin, this pin is used in conjunction with cations, should be used only where there will
tie-rod terminals and in secondary controls be no rotation or relative movement of the
which are not subject to continuous operation. joint. Spring pins may be reused if a careful
The pin is normally installed with the head up, inspection reveals no deformation of the pin or
or forward, to prevent loss should the cotter hole.
pin fail or work out.
c. Be careful to observe that the hole has
7-103. COTTER PINS (AN380). Cotter not enlarged or deformed preventing proper
pins are used for securing bolts, screws, nuts, functioning of the spring pin. Where hole
and pins. Use AN381 or MS24665 cotter pins misalignment results in the pin gap closing or
in locations where nonmagnetic material or re- necessitates excess inserting force, the spring
sistance to corrosion is desired. Cotter pins pin will not be used. The spring pin should
should not be reused. not be used as a substitute for a cotter pin.
When a spring pin is used in a clevis joint, it is
7-104. SPRING PINS. The spring pin is recommended that the pin be held by the outer
designed for use in double-shear applications. members of the unit for maximum efficiency
The pins are manufactured with the diameter and reduced maintenance.
greater than the holes in which they are to be
used. Spring pins are stronger than mild car- 7-105. QUICK-RELEASE PINS. These
bon steel straight pins, taper pins, or grooved pins are used in some applications where rapid
pins of the equivalent size. The spring pin is removal and replacement of equipment is nec-
compressed as it is driven into the hole, and essary. When equipment is secured with these
exerts continuous spring pressure against the pins, no binding of the spindle should be pres-
sides of the hole to prevent loosening by vi- ent. Spindle binding could cause the locking
bration. Spring pins require no other means of balls to remain in the open position which
securing, and can be used inside one another to could result in the pin falling out under vibra-
increase shear strength. tion.
SECTION 7. SAFETYING
7-122. GENERAL. The word safetying is a emergency gear releases, or other emergency
term universally used in the aircraft industry. equipment. Some existing structural equip-
Briefly, safetying is defined as: Securing by ment or safety-of-flight emergency devices re-
various means any nut, bolt, turnbuckle etc., quire copper or brass safety wire (.020 inch di-
on the aircraft so that vibration will not cause ameter only). Where successful emergency
it to loosen during operation. These practices operation of this equipment is dependent on
are not a means of obtaining or maintaining shearing or breaking of the safety wire, par-
torque, rather a safety device to prevent the ticular care should be used to ensure that safe-
disengagement of screws, nuts, bolts, snap tying does not prevent emergency operation.
rings, oil caps, drain cocks, valves, and parts.
Three basic methods are used in safetying; a. There are two methods of safety
safety-wire, cotter pins, and self-locking nuts. wiring; the double-twist method that is most
Retainer washers and pal nuts are also some- commonly used, and the single-wire method
times used. used on screws, bolts, and/or nuts in a closely-
spaced or closed-geometrical pattern such as a
a. Wire, either soft brass or steel is used triangle, square, rectangle, or circle. The sin-
on cylinder studs, control cable turnbuckles, gle-wire method may also be used on parts in
and engine accessory attaching bolts. electrical systems and in places that are diffi-
cult to reach. (See figures 7-3 and 7-3a.)
b. Cotter pins are used on aircraft and
engine controls, landing gear, and tailwheel as- b. When using double-twist method of
semblies, or any other point where a turning or safety wiring, .032 inch minimum diameter
actuating movement takes place. wire should be used on parts that have a hole
diameter larger than .045 inch. Safety wire of
c. Self-locking nuts are used in applica- .020 inch diameter (double strand) may be
tions where they will not be removed often. used on parts having a nominal hole diameter
Repeated removal and installation will cause between .045 and .062 inch with a spacing
the self-locking nut to lose its locking feature. between parts of less than 2 inches. When
They should be replaced when they are no using the single-wire method, the largest size
longer capable of maintaining the minimum wire that the hole will accommodate should be
prevailing torque. (See table 7-2.) used. Copper wire (.020 inch diameter), alu-
minum wire (.031 inch diameter), or other
d. Pal or speed nuts include designs similar wire called for in specific technical or-
which force the nut thread against the bolt or ders, should be used as seals on equipment
screw thread when tightened. These nuts such as first-aid kits, portable fire extinguish-
should never be reused and should be replaced ers, emergency valves, or oxygen regulators.
with new ones when removed.
CAUTION: Care should be taken not
7-123. SAFETY WIRE. Do not use stain- to confuse steel with aluminum wire.
less steel, monel, carbon steel, or aluminum
alloy safety wire to secure emergency mecha- c. A secure seal indicates that the com-
nisms such as switch handles, guards covering ponent has not been opened. Some emergency
handles used on exits, fire extinguishers, devices require installation of brass or soft
FIGURE 7-3a. Wire twisting by hand. b. Drilled boltheads and screws need not
be safety wired if installed with self-locking
nuts.
c. To prevent failure due to rubbing or ends, leave at least four to six complete turns
vibration, safety wire must be tight after in- (1/2 to 5/8 inch long) after the loop. When
stallation. removing safety wire, never twist the wire off
with pliers. Cut the safety wire close to the
d. Safety wire must be installed in a man- hole, exercising caution.
ner that will prevent the tendency of the part to
loosen. h. Install safety wire where practicable
with the wire positioned around the head of the
e. Safety wire must never be over- bolt, screw, or nut, and twisted in such a man-
stressed. Safety wire will break under vibra- ner that the loop of the wire fits closely to the
tions if twisted too tightly. Safety wire must contour of the unit being safety wired.
be pulled taut when being twisted, and main-
tain a light tension when secured. (See fig- 7-125. TWISTING WITH SPECIAL
ure 7-3a.) TOOLS. Twist the wire with a wire twister as
follows. (See figure 7-4.)
f. Safety-wire ends must be bent under
and inward toward the part to avoid sharp or CAUTION: When using wire twist-
projecting ends, which might present a safety ers, and the wire extends 3 inches be-
hazard. yond the jaws of the twisters, loosely
wrap the wire around the pliers to
g. Safety wire inside a duct or tube must prevent whipping and possible per-
not cross over or obstruct a flow passage when sonal injury. Excessive twisting of the
an alternate routing can be used. wire will weaken the wire.
(1) Check the units to be safety wired to a. Grip the wire in the jaws of the wire
make sure that they have been correctly tor- twister and slide the outer sleeve down with
qued, and that the wiring holes are properly your thumb to lock the handles or lock the
aligned to each other. When there are two or spring-loaded pin.
more units, it is desirable that the holes in the
units be aligned to each other. Never overtor- b. Pull the knob, and the spiral rod spins
que or loosen to obtain proper alignment of the and twists the wire.
holes. It should be possible to align the wiring
holes when the bolts are torqued within the c. Squeeze handles together to release
specified limits. Washers may be used (see wire.
paragraph 7-37) to establish proper alignment.
However, if it is impossible to obtain a proper 7-126. SECURING OIL CAPS, DRAIN
alignment of the holes without undertorquing COCKS, AND VALVES. (See figure 7-4a.)
or overtorquing, try another bolt which will When securing oil caps and drain cocks, the
permit proper alignment within the specified safety wire should be anchored to an adjacent
torque limits. fillister-head screw. This method of safety
wiring is applied to wingnuts, filler plugs, sin-
(2) To prevent mutilation of the twisted gle-drilled head bolts, fillister-head screws,
section of wire, when using pliers, grasp the etc.; which are safety wired individually.
wires at the ends. Safety wire must not be When securing valve handles in the vertical
nicked, kinked, or mutilated. Never twist the position, the wire is looped around the threads
wire ends off with pliers; and, when cutting off of the pipe leading into one side of the valve,
Examples 1, 2, 3, and 4 apply to all types of bolts, fillister-head screws, square-head plugs, and other
similar parts which are wired so that the loosening tendency of either part is counteracted by tightening
of the other part. The direction of twist from the second to the third unit is counterclockwise in exam-
ples 1, 3, and 4 to keep the loop in position against the head of the bolt. The direction of twist from the
second to the third unit in example 2 is clockwise to keep the wire in position around the second unit.
The wire entering the hole in the third unit will be the lower wire, except example 2, and by making a
counterclockwise twist after it leaves the hole, the loop will be secured in place around the head of that
bolt.
Examples 5, 6, 7, & 8 show methods for wiring various standard items, NOTE: Wire may be wrapped
over the unit rather than around it when wiring castellated nuts or on other items when there is a clear-
ance problem.
Examples 12 and 13 show methods for attaching lead seal to protect critical adjustments.
Fittings incorporating wire lugs shall be wired as shown in Exam- Small size coupling nuts
ples 17 and 18. Where no lock-wire lug is provided, wire should shall be wired by wrapping
be applied as shown in examples 19 and 20 with caution being the wire around the nut
exerted to ensure that wire is wrapped tightly around the fitting. and inserting it through
the holes as shown.
Examples 26, 27, and 28 show the proper method for wiring various standard fittings with
checknut wired independently so that it need not be disturbed when removing the coupling nut.
AND TURNBUCKLES
7-140. GENERAL. Aircraft control cables strands of seven wires each. There is no core
are generally fabricated from carbon steel or in this construction. The 3 by 7 cable has a
corrosion-resistant steel wire of either flexible length of lay of not more than eight times or
or nonflexible-type construction. less than five times the nominal cable diame
ter. The 7 by 7 cable consists of six strands, of
7-141. CABLE DEFINITIONS. The fol seven wires each, laid around a center strand
lowing cable components are defined in accor of seven wires. The wires are laid so as to de
dance with Military Specifications velop a cable which has the greatest bending
MIL-W-83420, MIL-C-18375, and and wearing properties. The 7 by 7 cable has a
MIL-W-87161. length of lay of not more than eight times or
less than six times the cable diameter. The
a. Wire Center. The center of all strands 7 by 19 cable consists of six strands laid
shall be an individual wire and shall be desig around a center strand in a clockwise direction.
nated as a wire center. The wires composing the seven individual
strands are laid around a center wire in two
b. Strand Center or Core. A strand cen layers. The center core strand consists of a lay
ter is a single, straight strand made of pre of six wires laid around the central wire in a
formed wires, similar to the other strands clockwise direction and a layer of 12 wires laid
comprising the cable, in arrangement and around this in a clockwise direction. The six
number of wires. outer strands of the cable consist of a layer of
six wires laid around the center wire in a
c. Independent Wire Rope Center counterclockwise direction and a layer of
(IWRC) 7 by 7. A 7 by 7 independent wire 12 wires laid around this in a counterclockwise
rope center as specified herein shall consist of direction. The 6 by 19 cable consists of six
a cable or wire rope of six strands of seven strands of 19 wires each, laid around a 7 by 7.
wires each, twisted or laid around a strand MIL-C-18375 cable, although not as strong as
center or core consisting of seven wires. MIL-W-83420, is equal in corrosion resistance
and superior in non-magnetic and coefficient
7-142. FLEXIBLE CABLES. Flexible, of thermal expansion properties.
preformed, carbon steel, Type I, composition A
cables, MIL-W-83420, are manufactured from 7-143. NYLON-COATED CABLES.
steel made by the acid-open-hearth, basic-open
hearth, or electric-furnace process. The wire a. Nylon-coated cable is made by ex
used is coated with pure tin or zinc. Flexible, truding a flexible nylon coating over corro
preformed, corrosion-resistant, Type I, compo sion-resistant steel (CRES) cable. The bare
sition B cables, MIL-W-87161, CRES cable must conform and be qualified to
MIL-W-83420, and MIL-C-18375 are manu MIL-W-83420. After coating, the jacketed ca
factured from steel made by the electric- ble must still conform to MIL-W-83420.
furnace process. (See table 7-3 and fig
ure 7-8.) These cables are of the 3 by 7, b. The service life of nylon-coated cable
7 by 7, 7 by 19, or 6 by 19 IWRC construction, is much greater than the service life of the
according to the diameter as specified in ta same cable when used bare. Most cable wear
ble 7-3. The 3 by 7 cable consists of three occurs at pulleys where the cable bends. Wear
is caused by friction between strands and be thereby, greatly reducing their effect on the ca
tween wires. In bare cable, this is aggravated ble.
by dirt and grit working its way into the cable;
and the lubricant working its way out leaving 7-144. NONFLEXIBLE CABLES. (Refer
dry, dirty wires rubbing against each other. In to table 7-4 and figure 7-9.) Nonflexible, pre
long, straight runs of cable, vibration work- formed, carbon steel cables, MIL-W-87161,
hardens the wires causing the brittle wires to composition A, are manufactured by the same
fracture with eventual failure of the cable. processes as MIL-W-83420, composition B,
flexible corrosion-resistant steel cables. The
c. The nylon-jacket protects the cable in nonflexible steel cables are of the 1 by 7
a threefold manner. It keeps the lubricant from (Type I) or 1 by 19 (Type II) construction ac
oozing out and evaporating, it keeps dirt and cording to the diameter as specified in ta
grit out, and it dampens the vibrations, ble 7-4. The 1 by 7 cable consists of six
wires laid around a center wire in a counter 7-146. CABLE PROOF LOADS. Cable
clockwise direction. The 1 by 19 cable con terminals and splices should be tested for
sists of a layer of six wires laid around a center proper strength before installation. Gradually
wire in a clockwise direction plus twelve wires apply a test load equal to 60 percent of the ca
laid around the inner strand in a counterclock ble-breaking strengths given in table 7-3 and
wise direction.
table 7-4, for a period of 3 minutes. Place a acceptable unless specifically approved by a
suitable guard over the cable during the test to representative of the FAA.
prevent injury to personnel in the event of ca
ble failure. 7-148. MECHANICALLY-FABRI-
CATED CABLE ASSEMBLIES.
7-147. REPLACEMENT OF CABLES.
Replace control cables when they become a. Swage-Type Terminals. Swage-type
worn, distorted, corroded, or otherwise dam terminals, manufactured in accordance with
aged. If spare cables are not available, prepare AN, are suitable for use in civil aircraft up to,
exact duplicates of the damaged cable. Use and including, maximum cable loads. When
materials of the same size and quality as the swaging tools are used, it is important that all
original. Standard swaged cable terminals de the manufacturers instructions, including go
velop the full cable strength and may be sub and no-go dimensions, be followed in detail
stituted for the original terminals wherever to avoid defective and inferior swaging. Ob
practical. However, if facilities and supplies servance of all instructions should result in a
are limited and immediate corrective action is terminal developing the full-rated strength of
necessary, repairs may be made by using cable the cable. Critical dimensions, both before and
bushings, eye splices, and the proper combina after swaging, are shown in table 7-5.
tion of turnbuckles in place of the original in
stallation. (See figure 7-12(c).) (1) Terminals. When swaging terminals
onto cable ends, observe the following proce
a. Location of Splices. Locate splices so dures.
that no portion of the splice comes closer than
2 inches to any fair-lead or pulley. Locate (a) Cut the cable to the proper length
connections at points where jamming cannot allowing for growth during swaging. Apply a
occur during any portion of the travel of either preservative compound to the cable ends be
the loaded cable or the slack cable in the de fore insertion into the terminal barrel.
flected position.
NOTE: Never solder cable ends to
b. Cutting and Heating. Cut cables to prevent fraying, since the presence of
length by mechanical means. The use of a the solder will greatly increase the ten-
torch, in any manner, is not permitted. Do not dency of the cable to pull out of the
subject wires and cables to excessive tem terminal.
perature. Soldering the bonding braid to the
control cable is not permitted. (b) Insert the cable into the terminal
approximately 1 inch, and bend toward the
c. Ball-and-Socket Type Terminals. Do terminal, then push the cable end entirely into
not use ball-and-socket type terminals or other the terminal barrel. The bending action puts a
types for general replacement that do not posi kink or bend in the cable end, and provides
tively prevent cable untwisting, except where enough friction to hold the terminal in place
they were utilized on the original installation until the swaging operation can be performed.
by the aircraft manufacturer. Bending also tends to separate the strands in
side the barrel, thereby reducing the strain on
d. Substitution of Cable. Substitution of them.
cable for hard or streamlined wires will not be
TABLE 7-5. Straight-shank terminal dimensions. (Cross reference AN to MS: AN-666 to MS 21259, AN-667 to
MS 20667, AN-668 to MS 20668, AN-669 to MS 21260.)
Before swaging After swaging
Minimum
Cable size Wire strands Outside Bore Bore Swaging breaking Shank
(inches) diameter diameter length length strength diameter
(pounds) *
1/16 7x7 0.160 0.078 1.042 0.969 480 0.138
3/32 7x7 .218 .109 1.261 1.188 920 .190
1/8 7 x 19 .250 .141 1.511 1.438 2,000 .219
5/32 7 x 19 .297 .172 1.761 1.688 2,800 .250
3/16 7 x 19 .359 .203 2.011 1.938 4,200 .313
7/32 7 x 19 .427 .234 2.261 2.188 5,600 .375
1/4 7 x 19 .494 .265 2.511 2.438 7,000 .438
9/32 7 x 19 .563 .297 2.761 2.688 8,000 .500
5/16 7 x 19 .635 .328 3.011 2.938 9,800 .563
3/8 7 x 19 .703 .390 3.510 3.438 14,400 .625
*Use gauges in kit for checking diameters.
NOTE: If the terminal is drilled com- cable slippage in the terminal and for cut or
pletely through, push the cable into the broken wire strands.
terminal until it reaches the approxi-
mate position shown in figure 7-10. If (e) Using a go no-go gauge or a
the hole is not drilled through, insert micrometer, check the terminal shank diameter
the cable until the end rests against the as shown in figure 7-11 and table 7-5.
bottom of the hole.
(c) Accomplish the swaging opera FIGURE 7-11. Gauging terminal shank after swaging.
tion in accordance with the instructions fur
nished by the manufacturer of the swaging (f) Test the cable by proof-loading it
equipment. to 60 percent of its rated breaking strength.
(d) Inspect the terminal after swaging (2) Splicing. Completely severed ca
to determine that it is free from the die marks bles, or those badly damaged in a localized
and splits, and is not out-of-round. Check for area, may be repaired by the use of an eye
7-149. CABLE SYSTEM INSPECTION. must be made since a broken wire will not al
Aircraft cable systems are subject to a variety ways protrude or stick out, but may lie in the
of environmental conditions and deterioration. strand and remain in the position of the helix
Wire or strand breakage is easy to visually rec as it was manufactured. Broken wires of this
ognize. Other kinds of deterioration such as type may show up as a hairline crack in the
wear, corrosion, and/or distortion are not easily wire. If a broken wire of this type is sus
seen; therefore, control cables should be re pected, further inspection with a magnifying
moved periodically for a more detailed inspec glass of 7 power or greater, is recommended.
tion. Figure 7-16 shows a cable with broken wires
that was not detected by wiping, but was found
a. At each annual or 100 hour inspec- during a visual inspection. The damage be
tion, all control cables must be inspected for came readily apparent when the cable was re
broken wires strands. Any cable assembly that moved and bent as shown in figure 7-16.
has one broken wire strand located in a critical
fatigue area must be replaced.
f. Nylon-jacketed cable with any cracks h. As wear is taking place on the exterior
or necking down in the diameter of the jacket surface of a cable, the same condition is taking
shall be replaced. Usable cable life is over place internally, particularly in the sections of
when these conditions begin to appear in the the cable which pass over pulleys and quad
nylon jacket. rants. This condition (shown in figure 7-19) is
not easily detected unless the strands of the ca
g. External wear patterns will extend ble are separated. This type of wear is a result
along the cable equal to the distance the cable of the relative motion between inner wire sur
moves at that location and may occur on one faces. Under certain conditions, the rate of this
side of the cable or on its entire circumference. type of wear can be greater than that occurring
Replace flexible and nonflexible cables when on the surface.
the individual wires in each strand appear to
blend together (outer wires worn 40 to 50 per
cent) as depicted in figure 7-17. Actual in
stances of cable wear beyond the recom
mended replacement point are shown in fig
ure 7-18.
FIGURE 7-19. Internal end view of cable wear. l. Inspect pulleys for roughness, sharp
edges, and presence of foreign material em
wool or solvents to clean installed cables. Use bedded in the grooves. Examine pulley bear
of metallic wool will embed dissimilar metal ings to ensure proper lubrication, smooth rota
particles in the cables and create further corro tion; and freedom from flat spots, dirt, and
sion problems. Solvents will remove internal paint spray. During the inspection, rotate the
cable lubricant allowing cable strands to pulleys, which only turn through a small arc, to
abrade and further corrode. After thorough provide a new bearing surface for the cable.
cleaning, sparingly apply specification Maintain pulley alignment to prevent the cable
MIL-C-16173, grade 4, corrosion-preventive from riding on the flanges and chafing against
compound to cable. Do not apply the material guards, covers, or adjacent structure. Check
so thick that it will interfere with the operation all pulley brackets and guards for damage,
of cables at fair-leads, pulleys, or grooved alignment, and security.
bellcrank areas.
m. Various cable system malfunctions
j. Examine cable runs for incorrect rout may be detected by analyzing pulley condi
ing, fraying, twisting, or wear at fair-leads, tions. These include such discrepancies as too
pulleys, antiabrasion strips, and guards. Look much tension, misalignment, pulley bearing
for interference with adjacent structure, problems, and size mismatches between cables
equipment, wiring, plumbing, and other con and pulleys. Examples of these condition are
trols. Inspect cable systems for binding, full shown in figure 7-20.
travel, and security of attaching hardware.
Check for slack in the cable system by at
tempting to move the control column and/or
pedals while the gust locks are installed on the
control surfaces. With the gust locks removed,
n. Inspect fair-leads for wear, breakage, wipe off any excess. It should be noted that
alignment, cleanliness, and security. Examine corrosion-resistant steel cable does not require
cable routing at fair-leads to ensure that defec this treatment for rust prevention.
tion angles are no greater than 3maximum.
Determine that all guides and anti-abrasion b. Lubrication and corrosion preventive
strips are secure and in good condition. treatment of carbon steel cables may be ef
fected simultaneously by application of com
o. Examine pressure seals for wear and/or pound MIL-C-16173, grade 4, or
material deterioration. Seal guards should be MIL-C-11796, Class I. MIL-C-16173 com
positioned to prevent jamming of a pulley in pound should be brushed, sprayed, or wiped on
case pressure seal fails and pieces slide along the cable to the extent it penetrates into the
the cable. strands and adequately covers the cable sur
faces. It will dry tack free in 24 hours at
7-150. CORROSION AND RUST PRE- 77 F. MIL-C-11796 compound is applied by
VENTION. To ensure a satisfactory service dipping the cable for 1/2 minute into a tank of
life for aircraft control cables, use a cable lu compound heated to 77 5 C (170 9 F)
bricant to reduce internal friction and prevent for 1/2 minute then removing it and wiping off
corrosion. the excess oil. (An example of cable corro
sion, attributable to battery acid, is shown in
a. If the cable is made from tinned steel, figure 7-21.)
coat the cable with rust-preventive oil, and
7-164. [RESERVED.]
7-154.
SECTION 9. TURNBUCKLES
7-178. [RESERVED.]
7-168.
7-179. GENERAL. Safety all turnbuckles d. Wrap the remaining length of safety
with safety wire using either the double or sin- wire at least four turns around the shank and
gle-wrap method, or with any appropriately cut it off. Repeat the procedure at the opposite
approved special safetying device complying end of the turnbuckle.
with the requirements of FAA Technical Stan-
dard Order TSO-C21. The swaged and un- e. When a swaged terminal is being
swaged turnbuckle assemblies are covered by safetied, pass the ends of both wires through
AN standard drawings. Do not reuse safety the hole provided in the terminal for this pur-
wire. Adjust the turnbuckle to the correct ca- pose and wrap both ends around the shank as
ble tension so that no more than three cable previously described. If the hole is not large
threads are exposed on either side of the turn- enough to allow passage of both wires, pass
buckle barrel. the wire through the hole and loop it over the
free end of the other wire, and then wrap both
7-180. DOUBLE-WRAP METHOD. Of ends around the shank as previously described.
the methods using safety wire for safetying Another satisfactory double-wrap method is
turnbuckles, the method described here is pre- similar to the previous method, except that the
ferred, although either of the other methods spiraling of the wires is omitted as shown in
described is satisfactory. The method of dou- figure 7-26(B).
ble-wrap safetying is shown in figure 7-26(A).
7-181. SINGLE-WRAP METHOD. The
a. Use two separate lengths of wire. Run single-wrap methods described in the follow-
one end of the wire through the hole in the bar- ing paragraphs and as illustrated in figure 7-
rel of the turnbuckle and bend the ends of the 26(C) and (D) are acceptable, but are not the
wire toward opposite ends of the turnbuckle. equal of the double-wrap methods.
b. Pass the second length of the wire into a. Pass a single length of wire through
the hole in the barrel and bend the ends along the cable eye or fork, or through the hole in the
the barrel on the side opposite the first. Spiral swaged terminal at either end of the turnbuckle
the two wires in opposite directions around the assembly. Spiral each of the wire ends in op-
barrel to cross each other twice between the posite directions around the first half of the
center hole and the ends. turnbuckle barrel, so as to cross each other
twice. Thread both wire ends through the hole
c. Then pass the wires at the end of the in the middle of the barrel so that the third
turnbuckle in opposite directions through the crossing of wire ends is in the hole, again, spi-
hole in the turnbuckle eyes or between the ral the two wire ends in opposite directions
jaws of the turnbuckle fork, as applicable, around the remaining half of the turnbuckle,
laying one wire along the barrel and wrapping crossing them twice. Then, pass one wire end
the other at least four times around the shank through the cable eye or fork, or through the
of the turnbuckle and binding the laid wires in hole in the swaged terminals, in the manner
place before cutting the wrapped wire off. previously described. Wrap both wire ends
around the shank for at least four turns each,
cutting off excess wire. This method is shown
in figure 7-26(C).
b. For the method shown in figure should be screwed into the turnbuckle barrel
7-26D, pass one length of wire through the until no more than three threads of either ter-
center hole of the turnbuckle and bend the wire minal are outside the barrel. After the turn-
ends toward opposite ends of the turnbuckle. buckle has been adjusted for proper cable ten-
Then pass each wire end through the cable eye sion, two pieces of safety wire are inserted,
or fork, or through the hole in the swaged ter- half the wire length into the hole in the center
minal, and wrap each wire around the shank of the turnbuckle barrel. The safety-wires are
for at least four turns, cutting off excess wire. bent so that each wire extends half the length
After safetying, no more than three threads of of the turnbuckle on top and half on bottom.
the turnbuckle threaded terminal should be ex- The ends of the wires are passed through the
posed. hole in the turnbuckle eyes or between the
jaws of the turnbuckle fork, as applicable. The
7-182. SAFETY-WIRE SECURED wires are then bent toward the center of the
TURNBUCKLES. (See figure 7-27.) Before turnbuckle and each wire is wrapped around
securing turnbuckles, threaded terminals
the shank four times, binding the wrapping 7-183. SPECIAL LOCKING DEVICES.
wires in place as shown in figure 7-27. Several turnbuckle locking devices are avail-
able for securing turnbuckle barrels such as
a. When a swaged terminal is being se- wire-locking clips. Persons intending to use a
cured, one wire is passed through the hole in special device must ensure the turnbuckle as-
the terminal and is looped over the free end of sembly has been designed to accommodate
the other wire and both ends wrapped around such devices. A typical unit is shown in fig-
the shank. All lock wire used in the safetying ure 7-28. When special locking devices are
of turnbuckles should be carbon steel, corro- not readily available, the use of safety wire is
sion-resistant steel, nickel-chromium iron alloy acceptable.
(inconel), nickel-copper alloy (monel) or alu-
minum alloy. For safety cable diameter of 7-184. ASSEMBLING AND SECURING
safety wire size and material, refer to table 7-8. CLIP-LOCKING TURNBUCKLES. (See
table 7-9 and figure 7-29.) Wire clip-locking
b. Care should be exercised when safety turnbuckles are assembled and secured in the
wiring, particularly where corrosion will pres- following ways.
ent a problem, because smaller wire sizes tend
to crack when twisted. a. Engage threads of turnbuckle barrel
with threads of cable terminal and turn barrel
TABLE 7-8. Turnbuckle safetying guide. until proper cable tension is reached.
Cable Type of Diameter of Material (An-
Size Wrap Safety Wire nealed b. Align slot in barrel with slot in cable
Condition) terminal.
1/16 Single 0.040 Copper, brass.1
3/32 Single 0.040 Copper, brass.1 c. Hold lock clip between thumb and
1/8 Single 0.040 Stainless steel, forefinger at loop end and insert straight end of
Monel and clip into opening formed by aligned slots.
K Monel.
1/8 Double 0.040 Copper, brass.1 d. Bring hook end of lock clip over hole
1/8 Single 0.057 min. Copper, brass. 1 in center of turnbuckle barrel and seat hook
5/32 Double 0.040 Stainless steel,
loop into hole.
and Monel and
greater. K Monel.1 e. Apply pressure to hook shoulder to en-
5/32 Single 0.057 min. Stainless steel, gage hook lip in turnbuckle barrel and to com-
and Monel or
greater K Monel.1
plete safety locking of one end of turnbuckle.
5/32 Double 0.0512 Copper, brass.
and NOTE: Repeat the above steps to
greater safety lock the opposite end of turn-
buckle. Both lock clips may be in-
1
Galvanized or tinned steel, or soft iron wires are also accept- serted in the same turnbuckle barrel
able.
hole or they may be inserted in oppo-
site holes. However, do not reverse
wire locking clips
7-195. [RESERVED.]
7-185.
NAS 1200 Rivet, solid, 100 flush AN426 Rivet, solid, csk. 100
shear head MS20426 head al. alloy
NAS 1241 Rivet, solid, 100 flush AN470 Rivet, solid, universal
head MS20470 head, al. & al. alloy
MS24667 & 24671 Screw, cap socket hd., MS35494-35495 Screw. wood, flat &
flat, csk. round hd., slotted
NAS1096 Screw, hex. head, re- NAS1189 Screw, flat 100 hd.,
cess, full thr. full thread, self-locking
MS9157-9163 Bolt, steel, 12pt. hd. MS9554-9562 Bolt, mach., dbl. hex.
black oxide 125,000 psi ext. wash. hd., PD
min. T.S. shank, AMS 5731
MS9169-9175 Bolt, steel, 12 pt. drilled MS9563-9571 Bolt, mach., dbl. hex.
hd., black oxide ext. wash. hd. drilled,
125,000 psi min. T.S. AMS 5731
MS9224 Bolt, 12 pt. head, heat MS9572-9580 Bolt, mach., dbl. hex.
resistant ext. wash. hd., drilled,
PD shank AMS 5731
silver plated
MS9487-9497 Bolt, mach. hex. hd. full MS9676-9679 Bolt, mach., dbl. hex.
shank, AMS 5731 ext. wash. hd., cup
washer locked, cres.
AMS 5731
MS9685-9693 Bolt, mach., hex. hd. 1 MS9814-9824 Bolt, mach., hex. Hd.
hole, PD shank, steel 1 hole, PD shank,
AMS 6304 diffused AMS 5643
nickel cad.
MS9694-9702 Bolt mach. dbl. hex. MS9883-9891 Bolt, mach., dbl. Hex.
ext. wash. hd. AMS Ext. wash. Hd.,
5708 AMS 5616
MS9703-9711 Bolt, mach., dbl. hex. MS9892-9900 Bolt mach., dbl. Hex.
ext. wash. hd., drilled, Ext. wash. Hd.,
AMS 5708 AMS 5616 drilled
MS9712-9720 Bolt, mach. dbl. hex. MS9912-9920 Bolt, mach., dbl. Hex.
ext. wash. hd. drilled, Ext. wash. Hd.,
AMS 5708 silver plate PD shank, steel
AMS 6322 cad.
MS9730-9738 Bolt, mach., dbl. hex. MS9921-9929 Bolt, mach., dbl. Hex.
ext. wash. hd. Ext. wash hd. PD
PD shank, shank, steel AMS 6322
cres. AMS 5643 cad. Drilled
MS9739-9747 Bolt, mach. dbl. hex. MS9930-9938 Bolt, mach., dbl. Hex.
est. wash, hd. drilled, Ext. wash. Hd.,
PD shank, full shank,
cres. AMS 5643 steel AMS 6322 cad.
MS9748-9756 Bolt, mach. dbl. hex. MS9939-9946 Bolt, mach., dbl. Hex.
ext. wash. hd. PD Ext. wash. Hd., drilled,
shank, titanium full shank, steel
AMS 4967 AMS 6322 cad.
NAS1271-1280 Bolt, 12 point hd., ex- NAS1588 Bolt, tension, flush hd.,
ternal wrenching 1200 F
NAS1503-1510 Bolt, 100 flush head, NAS2306-2310 Bolt, lock, stump type,
hi-torq. 100 head, ti. Alloy
NAS1033 Nut, plate, right angle, NAS1423 Nut, plain, thin hex.,
floating, self-locking drilled jamnut
AN961 Washer,
flat electrical
(Brass, silver or MS9581 Washer, key, cres.
tin-plated) AMS 5510 90 locking
AN970 Washer,
flat, wood
MS9582 Washer, key,
cres. AMS 5510
270 locking
AN975 Washer, flat
MS9684 Washer, cup, lock
cres. AMS 5510
NAS1061 Washer,
hi-temp, TABLE 7-15. TABLE OF PINS.
lock, spring Pin Number Description
AN253 Pin, hinge
NAS1099 Washer,
bevel 9 1/2
AN385 Pin,
plain taper
NAS1197 Washer, flat,
5052 aluminum
7-206. [RESERVED.]
7-196.
SECTION 1. ENGINES
8-1. GENERAL. Consult the manufac- pencil mark has not turned to a grayish-white
turers manuals, service bulletins, and instruc- or ash color. This is the cold cylinder.
tion books regarding the repair and overhaul,
inspection, installation, and maintenance of (2) The probable cause of the cold cyl-
aircraft engines, for that particular make, inder is either a defective spark plug or igni-
model, and type of engine. This section lists tion lead. Switch spark plugs to another cylin-
acceptable inspection and repair procedures der and run the test again. If the problem stays
that may be used in the absence of an engine with the original cylinder, the problem is either
manufacturers maintenance information. the ignition lead or the magneto.
(1) Using experienced personnel, run (2) If the engine manufacturer does not
the engine on the bad magneto for approxi- provide the required information, then the en-
mately 30 seconds at 1200 rpm. Without gine case must be opened and every major
switching the magneto switch back to both component part must be inspected using visual
shut off the engine. Have another mechanic and/or nondestructive inspection (NDI) proce-
use a grease pencil (non-carbon), and quickly dures as applicable.
mark each exhaust stack approximately 1 inch
from the flange that holds the exhaust stack to (3) The sudden-stoppage inspections
the cylinder. Next, check the exhaust stacks include: checking for cowling, spinner, and
and look for the exhaust stack whose grease airframe cracks and hidden damage; and
alignment of the engine mount to the airframe,
the mounting hardware, isolation mounts, and particular attention to the propeller thrust-
bushings. The aircrafts firewall must also be bearing area of the nose case section.
checked for distortion, cracks, and elongated
bolt holes. The damaged propeller must be (8) Inspect cylinders and cylinder hold-
sent to an FAA-certificated repair station for down area for cracks and oil leaks. Thor-
complete NDI and repair. oughly investigate any indication of cracks, oil
leaks, or other damage.
(4) Engine accessories such as: magne-
tos, starters, fuel pumps, turbochargers, alter- d. Internal Inspection Requirements.
nators, or generators must be inspected in ac-
cordance with the manufacturers maintenance (1) On engines equipped with crank-
manual on sudden stoppage or overhaul proce- shaft vibration dampers, remove and inspect
dures to determine the products airworthiness. the cylinders, and inspect the crankshaft damp-
ers in accordance with the engine manufac-
c. Reciprocating Engine (Direct Drive). turers inspection and overhaul manual. When
Preliminary inspection before tear down. engine design permits, remove the damper
pins, and examine the pins and damper liners
(1) Remove the engine cowling and ex- for signs of nicks or brinelling.
amine the engine for visible external damage
and audible internal damage. (2) After removing the engine-driven
accessories, remove the accessory drive case
(2) Rotate the propeller shaft to deter- and examine the accessory and supercharger
mine any evidence of abnormal grinding or drive gear train, couplings, and drive case for
rubbing sounds. evidence of damage.
(3) With the propeller removed, inspect (a) Check for cracks in the case in
the crankshaft flange or splines for signs of the area of accessory mount pads and gear
twisting, cracks, or other deformation. Re- shaft bosses.
move the thrust-bearing nut and seal and thor-
oughly inspect the threaded area of the shaft (b) Check the gear train for signs of
for evidence of cracks. cracked, broken, or brinelled teeth.
(4) Rotate the shaft slowly in 90-degree (c) Check the accessory drive shaft
increments while using a dial indicator or an couplings for twisted splines, misalignment,
equivalent instrument to check the concentric- and run-out.
ity of the shaft.
(d) Check connecting rods for cracks
(5) Remove the oil sump drain plug and and straightness.
check for metal chips and foreign material.
e. Reciprocating Engine (Gear-Drive).
(6) Remove the oil screens and inspect Inspect the engine, propeller, (refer to section 4
for metal particles and contamination. on propeller inspection), and components as
described in the preceding paragraphs.
(7) Visually inspect engine case exterior
for signs of oil leaks and cracks. Give (1) Remove the propeller reduction gear
housing and inspect for:
(2) Disassemble the gear train and in- 8-3. CRANKSHAFT INSPECTION AND
spect the propeller shaft, reduction gears and REPAIR REQUIREMENTS. Carefully in-
accessory drive gears for nicks, cracks, or spect for misalignment and replace if bent be-
spalling. yond the manufacturers permissible service
limit. Worn journals may be repaired by re-
f. Engine-Mount Inspection. grinding in accordance with manufacturers in-
structions. It is recommended that grinding
(1) Examine the engine flex mounts operations be performed by appropriately-rated
when applicable, for looseness of engine to repair stations or the original engine manufac-
mount, distortion, or signs of wear. turer. Common errors that occur in crankshaft
grinding are the removal of nitrided journal
(2) Inspect the engine-mount structure surface, improper journal radii, unsatisfactory
for bent, cracked, or buckled tubes. surfaces, and grinding tool marks on the jour-
nals. If the fillets are altered, do not reduce
(3) Check the adjacent airframe struc- their radii. Polish the reworked surfaces to as-
ture firewall for cracks, distortion, or wrinkles. sure removal of all tool marks. Most opposed
engines have nitrided crankshafts, and engine
(4) Remove engine-mount bolts and manufacturers specify that these crankshafts
mount hold-down bolts and replace. must be re-nitrided after grinding.
(1) Inspect all air ducts and connections 8-4. REPLACEMENT PARTS IN CER-
for air leaks, warpage, or cracks. TIFICATED ENGINES. Engine replacement
parts must be approved under Title 14 of the
(2) Remove compressor housing and Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR),
check the turbine wheel for rubbing or binding, part 21. Serviceable parts obtained from the
and coke or varnish buildup. engine manufacturer, authorized service facil-
ity, and those which are approved Federal
NOTE: Turbine turbo supercharger Aviation Administration (FAA)/Parts Manu-
disk seal rubbing is not unusual and facture Approval (PMA), or Technical Stan-
may be a normal condition. Consult dard Order (TSO), and meet the requirements
the engine manufacturers inspection of part 21 are acceptable for use as replace-
procedures and table of limits. ment parts. Used engine parts can be installed
if that part either conforms to new part toler- 8-7. CYLINDER HOLD-DOWN NUTS
ances or meets the manufacturers service lim- AND CAP SCREWS. Great care is required
its. Ensure that used parts are airworthy and in tightening cylinder hold-down nuts and cap
properly identified as a PMA or TSO part. screws. They must be tightened to recom-
mended torque limits to prevent improper
8-5. OIL SYSTEM LINES INSPECTION. stressing and to ensure even loading on the
The inspection of the plumbing for an oil sys- cylinder flange. The installation of baffles,
tem is similar to the inspection of any other brackets, clips, and other extraneous parts un-
plumbing system. The tubing, hose, tube fit- der nuts and cap screws is not a good practice
tings, hose fittings, hose clamps, and all other and is discouraged. If these baffles, brackets,
components of the system are inspected for etc., are not properly fabricated or made of
cracks, holes, dents, bulges, and other signs of suitable material, they may cause loosening of
damage that might restrict the oil flow or cause the nuts or cap screws even though the nuts or
a leak. All lines are inspected to ensure that cap screws were properly tightened and locked
they are properly supported and are not rub- at installation. Improper pre-stressing or loos-
bing against a structure. Fittings should be ening of any one of these nuts or cap screws
checked for signs of improper installation, will introduce the danger of progressive stud
over-torquing, excessive tension, or other con- failure with the possible loss of the engine
ditions which may lead to failure. cylinder in flight.
8-6. OIL FILTER INSPECTION. The oil 8-8. REUSE OF SAFETYING DEVICES.
filter provides an excellent method for discov- Do not use cotter pins and safety wire a second
ering internal engine damage. During the in- time. Flat, steel-type wrist pin retainers and
spection of the engine oil filter, the residue on lock washers, likewise, must be replaced at
the screens, disks, or disposable filter cartridge overhaul unless the manufacturers recom-
and the residue in the filter housing are care- mendations permit their reuse.
fully examined for metal particles. A new en-
gine or a newly-overhauled engine will often 8-9. SELF-LOCKING NUTS FOR AIR-
have a small amount of fine metal particles in CRAFT ENGINES AND ACCESSORIES.
the screen or filter, but this is not considered Self-locking nuts may be used on aircraft en-
abnormal. After the engine has been operated gines provided the following criteria are met:
for a time and the oil has been changed one or
more times, there should not be an appreciable a. When their use is specified by the en-
amount of metal particles in the oil screen. If gine manufacturer in the assembly drawing,
an unusual residue of metal particles is found parts list, and bills of material.
in the oil screen, the engine must be taken out
of service and disassembled to determine the b. When the nuts will not fall inside the
source of the particles. As an additional pre- engine should they loosen and come off.
caution, an oil analysis/trend analysis may pre-
vent an engine failure in flight. c. When there is at least one full thread
At oil changes, oil samples are often taken and protruding beyond the nut.
sent to laboratories to be analyzed for wear by
determining the amount of metal in the sam- d. Where the temperature will not ex-
ple. Over time, a trend is developed and the ceed the maximum limits established for the
engine can be removed from service before self-locking material used in the nut. On many
failure.
engines the cylinder baffles, rocker box covers, factory; however, engineering evaluation of the
drive covers and pads, and accessory and su- details for the processes used should be ob-
percharger housings are fastened with fiber in- tained.
sert lock nuts which are limited to a maximum
temperature of 250 F. Above this tempera- a. Dense chromium plating of the crank-
ture, the fiber insert will usually char and, con- pin and main journals of some small engine
sequently, lose its locking characteristic. For crankshafts has been found satisfactory, except
locations such as the exhaust pipe attachment where the crankshaft is already marginal in
to the cylinder, a locknut which has good strength. Plating to restore worn, low-stress
locking features at elevated temperatures will engine parts, such as accessory drive shafts
give invaluable service. In a few instances, fi- and splines, propeller shaft ends, and seating
ber insert lock nuts have been approved for use surfaces of roller and ball-type bearing races is
on cylinder hold-down studs. This practice is acceptable but requires compliance with
not generally recommended, since especially FAA-approved data.
tight stud fits to the crankcase must be pro-
vided, and extremely good cooling must pre- b. Porous chromium-plated walls of
vail so that low temperatures exist where the cylinder barrels have been found to be satis-
nut is installed. factory for practically all types of engines.
Dense or smooth chromium plating, without
e. Information concerning approved roughened surfaces on the other hand, has not
self-locking nuts and their use on specific en- been found to be satisfactory.
gines are usually found in engine manufac-
turers manuals or bulletins. If the desired in- (1) Cylinder barrel pre-grinding and
formation is not available, it is suggested that chromium plating techniques used by the
the engine manufacturer be contacted. military are considered acceptable for all en-
gines, and military-approved facilities engaged
f. Refer to Chapter 7, Aircraft Hardware, in doing this work in accordance with military
Control Cables, and Turnbuckles, for addi- specifications are eligible for approval by the
tional information on self-locking nuts. FAA.
TABLE 8-1. Current engine and maximum permissible might possibly promote corrosive action. (Re-
cylinder barrel oversize. fer to Chapter 6, Corrosion, Inspection, and
Max. Protection.)
Engine manufacturer Engine series oversize
(in.)
8-13. ENGINE RUN-IN. After an aircraft
Air Cooled Motors No oversize for
(Franklin) sleeved cylinders. engine has been overhauled, it is recom-
Solid cylinders........... 0.017 mended that the pertinent aircraft engine
Continental Motors R-670, W-670, 0.010 to
R9A.... 0.020 manufacturers run-in instructions be followed.
0.005 Observe the manufacturers recommendations
GTSIO-520, 550........ 0.015
All others.................... concerning engine temperatures and other cri-
Jacobs All.............................. 0.015 teria. Repair processes employed during over-
Kinner All.............................. 0.015
Pigman, LeBlond, All.............................. 0.025 haul often necessitate amending the manufac-
Rearwin, Ken
Royce
turers run-in procedures. Follow the ap-
Lycoming All.............................. 0.010 to proved amended run-in procedures in such in-
0.020
Menasco All.............................. 0.010
stances.
Pratt & Whitney R-2800B, C, CA, CB.. 0.025
*R-959 and R-1830.... 0.030
All others.................... 0.020 NOTE: Do not run up engines on the
Ranger 6-410 early cyls. 0.010 ground for long periods of time with
6-390
6-410 late cyls. 6-440 0.120 the cowling off. The engine will over-
(L-440) series.. heat because cylinder cooling has been
Warner All.............................. 0.015
Wright All.............................. 0.020 disrupted.
*(The above oversize limits correspond to the
manufacturers requirements, except for P&W R-985
and R-1830 series engines.) 8-14. COMPRESSION TESTING OF
AIRCRAFT ENGINE CYLINDERS. A test
NOTE: ( Check for latest manufacturer specifications.)
to determine the internal condition of the com-
bustion chamber cylinder assembly by ascer-
(4) Cylinder barrels which have been
taining if any appreciable internal leakage is
plated by an agency whose process is approved
occurring is compression testing of aircraft en-
by the FAA and which have not been worked
gine cylinders. If a cylinder has less than a
beyond maximum permissible limits, will be
60/80 reading on the differential test gauges on
considered acceptable for installation on certi-
a hot engine, and procedures in para-
ficated engines. It will be the responsibility of
graphs 8-15b(5)(i) and (j) fail to raise the com-
the owner or the repairing agency to provide
pression reading, the cylinder must be removed
this proof. In some cases, it may be necessary
and inspected. To determine the cylinders
to remove cylinders to determine the amount
problem area, have someone hold the propeller
of oversize since this information may be
at the weak cylinders top dead center and with
etched on the mating surface of the cylinder
compressed air still being applied, listen. If air
base flange.
is heard coming out of the exhaust pipe, the
cylinders exhaust-valve is not seating prop-
8-12. CORROSION. Accomplish corrosion
erly. If air is heard leaking out of the air
preventive measures for temporary and long-
cleaner/carburetor heat box, the intake valve is
term storage in accordance with the instruc-
leaking. With the oil dipstick removed, and air
tions issued by the pertinent engine manufac-
is rushing out, the piston rings are defective.
turer. Avoid the use of solutions which con-
Remove and repair/overhaul the defective
tain strong caustic compounds and all solu-
cylinder.
tions, polishes, cleaners, abrasives, etc., which
(a) Perform the compression test as (h) Open the air valve completely.
soon as possible after the engine is shut down Check the regulated pressure and readjust, if
to ensure that the piston rings, cylinder walls, necessary, to read 80 psi.
and other engine parts are well-lubricated.
(i) Observe the pressure indication of
(b) Remove the most accessible the cylinder pressure gauge. The difference
spark plug from each cylinder. between this pressure and the pressure shown
by the regulator pressure gauge is the amount
(c) With the air valve closed, apply of leakage through the cylinder. A loss in ex-
an external source of clean air (approximately cess of 25 percent of the input air pressure is
100 to 120 psi) to the tester. cause to suspect the cylinder of being defec-
tive; however, recheck the readings after oper-
(d) Install an adapter in the spark ating the engine for at least 3 minutes to allow
plug bushing and connect the compression for sealing of the rings with oil.
tester to the cylinder.
(j) If leakage is still occurring after a
(e) Adjust the pressure regulator to recheck, it may be possible to correct a low
obtain a reading of 20 psi on the regulator reading. This is accomplished by placing a fi-
pressure gauge. At this time, the cylinder ber drift on the rocker arm directly over the
pressure gauge should also register 20 psi. valve stem and tapping the drift several times
with a hammer to dislodge any foreign mate-
(f) Turn the crankshaft, by hand, in rial between the valve face and seat.
the direction of rotation until the piston (in the
cylinder being checked) is coming up on its NOTE: When correcting a low read-
compression stroke. Slowly open the air valve ing in this manner, rotate the propel-
and pressurize the cylinder to 80 psi. ler so the piston will not be at TDC.
This is necessary to prevent the valve
CAUTION: Care must be exercised from striking the top of the piston in
in opening the air valve since suffi- some engines. Rotate the engine be-
cient air pressure will have built up in fore rechecking compression to reseat
the cylinder to cause it to rapidly ro- the valves in the normal manner.
tate the propeller if the piston is not at
top dead center (TDC). 8-15. SPARK PLUGS. The spark plug pro-
vides the high-voltage electrical spark to ignite
(g) Continue rotating the engine the fuel/air mixture in the cylinder. The types
against this pressure until the piston reaches of spark plugs used in different engines will
TDC. Reaching TDC is indicated by a flat vary with regard to heat range, reach, thread
spot or sudden decrease in force required to size, and other characteristics required by the
turn the crankshaft. If the crankshaft is rotated particular installation.
too far, back up at least one-half revolution
and start over again to eliminate the effect of a. Heat Range. The heat range of a spark
backlash in the valve operating mechanism and plug is the principal factor governing aircraft
to keep piston rings seated on the lower ring performance under various service conditions.
lands. The term heat range refers to the
classification of spark plugs according to their operate as hot as possible at low speeds and
ability to transfer heat from the firing end of light loads and as cool as possible under
the spark plug to the cylinder head. cruising and takeoff power. Plug performance,
therefore, depends on the operating tempera-
(1) Spark plugs have been classified as ture of the insulator nose, with the most desir-
hot, normal, and cold. However, these able temperature range falling between
terms may be misleading because the heat 1,000 F and 1,250 F (538 C and 677 C).
range varies through many degrees of tem-
perature from extremely hot to extremely cold. (4) Fundamentally, an engine which
Thus the words hot, cold, and normal do runs hot requires a relatively cold spark plug,
not necessarily tell the whole story. whereas an engine which runs cool requires a
relatively hot spark plug. If a hot spark plug is
(2) Since the insulator is designed to be installed in an engine which runs hot, the spark
the hottest part of the spark plug, its tempera- plug tip will be overheated and cause pre-
ture can be related to the pre-ignition and ignition. If a cold spark plug is installed in an
fouling regions as shown in figure 8-2. Pre- engine which runs cool, the tip of the spark
ignition is likely to occur if surface areas in the plug will collect unburned carbon, causing
combustion chamber exceed critical limits or if fouling of the plug. The principal factors gov-
the spark plug core nose temperature exceeds erning the heat range of aircraft spark plugs
1,630 F (888 C). However, fouling or short- are:
circuiting of the plug due to carbon deposits is
likely to occur if the insulator tip temperature (a) the distance between the copper
drops below approximately 800 F (427 C). sleeve around the insulator and the insulator
Since spark plugs must operate between fairly tip;
well-defined temperature limits, they must be
supplied in various heat ranges to meet the re- (b) the thermal conductivity of the
quirements of different engines under a variety insulating material;
of operating conditions.
(c) the thermal conductivity of the
electrode;
core nose.
checklist for isolating some of the malfunc- function quickly. However, conduct any inter-
tions inherent to ignition harnesses. nal inspection or repair of a magneto in accor-
dance with the manufacturers maintenance
a. Carefully inspect the lead conduit or and overhaul manuals.
shielding. A few broken strands will not affect
serviceability, but if the insulation in general a. Inspect the distributor block contact
looks worn, replace the lead. springs. If broken or corroded, replace.
b. When replacing a lead, if the dressing b. Inspect the felt oil washer, if applica-
procedure is not accomplished properly, ble. It should be saturated with oil. If it is dry,
strands of shielding may be forced through the check for a worn bushing.
conductor insulation. If this occurs, a short
will exist in the conductor; therefore, it is es- c. Inspect the distributor block for
sential this task be performed properly. cracks or a burned area. The wax coating on
the block should not be removed. Do not use
c. The high-temperature coating used any solvents for cleaning.
on some lightweight harnesses is provided for
vibration abrasion resistance and moisture
protection. Slight flaking or peeling of this
coating is not serious, and a harness assembly
need not be removed from service because of
this condition.
FIGURE 8-9. Normal contact point. j. Check the breaker cam to assure
cleanness and smoothness. Check the cam
screw for tightness. If new points have been
installed, blot a little oil on the cam. In addi-
tion, check contact point assembly to ascertain
that the cam follower is securely fastened.
FIGURE 8-10. Point with minor irregularities. l. Further examination of the impulse
coupling body may disclose cracks caused by
h. Generally, no attempt should be exceedingly-tight flyweight axle rivets.
made to dress or stone contact point assem-
blies; however, if provided, procedures and m. Check the magneto ventilators for
limits contained in the manufacturers manuals proper functioning and obstructions. If drilled
may be followed. plugs are used, they should be in the lowest
vent hole of the magneto to serve as a drain for
condensation and oil.
8-29. [RESERVED.]
8-21.
8-30. GENERAL. Maintain, service, and d. Bonding. Bond metallic fuel lines at
adjust aircraft fuel systems and fuel system each point where they are clamped to the
components in accordance with the applicable structure. Integrally bonded and cushioned
manufacturers maintenance instructions. line support clamps are preferred to other
Certain general fuel system maintenance prin- clamping and bonding methods.
ciples are outlined in the following para-
graphs.. e. Support of Line Units. To prevent
possible failure, all fittings heavy enough to
8-31. FUEL LINES AND FITTINGS. cause the line to sag should be supported by
When fuel system lines are to be replaced or means other than the tubing.
repaired, consider the following fundamentals
in addition to the applicable airworthiness re- f. Support clamps.
quirements. Additional inspection and repair
practices for aircraft tubing systems may be (1) Place support clamps or brackets for
found in the Chapter 9, Aircraft Systems and metallic lines as follows.
Components.
Approximate
Tube O.D. distance between
a. Compatibility of Fittings. All fittings supports
are to be compatible with their mating parts. 1/8-3/16--------------------------------- 9
Although various types of fittings appear to be 1/4-5/16--------------------------------- 12
interchangeable in many cases they have dif- 3/8-1/2----------------------------------- 16
5/8-3/4----------------------------------- 22
ferent thread pitch or minor design differences 1-1 1/4----------------------------------- 30
which prevent proper mating and may cause 1 1/2-2----------------------------------- 40
the joint to leak or fail.
(2) Locate clamps or brackets as close
b. Routing. Make sure that the line does to bends as possible to reduce overhang. (See
not chafe against control cables, airframe figure 8-12.)
structure, etc., or come in contact with electri-
cal wiring or conduit. Where physical separa- 8-32. FUEL TANKS AND CELLS.
tion of the fuel lines from electrical wiring or Welded or riveted fuel tanks that are made of
conduit is impracticable, locate the fuel line commercially pure aluminum, 3003, 5052, or
below the wiring and clamp it securely to the similar alloys, may be repaired by welding.
airframe structure. In no case should wiring be Tanks made from heat-treatable aluminum al-
supported by the fuel line. loys are generally assembled by riveting. In
case it is necessary to rivet a new piece in a
c. Alignment. Locate bends accurately so tank, use the same material as used in the tank
that the tubing is aligned with all support undergoing repair, and seal the seams with a
clamps and end fittings and is not drawn, compound that is insoluble in gasoline. Spe-
pulled, or otherwise forced into place by them. cial sealing compounds are available and
Never install a straight length of tubing be- should be used in the repair of tanks. Inspect
tween two rigidly-mounted fittings. Always fuel tanks and cells for general condition, secu-
incorporate at least one bend between such fit- rity of attachment, and evidence of leakage.
tings to absorb strain caused by vibration and Examine fuel tank or cell vent line, fuel line,
temperature changes. and sump drain attachment fittings closely.
the effects will occur sooner with a full fuel c. Selector Handles. Check the operation
tank than with one partially filled. of each handle or control to see that it indicates
the actual position of the selector valve to the
b. Check tank vents and overflow lines placard location. Movement of the selector
thoroughly for condition, obstructions, correct handle should be smooth and free of binding.
installation, and proper operation of any check Assure that stops and detents have positive ac-
valves and ice protection units. Pay particular tion and smooth operational feel. Worn or
attention to the location of the tank vents when missing detents and stops can cause unreliable
such information is provided in the manufac- positioning of the fuel selector valve.
turers service instructions. Inspect for
cracked or deteriorated filler opening recess d. Worn Linkage. Inaccurate positioning
drains, which may allow spilled fuel to accu- of fuel selector valves can also be caused by
mulate within the wing or fuselage. One worn mechanical linkage between the selector
method of inspection is to plug the fuel line at handle and the valve unit. An improper fuel
the outlet and observe fuel placed in the filler valve position setting can seriously reduce en-
opening recess. If drainage takes place, inves- gine power by restricting the available fuel
tigate condition of the line and purge any ex- flow. Check universal joints, pins, gears,
cess fuel from the wing. splines, cams, levers, etc., for wear and exces-
sive clearance which prevent the valve from
c. Assure that filler opening markings positioning accurately or from obtaining fully
are affixed to, or near, the filler opening; off and on positions.
marked according to the applicable airworthi-
ness requirements; and are complete and legi- e. Assure that required placards are
ble. complete and legible. Replace those that are
missing or cannot be read easily.
8-34. FUEL CROSS-FEED, FIREWALL
SHUTOFF, AND TANK SELECTOR 8-35. FUEL PUMPS. Inspect, repair, and
VALVES. Inspect these valves for leakage overhaul boost pumps, emergency pumps,
and proper operation as follows. auxiliary pumps, and engine-driven pumps in
accordance with the appropriate manufac-
a. Internal leakage can be checked by turers instructions.
placing the appropriate valve in the off posi-
tion, draining the fuel strainer bowl, and ob- 8-36. FUEL FILTERS, STRAINERS,
serving if fuel continues to flow into it. Check AND DRAINS. Check each strainer and filter
all valves located downstream of boost pumps element for contamination. Determine and
with the pump(s) operating. Do not operate correct the source of any contaminants found.
the pump(s) longer than necessary. Replace throw-away filter elements with the
recommended type. Examine fuel strainer
b. External leakage from these units can bowls to see that they are properly installed ac-
result in a severe fire hazard, especially if the cording to the direction of the fuel flow.
unit is located under the cabin floor or within a Check the operation of all drain devices to see
similarly-confined area. Correct the cause of that they operate properly and have positive
any fuel stains associated with fuel leakage. shutoff action.
FIGURE 8-14. Typical muffler wall failure. (A. Complete muffler assembly with heat shroud removed; B.
Detail view of failure; C. Cross section of failed muffler.)
As opposed to other failures, erosion and car- expected, the time required for these failures to
bonizing caused by the extreme thermal con- develop is longer than that for fatigue failures.
ditions are the primary causes of internal fail- Internal muffler failures account for nearly
ures. Engine after-firing and combustion of 20 percent of the total number of exhaust sys-
unburned fuel within the exhaust system are tem failures.
probable contributing factors.
b. The highest rate of internal muffler
a. In addition, local hot spot areas failures occurs between 500 and 750 hours of
caused by uneven exhaust gas flow, result in operating time. Engine power loss and exces-
burning, bulging, and rupture of the outer muf- sive back-pressure caused by exhaust outlet
fler wall. (See figure 8-14.) As might be blockage may be averted by the installation
plate at stack inlet. FIGURE 8-18. Loose pieces of a failed internal baffle.
of an exhaust outlet guard as shown in fig- b. Remove or loosen all exhaust shields,
ures 8-21a and 8-21b. The outlet guard may carburetor and cabin heater muffs, shrouds,
be fabricated from a 3/16-inch stainless steel heat blankets, etc., required to permit inspec-
welding rod. tion of the complete system.
Form the rod into two U shaped segments, c. Perform necessary cleaning opera-
approximately 3 inches long and weld onto the tions and inspect all external surfaces of the
exhaust tail pipe as shown in figure 8-21b so exhaust system for cracks, dents, and missing
that the guard will extend 2 inches inside the parts. Pay particular attention to welds,
exhaust muffler outlet port. Installation of an clamps, supports and support attachment lugs,
exhaust outlet guard does not negate the im- bracing, slip joints, stack flanges, gaskets,
portance of thorough inspection of the internal flexible couplings, and etc. (See figures 8-22
parts of the muffler or the necessity of replac- and 8-23.) Examine the heel of each bend, ar-
ing defective mufflers. eas adjacent to welds, any dented areas, and
low spots in the system for thinning and pitting
8-49. INSPECTION. Inspect exhaust sys- due to internal erosion by combustion products
tems frequently to ascertain complete system or accumulated moisture. An ice pick (or
integrity. similar pointed instrument) is useful in probing
suspected areas. Disassemble the system as
CAUTION: Marking of exhaust sys- necessary to inspect internal baffles or diffus-
tem parts. Never use lead pencils, ers.
carbon based pencils, etc., to mark
exhaust system parts. Carbon depos- d. Should a component be inaccessible
ited by those tools will cause cracks for a thorough visual inspection or hidden by
from heat concentration and carboni- non-removable parts, remove the component
zation of the metal. If exhaust system and check for possible leaks by plugging its
parts must be marked, use chalk, openings, applying approximately 2 psi inter-
Prussian blue, India ink, or a grease nal pressure, and submerging it in water. Any
pencil that is carbon-free. leaks will cause bubbles that can be readily
detected. Dry thoroughly before reinstallation.
a. Before any cleaning operation, re-
move the cowling as required to expose the 8-50. REPAIRS. It is generally recom-
complete exhaust system. Examine cowling mended that exhaust stacks, mufflers, tail-
and nacelle areas adjacent to exhaust system pipes, and etc., be replaced with new or recon-
components for telltale signs of exhaust gas ditioned components rather than repaired.
soot indicating possible leakage points. Check Welded repairs to exhaust systems are compli-
to make sure no portion of the exhaust system cated by the difficulty of accurately identifying
is being chafed by cowling, engine control ca- the base metal so that the proper repair materi-
bles, or other components. The exhaust sys- als can be selected. Changes in composition
tem often operates at red-hot temperatures of and grain structure of the original base metal
1,000 F or more; therefore, parts such as ig- further complicates the repair. However, when
nition leads, hoses, fuel lines, and flexible air welded repairs are necessary, follow the gen-
ducts, should be protected from radiation and eral procedures outlined in Chapter 4; Metal
convection heating by heat shields or adequate Structure, Welding, and Brazing; of this AC.
clearance. Retain the original contours and make sure that
FIGURE 8-20. Failed internal baffle completely ob- temperature self-locking nuts for brass or spe-
structing the muffler outlet. cial high-temperature locknuts used by the
manufacturer. Never reuse old gaskets or old
the completed repair has not warped or other- star lock washers. When disassembly is neces-
wise affected the alignment of the exhaust sary replace gaskets with new ones of the same
system. Repairs or sloppy weld beads, which type provided by the manufacturer.
protrude internally, are not acceptable since
they cause local hotspots and may restrict ex- 8-51. TURBO-SUPERCHARGER. When
haust gas flow. All repairs must meet the a turbo-supercharger is included, the exhaust
manufacturers specifications. When repairing system operates under greatly-increased pres-
or replacing exhaust system components, be sure and temperature conditions. Extra pre-
sure that the proper hardware and clamps are cautions should be taken in the exhaust
used. Do not substitute steel or low- systems care and maintenance. During
8-71. GENERAL. Reject damaged blades removal of an excessive amount of metal, local
with model numbers which are on the manu- etching should be accomplished at intervals
facturers list of blades that cannot be repaired. during the process of removing suspected
Follow the propeller manufacturers recom- scratches. Upon completion of the repair,
mendations in all cases, and make repairs in carefully inspect the entire blade by etching or
accordance with latest techniques and best in- anodizing. Remove all effects of the etching
dustry practices. process with fine emery paper. Blades identi-
fied by the manufacturer as being cold-worked
NOTE: Title 14 of the Code of Fed- (shot-blasted or cold-rolled) may require
eral Regulations, 14 CFR, part 65 does peening after repair. Accomplish repair and
not allow an airframe and power peening operations on this type of blade in ac-
plant mechanic to perform major re- cordance with the manufacturers instructions.
pairs to propellers. However, it is not permissible in any case to
peen down the edges of any injury wherein the
8-72. STEEL BLADES. Due to the critical operation will lap metal over the injury.
effects of surface injuries and their repair on
the fatigue life of steel blades, all repairs must a. Flaws in Edges. Round out nicks,
be made in accordance with the manufacturers scars, cuts, etc., occurring on the leading edge
instructions. of aluminum-alloy blades as shown in fig-
ure 8-24 (view B). Blades that have the lead-
8-73. ALUMINUM PROPELLER RE- ing edges pitted from normal wear in service
PAIRS. Aluminum-alloy propellers and may be reworked by removing sufficient mate-
blades with dents, cuts, scars, scratches, nicks, rial to eliminate the pitting. In this case, re-
leading-edge pitting, etc., may be repaired, move the metal by starting a sufficient distance
provided the removal or treatment does not from the edge, as shown in figure 8-25, and
materially affect the strength, weight, or per- working forward over the edge in such a way
formance of the blade. Remove these damages that the contour will remain substantially the
or otherwise treat as explained below, unless it same, avoiding abrupt changes in contour.
is contrary to the manufacturers instructions Trailing edges of blades may be treated in sub-
or recommendations. More than one injury is stantially the same manner. On the thrust and
not sufficient cause alone for rejection of a camber face of blades, remove the metal
blade. A reasonable number of repairs per around any dents, cuts, scars, scratches, nicks,
blade may be made and not necessarily result and pits to form shallow saucer-shaped depres-
in a dangerous condition, unless their location sions as shown in figure 8-24 (view C). Exer-
with respect to each other is such to form a cise care to remove the deepest point of the
continuous line of repairs that would materi- injury and also remove any raised metal
ally weaken the blade. Suitable sandpaper or around the edges of the injury as shown in fig-
fine-cut files may be used for removing the ure 8-24 (view A). When repairing blades,
necessary amount of metal. In each case, the figures 8-26 and 8-27 show the maximum re-
area involved will be smoothly finished with duction in width and thickness that is allow-
#00 sandpaper or crocus cloth, and each blade able below the minimum dimensions required
from which any appreciable amount of metal by the blade drawing and blade manufacturing
has been removed will be properly balanced specification. Beyond the 90
before it is used. Etch all repairs. To avoid
FIGURE 8-24. Method of repairing surface scratches, nicks, etc., on aluminum-alloy propellers.
FIGURE 8-25. Correct and incorrect method of reworking leading edge of aluminum-alloy propellers.
90 percent blade radius point, the blade width straightening of blades to permit shipment to a
and thickness may be modified as per the certificated propeller repair facility may result
manufacturers instructions. in hidden damage not being detected and an
unairworthy propeller being returned to serv-
b. Shortening Blades. Shortening pro- ice.
peller blades is a major repair. When the re-
moval or treatment of defects on the tip neces- 8-74. REPAIR LIMITS. The following
sitates shortening a blade, shorten each blade limits are those listed in the blade manufac-
used with it and keep such sets of blades to- turing specification for aluminum-alloy blades
gether. (See figure 8-26 for acceptable meth- and govern the width and thickness of new
ods.) Mark the shortened blades to correspond blades. These limits are to be used with the
with the manufacturers system of model des- pertinent blade drawing to determine the
ignation to indicate propeller diameter. In minimum original blade dimensions to which
making the repair, it is not permissible to re- the reduction of figure 8-27 and figure 8-28.
duce the propeller diameter below the mini- may be applied. When repairs reduce the
mum diameter limit shown on the pertinent width or thickness of the blade below these
specification or type certificate data sheet. limits, reject the blade. The face alignment or
track of the propeller should fall within the
c. Straighten Propeller Blades. Never limits recommended by the manufacturer for
straighten a damaged propeller. Even partial new propellers
a. No repairs are permitted to the shanks (r1) is 24 in. from the shank and the original,
(roots or hub ends) of aluminum-alloy, adjust- as manufactured, blade width (w) at the repair
able-pitch blades. The shanks must be within location is 1.88 in.
manufacturers limits.
(a) Step 1. Calculate the blade radius
b. The following two examples show (r)
how to determine the allowable repair limits
on aluminum alloy blades. r = d/2 = (10 ft 6 in)/2 = 126/2 = 63 in.
(c) Step 3. Determine percent reduc- 8-75. STEEL HUBS AND HUB PARTS.
tion in width (w%) from figure 8-27. Repairs to steel hubs and parts must be ac-
complished only in accordance with the manu-
(d) Step 4. Calculate the blade width facturers recommendations. Welding and
repair allowable (w) remachining is permissible only when covered
by manufacturers service bulletins (SB).
w =(w%) x (w) x(0.01) = (2.5) x (1.88) x
(0.01) = 0.05 in. 8-76. PROPELLER HUB AND FLANGE
REPAIR. When the fixed-pitch propeller bolt
(e) Step 5. Calculate the minimum holes in a hub or crankshaft become damaged
blade width limit (w1) at the repair location or oversized, it is permissible to make repairs
by using methods (A) or (B) in figure 8-29, or
w1 = w - w = 1.88 - 0.05 = 1.83 in. by use of aircraft standard bolts 1/16-inch
larger than the original bolts. Make the repairs
(2) Example 2. Determine the blade in accordance with the recommendations of the
thickness repair allowable (t) and minimum propeller metal hub manufacturer or the engine
blade thickness limit (t1) for a blade having a manufacturer, as applicable. Obtain from the
diameter (d) of 10 ft. 6 in. The repair location engine or propeller hub manufacturer suitable
(r1) is 43 in. from the shank and the original, flange bushings with threaded or smooth
as manufactured, blade thickness (t) at the re- bores, as illustrated in methods (A) or (B) of
pair location is 0.07 in. figure 8-29. Drill the flange and insert the
bushings as recommended by the propeller to
(a) Step 1. Calculate the blade radius accommodate the bushings, and protect the
(r) holes with 2 coats of aluminum paint or other
high moisture-resistant coating. Use bolts of
r = d/2 = (10 ft 6 in)/2 = 126/2 = 63 in. the same size as those originally used. Any of
the following combinations may be used:
(b) Step 2. Calculate percent of (1) drilled head bolt and castellated nut,
blade radius to repair (r%) (2) drilled head bolt and threaded bushing, or
(3) undrilled bolt and self-locking nut. Where
r% = r/r x 100 = (43/63) x 100 = 68 it is desirable to use oversized bolts, obtain
suitable aircraft-standard bolts 1/16-inch larger
(c) Step 3. Determine percent reduc- than the original bolts. Enlarge the crankshaft
tion in thickness (t%) from figure 8-28. propeller flange holes and the propeller hub
holes sufficiently to accommodate the new
bolts without more than 0.005-inch clearance.
(d) Step 4. Calculate the blade
Such reboring will be permitted only once.
thickness repair allowable (t)
Further repairs of bolt holes may be in accor-
dance with the methods listed in (A) or (B) of
t = (t%) x (t) (0.01) = (4.0) x (0.07) x (0.01)
figure 8-29.
= 0.003 in.
NOTE: Method (A) or (B) is pre-
(e) Step 5. Calculate the minimum
ferred over the oversized bolt method,
blade thickness limit (t1) at the repair location
because a propeller hub flange re-
drilled in accordance with this latter
t1 = t - t = 0.07 - 0.003 = 0.067 in.
method will always require the re- only those replacement parts which are ap-
drilling of all new propellers subse- proved under 14 CFR, part 21 should be used.
quently used with the re-drilled
flange. 8-78. DEICING SYSTEMS. Components
used in propeller deicing systems should be in-
8-77. CONTROL SYSTEMS. Components spected, repaired, assembled, and/or tested in
used to control the operation of certificated accordance with the manufacturers recom-
propellers should be inspected, repaired, as- mendations. Only those repairs which are
sembled, and/or tested in accordance with the covered by the manufacturers recommenda-
manufacturers recommendations. Only those tions should be made, and only those replace-
repairs which are covered by the manufac- ment parts which are approved under
turers recommendations should be made, and 14 CFR, part 21 should be used.
FIGURE 8-29. Repair of fixed-pitch hub and propeller with elongated or damaged bolt holes.
8-90. [RESERVED.]
8-79.
to heat from the engine, a certain amount of occur at the threaded ends of the lag screws
propeller hub shrinkage takes place, and the and may be an indication of internal cracking
wood no longer completely fills the space be- of the wood. Check the tightness of the lag
tween the two hub flanges. Consequently, the screws, which attach the metal sleeve to the
hub bolts become loose. wood blade, in accordance with the manufac-
turers instructions. Inspect and protect the
c. In-flight tip failures may be avoided shank areas of composition blades next to the
by frequent inspections of the metal cap, lead- metal sleeve in the same manner as that used
ing edge strip, and surrounding areas. Inspect for wood blades.
for such defects as looseness or slipping, sepa-
ration of soldered joints, loose screws, loose 8-93. METAL PROPELLERS AND
rivets, breaks, cracks, eroded sections, and cor- BLADES. These propellers and blades are
rosion. Inspect for separation between the generally susceptible to fatigue failure result-
metal leading edge and the cap, which would ing from the concentration of stresses at the
indicate the cap is moving outward in the di- bottoms of sharp nicks, cuts, and scratches. It
rection of centrifugal force. This condition is is necessary, therefore, to frequently and care-
often accompanied by discoloration and loose fully inspect them for such injuries. Propeller
rivets. Inspect the tip for cracks by grasping it manufacturers publish SBs and instructions
with the hand and slightly twisting about the which prescribe the manner in which these in-
longitudinal blade centerline and by slightly spections are to be accomplished. Additional
bending the tip backward and forward. If the information is also available in AC 20-37D,
leading edge and the cap have separated, care- Aircraft Metal Propeller Maintenance.
fully inspect for cracks at this point. Cracks
usually start at the leading edge of the blade. a. Steel Blade Inspection. The inspection
A fine line appearing in the fabric or plastic of steel blades may be accomplished by either
may indicate a crack in the wood. Check the visual, fluorescent penetrant (see chapter 5), or
trailing edge of the propeller blades for bond- magnetic particle inspection. The visual in-
ing, separation, or damage. spection is easier if the steel blades are covered
with engine oil or rust-preventive compound.
d. Examine the wood close to the metal The full length of the leading edge, especially
sleeve of wood blades for cracks extending near the tip, the full length of the trailing edge,
outward on the blade. These cracks sometimes the grooves and shoulders on the shank, and all
dents and scars should be examined with a unauthorized straightening of the blade.
magnifying glass to decide whether defects are Sighting along the leading edge of a propeller
scratches or cracks. blade for any signs of bending can provide
evidence of unapproved blade straightening.
b. Aluminum Propellers and Blades. Blades should be examined for any discolora-
Carefully inspect aluminum propellers and tion that would indicate unauthorized heating.
blades for cracks and other flaws. A trans- Blades that have been heated for any repair
verse crack or flaw of any size is cause for re- must be rejected, since only cold straightening
jection. Multiple deep nicks and gouges on the is authorized. All blades showing evidence of
leading edge and face of the blade is cause for unapproved repairs should be rejected. When
rejection. Use dye penetrant or fluorescent dye bent propellers are shipped to an approved re-
penetrant to confirm suspected cracks found in pair facility for inspection and repair, the pro-
the propeller. Refer any unusual condition or peller should never be straightened by field
appearance revealed by these inspections to the service personnel to facilitate shipping, be-
manufacturer. cause this procedure can conceal damage.
Propeller tip damage will sometimes lead
c. Limitations. maintenance personnel to consider removing
damaged material from the blade tips. How-
(1) Corrosion may be present on pro- ever, propellers are often manufactured with a
peller blades in varying amounts. Before per- particular diameter to minimize vibration.
forming any inspection process, maintenance Unless the TCDS and both the engine and pro-
personnel must examine the specific type and peller manufacturers specifically permit short-
extent of the corrosion. (See chapter 6, and/or ening of the blades on a particular propeller,
refer to AC 43-4A, Corrosion Control For Air- any shortening of the blades would probably
craft.) create an unairworthy condition. When condi-
tions warrant, inspect the blade tips for evi-
(2) Corrosion, other than small areas dence of shortening and, if necessary, measure
(6 square inches or less) of light surface type the propeller diameter to determine if it has
corrosion, may require propeller removal and been changed by an unauthorized repair.
reconditioning by a qualified propeller repair
facility. When intergranular corrosion is pres- 8-94. PROPELLER HUB.
ent, the repair can be properly accomplished
only by an appropriately certificated propeller a. Fixed Pitch.
repair facility. Corrosion pitting under pro-
peller blade decals should be removed as de- (1) Inspection procedures require re-
scribed in the propeller manufacturers SBs moval of the propeller spinner for examination
and applicable airworthiness directives (AD). of the prop hub area. Cracks may be present in
the hub area between or adjacent to bolt holes
(3) Unauthorized straightening of blade, and along the hub pilot bore. Cracks in these
following a ground strike or other damage, can areas cannot be repaired and require immediate
create conditions that lead to immediate blade scrapping of the propeller.
failure. These unapproved major repairs may
sometimes be detected by careful inspection of (2) Propeller attach bolts should be ex-
the leading edges and the flat face portion of amined for looseness or an unsafetied or
the blade. Any deviation of the flat portion, cracked condition. Cracked or broken bolts
such as bows or kinks, may indicate are usually the result of overtorquing. Correct
torquing procedures require all bolt threads to in the manner specified by the propeller manu-
be dry, clean, and free of any lubrication be- facturer. On makes and models with a grease
fore torquing. fitting on the hub, before greasing the hub re-
move the grease fitting opposite the one to
b. Controllable Pitch. which you are going to add grease. This will
allow the excess grease and pressure to exit
(1) Inspect controllable pitch propellers through the grease fitting hole rather than the
frequently to determine that all parts are lubri- hub seal.
cated properly. It is especially recommended
that all lubrication be accomplished in accor- (6) Fiber-block, pitch-change mecha-
dance with the propeller manufacturers in- nisms should be inspected for deterioration, fit,
structions. and the security of the pitch-clamp forks.
f. The propeller spinner can be a con- This condition is normally caused by inade-
tributing factor to an out-of-balance condition. quate shimming of the spinner front support or
An indication of this would be a noticeable a cracked or deformed spinner.
spinner wobble while the engine is running.
8-129. [RESERVED.]
8-110.
nual inspection of the fixed gear, the aircraft ken. The piston section of the strut should be
should be jacked up to relieve the aircraft free of nicks, cuts, and rust.
weight. The gear struts and wheels should be
checked for abnormal play and corrected. e. Air-oil struts should undergo an in-
spection similar to that recommended for
a. Old aircraft landing gear that em- spring-oleo struts. In addition, the extension
ploys a rubber shock (bungee) cord for shock of the strut should be checked to see that it
absorption must be inspected for age, fraying conforms to the distance specified by the
of the braided sheath, narrowing (necking) of manufacturer. If an air-oil strut bottoms
the cord, and wear at points of contact with the that is, it is collapsedthe gas charge and
structure and stretch. If the age of the shock hydraulic fluid has been lost from the air
cord is near 5 years or more, it is advisable to chamber. This is probably due to a loose or
replace it with a new cord. A cord that shows defective air valve or to defective O-ring seals.
other defects should be replaced, regardless of
age. CAUTION: Before an air-oil strut is
removed or disassembled, the air
b. The cord is color-coded to indicate valve should be opened to make sure
when it was manufactured and to determine that all air pressure is removed. Se-
the life of the shock cord. According to vere injury and/or damage can occur
MIL-C-5651A, the color code for the year of as the result of disassembling a strut
manufacture is repeated in cycles of 5 years. when even a small amount of air pres-
Table 9-1 shows the color of the code thread sure is still in the air chamber.
for each year and quarter year.
f. The method for checking the fluid
TABLE 9-1. Bungee cord color codes. level of an air-oil strut is given in the manu-
YEARS ENDING COLOR QUARTER COLOR facturers maintenance manual. An alternate
WITH means of servicing an oil strut is to jack up the
0 or 5 Black 1st Red aircraft, remove the struts valve cap, release
1 or 6 Green 2nd Blue
2 or 7 Red 3rd Green the air charge in the strut by depressing the
3 or 8 Blue 4th Yellow valve core, remove the struts valve core, at-
4 or 9 Yellow 1st Red tach a clean two-foot rubber or plastic hose to
the threaded portion that houses the valve core,
c. The color coding is composed of and secure with a hose clamp. Put the other
threads interwoven in the cotton sheath that end of the hose into a clean two quart con-
holds the strands of rubber cord together. Two tainer filled with the correct hydraulic fluid for
spiral threads are used for the year coding and the strut. Cover the container with a clean rag
one thread is used for the quarter of the year to prevent spillage. Now, slowly raise the
sheath, e.g. yellow and blue would indicate gear/strut assembly either manually or with
that the cord was manufactured in 1994 during another jack under the strut. This will drive
April, May, or June. the remaining air out of the strut into the con-
tainer of hydraulic fluid. Once the gear is fully
d. Shock struts of the spring-oleo type retracted, slowly lower the gear. The hydraulic
should be examined for leakage, smoothness fluid in the can will be sucked into the strut.
of operation, looseness between the moving Repeat this procedure until you cannot hear
parts, and play at the attaching points. The any more air bubbles in the container when the
extension of the struts should be checked to wheel strut is fully retracted. With the strut
make sure that the springs are not worn or bro-
fully retracted, remove the hose, insert the landing-gear doors should be checked. Im-
valve core, lower the gear, and service the strut proper adjustment of sequence valves may
with nitrogen to get the proper strut extension. cause doors to rub against gear structures or
wheels. The manufacturers checklist should
g. The entire structure of the landing be followed to ensure that critical items are
gear should be closely examined for cracks, checked. While the aircraft is still on jacks,
nicks, cuts, corrosion damage, or any other the gear can be tested for looseness of mount-
condition that can cause stress concentrations ing points, play in torque links, condition of
and eventual failure. The exposed lower end the inner strut cylinder, play in wheel bearings,
of the air-oleo piston is especially susceptible and play in actuating linkages. Emergency
to damage and corrosion, which can lead to blow down gear bottles should be inspected for
seal damage, because the strut is compressed damage and corrosion and weighed to see if
and the piston moves past the strut lower seal, the bottle is still retaining the charge.
causing the seal to leak fluid and air. Small
nicks or cuts can be filed and burnished to a b. Mechanics should be aware that re-
smooth contour, eliminating the point of stress tread tires can be dimensionally bigger than a
concentration. If a crack is found in a landing- new tire. While this does not pose a prob-
gear member, the part must be replaced. lem on fixed landing gear aircraft, it may pres-
ent a serious problem when installed on re-
h. All bolts and fittings should be tractable landing gear aircraft. It is strongly
checked for security and condition. Bolts in recommended that if a retread tire is installed
the torque links and shimmy damper tend to on a retractable landing gear aircraft, a retrac-
wear and become loose due to the operational tion test be performed. With the gear in the
loads placed on them. The nose-wheel up-and-lock position, the mechanic should
shimmy damper should be checked for proper determine that if the tire expands due to high
operation and any evidence of leaking. All re- ambient temperature, heat generated from taxi
quired servicing should be performed in accor- and take-off, repeated landings, or heavy
dance with the aircraft service manual. braking, the tire will not expand to the point
that it becomes wedged in the wheel well.
9-5. INSPECTION OF RETRACTABLE
LANDING GEAR. Inspection of the retract- c. The proper operation of the anti-
able landing gear should include all applicable retraction system should be checked in accor-
items mentioned in the inspection for the fixed dance with the manufacturers instructions.
gear. In addition, the actuating mechanisms Where safety switches are actuated by the
must be inspected for wear looseness in any torque links, the actual time of switch closing
joint, trunnion, or bearing; leakage of fluid or opening can be checked by removing all air
from any hydraulic line or unit; and, smooth- from the strut and then collapsing the strut. In
ness of operation. The operational check is every case, the adjustment should be such that
performed by jacking the aircraft according to the gear control cannot be placed in the UP po-
the manufacturers instructions and then oper- sition or that the system cannot operate until
ating the gear retracting and extending system. the shock strut is at the full extended position.
gency systems employ either mechanical, pres- links (scissors), torque-tubes, control rods and
sure-bottle, or free-fall extension capabilities. rod-end bearings, shimmy dampers, cables,
Check for the proper safeties on triggering and turning stops. In addition, check all nose
mechanisms, and for the presence of required landing gear components, including mud
placards, and necessary accessories such as scrapers and slush deflectors, for damage.
cranks, levers, handles, etc. Emergency blow-
down bottles should be checked for corrosion (1) Towing of some aircraft with the
damage, and then weighed to see if the bottle rudder locks installed, may cause damage to
is still retaining the charge. the steering linkage and rudder control system.
Exceeding the steering or towing stop limits
9-7. LANDING GEAR COMPONENTS. should be followed by a close inspection of the
The following items are susceptible to service entire nose steering assembly. A broken
difficulties and should be inspected. steering stop will allow turning beyond the de-
sign limit, transmitting excessive loads to
a. Shock Absorbers. Inspect the entire structures, and to the rudder control system. It
shock-strut for evidence of leaks, cracks, and is recommended that the nose steering arc lim-
possible bottoming of the piston, as this con- its be painted on the steering collar or fuselage.
dition causes overloading of landing-gear
components and contributes to fatigue cracks. (2) Inspect shimmy dampers for leakage
Check all bolts, bolt holes, pins, and bushings around the piston shaft and at fluid line con-
for condition, lubrication, and proper torque nections, and for abnormal wear or looseness
values. Grease fitting holes (pressure-type) are around the pivot points. Also check for proper
especially vulnerable to cracks and cross- rigging, bottoming of the piston in the cylin-
threading damage. Check all safety wire and der, and the condition of the external stops on
other locking devices, especially at the main the steering collar.
packing gland nuts.
c. Tail Wheels. Disassembly, cleaning,
(1) When assembling shock-struts, use and re-rigging of tail wheels are periodically
the correct type and number of new O-rings, necessary. Inspect them for loose or broken
Chevron seals, and backup rings. Use only the bolts, broken springs, lack of lubrication, and
correct filler valve core assembly, and follow general condition. Check steerable tail wheels
the manufacturers instructions when servicing for proper steering action, steering-horn wear,
with fluid and air. Either too much or too little clearances, and for security and condition of
air or oil will affect aircraft handling charac- steering springs and cables.
teristics during taxi, takeoff, and landing, and
can cause structural overloads. d. Gear Doors. Inspect gear doors fre-
quently for cracks, deformation, proper rig-
(2) Shock cords and rubber discs dete- ging, and general condition. Gear door hinges
riorate with age and exposure. When this type are especially susceptible to progressive
of shock absorber is used, inspect for general cracking, which can ultimately result in com-
condition; i.e., cleanliness, stretching, fraying, plete failure, allowing the door to move and
and broken strands. These components should cause possible jamming of the gear. This con-
be kept free of petroleum products as they ac- dition could also result in the loss of the door
celerate deterioration of the rubber. during flight. In addition, check for proper
safetying of the hinge pins and for distorted,
b. Nose Gear Assembly. Inspection of sheared, loose, or cracked hinge rivets. Inspect
the steering mechanism should include torque- the wheel wells for improper location or rout-
ing of components and related tubing or wir- or excessively worn parts. Maintain bearings
ing. This could interfere with the travel of the and races as matched sets. Pack bearings only
gear door actuating mechanisms. with the grease type called for in the manu-
facturers maintenance manual prior to their
e. Wheels. Inspect the wheels periodi- installation. Avoid pre-loading the wheel
cally for cracks, corrosion, dents, distortion, bearing when installing it on the aircraft by
and faulty bearings in accordance with the tightening the axle nut just enough to prevent
manufacturers service information. In split- wheel drag or side play.
type wheels, recondition bolt holes which have
become elongated due to some play in the f. Brakes. Disassemble and inspect the
through-bolt, by the use of inserts or other brakes periodically and examine the parts for
FAA-approved means. Pay particular attention wear, cracks, warpage, corrosion, elongated
to the condition of the through-bolts and nuts. holes, etc. Discolored brake disks are an indi-
Carefully inspect the wheels used with tubeless cation of overheated brakes and should be re-
tires for damage to the wheel flange and for placed. If any of these or other faults are indi-
proper sealing of the valve. The sealing ring cated, repair, recondition, or replace the af-
used between the wheel halves should be free fected parts in accordance with the manufac-
of damage and deformation. When bolting turers recommendations.
wheel halves together, tighten the nuts to the
proper torque value. Periodically accomplish g. Hydraulic Brakes. For proper mainte-
an inspection to ensure the nuts are tight and nance, periodically inspect the entire hydraulic
that there is no movement between the two system from the reservoir to the brakes.
halves of the wheel. Maintain grease retaining Maintain the fluid at the recommended level
felts in the wheel assembly in a soft, absorbent with proper brake fluid. When air is present in
condition. If any have become hardened, wash the brake system, bleed in accordance with the
them with a petroleum-base cleaning agent; if manufacturers instructions. Replace flexible
this fails to soften them, they should be re- hydraulic hoses which have deteriorated due to
placed. long periods of service and replace hydraulic
piston seals when there is evidence of leakage.
(1) Corrosion of wheels. Remove all
corrosion from the wheel half, and inspect it to h. Micro-Switches. Inspect micro-
ensure that the wheel halves are serviceable. switches for security of attachment, cleanli-
Apply corrosion prevention treatments as ap- ness, general condition, and proper operation.
plicable. Prime with a zinc chromate primer or Check the associated wiring for chafing,
equivalent, and apply at least two finish coats. proper routing, and to determine that protec-
tive covers are installed on wiring terminals, if
(2) Dented or distorted wheels. Re- required. Check the condition of the rubber
place wheels which wobble excessively due to dust boots which protect the micro-switch
deformation resulting from a severe side-load plungers from dirt and corrosion.
impact. In questionable cases, consult the lo-
cal representative of the FAA concerning the 9-8. FLOATS AND SKIS. Aircraft oper-
airworthiness of the wheels. Minor dents do ated from water may be provided with either a
not affect the serviceability of a wheel. single float or a double float, depending upon
the design and construction; however, if an
(3) Wheel bearings. When inspecting aircraft is an amphibian, it has a hull for flota-
wheel bearings for condition, replace damaged tion and then may need only wingtip floats.
Amphibious aircraft have floats or a hull for slightly below the ski, so that the aircraft can
operating on water and retractable wheels for be operated from conventional runways with
land operation. the wheels or from snow or ice surfaces using
the ski. This arrangement has a small wheel
a. Skis are used for operating on snow mounted on the heel of the ski, so that it does
and ice. The skis may be made of wood, not drag on conventional runways.
metal, or composite materials. There are three
basic styles of skis. A conventional ski, shown c. In retractable wheel-ski arrangements,
in figure 9-1, replaces the wheel on the axle. the ski is mounted on a common axle with the
The shock cord is used to hold the toe of the wheel. In this arrangement, the ski can be ex-
ski up when landing. The safety cable and tended below the level of the wheel for landing
check cable prevent the ski from pivoting on snow or ice. The ski can be retracted above
through too great an angle during flight. the bottom of the wheel for operations from
conventional runways. A hydraulic system is
b. The wheel ski is designed to mount on commonly used for the retraction-system op-
the aircraft along with the tire. The ski has a eration.
portion cut out that allows the tire to extend
b. A protective cover should be placed (4) Bulges in any part of tire tread,
over a tire while servicing units that might drip sidewall, or bead areas that indicate a separa-
fluid on the tire. tion or damaged tire.
9-14. TIRE INSPECTION AND REPAIR. (5) Cracking in a groove that exposes
Tires should be inspected frequently for cuts, fabric or if cracking undercuts tread ribs.
worn spots, bulges on the side walls, foreign
bodies in the treads, and tread condition. De- d. Flat Spots. Generally speaking, tires
fective or worn tires may be repaired or re- need not be removed because of flat spots due
treaded. The term, retread, refers to several to skid or hydroplane burns unless fabric is ex-
means of restoring a used tire, whether by ap- posed. If objectionable unbalance results, re-
plying a new tread alone or tread and side wall move the tire from service.
material in varying amounts. The following
guidelines should be used for tire inspection: e. Beads. Inspect bead areas next to
wheel flanges for damage due to excessive
a. Tread Wear. Inspect the tires visually heat, especially if brake drag or severe braking
for remaining tread. Tires should be removed has been reported during taxi, takeoff or land-
when tread has worn to the base of any groove ing.
at any spot, or to a minimum depth as specified
by the tire or aircraft manufacturer. Tires worn f. Tire Clearance. Look for marks on
to fabric in the tread area should be removed tires, the gear, and in the wheel wells that
regardless of the amount of tread remaining. might indicate rubbing due to inadequate
clearance.
b. Uneven Wear. If tread wear is exces-
sive on one side, the tire can be dismounted g. Surface Condition. The surface con-
and turned around, providing there is no ex- dition of a tire can be inspected with the tire on
posed fabric. Gear misalignment causing this the aircraft. The tread should be checked for
condition should be corrected. abnormal wear. If the tread is worn in the
center of the tire but not on the edges, this in-
WARNING: Do not probe cuts or dicates that the tire is over-inflated and the op-
embedded foreign objects while tire is erational air pressure should be reduced. On
inflated. the other hand, a tire worn on the edges, but
not in the center, indicates under-inflation.
c. Tread Cuts. Inspect tread for cuts and These indications are shown in figure 9-7.
other foreign object damage, and mark with
crayon or chalk. Remove tires that have the
following:
Tire check of storage aircraft should be done in FIGURE 9-7. Examples of tread wear indicating over-
accordance with the applicable aircraft storage inflation and under-inflation.
manual.
NOTE: The use of nitrogen to inflate
9-16. PERSONAL SAFETY. When serv- tires is recommended. Do not use
icing aircraft tires, personnel should stand ei- oxygen to inflate tires. Deflate tires
ther in the front or rear of the wheel and avoid prior to removing them from the air-
approaching from either side of the tire. See craft or when built-up tire assemblies
illustration below: are being shipped.
structions.
Safe
Do not attempt to remove valve core until tire
Approach Area
has been completely deflated. Valve cores will
eject at high velocity if unscrewed before air
pressure has been released.
Personnel should wear protective eye gear to Never attempt to remove wheel bolts or break
reduce the risk of eye injury due to inflation tire beads loose until tire has been completely
and deflation of tires. deflated: otherwise, explosive separation of
wheel components will result.
Remove tire from wheel using a wheel de- Again inflate the tube with 5 or 10 psi and let
mounting fixture. the air out to re-seat the tube. Install the valve
core, and fill the tire to the recommended pres-
Valve stem, fusible plugs, wheel keys, heat sure.
shields, balance weights, and associated hard-
ware should not be removed if demountable 9-19. SLIPPAGE. To reduce the possibility
flange only is to be removed for tire change. of tire and tube failure due to slippage, and to
provide a means of detecting tire slippage, tires
Fusible plugs and bearing cups should not be should be marked and indexed with the wheel
removed unless replacement is necessary, if rim. Paint a mark one inch wide and two
paint is to be stripped, or if a thorough inspec- inches long across the tire side wall and wheel
tion of the wheel is to be made. rim. Use a permanent type paint in a con-
trasting color, such as white, red, or orange.
When removal and replacement of fusible Pre-flight inspection must include a check of
plugs is required, remove by pressing out with slippage marks for alignment. If the slippage
a blunt instrument such as a wooden rod. Ex- marks are not in alignment, a detailed inspec-
ercise caution to ensure wheel sealing surfaces tion must be made, the reason determined, and
are not damaged. if necessary, the condition corrected before the
next flight.
9-18. REASSEMBLING THE WHEEL.
The correct assembly of the wheel affects the NOTE: Mechanics should be aware
balance of the tire. After the wheel halves and that retread tires can be diametrically
bolts/nuts have been inspected and found bigger than a new tire. While this
serviceable, put a little talc on the tube and in- does not pose a problem on fixed
sert it in the tire. Align the heavy spot of the landing gear aircraft, it may pose a
tube (usually marked with a yellow line) with problem on retractable gear aircraft.
the light spot of the tire (usually marked with a Due to a 5 to 8 percent expansion of
red dot). If the tube does not have a balance the tire caused by the ambient tem-
mark, align the valve of the tube with the bal- perature, if a retread tire is installed
ance mark on the line. Remove the valve core on a retractable gear aircraft, it is
and inflate the tube momentarily to seat the strongly recommended that a retrac-
tube and let the air run out. Put one wheel half tion test be performed. This is to en-
in the tire and align the wheel half with the sure the tire will not become wedged
valve hole up with the valve on the tube. In- in the wheel well during take-off and
sert the other wheel half in the tire and align landing operation.
the bolt holes. Insert the wheel bolts and
torque to the manufacturers recommended 9-20. WHEEL INSPECTION. Check
value. wheels for damage. Wheels that are cracked or
damaged must be taken out of service for re-
pair or replacement in accordance with the
manufacturers instruction manual.
9.24. [RESERVED.]
9-22.
g. When handling Skydrol/Hyjet hy- tamination enters the system through normal
draulic fluids, gloves that are impervious to wear of components, by ingestion through ex
the fluid must be worn. If skin contact occurs, ternal seals, during servicing, or maintenance
wash with soap and water. when the system is opened to replace/repair
components, etc. To control the particulate
h. When handling phosphate ester- contamination in the system, filters are in
based fluid use eye protection. If the eye is stalled in the pressure line, in the return line,
exposed to fluid, severe eye pain will occur. and in the pump case drain line of each system.
The filter rating is given in terms of micron,
i. When Skydrol/Hyjet mist or vapor and is an indication of the particle size that
exposure is possible, a respirator capable of will be filtered out. The replacement interval
removing organic vapors and mists must be of these filters is established by the manufac
worn. turer and is included in the maintenance man
ual. However, in the absence of specific re
j. Ingestion of any hydraulic fluid placement instructions, a recommended serv
should be avoided. Although small amounts ice life of the filter elements is:
do not appear to be highly hazardous, any sig
nificant amount should be tested in accordance Pressure filters3000 hrs.
with manufacturers direction, followed with Return Filters1500 hrs.
hospital supervised stomach treatment. Case drain filters600 hrs.
such that the indicator cannot be reset, unless of fluid seepage may be permitted on actuator
the filter bowl is removed and the element re piston rods and rotating shafts. In a hydraulic
placed. system, a thin film of fluid in these areas indi
cates that the seals are being properly lubri
c. Flushing a Hydraulic System. When cated. When a limited amount of leakage is
inspection of hydraulic filters or hydraulic allowed at any point, it is usually specified in
fluid evaluation indicates that the fluid is con the appropriate manual.
taminated, flushing the system may be neces
sary. This must be done according to the (2) Tubing should not be nicked, cut,
manufacturers instructions; however, a typical dented, collapsed, or twisted beyond approved
procedure for flushing is as follows: limits. The identification markings or lines on
a flexible hose will show whether the hose has
(1) Connect a ground hydraulic test been twisted. (See figure 9.9.)
stand to the inlet and outlet test ports of the
system. Verify that the ground unit fluid is (3) All connections and fittings associ
clean and contains the same fluid as the air ated with moving units must be examined for
craft. play evidencing wear. Such units should be in
an unpressurized condition when they are
(2) Change the system filters. checked for wear.
(3) Pump clean, filtered fluid through (4) Accumulators must be checked for
the system, and operate all subsystems until no leakage, air or gas preload, and position. If the
obvious signs of contamination are found accumulator is equipped with a pressure
during inspection of the filters. Dispose of gauge, the preload can be read directly.
contaminated fluid and filter. (Note: A visual
inspection of hydraulic filters is not always ef (5) An operational check of the system
fective.) can be performed using the engine-driven
pump, an electrically-operated auxiliary pump
(4) Disconnect the test stand and cap (if such a pump is included in the system), or a
the ports. ground test unit. The entire system and each
subsystem should be checked for smooth op
(5) Ensure that the reservoir is filled to eration, unusual noises, and speed of operation
the FULL line or proper service level. for each unit. The pressure section of the sys
tem should be checked with no subsystems to
d. Inspections. Hydraulic and pneumatic see that pressure holds for the required time
systems are inspected for leakage, worn or without the pump supplying the system. Sys
damaged tubing, worn or damaged hoses, wear tem pressure should be observed during opera
of moving parts, security of mounting for all tion of each subsystem to ensure that the en
units, safetying, and any other condition speci gine-driven pump maintains the required pres
fied by the maintenance manual. A complete sure.
inspection includes considering the age, cure
date, stiffness of the hose, and an operational e. Troubleshooting. Hydraulic system
check of all subsystems. troubleshooting varies according to the com
plexity of the system and the components in
(1) Leakage from any stationary con the system. It is, therefore, important that the
nection in a system is not permitted, and if
found, it should be repaired. A small amount
technician should be guided by local, state, and standard connection fittings: AN-818
federal regulations, with regard to means of (MS 20818) nut and AN-819 (MS 20819)
disposal of used hydraulic fluid. Presently, the sleeve. In forming flares, cut the tube ends
most universally accepted procedure for dis square, file smooth, remove all burrs and sharp
posal of phosphate ester-based fluid is incin edges, and thoroughly clean. The tubing is
eration. then flared using the correct 37-degree aviation
flare forming tool for the size of tubing and
9-30. HYDRAULIC LINES AND FIT- type of fitting. A double flare is used on soft
TINGS. Carefully inspect all lines and fittings aluminum tubing 3/8-inch outside diameter
at regular intervals to ensure airworthiness. and under, and a single flare on all other tub
Investigate any evidence of fluid loss or leaks. ing. In making the connections, use hydraulic
Check metal lines for leaks, loose anchorage, fluid as a lubricant and then tighten. Over-
scratches, kinks, or other damage. Inspect fit tightening will damage the tube or fitting,
tings and connections for leakage, looseness, which may cause a failure. Under-tightening
cracks, burrs, or other damage. Replace or re may cause leakage which could result in a
pair defective elements. Make sure the lines system failure.
and hoses do not chafe against one another and
are correctly secured and clamped. CAUTION: Mistaken use of
45-degree automotive flare forming
a. Replacement of Metal Lines. When tools may result in improper tubing
inspection shows a line to be damaged or de flare shape and angle; causing misfit,
fective, replace the entire line or, if the dam stress and strain, and probable system
aged section is localized, a repair section may failure.
be inserted. In replacing lines, always use
tubing of the same size and material as the c. Repair of Metal Tube Lines. Minor
original line. Use the old tubing as a template dents and scratches in tubing may be repaired.
in bending the new line, unless it is too greatly Scratches or nicks not deeper than 10 percent
damaged, in which case a template can be of the wall thickness in aluminum alloy tubing,
made from soft iron wire. Soft aluminum that are not in the heel of a bend, may be re
tubing (1100, 3003, or 5052) under -inch paired by burnishing with hand tools. Replace
outside diameter may be bent by hand.. For all lines with severe die marks, seams, or splits in
other tubing use an acceptable hand or power the tube. Any crack or deformity in a flare is
tube-bending tool. Bend tubing carefully to unacceptable and cause for rejection. A dent
avoid excessive flattening, kinking, or wrin less than 20 percent of the tube diameter is not
kling. Minimum bend radii values are shown objectionable unless it is in the heel of a bend.
in table 9-2. A small amount of flattening in A severely-damaged line should be replaced;
bends is acceptable, but do not exceed however, it may be repaired by cutting out the
75 percent of the original outside diameter. damaged section and inserting a tube section
Excessive flattening will cause fatigue failure of the same size and material. Flare both ends
of the tube. When installing the replacement of the undamaged and replacement tube sec
tubing, line it up correctly with the mating part tions and make the connection by using stan
so that it is not forced into alignment by tight dard unions, sleeves, and tube nuts. If the
ening of the coupling nuts. damaged portion is short enough, omit the in
sert tube and repair by using one union and
b. Tube Connections. Many tube con two sets of connection fittings.
nections are made using flared tube ends with
-2 1/8 20 30 75 85 - - 3/8 -
-3 3/16 25 35 95 105 - - 7/16 21/32
-4 1/4 50 65 135 150 - - 9/16 7/8
-5 5/16 70 90 170 200 100 125 3/4 1-1/8
-6 3/8 110 130 270 300 200 250 15/16 1-5/16
-8 1/2 230 260 450 500 300 400 1-1/4 1-3/4
-10 5/8 330 360 650 700 - - 1-1/2 2-3/16
-12 3/4 460 500 900 1000 - - 1-3/4 2-5/8
-16 1 500 700 1200 1400 - - 3 3-1/2
-20 1-1/4 800 900 1520 1680 - - 3-3/4 4-3/8
-24 1-1/2 800 900 1900 2100 - - 5 5-1/4
-28 1-3/4 - - - - - - - -
-32 2 1800 2000 2660 2940 - - 8 7
d. Replacement of Flexible Lines. When failure. Never exceed the minimum bend radii
replacement of a flexible line is necessary, use as indicated in figure 9-10.
the same type, size, part number, and length of
hose as the line to be replaced. Check TSO (1) Teflon hose is used in many aircraft
requirements. If the replacement of a hose systems because it has superior qualities for
with a swaged-end type fitting is necessary, certain applications. Teflon is compounded
obtain a new hose assembly of the correct size from tetrafluoroethylene resin which is unaf
and composition. Certain synthetic oils re fected by fluids normally used in aircraft. It
quire a specially compounded synthetic rubber has an operating range of -65F to 450 F. For
hose, which is compatible. Refer to the air these reasons, Teflon is used in hydraulic and
craft manufacturers service information for engine lubricating systems where temperatures
the correct part number for the replacement and pressures preclude the use of rubber hose.
hose. If the fittings on each end are of the cor Although Teflon hose has excellent perform
rect type or sleeve type, a replacement may be ance qualities, it also has peculiar characteris
fabricated as shown in figure 9-8. Before cut tics that require extra care in handling. It tends
ting new flexible wire braided hose to the to assume a permanent set when exposed to
proper size, tape the hose tightly with masking high pressure or temperature. Do not attempt
tape and cut in the center of the masking tape to straighten a hose that has been in service.
to prevent fraying. The use of a mandrel will Any excessive bending or twisting may cause
prevent cutting the inside of the hose when in kinking or weakening of the tubing wall. Re
serting the fittings. Typical aircraft hose speci place any hose that shows signs of leakage,
fications and their uses are shown in table 9-3. abrasion, or kinking. Any hose suspected of
Install hose assemblies without twisting. (See kinking may be checked with a steel ball of
figure 9-9.) A hose should not be stretched proper size. Table 9-4 shows hose and ball
tight between two fittings as this will result in sizes. The ball will not pass through if the
overstressing and eventual failure. The length hose is distorted beyond limits.
of hose should be sufficient to provide about
5 to 8 percent slack. Avoid tight bends in flex (2) If the hose fittings are of the reus
lines as they may result in able type, a replacement hose may be
fabricated as described in figure 9-8. Refer to g. During inspection, consider the fol
figure 9-10 for minimum bend radii. When a lowing to determine whether seal replacement
hose assembly is removed, the ends should be is necessary.
tied as shown in figure 9-11, so that the pre
formed shape will be maintained. Refer to (1) How much fluid is permitted to seep
figure 9-12 for minimum bend radii for teflon past the seals? In some installations minor
hose. seepage is normal. Refer to the manufacturers
maintenance information.
(3) All flexible hose installations should
be supported at least every 24 inches. Closer (2) What effect does the leak have on
supports are preferred. They should be care the operation of the system? Know the sys
fully routed and securely clamped to avoid tem.
abrasion, kinking, or excessive flexing. Ex
cessive flexing may cause weakening of the (3) Does the leak of fluid create a haz
hose or loosening at the fittings. ard or affect surrounding installations? A
check of the system fluid and a knowledge of
e. O-Ring Seals. An understanding of O- previous fluid replenishment is helpful.
ring seal applications is necessary to determine
when replacement should be made. The sim (4) Will the system function safely
plest application is where the O-ring merely without depleting the reservoirs until the next
serves as a gasket when it is compressed inspection?
within a recessed area by applying pressure
with a packing nut or screw cap. Leakage is h. Dos and Donts that apply to O-ring
not normally acceptable in this type of instal seals.
lation. In other installations, the O-ring seals (a) Correct all leaks from static seal
depend primarily upon their resiliency to ac installations.
complish their sealing action. When moving (b) Dont retighten packing gland
parts are involved, minor seepage may be nuts; retightening will, in most cases, increase
normal and acceptable. A moist surface found rather than decrease the leak.
on moving parts of hydraulic units is an indi (c) Never reuse O-ring seals because
cation the seal is being properly lubricated. they tend to swell from exposure to fluids, and
In pneumatic systems, seal lubrication is pro become set from being under pressure. They
vided by the installation of a grease- may have minor cuts or abrasions that are not
impregnated felt wiper ring. When systems readily discernible by visual inspection.
are static, seepage past the seals is not nor (d) Avoid using tools that might
mally acceptable. damage the seal or the sealing surface.
(e) Do not depend upon color-coding.
f. Storage of replacement seals. Coding may vary with manufacturer
(1) Store O-ring seals where tempera (f) Be sure that part number is correct
ture does not exceed 120 F. (g) Retain replacement seals in their
package until ready for use. This provides
(2) Keep seals packaged to avoid expo proper identification and protects the seal from
sure to ambient air and light, particularly sun damage and contamination.
light. (h) Assure that the sealing surfaces
are clean and free of nicks or scratches before
installing seal.
(i) Protect the seal from any sharp the aircraft it is recommended that the hose is
surfaces that it may pass over during installa tested to at least 1.5 system pressure. A new
tion. Use an installation bullet or cover the hose can be operationally checked after it is in
sharp surfaces with tape. stalled in the aircraft using system pressure.
(j) Lubricate the seal so it will slide
into place smoothly. j. Hydraulic Components. Hydraulic
(k) Be sure the seal has not twisted components such as pumps, actuating cylin
during installation. ders, selector valves, relief valves, etc., should
be repaired or adjusted following the airplane
i. Hydraulic System Pressure Test. and component manufacturers instructions.
When a flexible hose has been repaired or Inspect hydraulic filter elements at frequent
overhauled using existing hardware and new intervals and replace as necessary.
hose material, before the hose is installed on
FIGURE 9-8. Hose assembly instructions (can be used for low pressure hydraulic fluid, and oil line
applications).
Construction: Seamless synthetic rubber Uses: Hose is approved for use in aircraft
inner tube reinforced with one fiber braid, hydraulic, pneumatic, coolant, fuel and oil
one braid of high tensile steel wire and cov- systems.
ered with an oil resistant rubber impregnated
fiber braid. Operating Temperatures:
Sizes-3 through 12: Minus
Identification: Hose is identified by specifi- 65 F. to plus 250 F.
cation number, size number, quarter year
and year, hose manufacturers identification. Sizes - 16 through 48: Minus
40 F. to plus 275 F.
Hose Construction: Seamless synthetic rubber inner Uses: High pressure hydraulic, pneu
tube reinforced with one fabric braid, two or more steel matic, coolant, fuel and oil.
wire braids, and covered with a synthetic rubber cover (for
gas applications request perforated cover). Operating Temperatures:
Minus 65 F. to plus 200 F.
Identification: Hose is identified by specification number,
size number, quarter year and year, hose manufacturers
identification.
9.36 [RESERVED.]
9.31.
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
9-37. LIFE RAFTS. Inflatable life rafts are specifications. General inspection procedures
subject to general deterioration due to aging. to be performed on most life rafts are as fol-
Experience has indicated that such equipment lows.
may be in need of replacement at the end of
5 years due to porosity of the rubber-coated CAUTION: Areas where life rafts are
material. Wear of such equipment is acceler- inspected or tested must be smooth,
ated when stowed on board aircraft because of free of splinters, sharp projections,
vibration which causes chafing of the rubber- and oil stains. Floors with abrasive
ized fabric. This ultimately results in localized characteristics, such as concrete or
leakage. Leakage is also likely to occur where rough wood, will be covered with un-
the fabric is folded because sharp corners are treated tarpaulins or heavy clean pa-
formed. When these corners are in contact per.
with the carrying cases or with adjacent parts
of the rubberized fabric, they tend to wear a. Inspect life rafts for cuts, tears, or
through due to vibration (Ref: TSO-C70a). other damage to the rubberized material. If the
raft is found to be in good condition, remove
a. When accomplishing maintenance, the CO2 bottle(s) and inflate the raft with air to
repair, and inspection of unpacked rafts, per- a pressure of 2 psi. The air should be intro-
sonnel should not step on any part of the raft or duced at the fitting normally connected to the
flotation tubes while wearing shoes. Rafts CO2 bottle(s). After at least 1 hour, to allow
should not be thrown or dropped, since dam- for the air within the raft to adjust itself to the
age to the raft or accessories may result. Par- ambient temperature, check pressure and ad-
ticular care should be exercised at all times to just, if necessary, to 2 psi and allow the raft to
prevent snagging, cutting, and contact with stand for 24 hours. If, after 24 hours, the pres-
gasoline, acids, oils, and grease. High stan- sure is less than 1 psi, examine the raft for
dards of performance for proper maintenance, leakage by using soapy water. In order to
inspection, and repair cannot be overempha- eliminate pressure variations due to tempera-
sized, since the lives of passengers could be ture differences at the time the initial and final
involved. reading are taken, test the raft in a room where
the temperature is fairly constant. If the pres-
b. Inspection and inflation tests, when sure drop is satisfactory, the raft should be
applicable, will be accomplished during stor- considered as being in an airworthy condition
age and after installation in an aircraft in ac- and returned to service after being fitted with
cordance with the manufacturers specifica- correctly charged CO2 bottles as determined by
tions and/or FAA-approved procedures. Ac- weighing them. Rafts more than 5 years old
cessory items will be installed during these in- are likely to be unairworthy due to deteriora-
spections. A raft knife will be attached by a tion. It is suggested that serviceable rafts be
24-inch nylon lanyard to the mooring eye lo- marked to indicate the date of inspection and
cated above the CO2 cylinder case to enable that soapstone be used when folding them pre-
rapid cutting of the mooring line. paratory to insertion into the carrying case.
Take care to see that all of the rafts required
9-38. LIFE RAFT INSPECTIONS. In- equipment is on board and properly stowed. If
spection of life rafts should be performed in the raft lanyard, used to prevent the raft from
accordance with the manufacturers floating away from the airplane, is in need of
replacement, use a lanyard not less than 20 feet f. Make sure the safety deflector is re-
long and having a breaking strength of about moved from the cylinder outlet before con-
75 pounds. necting the cylinder to the raft. (See
figure 9-12.)
b. It is recommended that the aforemen-
tioned procedure be repeated every 18 months g. Stencil the life rafts inspection date on
using the CO2 bottle(s) for inflation. If a sin- the raft.
gle bottle is used for inflating both compart-
ments, it should be noted whether the inflation 9-39. SURVIVAL KIT INSPECTION.
is proceeding equally to both compartments.
Occasionally, the formation of carbon-dioxide a. Survival Kit Contents. Each raft ac-
snow may occur in one passage of the distri- commodating passengers or crew members
bution manifold and divert a larger volume of should contain, as a minimum, the following:
gas to one compartment, which may burst if
the mattress valve is not open to relieve the Hand Pump (if required)
pressure. If the pressure is satisfactory, return Desalting Kit, First-Aid Kit
the raft to service in accordance with the pro- Mirror/Reflector
cedure outlined. Emergency Rations
Tarpaulins
c. Inspect the CO2 cylinder for evidence Fishing Kit
of cross-threading or stripping. Raft Knife
Compass
d. Inspect the CO2 bottle inflation valve Protective Ointment (Sunburn)
cable rigging as follows. Oars
Emergency Water Containers
(1) Remove the screws that attach the Repair Kits
cover plate to the valve and remove the cover Signal Flares
plate. Carrying Case
Locator Beacon and Battery
(2) Inspect the firing line cable ball Lines and Anchor
swage for engagement in the correct recess for Police Whistle
either Upward Pull or Downward Pull. Flashlight
The cable will be wrapped around the sheave Thermal Protective Aid
approximately 270 degrees. Light-sticks
Solar Still Kit
(3) Reposition the cable ball swage as Survival Manual
required. (See figure 9-12.) Duct Tape
Plastic Trash Bags
(4) Replace the cover plate. The green Accessory Containers
dot on the sheave should be visible through the - Bailing Bucket
window in the cover plate, indicating a - Sponge
b. Exposure Suits. Quick-donning expo- (c) Operate the pump to ensure that it
sure suits should be provided in sufficient delivers air.
quantity to accommodate the passengers and
crew on extended over-water missions when- (d) Close the outlet and check the
ever any of the following conditions exist. seal of the piston.
(1) The water temperature is 59 F or (e) Blow into the outlet to determine
below, or if the pump check valve will seal.
1 Case First-Aid Kit, empty; (6) Tarpaulins. Spread out and check
1 Bottle Benzalkonium Chloride Zinc; for tears, mildew, corroded grommets, and
Tinted, 1:1000 2cc general condition.
1 Package Sodium Chloride;
(Sodium Bicarbonate Mix) 4.5 gm; (7) Fishing Kit. Check for damaged
1 Bandage each, Gauze, & Compress container or for tampering. Replace if dam-
(2 inches x 6 yd); aged or incomplete.
2 Dressings, First-Aid, 4 inches x 7 inches;
1 Package Bandages; Absorbent & (8) Raft Knife. Check for corrosion and
Adhesive, 3/4-inch x 3 inches; ease of opening and security of the knife lan-
3 Bottles, Snap-On Cap, Plastic Tablet yard to the raft.
and Capsule, Round, (issued empty; to
be used as needed by user); (9) Compass. Check for proper opera-
1 Tube Lipstick, Anti-Chap; and
tion and condition.
1 bottle Water Purification Tablets,
Iodine 8 mg (50).
(10) Protective Ointment (Sunburn).
(a) If the seal is found to be broken, (a) Check the sunburn ointment
or there is evidence of tampering, the kit containers for cracks or crushed condition.
should be opened and inspected to ensure that
all components are included and undamaged. (b) Install the ointment in a 6 inch
After such inspection, the kit should be re- mailing tube and tape the ends to prevent
sealed. crushing. Stow it where it will be subjected to
the least amount of pressure in the kit.
(b) To reseal the kit, use a wire and
lead seal according to the manufacturers (11) Oars.
specifications. Pass the wire through grom-
mets or opposite flaps, bend the wire back and (a) Check for serviceability.
force each end through the middle of the lacing
cord on each side of the square knot. Pass the (b) Wrap the oars separately in craft
ends of the wire through the holes in the lead paper and seal with tape.
seal, draw the wire taut, and compress the seal.
(c) Stencil inspected in letters not
(4) Mirror/Reflector. Check the reflec- less than 1/2-inch high on each package.
tor for defective reflection surface and the re-
flector lanyard for defective conditions and se- (12) Emergency Water Containers.
curity of attachment. Check for open seams, holes, etc. Replace de-
fective containers.
(5) Emergency Rations. Check the food
ration cans for obvious damage, severe dents, (13) Repair Kit. Check for proper
and an expiration date. Replace items when wrapping and missing items. Four plugs are
severely damaged, dented, or when the date is wrapped in a single container. This container
expired. Ensure that the opening key is at- and the pliers are wrapped in waterproof paper
tached. and sealed with waterproof tape. The package
is stenciled repair plugs and pliers with letters
not less than 1/2-inch high.
(14) Signal Flares. Check the flares for (24) Duct Tape. Check the duct tape for
obvious damage and suspended lot numbers. deterioration.
Replace if lot number is over-age or obvious
damage exists. (25) Plastic Trash Bags. Assure that
three (each) plastic trash bags are serviceable.
(15) Carrying Case. Check for snags,
abrasions, and defective snaps. Repair or re- (26) Accessory Containers.
place as necessary.
(a) Check the containers for condi-
(16) Locator Beacon and Battery. tion and security.
(a) Check for corrosion and obvious (b) Repack the accessories, secure,
damage per the manufacturers manual. and record the inspection data on data cards.
Record the Inspection date.
(b) Assemble as an operating unit.
Perform an operational test, prepare the beacon (27) Dye Marker. Check for dents and
for water activation by pulling out the battery overall condition.
switch plug from the end of the transmitter
section, and package as instructed on the con- (28) Shark Chaser. Check for dents and
tainer. overall condition.
(17) Lines and Anchor. Check all lines d. After Inspection. Replace accessories
and sea anchors for conditions and security. in the container, close, and tie securely with
tying tapes. Draw a 25-pound breaking
(18) Police Whistle. Inspect and test. strength cord tightly around the center and one
approximately 5 inches from each end of the
(19) Flashlight. Test the flashlight container, tie with square knots, and seal with
switch for operation; remove old batteries and a lead seal.
inspect the case for corrosion and condition;
and install new batteries and test momentarily e. Folding Life Rafts. Fold the life rafts
for operation. per the manufacturers folding diagram using
soapstone and secure the raft in its container.
(20) Space Blankets. Check space Check the container for obvious damage.
blankets (if required) for rips, tears, and obvi-
ous damage. 9-40. SPECIAL INSPECTIONS. Life rafts
in storage or in service shall be unpacked and
(21) Light-sticks. Inspect light-sticks thoroughly inspected for mildew whenever
for condition and check expiration date. weather or other conditions warrant. The ex-
tent of a special inspection will be determined
(22) Solar Still Kit. Check the solar by the inspector or maintenance chief follow-
still kit for condition. ing a review of the circumstances or conditions
to which the life rafts have been subjected. The
(23) Survival Manual. Inspect the sur- inspector or maintenance chief may direct a
vival manual for condition and completeness. complete overall inspection and inflation test
of the life rafts, regardless of the last date of (2) A rip or tear across an air retaining
inspection, if it is considered that another in- seam.
spection is warranted.
(3) Rafts on which oil, grease, or any
9-41. INSPECTION RECORD. The date other foreign substance has caused a deteriora-
the inspection was completed will be stenciled tion of the rubberized fabric.
on the flotation tube at the left of the cylinder.
The size of lettering will not be less than (4) Rafts on which a heavy mildew
1/4-inch or greater than 1/2-inch in height. condition has caused deterioration of the rub-
Previous inspection dates will not be removed berized fabric.
or obliterated, but will be arranged in columnar
form with the latest date at the top. After the (5) Rafts on which porous flotation
inspection is completed, fill out the rafts in- tubes allow diffusion of air. A porous area is
spection record in accordance with part 43 sec- located by a soap test on the inflated raft.
tion 43.9, and attach the parts tag to the survival Higher diffusion is indicated by the excessive
equipment. The date on the tag will reflect the loss of pressure after a soap test has failed to
same date as stenciled on the flotation tube and locate a specific area of injury on the raft.
will be used to determine the next due date of
inspection and test. (6) Rafts requiring internal repair or
opening of air retaining seams for repair.
9-42. RAFT REPAIRS.
(7) Rafts with an excessive number of
a. Repairs. The service life for flotation injuries that would not, in the judgment of
equipment will be determined by condition competent inspectors, justify repair.
rather than age. Equipment passing tests and
inspections may remain in service indefinitely c. Patches. Holes or abrasions which are
since the inflation tests and material inspec- 2 inches or less, in diameter (in air retaining
tions will identify and condemn equipment chambers) will be repaired by the application
having more than minor installation defects. of an outside patch. Holes exceeding 2 inches
However, the service life for life rafts operat- in length or diameter, will require an inside
ing under normal usage and environmental patch as well as an outside patch. Inside and
conditions is anticipated by the manufacturers outside patches should be round or rectangular
to be 8 to 10 years, and it is appropriate to base and manufactured of fabric (specification
life rafts parts replacement programs upon this MIL-C-6819). Cement should conform to
estimate. It is not considered advisable or eco- Class 1 of specification MIL-C-5539. Patch as
nomical to perform major repairs on life rafts. follows:
b. Life Rafts. Life rafts with any of the (1) Outside patches.
following conditions should be condemned
rather than repaired: (a) With a rubber solvent thoroughly
clean the area to be patched.
(1) Life rafts over 3-1/2 years of age
and requiring major repair or more than two (b) From the material referenced,
minor repairs. fabricate a patch as shown in figure 9-13.
(c) When two fabric surfaces are to center line, and cross lines on the ends of the
be bonded, apply two coats of extra light ce- patch will coincide with the ends of the injury.
ment, two coats of light cement, and three
coats of heavy cement to each surface. Rubber- (c) To ensure that the inside surface
coated tape and seam crossover patches with of the raft is properly powdered in the area of
protective backing do not require cement. Each repair, pass a small handful of talc through the
coat of cement should be thoroughly dry to the opening in the raft and place it approximately
touch before the next coat is applied. Start the 12 inches from the injury. This should be ac-
bonding of fabric surfaces while the last coat complished before the inside area is cemented,
of cement is slightly tacky. To ensure proper exercising care to prevent distribution of the
adhesion when bonding two cemented sur- talc prior to completion of the repair.
faces, the areas to be bonded should remain
tacky during application. This is accomplished
by brushing the cemented area with a cloth
moistened with solvent.
(b) Mark the center line on the side NOTE: Since it is impossible for the
of the patch that is to be attached to the raft. repairman to visually observe the ce-
Mark cross lines on each end of the patch menting that is being accomplished on
1-1/2 inches from the ends. When the patch is the inside of the raft, exercise care to
applied to the injury on the inside, the longitu- ensure that each coat of cement com-
dinal edges of the injury will coincide with the pletely covers the area to be repaired.
(e) The inside patch should be ce- (j) Prepare and attach the outside
mented simultaneously with the application of patch as outlined in OUTSIDE PATCHES,
cement to the inside of the raft. Apply the sub-paragraphs 9-42b(1)(a)-(e).
same number of coats as directed in para-
graph 9 42b(2)(d) to the side of the patch that (k) Allow to cure for at least
is applied to the injured fabric of the raft. En- 60 hours before performing leak tests and
sure that each coat is thoroughly dry before storing.
applying the next coat.
(3) Seams and Tapes.
(f) To aid in adhesion, prior to ap-
plying the patch, the inside area to be repaired (a) Remove all old or dead cement
and cemented surface of the patch should be from the area that will require recementing.
cleaned with a cloth moistened with rubber Dampen the repair area with a solvent-
solvent. The cement will then become tacky. moistened cloth; then roll or rub off the old
cement.
(g) Apply the patch. Fold the patch
lengthwise in the shape of the letter U and (b) Apply cement to the surface as
insert the patch between the torn edges of the outlined in OUTSIDE PATCHES, sub-
injury on the life rafts. Position the patch so paragraph 9-42b(1)(a)-(e).
that the fabric at the end of the tear will coin-
cide with a cross line and the center line on the (c) Roll thoroughly with a roller to
patch follows one edge of the torn fabric. At- ensure that all air pockets are removed and a
tach one edge of the torn fabric along the cen- firm bond is secured.
ter line on the patch.
(d) Allow to dry and apply talc over
(h) Inspect the repair for wrinkles. the seam as previously outlined.
Working from the attached edge of the fabric
to the edge of the patch, remove the wrinkles (e) Allow to cure for at least 60 hours
with a stitcher. Lay the opposite edge of the before performing leak tests and storing.
torn fabric on the patch so that it butts the edge
of the torn fabric that has already been applied 9-43. LIFE PRESERVERS. Inflatable life
to the patch. Remove the wrinkles. Thor- preservers are subject to general deterioration
oughly roll the patch with a 2 inch rubber due to aging. Experience has indicated that
roller. such equipment may be in need of replacement
at the end of 5 years due to porosity of the rub-
NOTE: The surface under the patch ber-coated material. Wear of such equipment
should be as smooth as possible so that is accelerated when stowed on board aircraft
the torn edge of the fabric may be at- because of vibration which causes chafing of
tached to the patch instead of at- the rubberized fabric. This ultimately results
tempting to attach the patch to the in localized leakage. Leakage is also likely to
fabric. occur where the fabric is folded because sharp
corners are formed. When these corners are in
(i) Scatter the handful of talc that was contact with the carrying cases, or with adja-
placed inside the tube by grasping the sides of cent parts of the rubberized fabric, they tend to
the flotation tube and pulling them apart. wear through due to vibration.
Life preservers should be inspected in accor- b. Check for separation of cell fabric and
dance with the manufacturers specification, loose attachments along the edges of patches
unless climate, storage, or operational condi- and sealing tapes. Repair if practicable.
tions indicate the need for more frequent in-
spections (Ref: TSO-C13). c. Check for deterioration in areas where
oil and grease are noted. Condemn deterio-
9-44. LIFE PRESERVER INSPECTION. rated cells. If deterioration is not noted, clean
Life preservers should be inspected at the areas with mild soap and water and rinse
12-month intervals for cuts, tears, or other with clear water.
damage to the rubberized material. Check the
mouth valves and tubing for leakage, corro- d. Inspect the snaps and/or buckles to
sion, and deterioration. Remove the CO2 cyl- ensure proper operation.
inder and check the discharge mechanism by
operating the lever to ascertain that the pin op- e. Inspect the instruction panel for read-
erates freely. Check the gaskets and valve ability.
cores of the cylinder container and the pull
cord for deterioration. If no defects are found, f. Inspect all stitching for gaps, pulls, and
inflate the preserver with air to a 2 psi pressure tears.
and allow to stand for 12 hours. If the pre-
server still has adequate rigidity at the end of g. Visually inspect the cell containers for
that time, deflate and fit with CO2 cylinders snags, cuts, loose stitching, and oil and grease
having weights not less than that indicated on spots. Repair or replace as necessary.
them by the manufacturer. All cylinders made
in accordance with joint Army/Navy Specifi- h. Inspect the hardware for rusted or
cation MIL-C-00601D are so stamped and broken parts and cotter pins for damage. En-
have a minimum permissible weight stamped sure that pins are smooth and free of burrs.
on them. The use of such CO2 cylinders is
recommended. Having fitted the preserver i. Check the inflator discharge lever for
with an adequately-charged cylinder, mark the proper operation. Move the inflator dis-
preserver to indicate the date of inspection and charge lever slowly through a normal cycle of
patch it to the container. It is recommended operation to ensure freedom of operation and
that the aforementioned procedure be repeated to make certain that the piercing pin has suffi-
every 12-month period, utilizing the CO2 car- cient movement to discharge the CO2 cylinder.
tridge for inflation. Carbon dioxide permeates The point of the pin should move past the sur-
the rubberized fabric at a faster rate than air face of the gasket in the inflator. In the un-
and will indicate if the porosity of the material operated position, the end point should be
is excessive. The following checks and in- slightly below the gasket surface.
spections should be completed:
j. Check the installation of the inflator
a. Check for abrasions, chafing, and stem gaskets and check the stem caps for
soiling across folded cell areas and around tightness. Ensure that the inflator is centered
metal parts. Condemn the life preserver when on the stem.
unsuitable conditions are found.
k. Check rescue light. Inspect and test.
(1) Replace the battery if it shows any determination of the next 12-month inspection
signs of encrustation. period, enter the date it is due in the blank be-
side the word inspect on the inspection data
(2) Inspect for proper installation and card provided in the inspection data pocket on
physical condition of the lamp, wire, and bat- the cell container. Repack, close, and seal the
tery. container.
(3) Check the light assembly for proper 9-45. REPAIR OF LIFE PRESERVERS.
operation and water insulation and flotation. Leaks may be disclosed by immersion in soapy
water. Repair leaks by the use of patches in
(4) Pull the sealing plug (where appli- accordance with the recommendations of the
cable) from the battery. Let water flow manufacturer. Clean corroded metal parts and
through the open ports. Make sure the battery replace missing or weakened lanyards. Life
is activated and power is supplied to the light. preservers which do not retain sufficient rigid-
ity after the 12-hour period, because of general
(5) Fill out the inspection record and deterioration and porosity of the fabric, are be-
serviceable parts tag. Attach to the vest. yond economical repair and should be re-
placed.
l. Deflate the life preserver and repack in
container and secure. 9-46. MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT.
appears to have been tampered with, the para- in the cylinder. The pressure-indicating line
chute must be repacked by a properly certified connection is normally located between the
rigger. cylinder and a pressure-reducing valve.
(1) Safety belts eligible for installation CAUTION: Oxygen rich environ-
in aircraft must be identified by the proper ments are dangerous.
TSO markings on the belt. Each safety belt
must be equipped with an approved metal to b. Portable Oxygen Systems. The three
metal latching device. Airworthy type- basic types of portable oxygen systems are:
certificated safety belts currently in aircraft demand, pressure demand, and continuous
may be removed for cleaning and reinstalled. flow. The components of these systems are
However, when a TSO safety belt is found identical to those of a permanent installation
unairworthy, replacement with a new with the exception that some parts are minia-
TSO-approved belt or harness is required. turized as necessary. This is done in order that
they may be contained in a case or strapped
(2) The webbing of safety belts, even around a persons shoulder. It is for this port-
when mildew-proofed, is subject to deteriora- ability reason that special attention be given to
tion due to constant use, cleaning, and the ef- assuring that any storage or security provision
fects of aging. Fraying of belts is an indication for portable oxygen equipment in the aircraft is
of wear, and such belts are likely to be unair- adequate, in good condition, and accessible to
worthy because they can no longer hold the the user.
minimum required tensile load.
NOTE: Check portable equipment
(3) Safety belts shall be repaired in including its security provisions fre-
accordance with specifications approved by the quently, since it is more susceptible to
responsible FAA ACO. personnel abuse than a permanently-
installed system.
9-47. OXYGEN SYSTEMS. The following
instructions are to serve as a guide for the in- 9-48. INSPECTION. Hands, clothing, and
spection and maintenance of aircraft oxygen tools must be free of oil, grease, and dirt when
systems. The information is applicable to both working with oxygen equipment. Traces of
portable and permanently-installed equipment. these organic materials near compressed oxy-
gen may result in spontaneous combustion,
a. Aircraft Gaseous Oxygen Systems. explosions, and/or fire.
The oxygen in gaseous systems is supplied a. Oxygen Tanks and Cylinders. Inspect
from one or more high- or low-pressure oxy- the entire exterior surface of the cylinder for
gen cylinders. Since the oxygen is compressed indication of abuse, dents, bulges, and strap
within the cylinder, the amount of pressure in- chafing.
dicated on the system gauge bears a direct re- (1) Examine the neck of cylinder for
lationship to the amount of oxygen contained cracks, distortion, or damaged threads.
(2) Check the cylinder to determine if (3) Determine if the gauge is function-
the markings are legible. ing properly by observing the pressure build-
up and the return to zero when the system oxy-
(3) Check the date of the last hydro- gen is bled off.
static test. If the periodic retest date is past, do
not return the cylinder to service until the test d. Masks and Hoses.
has been accomplished.
(1) Check the oxygen mask for fabric
(4) Inspect the cylinder mounting cracks and rough face seals. If the mask is a
bracket, bracket hold-down bolts, and cylinder- full-face model, inspect the glass or plastic for
holding straps for cracks, deformation, cleanli- cleanliness and state of repair.
ness, and security of attachment.
(2) When appropriate, with due regard
(5) In the immediate area where the to hygienic considerations, the sealing qualities
cylinder is stored or secured, check for evi- of an oxygen mask may be tested by placing a
dence of any types of interference, chafing, de- thumb over the connection at the end of the
formation, or deterioration. mask tube and inhaling very lightly. Remove
the thumb from the disconnect after each con-
b. Lines and Fittings. tinuous inhalation. If there is no leakage, the
mask will adhere tightly to the face during in-
(1) Inspect oxygen lines for chafing, halation, and definite resistance to inhalation
corrosion, flat spots and irregularities, i.e., will be noticeable.
sharp bends, kinks, and inadequate security.
(3) Flex the mask hose gently over its
(2) Check fittings for corrosion around entirety and check for evidence of deteriora-
the threaded area where lines are joined. Pres- tion or dirt.
surize the system and check for leaks. (See
paragraph 9-49b(2)(d).) (4) Examine the mask and hose storage
compartment for cleanliness and general con-
CAUTION: In pressurizing the sys- dition.
tem, actuate the valve slowly to avoid
surging which could rupture the line. (5) If the mask and hose storage com-
partment is provided with a cover or release
c. Regulators, Valves, and Gauges. mechanism, thoroughly check the operation of
the mechanism.
(1) Examine all parts for cracks, nicks,
damaged threads or other apparent damage. 9-49. MAINTENANCE.
(2) Actuate the regulator controls and a. Oxygen Tanks, Cylinders, and Hold-
the valve to check for ease of operation. Down Brackets.
of oxygen cylinder damage are shown in fig- with manufacturers standards. Replace the
ure 9-14. cylinder straps or clamps that show wear or
abuse. For typical mounting bracket cracks
(2) When replacing an oxygen cylinder, and failure, see figure 9-15.
be certain that the replacement cylinder is of
the same size and weight as the one removed. b. Lines and Fittings.
(b) The low-pressure lines extend ascertain if the threaded area is free of nicks,
from the pressure regulator to each passenger burrs, and contaminants that would prevent the
and crew oxygen outlet. These lines are fabri- connections from sealing properly.
cated from seamless aluminum alloy, copper,
or flexible hose. Normally, flare- or flange- CAUTION: Do not use petroleum lu-
type connections are used. bricants on these components.
(d) When oxygen is being lost from a NOTE: Use care to avoid damaging
system through leakage, a sequence of steps the microphone assembly while
may be necessary to locate the opening. Leak- cleaning and sterilizing.
age may often be detected by listening for the
distinct hissing sound of escaping gas. If this (b) Wash the mask with a mild soap
check proves negative, it will be necessary to solution and rinse it with clear water.
soap-test all lines and connections with a cas-
tile soap and water solution or specially com- (c) To sterilize, swab the mask thor-
pounded leak-test material. Make the solution oughly with a gauze or sponge soaked in a
thick enough to adhere to the contours of the water merthiolate solution. This solution
fittings. At the completion of the leakage test, should contain 1/5-teaspoon of merthiolate
remove all traces of the soap and water. per 1 quart of water. Wipe the mask with a
clean cloth and air dry.
CAUTION: Do not attempt to tighten
any connections while the system is (d) Replace the hose if it shows evi-
charged. dence of deterioration.
c. Regulators, Valves, and Gauges. Line (e) Hoses may be cleaned in the same
maintenance of oxygen regulators, valves, and manner as the mask.
gauges does not include major repair. These
components are precision made and their re- (f) Observe that each mask breathing
pair usually requires the attention of a repair tube end is free of nicks, and that the tube end
station or the manufacturer. Care must be will slip into the cabin oxygen receptacle with
taken when reinstalling these components to ease and not leak.
(1) Inspection. Do not attempt to Continue this procedure until the cylinder has
charge oxygen cylinders if any of the following been charged in accordance with table 9-5.
discrepancies exist:
(e) Close all valves on the manifold
(a) Inspect for contaminated fittings system.
on the manifold, cylinder, or outside filler
valve. If cleaning is needed, wipe with stabi- (f) Close the valve on the filled cyl-
lized trichlorethylene and let air dry. Do not inder and remove the cylinder from the mani-
permit the solvent to enter any internal parts. fold.
(b) Check the hydrostatic test date of (g) Using a leak detector, test for
the cylinder. DOT regulations require ICC or leakage around the cylinder valve threaded
DOT 3AA 1800 designation cylinders to be connections. (If leakage is present, discharge
hydrostatic tested to 5/3 their working pres- the oxygen and return the cylinder to the facil-
sure, every 5 years (10 years if they meet the ity for repair.)
requirements in 49 CFR 173.34,e, 16).
(h) Let the cylinder stabilize for a pe-
Cylinders bearing designation ICC or riod of at least 1 hour, and then recheck the
DOT 3HT 1850 (Ref. 49 CFR 173.34,e, 15) pressure.
must be hydrostatic tested to 5/3 their working
pressure every 3 years, and retired from service (i) Make any necessary adjustments
24 years or 4,380 filling cycles after the date of in the pressure.
manufacture, whichever occurs first.
b. Charging of Low-Pressure Oxygen
(c) If the cylinder is completely Systems and Portables. For recharging a
empty, do not charge. An empty cylinder must low-pressure aircraft oxygen system, or port-
be removed, inspected, and cleaned before able cylinders, it is essential that the oxygen
charging. trailer or cart have a pressure-reducing regu-
lator. Military types E-2 or C-1 reducing
(2) Charging. regulators are satisfactory. These types of
regulators reduce the large cylinder pressure
(a) Connect the cylinder valve outlet from 2,000 psi to a line pressure of 450 psi.
or the outside filler valve to the manifold. (A welding pressure-reducing regulator is not
satisfactory.)
(b) Slowly open the valve of the
cylinder to be charged and observe the pres- CAUTION: When refilling the low-
sure on the gauge of the manifold system. pressure system or portable cylinders,
open the oxygen filler tank valve
(c) Slowly open the valve of the cyl- slowly to allow the system or portable
inder on the manifold system having the low- cylinders to be filled at a slow rate.
est pressure and allow the pressure to equalize. After the refilling operation is com-
pleted, check for leaks with a leak de-
(d) Close the cylinder valve on the tector. If a leak is detected, para-
manifold system and slowly open the valve of graph 9-49b(2)(d) should be referred
the cylinder having the next highest pressure. to for corrective action.
9-59. [RESERVED.]
9-52.
9-60. GENERAL. Only materials that are standard, the mechanic would reference the
flash-resistant should be used in cabin manufacturers statement and the national
interiors. The requirements related to fire standard that the material meets in the
protection qualities of cabin interior materials aircrafts maintenance records.
are specified in CAR 3.388, fire precautions or
14 CFR part 23, section 23.853 compartment (2) If an annual inspection is performed
interiors on a CAR-3 aircraft with a new interior and
there is no mention of a manufacturers
9-61. CAR-3 AIRCRAFT INTERIOR. statement that the fabric is flash or flame
The requirement for an interior of a CAR-3 resistant as applicable, the possibility exists
aircraft that is used only in 14 CFR, part 91 that the fabric is an unapproved part. The
operations, where smoking is not permitted, is mechanic should take the necessary steps to
that the materials shall be flash-resistant. ensure that the fabric meets or exceeds the
(Reference CAR-3.388.) ASTM or national standards. (Refer to
14 CFR part 23, appendix F.)
a. For compartments in CAR-3 aircraft
where smoking is permitted, the wall and (3) If an FAA-approved STC interior kit
ceiling linings, the covering of all is installed in a CAR-3 aircraft, and the
upholstering, floors, and furnishings shall be material and fabric in the kit are PMA or TSO
flame-resistant. Such compartments should be approved, the mechanic should include the
equipped with an adequate number of self- STC number in block 8 of FAA Form 337.
contained ash trays. All other compartments
shall be placarded against smoking. (Refer to b. It is recommended that for all CAR-3
CAR-3.388.) interiors to use only fabric and materials that
meets the more stringent requirements of
(1) If fabric is bought in bulk to part 23, appendix F.
refurbish the interior, seats, and ceiling liners
for a CAR-3 aircraft used in part 91 9-62. PART 23 AIRCRAFT INTERIOR.
operations, a manufacturers statement, Materials used in part 23 aircraft interiors must
declaring that the material meets the American meet the requirements of section 23.853, and
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) or the burn test requirements called out in part 23,
similar national standard for either flash appendix F.
resistance or flame resistance, would be
acceptable, but only for a CAR-3 aircraft a. If the fabric is bought in bulk to
installation. (Refer to 14 CFR part 43, refurbish a part 23 aircraft then the fabric must
section 43.13(a).) A manufacturers statement meet the part 23 burn requirements. A burn
is acceptable due to neither the Civil test would have to be done on samples of the
Aeronautics Administration (CAA) nor the material and fabrics by an approved and rated
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) having FAA Repair Station. That FAA Repair Station
published an FAA fire standard for either flash would certify that all the material and fabrics
or flame resistance for interior materials for meet part 23, appendix F requirements. The
CAR-3 aircraft. Since the FAA would accept mechanic would include that repair stations
and recognize a national statement in the aircrafts records.
9-70. [RESERVED.]
9-65.
SECTION 1 TERMINOLOGY
10-1. GENERAL. The removal or addition fluids that may be contained in the aircraft
of equipment results in changes to the center of systems and must be included in the empty
gravity (c.g.). The empty weight of the air- weight will be indicated in the pertinent Air-
craft, and the permissible useful load are af- craft Specifications or TCDS.
fected accordingly. Investigate the effects of
these changes, since the aircraft flight charac- c. Negligible Weight Change is any
teristics may be adversely affected. Informa- change of one pound or less for aircraft whose
tion on which to base the record of weight and weight empty is less than 5,000 pounds; two
balance changes to the aircraft may be ob- pounds or less for aircraft whose weight empty
tained from the pertinent Aircraft Specifica- is more than 5,000 and 50,000 pounds; and
tions, Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS), five pounds or less for aircraft whose weight
prescribed aircraft operating limitations, air- empty is more than 50,000 pounds. Negligible
craft flight manual, aircraft weight and balance c. g. change is any change of less than 0.05%
report, and maintenance manual. Removal of MAC for fixed wing aircraft, 0.2 percent of the
standard parts with negligible weight or addi- maximum allowable c. g. range for rotary wing
tion of minor items of equipment such as nuts, aircraft.
bolts, rivets, washers, and similar standard
parts of negligible weight on fixed-wing air- d. Useful Load. The useful load is the
craft do not require a weight and balance empty weight subtracted from the maximum
check. Rotorcraft are, in general, more critical weight of the aircraft. This load consists of the
with respect to control with changes in the c.g. pilot, crew (if applicable), maximum oil, fuel,
position. Refer to the procedures and instruc- passengers, and baggage unless otherwise
tions in that particular models maintenance or noted.
flight manual.
e. Weight Check. The weight check con-
10-2. TERMINOLOGY. The following sists of checking the sum of the weights of all
terminology is used in the practical application items of useful load against the authorized use-
of weight and balance control. ful load (maximum weight less empty weight)
of the aircraft.
a. Maximum Weight. The maximum
weight is the maximum authorized weight of f. Datum. The datum is an imaginary
the aircraft and its contents as listed in the vertical plane from which all horizontal meas-
specifications. urements are taken for balance purposes with
the aircraft in level flight attitude. The datum
b. Empty Weight. The empty weight of is indicated in most Aircraft Specifications or
an aircraft includes all operating equipment TCDS. On some of the older aircraft, when
that has a fixed location and is actually in- the datum is not indicated, any convenient da-
stalled in the aircraft. It includes the weight of tum may be selected. Once the datum is se-
the airframe, powerplant, required equipment, lected, all moment arms and the location of the
optional and special equipment, fixed ballast, permissible c.g. range must be taken with ref-
full engine coolant, hydraulic fluid, residual erence to it. Examples of typical locations of
fuel, and oil. Additional information regarding the datum are shown in figure 10-1.
g. Arm (or Moment Arm). The arm (or of the datum, and minus ( - ) if measured for-
moment arm) is the horizontal distance in ward of the datum. Examples of plus and mi-
inches from the datum to the c.g. of an item. nus arms are shown in figure 10-2.
The algebraic sign is plus ( + ) if measured aft
datum. The c.g. of the loaded aircraft must be location and dimensions of the MAC can be
within these limits at all times as illustrated in found in the Aircraft Specifications, the
figure 10-7. TCDS, the aircraft flight manual, or the air-
craft weight and balance report.
m. Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC).
The MAC is established by the manufacturer n. Weighing Point. If the c.g. location is
who defines its leading edge and its trailing determined by weighing, it is necessary to ob-
edge in terms of inches from the datum. The tain horizontal measurements between the
c.g. location and various limits are then ex- points on the scale at which the aircrafts
pressed in percentages of the chord. The weight is concentrated. If weighed using
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
FIGURE 10-5. Empty weight and empty center of gravity - tail-wheel type aircraft.
FIGURE 10-6. Empty weight and empty weight center of gravity - nosewheel-type aircraft.
scales under the landing gear tires, a vertical except-take-off horsepower (METO). Mini-
line passing through the centerline of the axle mum fuel is the maximum amount of fuel
will locate the point on the scale at which the which can be used in weight and balance com-
weight is concentrated. This point is called the putations when low fuel might adversely affect
weighing point. Other structural locations the most critical balance conditions. To de-
capable of supporting the aircraft, such as jack termine the weight of fuel in pounds divide the
pads on the main spar, may also be used if the METO horsepower by two.
aircraft weight is resting on the jack pads. In-
dicate these points clearly in the weight and q. Full Oil. The full oil is the quantity of
balance report when used instead of the land- oil shown in the Aircraft Specifications or
ing gear. Typical locations of the weighing TCDS as oil capacity. Use full oil as the
points are shown in figure 10-8. quantity of oil when making the loaded weight
and balance computations.
o. Zero Fuel Weight. The maximum
permissible weight of a loaded aircraft (pas- r. Tare. The weight of chocks, blocks,
sengers, crew, cargo, etc.) less its fuel is zero stands, etc., used when weighing aircraft is
fuel weight. All weights in excess of maxi- called tare and is included in the scale read-
mum zero fuel weight must consist of usable ings. Tare is deducted from the scale reading
fuel. at each respective weighing point when tare is
involved, to obtain the actual aircraft weight.
p. Minimum Fuel. The minimum fuel for
balance purposes is 1/12 gallon per maximum-
10-13. [RESERVED.]
10-3.
10-14. GENERAL. Weighing procedures and is to be included in the empty weight. In spe
may vary with the aircraft and the type of cial cases, the aircraft may be weighed with
weighing equipment employed. The weighing full fuel in tanks provided a definite means of
procedures contained in the manufacturers determining the exact weight of the fuel is
maintenance manual should be followed for available.
each particular aircraft.
g. The oil system should be filled to the
10-15. PROCEDURES. Accepted proce quantity noted in the TCDS or Aircraft Speci
dures when weighing an aircraft are: fications.
e. The scales should have a current cali h. Do not set brakes while taking scale
bration before weighing begins. Zero and use reading.
the scales in accordance with the scale manu
facturers instructions. Platform scales and i. Note any tare reading when the aircraft
suitable support for the aircraft, if necessary, is removed from the scales.
are usually placed under the wheels of a land-
plane, the keel of a seaplane float, or the skis 10-15a. REPAIRS AND ALTERATIONS
of a skiplane. Other structural locations capa are the major sources of weight changes, and it
ble of supporting the aircraft, such as jack is the responsibility of the aircraft mechanic
pads, may be used. Clearly indicate these making any repairs or alteration to know the
points and the alternate equipment used in the weight and location of these changes, and to
weight and balance report. compute the new CG and record the new
empty (EW) weight and EWCG data in the
f. Drain the fuel system until the quantity aircraft flight manual.
indicator reads zero or until the tanks are
empty with the aircraft in level flight attitude, 10-15b. ANNUAL OR 100-HOUR IN-
unless otherwise noted in the TCDS or Aircraft SPECTION. After conducting an annual or
Specifications. The amount of fuel remaining in 100-hour inspection, the aircraft mechanic
the tank, lines, and engine is termed residual fuel
SOLVING:
Weight # x Arm = Moment #
Aircraft as weighed + 1186 + 9.7 + 11504
Less oil - 17 - 49.0 + 833
Total + 1169(A) + 12337(B)
FIGURE 10-9. Empty weight and empty weight center of gravity when aircraft is weighed with oil.
(2) It is important to retain the proper a. Forward Weight and Balance Check.
algebraic sign (+ or -) through all balance When a forward weight and balance check is
computations. For the sake of uniformity in made, establish that neither the maximum
these computations, visualize the aircraft with weight nor the forward c.g. limit listed in the
the nose to the left. In this position any arm to TCDS and Aircraft Specifications are ex
the left (forward) of the datum is minus and ceeded. To make this check, the following in
any arm to the right (rearward) of the datum is formation is needed:
plus. Any item of weight added to the air
craft either side of the datum is plus weight, (1) The weights, arms, and moment of
any weight item removed is a minus weight. the empty aircraft.
When multiplying weights by arms, the answer
is plus if the signs are the same, and minus if (2) The maximum weights, arms, and
the signs are different. The following combi moments of the items of useful load that are
nations are possible: located ahead of the forward c.g. limit.
Items added forward of the datum (3) The minimum weights, arms, and
( + ) weight x ( - ) arm = ( - ) moment. moments of the items of useful load that are
located aft of the forward c.g. limit. A typical
Items added to the rear of the datum example of the computation necessary to make
( + ) weight x ( + ) arm = ( + ) moment. this check, using this data, is shown in fig
ure 10-10.
Items removed forward of the datum
( - ) weight x ( - ) arm = ( + ) moment. b. Rearward Weight and Balance
Check. When a rearward weight and balance
Items removed rear of the datum
check is made, establish that neither the
( - ) weight x ( + ) arm = ( - ) moment. maximum weight nor the rearward c.g. limit
listed in the TCDS and Aircraft Specifications
(3) The total weight of the airplane is are exceeded. To make this check, the fol
equal to the weight of the empty aircraft plus lowing information is needed:
the weight of the items added minus the
weight of the items removed. (1) The weight, arms, and moments of
the empty aircraft.
(4) The total moment of the aircraft is
the algebraic sum of the empty weight moment (2) The maximum weights, arms, and
of the aircraft and all of the individual mo moments of the items of useful load that are
ments of the items added and/or removed. located aft of the rearward c.g. limit.
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
GIVEN:
12 12
* Information should be obtained from the aircraft specification.
Note: Any items or passengers must be used if they are located ahead of the forward C.G. limit.
Full fuel must be used if the tank is located ahead of the forward C.G. limit.
Divide the TM (total moment) by the TW (total weight) to obtain the forward weight and balance extreme.
TM = 16104 = + 11.2
TW 1439
Since the forward C.G. limit and the maximum weight are not exceeded, the forward weight and balance
extreme condition is satisfactory.
FIGURE 10-10. Example of check of most forward weight and balance extreme.
(3) The minimum weights, arms, and report all required, optional, and special
moments of the items of useful load that are equipment installed in the aircraft at time of
located ahead of the rearward c.g. limit. A weighing and/or subsequent equipment
typical example of the computation necessary changes.
to make this check, using this data, is shown in
figure 10-11. a. Required equipment items are listed in
the pertinent Aircraft Specifications.
10-18. LOADING CONDITIONS
AND/OR PLACARDS. If the following b. Optional equipment items are listed in
items have not been covered in the weight and the pertinent Aircraft Specifications and may
balance extreme condition checks and are not be installed in the aircraft at the option of the
covered by suitable placards in the aircraft, ad owner.
ditional computations are necessary. These
computations should indicate the permissible c. Special equipment is any item not cor
distribution of fuel, passengers, and baggage responding exactly to the descriptive informa
that may be carried in the aircraft at any one tion in the Aircraft Specifications. This in
time without exceeding either the maximum cludes items such as emergency locator trans
weight or c.g. range. The conditions to check mitter (ELT), tail or logo lights, instruments,
are: ashtrays, radios, navigation lights, and carpets.
a. With full fuel, determine the number of d. Required and optional equipment
passengers and baggage permissible. may be shown on the equipment list with ref
erence to the pertinent item number listed in
b. With maximum passengers, determine the applicable specifications only when they
the fuel and baggage permissible. are identical to that number item with refer
ence to description, weight, and arm given in
c. With maximum baggage, determine the specifications. Show all special equipment
the fuel and the number and location of pas items with reference to the item by name,
sengers. make, model, weight, and arm. When the arm
for such an item is not available, determine by
d. Examples of the computations for the actual measurement.
above items are given in figures 10-12, 10-13,
and 10-14 respectively. The above cases are 10-20. EQUIPMENT CHANGE. The per
mainly applicable to the lighter type personal son making an equipment change is obligated
aircraft. In the case of the larger type transport to make an entry on the equipment list indi
aircraft, a variety of loading conditions is pos cating items added, removed, or relocated with
sible and it is necessary to have a loading the date accomplished, and identify himself by
schedule. name and certificate number in the aircraft re
cords. Examples of items so affected are the
10-19. EQUIPMENT LIST. A list of the installation of extra fuel tanks, seats, and bag
equipment included in the certificated empty gage compartments. Figure 10-15 illustrates
weight may be found in either the approved the effect on balance when equipment items
aircraft flight manual or the weight and bal are added within the acceptable c.g. limits and
ance report. Enter into the weight and balance fore and aft of the established c.g. limits.
GIVEN:
GIVEN:
Divide the TM (total moment) by the TW (total weight) to obtain the loaded center
of gravity.
TM = 43428 = + 21.3
TW 2036
The above computations show that with full fuel, 100 pounds of baggage and two
passengers in the rear seat may be carried in this aircraft without exceeding either
the maximum weight or the approved C. G. range.
* Only two passengers are listed to prevent the maximum weight of 2100 lbs. from
being exceeded.
FIGURE 10-12. Loading conditions: determination of the number of passengers and baggage permissible
with full fuel.
Divide the TM (total moment) by the TW (total weight) to obtain the loaded center
of gravity.
TM = 38466 = + 18.6
TW 2100
The above computations show that with the maximum number of passengers, 39
gallons of fuel and zero pounds of baggage may be carried in this aircraft without
exceeding either the maximum weight or the approved C. G. range.
FIGURE 10-13. Loading conditions: determination of the fuel and baggage permissible with maximum passengers.
EXAMPLE OF THE DETERMINATION OF THE FUEL AND THE NUMBER AND LOCATION OF
PASSENGERS PERMISSIBLE WITH MAXIMUM BAGGAGE
Divide the TM (total moment) by the TW (total weight) to obtain the loaded center
of gravity.
TM = 37988 = + 18.7
TW 20366
The above computations show that with maximum baggage, full fuel and 2 passen
gers (1 in the front seat and 1 in the rear seat) may be carried in this aircraft without
exceeding either the maximum weight or the approved C. G. range.
FIGURE 10-14. Loading conditions: determination of the fuel and the number and location of passengers
permissible with maximum baggage.
Moment computations for typical equipment in figures 10-10 and 10-11 for the extreme
changes are given in figure 10-16 and are also load conditions and figure 10-16 for equip
included in the sample weight and balance ment change, and represents suggested means
sheet in figure 10-18. of recording this information.
c.g. position within acceptable limits with a desirable to install permanent ballast by pour
minimum of weight increase. Permanent bal ing melted lead into the tail-post or longerons
last is often lead plate wrapped around and due to difficulties that may be encountered in
bolted to the fuselage primary structure (e.i., subsequent welding repair operations. It
tail-post, longerons, or bulkhead members). should be noted that the installation of perma
Permanent ballast invariably constitutes a con nent ballast results in an increase of aircraft
centrated load; therefore, the strength of the empty weight. See figure 10-19 for ballast
local structure and the attachment of the ballast computation. The local strength of the com
thereto should be investigated for the design partment in which the ballast is carried and the
loading conditions pertinent to that particular effect of the ballast on aircraft weight and bal
aircraft. Placard permanent ballast with Per- ance should be investigated when disposable
manent ballast - do not remove. It is not ballast is carried.
FIGURE 10-16. Example of moment and weight changes resulting from equipment changes.
1. Leveling means: level top longeron between front and rear seats.
2. Main wheel weighing point is located ( FORWARD) (+ 3 AFT) of datum.
3. Actual measured distance from the main weight point centerline to the tail (or nose) point
centerline 222 .
4. Oil over and above ZERO tank reading = (a. ---- Gals.) (b. ---- Lbs.) (c. ---- In.)
FIGURE 10-17. Sample weight and balance report to determine empty weight center of gravity.
EQUIPMENT LIST
*Required or Optional Item Numbers as Shown in Aircraft Specification
1 2 101 102 103 104 105
106 201 202 203 301 302(a) 303
401(a) 402 --- --- --- --- ---
Special Equipment
Item Make Model Weight Arm
3 Flares 1-1/2 Min. XYZ 03 25# 105
LOADING SCHEDULE
Gallons Number of Pounds of
of Fuel Passengers Baggage
40 2(R) 100
EQUIPMENT CHANGE
Computing New C.G.
Item, Make, and Model* Weight X Arm Moment
Airc. Empty + 1169 + 10.6 + 12391
(9 or 12a) (11 or 12c)
204 added + 6 - 1 - 6
302(b) added + 29 + 13 + 377
302(a) removed - 24 + 29 + 696
303 removed - 1 + 4 - 4
NET TOTALS - 1179 = NW + 13454 = NM
x
NM = 13454= +11.4 = New C.G.
NW 1179
*ITEM NUMBERS WHEN LISTED IN PERTINENT AIRCRAFT SPECIFICATION MAY BE USED
IN LIEU OF ITEM, MAKE, AND MODEL.
PREPARED BY________________________________ DATE________________________
FIGURE 10-18. Sample weight and balance report including an equipment change for aircraft fully loaded.
10-23. LOADING SCHEDULE. The acceptable and may be used in lieu of the in
loading schedule should be kept with the air formation in paragraph 10-18.
craft and form a part of the aircraft flight man
ual. It includes instructions on the proper load b. Compute a separate loading condi-
distribution such as filling of fuel and oil tion when the aircraft is to be loaded in other
tanks, passenger seating, restrictions of pas than the specified conditions shown in the
senger movement, and distribution of cargo. loading schedule.
11-14. [RESERVED.]
11-9.
11-15. GENERAL. Aircraft batteries may 1.4 and 1.5 volts per cell are generally used. In
be used for many functions, e.g., ground all cases, follow the recommendations of the
power, emergency power, improving DC bus battery manufacturer.
stability, and fault-clearing. Most small pri-
vate aircraft use lead-acid batteries. Most 11-17. BATTERY FREEZING. Discharged
commercial and military aircraft use NiCad lead-acid batteries exposed to cold tempera-
batteries. However, other types are becoming tures are subject to plate damage due to freez-
available such as gel cell and sealed lead-acid ing of the electrolyte. To prevent freezing
batteries. The battery best suited for a par- damage, maintain each cells specific gravity
ticular application will depend on the relative at 1.275, or for sealed lead-acid batteries check
importance of several characteristics, such as open circuit voltage. (See table 11-1.) Ni-
weight, cost, volume, service or shelf life, dis- Cad battery electrolyte is not as susceptible to
charge rate, maintenance, and charging rate. freezing because no appreciable chemical
Any change of battery type may be considered change takes place between the charged and
a major alteration. discharged states. However, the electrolyte
will freeze at approximately minus 75 F.
a. Storage batteries are usually identified
by the material used for the plates. All battery NOTE: Only a load check will deter-
types possess different characteristics and, mine overall battery condition.
therefore, must be maintained in accordance
with the manufacturers recommendations.. TABLE 11-1. Lead-acid battery electrolyte freezing
points.
State of Charge (SOC) for sealed
WARNING: It is extremely danger- Specific Freeze point lead-acid batteries at 70
ous to store or service lead-acid and Gravity C. F. SOC 12 volt 24 volt
1.300 -70 -95 100% 12.9 25.8
NiCad batteries in the same area. In- 1.275 -62 -80 75% 12.7 25.4
troduction of acid electrolytes into al- 1.250 -52 -62 50% 12.4 24.8
1.225 -37 -35 25% 12.0 24.0
kaline electrolyte will destroy the Ni- 1.200 -26 -16
Cad and vice-versa. 1.175 -20 -4
1.150 -15 +5
1.125 -10 +13
11-16. BATTERY CHARGING. Operation 1.100 -8 +19
e. Battery and Charger Characteristics. weakening of a cell. After replacing the bad
The following information is provided to ac- cell with a good cell, the batterys life can be
quaint the user with characteristics of the more extended for five or more years. Full dis-
common aircraft battery and battery charger charge is not harmful to this type of battery.
types. Products may vary from these descrip-
tions due to different applications of available (6) NiCad sealed batteries are similar in
technology. Consult the manufacturer for spe- most respects to NiCad vented batteries, but do
cific performance data. not normally require the addition of water.
Fully discharging the battery (to zero volts)
NOTE: Under no circumstances con- may cause irreversible damage to one or more
nect a lead-acid battery to a charger, cells, leading to eventual battery failure due to
unless properly serviced. low capacity.
(1) Lead-acid vented batteries have a (7) The state of charge of a NiCad bat-
two volt nominal cell voltage. Batteries are tery cannot be determined by measuring the
constructed so that individual cells cannot be specific gravity of the potassium hydroxide
removed. Occasional addition of water is re- electrolyte. The electrolyte specific gravity
quired to replace water loss due to overcharg- does not change with the state of charge. The
ing in normal service. Batteries that become only accurate way to determine the state of
fully discharged may not accept recharge. charge of a NiCad battery is by a measured
discharge with a NiCad battery charger and
(2) Lead-acid sealed batteries are simi- following the manufacturers instructions.
lar in most respects to lead-acid vented batter- After the battery has been fully charged and
ies, but do not require the addition of water. allowed to stand for at least two hours, the
fluid level may be adjusted, if necessary, using
(3) The lead-acid battery is economical distilled or demineralized water. Because the
and has extensive application, but is heavier fluid level varies with the state of charge, wa-
than an equivalent performance battery of an- ter should never be added while the battery is
other type. The battery is capable of a high installed in the aircraft. Overfilling the battery
rate of discharge and low temperature per- will result in electrolyte spewage during
formance. However, maintaining a high rate charging. This will cause corrosive effects on
of discharge for a period of time usually warps the cell links, self-discharge of the battery, di-
the cell plates, shorting out the battery. Its lution of the electrolyte density, possible
electrolyte has a moderate specific gravity, and blockage of the cell vents, and eventual cell
state of charge can be checked with a hy- rupture.
drometer.
(8) Lead-acid batteries are usually
(4) Do not use high amperage automo- charged by regulated DC voltage sources. This
tive battery chargers to charge aircraft allows maximum accumulation of charge in
batteries. the early part of recharging.
having a shorted cell might overheat due to ex- g. Aircraft Battery Inspection.
cessive overcharge and undergo a thermal run-
away, destroying the battery and creating a (1) Inspect battery sump jar and lines
possible safety hazard to the aircraft. for condition and security.
DEFINITION: Thermal runaway can (2) Inspect battery terminals and quick-
result in a chemical fire and/or explo- disconnect plugs and pins for evidence of cor-
sion of the NiCad battery under re- rosion, pitting, arcing, and burns. Clean as re-
charge by a constant-voltage source, quired.
and is due to cyclical, ever-increasing
temperature and charging current. (3) Inspect battery drain and vent lines
One or more shorted cells or an exist- for restriction, deterioration, and security.
ing high temperature and low charge
can produce the cyclical sequence of (4) Routine pre-flight and post-flight
events: (1) excessive current, inspection procedures should include observa-
(2) increased temperature, tion for evidence of physical damage, loose
(3) decreased cell(s) resistance, connections, and electrolyte loss.
(4) further increased current, and
(5) further increased temperature. 11-20. ELECTROLYTE SPILLAGE.
This will not become a self-sustaining Spillage or leakage of electrolyte may result in
thermal-chemical action if the con- serious corrosion of the nearby structure or
stant-voltage charging source is re- control elements as both sulfuric acid and po-
moved before the battery temperature tassium hydroxide are actively corrosive.
is in excess of 160 F. Electrolyte may be spilled during ground
servicing, leaked when cell case rupture oc-
(10) Pulsed-current battery chargers are curs, or sprayed from cell vents due to exces-
sometimes provided for NiCad batteries. sive charging rates. If the battery is not case
enclosed, properly treat structural parts near
CAUTION: It is important to use the the battery that may be affected by acid fumes.
proper charging procedures for bat- Treat all case and drain surfaces, that have
teries under test and maintenance. been affected by electrolyte, with a solution of
These charging regimes for recondi- sodium bicarbonate (for acid electrolyte) or
tioning and charging cycles are de- boric acid, vinegar, or a 3 percent solution of
fined by the aircraft manufacturer acetic acid (for potassium hydroxide
and should be closely followed. electrolyte).
11-30. GENERAL. When installing equip- ode. The best protection against diode destruction
ment which consumes electrical power in an by voltage surges is to make certain that the bat-
aircraft, it should be determined that the total tery is never disconnected from the aircraft's
electrical load can be safely controlled or man- electrical system when the alternator is in op-
aged within the rated limits of the affected eration. The battery acts as a large capacitor
components of the aircrafts electrical power and tends to damp out voltage surges. The
supply system. Addition of most electrical battery must never be connected with reversed
utilization equipment is a major alteration and polarity as this may subject the diodes to a
requires appropriate FAA approval. The elec- forward bias condition, allowing very high cur-
trical load analysis must be prepared in general rent conduction that will generally destroy
accordance with good engineering practices. them instantly.
Additionally, an addendum to the flight man-
ual is generally required. 11-34.
STATIC ELECTRICAL POWER
CONVERTERS. Static power converters em-
11-31. INSTALLATION CLEARANCE ploy solid-state devices to convert the aircrafts
PROVISIONS. All electrical equipment primary electrical source voltage to a different
should be installed so that inspection and voltage or frequency for the operation of radio
maintenance may be performed and that the in- and electronic equipment. They contain no
stallation does not interfere with other systems, moving parts (with the exception of a cooling
such as engine or flight controls. fan on some models) and are relatively main-
tenance free. Various types are available for ac
11-32. WIRES, WIRE BUNDLES, AND to dc or dc to ac conversion.
CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE DEVICES. Be-
fore any aircraft electrical load is increased, the a. Location of static converters should
new total electrical load (previous maximum be carefully chosen to ensure adequate venti-
load plus added load) must be checked to de- lation for cooling purposes. Heat-radiating fins
termine if the design levels are being ex- should be kept clean of dirt and other foreign
ceeded. Where necessary, wires, wire bundles, matter that may impair their cooling proper-
and circuit protective devices having the cor- ties.
rect ratings should be added or replaced.
b. Static power converters often emit un-
11-33. ALTERNATOR DIODES. Alter- acceptable levels of EMI that may disrupt
nators employ diodes for the purpose of con- communication equipment and navigation in-
verting the alternating current to direct current. struments. Properly shielded connectors, ter-
These diodes are solid-state electronic devices minal blocks, and wires may be required, with
and are easily damaged by rough handling, all shields well grounded to the airframe.
abuse, over heating, or reversing the battery
connections. A voltage surge in the line, if it CAUTION: Do not load convert-
exceeds the design value, may destroy the di- ers beyond their rated capacity.
data should provide a true picture of the status c. Wiring. Junction box layouts should
of the electrical system. New or additional take into consideration the necessity for ade-
electrical devices should not be installed in an quate wiring space and possible future addi-
aircraft, nor the capacity changed of any power tions. Electrical wire bundles should be laced
source, until the status of the electrical system or clamped inside the box so that cables do not
in the aircraft has been determined accurately touch other components, prevent ready access,
and found not to adversely affect the integrity or obscure markings or labels. Cables at en-
of the electrical system. trance openings should be protected against
chafing by using grommets or other suitable
11-37. JUNCTION BOX CONSTRUC- means.
TION. Replacement junction boxes should be
fabricated using the same material as the origi- 11-46. [RESERVED.]
11-38.
nal or from a fire-resistant, nonabsorbent mate-
rial, such as aluminum, or an acceptable plastic
material. Where fire-proofing is necessary, a
stainless steel junction box is recommended.
Rigid construction will prevent oil-canning
of the box sides that could result in internal
short circuits. In all cases, drain holes should
be provided in the lowest portion of the box.
Cases of electrical power equipment must be
insulated from metallic structure to avoid
ground fault related fires. (See para-
graph 11-7.)
11-47. GENERAL. All electrical wires TABLE 11-3. DC wire and circuit protector chart.
must be provided with some means of circuit Wire AN gauge
copper Circuit breaker amp. Fuse amp.
protection. Electrical wire should be protected
22 5 5
with circuit breakers or fuses located as close 20 7.5 5
as possible to the electrical power source bus. 18 10 10
Normally, the manufacturer of electrical 16 15 10
14 20 15
equipment will specify the fuse or breaker to 12 30 20
be used when installing the respective equip- 10 40 30
ment, or SAE publication, ARP 1199, may be 8 50 50
6 80 70
referred to for recommended practices.
4 100 70
2 125 100
11-48. DETERMINATION OF CIRCUIT 1 150
BREAKER RATINGS. Circuit protection 0 150
devices must be sized to supply open circuit Basis of chart:
(1) Wire bundles in 135 F. ambient and altitudes up to
capability. A circuit breaker must be rated so 30,000 feet.
that it will open before the current rating of the (2) Wire bundles of 15 or more wires, with wires carrying
no more than 20 percent of the total current carrying
wire attached to it is exceeded, or before the capacity of the bundle as given in Specification
cumulative rating of all loads connected to it MIL-W-5088 (ASG).
(3) Protectors in 75 to 85 F. ambient.
are exceeded, whichever is lowest. A circuit (4) Copper wire Specification MIL-W-5088.
breaker must always open before any compo- (5) Circuit breakers to Specification MIL-C-5809 or
equivalent.
nent downstream can overheat and generate (6) Fuses to Specification MIL-F-15160 or equivalent.
smoke or fire. Wires must be sized to carry
continuous current in excess of the circuit
protective device rating, including its time- 11-50. RESETTABLE CIRCUIT PRO-
current characteristics, and to avoid excessive TECTION DEVICES.
voltage drop. Refer to section 5 for wire rating
methods. a. All resettable type circuit breakers
must open the circuit irrespective of the posi-
11-49. DC CIRCUIT PROTECTOR tion of the operating control when an overload
CHART. Table 11-3 may be used as a guide or circuit fault exists. Such circuit breakers are
for the selection of circuit breaker and fuse referred to as trip free.
rating to protect copper conductor wire. This
chart was prepared for the conditions speci- b. Automatic reset circuit breakers, that
fied. If actual conditions deviate materially automatically reset themselves periodically, are
from those stated, ratings above or below the not recommended as circuit protection devices
values recommended may be justified. For ex- for aircraft.
ample, a wire run individually in the open air
may possibly be protected by the circuit 11-51. CIRCUIT BREAKER USAGE.
breaker of the next higher rating to that shown Circuit breakers are designed as circuit protec-
on the chart. In general, the chart is conserva- tion for the wire (see paragraph 11-48
tive for all ordinary aircraft electri- and 11-49), not for protection of black boxes
cal installations.
armature and field coils is released when the g. Low Energy Loads. Switches rated
control switch is opened. for use at 28 VDC or more, and at 1.0 amp or
more, generally have silver contacts. In gen-
e. Switch Selection. Switches for aircraft eral, silver contacts should not be used to con-
use should be selected with extreme caution. trol devices which have either a voltage less
The contact ratings should be adequate for all than 8 volts or a continuous current less than
load conditions and applicable voltages, at 0.5 amps unless the switch is specifically rated
both sea level and the operational altitude. for use with low-energy loads. Table 11-5
Consideration should be given to the variation provides general guidelines for selecting con-
in the electrical power characteristics, using tact materials for low-energy loads, but is not
MIL-STD-704 as a guide. applicable to hermetically sealed switches.
f. Derating Factors. Table 11-4 provides (1) Typical logic load devices have a
an approximate method for derating nominal voltage of 0.5 volts to 28 volts and a continu-
ratings to obtain reasonable switch efficiency ous current of less than 0.5 amps. A suitable
and service life under reactive load conditions. method of rating switches for use on logic load
devices is specified in ANSI/EIA 5200000.
WARNING: Do not use AC derated (General specification for special use electro-
switches in DC circuits. AC switches mechanical switches of certified quality.)
will not carry the same amperage as a
DC switch. TABLE 11-5. Selection of contact material.
28 VDC Lamp 8
28 VDC Motor 3
12 VDC Lamp 5
12 VDC Motor 2
NOTES:
NOTES: 1. If sulfide, moisture, or any form of contamination is
present, a sealed switch should be used. The degree
1. To find the nominal rating of a switch required to operate of sealing required (environmental or hermetic) is de-
a given device, multiply the continuous current rating pendent upon the environment in which the switch is
of the device by the derating factor corresponding intended to be operated.
to the voltage and type of load.
2. If particle contamination in any form is likely to reach
2. To find the continuous rating that a switch of a the contacts, bifurcated contacts should be used.
given nominal rating will handle efficiently,
divide the switch nominal rating by the derating 3. Low-voltage high-current loads are difficult to predict
factor corresponding to the voltage and type of load. and may result in a combined tendency of noncontact,
sticking, and material transfer.
(2) Typical low-level load devices have (2) The arcing of electromechanical
a voltage of less than 0.5 volts and a continu- switch contacts generates short duration
ous current of less than 0.5 amps. A suitable EMI/RFI when controlling highly inductive
method of rating switches for use on logic load electrical loads. Twisting lead wires, metal
devices is specified in ANSI/EIA 5200000. overbraids, and lead wire routing can reduce or
eliminate generation problems when dealing
h. Shock and Vibration. with arcing loads. Proximity sensors generally
use a relatively low-energy electromagnetic
(1) Electromechanical switches (toggle field to sense the target. Adequate spacing is
switches) are most susceptible to shock and required to prevent interference between adja-
vibration in the plane that is parallel to contact cent proximity sensors or other devices sus-
motion. Under these conditions the switch ceptible to EMI/RFI. Refer to manufacturers
contacts may momentarily separate. instructions.
ANSI/EIA 5200000 specifies that contact
separations greater than 10 microseconds and b. Temperature.
that closing of open contacts in excess of
1 microsecond are failures. Repeated contact (1) Electromechanical switches can
separations during high levels of vibration or withstand wide temperature ranges and rapid
shock may cause excessive electrical degrada- gradient shifts without damage. Most aircraft
tion of the contacts. These separations can switches operate between -55 C and 85 C
also cause false signals to be registered by with designs available from -185 C to 260 C
electronic data processors without proper buff- or more. Higher temperatures require more
ering. exotic materials, which can increase costs and
limit life. It should be noted that o-ring seals
(2) Although proximity switches do not and elastomer boot seals tend to stiffen in ex-
have moving parts, the reliability of the inter- treme cold. This can increase operating forces
nal electronic parts of the switch may be re- and reduce release forces or stop the switch
duced. Reliability and mean time between- from releasing.
failure (MTBF) calculations should reflect the
applicable environment. Note that the mount- (2) Proximity sensors are normally de-
ing of both the proximity sensor and its target signed for environments from -55 C to
must be rigid enough to withstand shock or vi- 125 C. During temperature excursions, the
bration to avoid creating false responses. operating and release points may shift from
5 percent to 10 percent. Reliability of the
i. Electromagnetic/Radio Frequency In- proximity sensor will typically be highest at
terference (EMI/RFI). room temperature. The reliability and MTBF
estimates should be reduced for use under high
(1) DC operated electromechanical temperatures or high thermal gradients.
switches are usually not susceptible to
EMI/RFI. Proximity switches are susceptible c. Sealing.
to an EMI/RFI environment and must be
evaluated in the application. Twisting lead NOTE: The materials used for sealing
wires, metal overbraids, lead wire routing, and (o-rings, potting materials, etc.)
the design of the proximity switch can mini- should be compatible with any air-
mize susceptibility. craft fluids to which the switch may be
exposed.
(1) Electromechanical switches range in a. Use of Relays. Most relays are used as
sealing from partially sealed to hermetically a switching device where a weight reduction
sealed. Use a sealed switch when the switch can be achieved, or to simplify electrical con-
will be exposed to a dirty environment during trols. It should be remembered that the relay is
storage, assembly, or operation. Use a higher an electrically operated switch, and therefore
level of sealing when the switch will not have subject to dropout under low system voltage
an arcing load to self-clean the contacts. Low- conditions.
energy loads tend to be more susceptible to
contamination. b. Types of Connections. Relays are
manufactured with various connective means
(2) Proximity switches for aircraft ap- from mechanical to plug-in devices. Installa-
plications typically have a metal face and pot- tion procedures vary by the type of connection
ting material surrounding any electronics and and should be followed to ensure proper op-
lead wire exits. The potting material should be eration of the relay.
compatible with the fluids the switch will be
exposed to in the environment. The plastic c. Repair. Relays are complicated elec-
sensing face of some proximity switches may tromechanical assemblies and most are not re-
be subject to absorption of water that may pairable.
cause the operating point to shift should be
protected. d. Relay Selection.
11-65. [RESERVED.]
11-57.
11-66. GENERAL. Wires must be sized so TABLE 11-6. Tabulation chart (allowable voltage drop
that they: have sufficient mechanical strength between bus and utilization equipment ground).
to allow for service conditions; do not exceed Nominal Allowable voltage
system drop continuous Intermittent
allowable voltage drop levels; are protected by voltage operation operation
system circuit protection devices; and meet
circuit current carrying requirements.
14 0.5 1
28 1 2
a. Mechanical Strength of Wires. If it is 115 4 8
200 7 14
desirable to use wire sizes smaller than #20,
particular attention should be given to the me
chanical strength and installation handling of bonding to the structure or a special electric
these wires, e.g., vibration, flexing, and termi current return path has been provided that is
nation. Wire containing less than 19 strands capable of carrying the required electric cur
must not be used. Consideration should be rent with a negligible voltage drop. To deter
given to the use of high-strength alloy con mine circuit resistance check the voltage drop
ductors in small gauge wires to increase me across the circuit. If the voltage drop does not
chanical strength. As a general practice, wires exceed the limit established by the aircraft or
smaller than size #20 should be provided with product manufacturer, the resistance value for
additional clamps and be grouped with at least the circuit may be considered satisfactory.
three other wires. They should also have ad When checking a circuit, the input voltage
ditional support at terminations, such as con should be maintained at a constant value. Ta
nector grommets, strain relief clamps, shrink bles 11-7 and 11-8 show formulas that may be
able sleeving, or telescoping bushings. They used to determine electrical resistance in wires
should not be used in applications where they and some typical examples.
will be subjected to excessive vibration, re
peated bending, or frequent disconnection d. Resistance Calculation Methods.
from screw termination. Figures 11-2 and 11-3 provide a convenient
means of calculating maximum wire length for
b. Voltage Drop in Wires. The voltage the given circuit current.
drop in the main power wires from the genera
tion source or the battery to the bus should not (1) Values in tables 11-7 and 11-8 are
exceed 2 percent of the regulated voltage when for tin-plated copper conductor wires. Be
the generator is carrying rated current or the cause the resistance of tin-plated wire is
battery is being discharged at the 5-minute slightly higher than that of nickel or silver-
rate. The tabulation shown in table 11-6 de plated wire, maximum run lengths determined
fines the maximum acceptable voltage drop in from these charts will be slightly less than the
the load circuits between the bus and the utili allowable limits for nickel or silver-plated
zation equipment ground. copper wire and are therefore safe to use. Fig
ures 11-2 and 11-3 can be used to derive
c. Resistance. The resistance of the cur slightly longer maximum run lengths for silver
rent return path through the aircraft structure is or nickel-plated wires by multiplying the
generally considered negligible. However, this maximum run length by the ratio of resistance
is based on the assumption that adequate of tin-plated wire, divided by the resistance of
silver or nickel-plated wire.
TABLE 11-7. Examples of determining required tin- (3) Voltage drop calculations for alumi
plated copper wire size and checking voltage drop using num wires can be accomplished by multiplying
figure 11-2
the resistance for a given wire size, defined in
Check-
calculated volt-
table 11-10, by the wire run length and circuit
Wire Size age drop (VD)= current.
Run Circuit From (Resistance/Ft)
Voltage Lengths Current Chart (Length) (Cur-
drop (Feet) (Amps) rent) (4) When the estimated or measured
1 107 20 No. 6 VD= (.00044
ohms/ft)
conductor temperature (T2) exceeds 20 C,
(107)(20)= such as in areas having elevated ambient tem
0.942
0.5 VD= (.00028
peratures or in fully loaded power-feed wires,
90 20 No. 4
ohms/ft) the maximum allowable run length (L2), must
(90)(20)=
0.504 be shortened from L1 (the 20 C value) using
4 88 20 No. 12 VD= (.00202 the following formula for copper conductor
ohms/ft)
(88)(20)= wire:
3.60
7 100 20 No. 14 VD= (.00306
(254.5 C)(L1)
ohms/ft) L2 =
(100)(20)= (234.5 C)+)(T 2)
6.12
TABLE 11-8. Examples of determining maximum tin- For aluminum conductor wire, the formula is:
plated copper wire length and checking voltage drop
using figure 11-2. (258.1 C)(L1)
L2 =
Check-calculated (238.1 C) + (T 2)
voltage drop
Maximum (VD)= (Resis-
Maximum Circuit Wire Run tance/Ft) (Length) These formulas use the reciprocal of each ma
Voltage Wire Current Length (Current) terials resistively temperature coefficient to
drop Size (Amps) (Feet)
VD= (.00126 take into account increased conductor resis
1 No. 10 20 39
ohms/ft) tance resulting from operation at elevated tem
(39)(20)= .98
0.5 VD= (.00126 peratures.
--- 19.5
ohms/ft)
(19.5)(20)= (5) To determine T2 for wires carrying a
.366
4 --- 156 VD= (.00126 high percentage of their current carrying capa
ohms/ft) bility at elevated temperatures, laboratory
(156)(20)=
3.93 testing using a load bank and a high-
7 --- 273 VD= (.00126 temperature chamber is recommended. Such
ohms/ft)
(273)(20)= tests should be run at anticipated worse case
6.88 ambient temperature and maximum current-
loading combinations.
(2) As an alternative method or a means
of checking results from figure 11-2, continu (6) Approximate T2 can be estimated
ous flow resistance for a given wire size can be using the following formula:
read from table 11-9 and multiplied by the wire
run length and the circuit current. For inter T2 = T1 + (TR T1 )( I 2 / I max )
mittent flow, use figure 11-3.
(1) The wire size should be sufficient to (4) The circuit has continuous opera
prevent an excessive voltage drop while car tion.
rying the required current over the required
distance. (See table 11-6, Tabulation Chart, for (5) Estimated conductor temperature is
allowable voltage drops.) 20 C or less.
(2) The size should be sufficient to pre The scale on the left of the chart represents
vent overheating of the wire carrying the re maximum wire length in feet to prevent an ex
quired current. (See paragraph 11-69 for al cessive voltage drop for a specified voltage
lowable current carrying calculation methods.) source system (e.g., 14V, 28V, 115V, 200V).
This voltage is identified at the top of scale
b. Two Requirements. To meet the two and the corresponding voltage drop limit for
requirements (see paragraph 11-66b) in se continuous operation at the bottom. The scale
lecting the correct wire size using figure 11-2 (slant lines) on top of the chart represents am
or figure 11-3, the following must be known: peres. The scale at the bottom of the chart rep
resents wire gauge.
(1) The wire length in feet.
STEP 1: From the left scale find the wire
(2) The number of amperes of current to length, 50 feet under the 28V source column.
be carried.
STEP 2: Follow the corresponding horizontal
(3) The allowable voltage drop line to the right until it intersects the slanted
permitted. line for the 20-amp load.
(4) The required continuous or inter STEP 3: At this point, drop vertically to the
mittent current. bottom of the chart. The value falls between
No. 8 and No. 10. Select the next larger size
(5) The estimated or measured con wire to the right, in this case No. 8. This is the
ductor temperature. smallest size wire that can be used without ex
ceeding the voltage drop limit expressed at the
(6) Is the wire to be installed in conduit bottom of the left scale. This example is plot
and/or bundle? ted on the wire chart, figure 11-2. Use figure
11-2 for continuous flow and figure 11-3 for
(7) Is the wire to be installed as a single intermittent flow.
wire in free air?
d. Procedures in Example No. 1 para
c. Example No. 1. Find the wire size in graph 11-68c, can be used to find the wire size
figure 11-2 using the following known infor for any continuous or intermittent operation
mation: (maximum two minutes). Voltage (e.g.
14 volts, 28 volts, 115 volts, 200 volts) as in
(1) The wire run is 50 feet long, in dicated on the left scale of the wire chart in
cluding the ground wire. figure 11-2 and 11-3.
(2) Current load is 20 amps. e. Example No. 2. Using figure 11-2, find
(3) The voltage source is 28 volts from the wire size required to meet the allowable
bus to equipment. voltage drop in table 11-6 for a wire carrying
(3) The voltage source is 28 volts. (5) Use figure 11-6, find the derate
factor for 8 wires in a bundle at 60 percent.
(4) The wire type used has a 200 C First find the number of wires in the bundle (8)
conductor rating and it is intended to use this at bottom of graph and intersect with the
thermal rating to minimize the wire gauge. 60 percent curve meet. Read derating factor,
Assume that the method described in para (left side of graph) which is 0.6. Multiply
graph 11-66d(6) was used and the minimum 0.6 x 42.77 Amps = 26 Amps.
wire size to carry the required current is #14.
Imax = 26 amps (this is the maximum
(5) Ambient temperature is 50 C under current the #14 gauge wire could carry at 50C
hottest operating conditions. ambient
f. Procedures in example No. 2. L1=15.5 feet maximum run length for size
#14 wire carrying 20 amps from figure 11-2
STEP 1: Assuming that the recommended
load bank testing described in para STEP 2: From paragraph 11-66d (5) and (6),
graph 11-66d(5) is unable to be conducted, determine the T2 and the resultant maximum
then the estimated calculation methods out wire length when the increased resistance of
lined in paragraph 11-66d(6) may be used to the higher temperature conductor is taken into
determine the estimated maximum current account.
(Imax). The #14 gauge wire mentioned above
can carry the required current at 50 C ambient
(allowing for altitude and bundle derating).
(
T2 = T1 + ( TR T1 ) I 2 / I max )
(1) Use figure 11-4a to calculate the T2 = 50 C + (200 C 50 C)( 20A / 26 A
Imax a #14 gauge wire can carry. = 50 C+(150 C)(.877)
Where: T2 = 182 C
temperature
L2 = 9.5 ft
The size #14 wire selected using the methods (7/35 = 20 percent) will be carrying power cur
outlined in paragraph 11-66d is too small to rents nearly at or up to capacity.
meet the voltage drop limits from figure 11-2
for a 15.5 feet long wire run. STEP 1: Refer to the single wire in free air
curves in figure 11-4a. Determine the change
STEP 3: Select the next larger wire (size #12) of temperature of the wire to determine free air
and repeat the calculations as follows: ratings. Since the wire will be in an ambient
of 60 C and rated at 200 C, the change of to
L1=24 feet maximum run length for temperature is 200 C - 60 C = 140 C. Fol
12 gauge wire carrying 20 amps from fig low the 140 C temperature difference hori
ure 11-2. zontally until it intersects with wire size line
on figure 11-4a. The free air rating for
Imax = 37 amps (this is the maximum current size #20 is 21.5 amps, and the free air rating
the size #12 wire can carry at 50 C ambient. for size #22 is 16.2 amps.
Use calculation methods outlined in para
graph 11-69 and figure 11-4a. STEP 2: Refer to the bundle derating curves
in figure 11-5, the 20 percent curve is selected
T2 = 50 o C + (200 o C - 50 o C) ( 20 A / 37 A = since circuit analysis indicate that 20 percent
50 o C + (150 o C)(-540) = 131 o C or less of the wire in the harness would be car
rying power currents and less than 20 percent
254.5 o C(L1 )
L2 = of the bundle capacity would be used. Find
234.5 o C + (T2 ) 35 (on the abscissa) since there are 35 wires in
(254.5 o C)(24ft) 6108 the bundle and determine a derating factor of
L2 = o o
= 0.52 (on the ordinate) from the 20 percent
(234.5 C) + (131 C) 366
curve.
(254.5 o C)(24ft)
L2 = = 16.7 ft
366 STEP 3: Derate the size #22 free air rating by
The resultant maximum wire length, after ad multiplying 16.2 by 0.52 to get 8.4 amps in-
justing downward for the added resistance as harness rating. Derate the size #20 free air-
sociated with running the wire at a higher tem rating by multiplying 21.5 by 0.52 to get
perature, is 15.4 feet, which will meet the 11.2 amps in-harness rating.
original 15.5 foot wire run length requirement
without exceeding the voltage drop limit ex STEP 4: Refer to the altitude derating curve
pressed in figure 11-2. of figure 11-6, look for 60,000 feet (on the ab
scissa) since that is the altitude at which the
11-69. COMPUTING CURRENT CARRY- vehicle will be operating. Note that the wire
ING CAPACITY. must be derated by a factor of 0.79 (found on
the ordinate). Derate the size
a. Example 1. Assume a harness (open or #22 harness rating by multiplying
braided), consisting of 10 wires, size #20, 8.4 amps by 0.79 to get 6.6 amps. Derate the
200 C rated copper and 25 wires, size #22, size #20 harness rating by multiplying
200 C rated copper, will be installed in an 11.2 amps by 0.79 to get 8.8 amps.
area where the ambient temperature is 60 C
and the vehicle is capable of operating at a STEP 5: To find the total harness capacity,
60,000-foot altitude. Circuit analysis reveals multiply the total number of size #22 wires by
that 7 of the 35 wires in the bundle the derated capacity (25 x 6.6 = 165.0 amps)
and add to that the number of size #20 wires
multiplied by the derated capacity selected because we know all 12 wires will be
(10 x 8.8 = 88 amps) and multiply the sum by carrying full load. Find 12 (on the abscissa)
the 20 percent harness capacity factor. Thus, since there are 12 wires in the bundle and de
the total harness capacity is termine a derating factor of 0.43 (on the ordi
(165.0 + 88.0) x 0.20 = 50.6 amps. It has been nate) from the 100 percent curve.
determined that the total harness current
should not exceed 50.6 A, size #22 wire should STEP 3: Derate the size #12 free air ratings by
not carry more than 6.6 amps and size multiplying 68 amps and 61 amps by 0.43 to
#20 wire should not carry more than 8.8 amps. get 29.2 amps and 26.2 amps, respectively.
STEP 6: Determine the actual circuit current STEP 4: Refer to the altitude derating curve
for each wire in the bundle and for the whole of figure 11-6, look for sea level and
bundle. If the values calculated in step #5 are 20,000 feet (on the abscissa) since these are
exceeded, select the next larger size wire and the conditions at which the load will be car
repeat the calculations. ried. The wire must be derated by a factor of
1.0 and 0.91, respectively.
b. Example 2. Assume a harness (open or
braided), consisting of 12, size #12, 200 C STEP 5: Derate the size #12 in a bundle rat
rated copper wires, will be operated in an am ings by multiplying 29.2 amps at sea level and
bient of 25 C at sea level and 60 C at a 26.6 amps at 20,000 feet by 1.0 and 0.91, re
20,000-foot altitude. All 12 wires will be op spectively, to obtained 29.2 amps and
erated at or near their maximum capacity. 23.8 amps. The total bundle capacity at sea
level and 25 C ambient is
STEP 1: Refer to the single wire in free air 29.2x12=350.4 amps. At 20,000 feet and
curve in figure 11-4a, determine the tempera 60 C ambient the bundle capacity is
ture difference of the wire to determine free air 23.8x12=285.6 amps. Each size #12 wire can
ratings. Since the wire will be in ambient of carry 29.2 amps at sea level, 25 C ambient or
25 C and 60 C and is rated at 200 C, the 23.8 amps at 20,000 feet, and 60 C ambient.
temperature differences are 200 C-25 C =
175 C and 200 C-60 C = 140 C respec STEP 6: Determine the actual circuit current
tively. Follow the 175 C and the 140 C tem for each wire in the bundle and for the bundle.
perature difference lines on figure 11-4a until If the values calculated in Step #5 are ex
each intersects wire size line, the free air rat ceeded, select the next larger size wire and re
ings of size #12 are 68 amps and 61 amps, re peat the calculations.
spectively.
sources. Such military or original equipment ronment. Wire construction that is suitable for
manufacturer (OEM) wire used on aircraft the most severe environmental condition to be
should only have originated from these defined encountered should be selected. Wires are
wire mills. Aircraft wire from other unau typically categorized as being suitable for ei
thorized firms, and fraudulently marked with ther open wiring or protected wiring ap
the specified identification, must be regarded plications. MIL-W-5088L, replaced by
as unapproved wire, and usually will be of AS50881A, wiring aerospace vehicle, Appen
inferior quality with little or no process control dix A table A-I lists wires considered to have
testing. Efforts must be taken to ensure ob sufficient abrasion and cut-through resistance
taining authentic, fully tested aircraft wire. to be suitable for open-harness construction.
MIL-W-5088L, replaced by AS50881A, wiring
b. Plating. Bare copper develops a sur aerospace vehicle, Appendix A table A-II lists
face oxide coating at a rate dependent on tem wires for protected applications. These wires
perature. This oxide film is a poor conductor are not recommended for aircraft interconnec
of electricity and inhibits determination of tion wiring unless the subject harness is cov
wire. Therefore, all aircraft wiring has a coat ered throughout its length by a protective
ing of tin, silver, or nickel, that have far slower jacket. The wire temperature rating is typically
oxidation rates. a measure of the insulations ability to with
stand the combination of ambient temperature
(1) Tin coated copper is a very common and current related conductor temperature rise.
plating material. Its ability to be successfully
soldered without highly active fluxes dimin e. Insulation. There are many insulation
ishes rapidly with time after manufacture. It materials and combinations used on aircraft
can be used up to the limiting temperature of electrical wire. Characteristics should be cho
150 C. sen based on environment; such as abrasion re
sistance, arc resistance, corrosion resistance,
(2) Silver-coated wire is used where cut-through strength, dielectric strength, flame
temperatures do not exceed 200 C (392 F). resistant, mechanical strength, smoke emis
sion, fluid resistance, and heat distortion. An
(3) Nickel coated wire retains its prop explanation of many of the abbreviations is
erties beyond 260 C, but most aircraft wire identified in the glossary.
using such coated strands have insulation sys
tems that cannot exceed that temperature on 11-78. SUBSTITUTIONS. In the repair
long-term exposure. Soldered terminations of and modification of existing aircraft, when a
nickel-plated conductor require the use of dif replacement wire is required, the maintenance
ferent solder sleeves or flux than those used manual for that aircraft must first be reviewed
with tin or silver-plated conductor. to determine if the original aircraft manufac
turer (OAM) has approved any substitution. If
c. Conductor Stranding. Because of not, then the OAM must be contacted for an
flight vibration and flexing, conductor round acceptable replacement.
wire should be stranded to minimize fatigue
breakage. a. MIL-W-5088L, replaced by AS50881A,
wiring aerospace vehicle, Appendix A lists wire
d. Wire Construction Versus Applica- types that have been approved for military
tion. The most important consideration in the
selection of aircraft wire is properly matching
the wires construction to the application envi
aerospace applications in open and protected c. The use of current military specifica-
wiring applications. These wires could poten tion, multi-conductor cables in place of OEM
tially be used for substitution when approved installed constructions may create
by the OAM. problems such as color sequence. Some civil
ian aircraft are wired with the older color se
b. Areas designated as severe wind and quence employing Red-Blue-Yellow as the
moisture problem (SWAMP) areas differ first three colors. Current military specifica
from aircraft to aircraft but generally are con tion, multi-conductor cables, in accordance
sidered to be areas such as wheel wells, near with MIL-C-27500, use White-Blue-Orange
wing flaps, wing folds, pylons, and other exte for the initial three colors. Use of an alterna
rior areas that may have a harsh environment. tive color code during modification without
Wires for these applications often have design adequate notation on wiring diagrams could
features incorporated into their construction severely complicate subsequent servicing of
that may make the wire unique; therefore an the aircraft. At the time of this writing,
acceptable substitution may be difficult, if not MIL-C-27500 is being revised to include the
impossible, to find. It is very important to use older color sequence and could eliminate this
the wire type recommended in the aircraft problem in the future.
manufacturers maintenance handbook.
11-84. [RESERVED.]
11-79.
11-85. AIRCRAFT WIRE TABLE. Ta- jacket, conduit, tray, or other covering is
bles 11-11 and 11-12 list wires used for the known as protected wire. (See table 11-12.)
transmission of signal and power currents in
aircraft. It does not include special purpose 11-88. SEVERE WIND AND MOISTURE
wires such as thermocouple, engine vibration PROBLEMS (SWAMP). Areas such as
monitor wire, fiber optics, data bus, and other wheel wells, wing fold and pylons, flap areas,
such wire designs. Fire resistant wire is in- and those areas exposed to extended weather
cluded because it is experiencing a wider ap- shall dictate selection and will require special
plication in aircraft circuits beyond that of the consideration. Insulation or jacketing will vary
fire detection systems. according to the environment. Suitable wire
types selected from MIL-W-22759 shall be
a. All wires in tables 11-11 and 11-12 used in these applications. (See table 11-11.)
have been determined to meet the flammability
requirements of Title 14 of the Code of Federal Suitable wire types selected from
Regulation (14 CFR) part 25, section MIL-W-22759 are preferred for areas that re-
25.869(a)(4) and the applicable portion of quire repeated bending and flexing of the wire.
part 1 of Appendix F of part 25. Consideration should be made to areas that re-
quire frequent component removal or repair.
b. The absence of any wire from ta- (See table 11-11.)
bles 11-11 and 11-12 are not to be construed as
being unacceptable for use in aircraft. How- 11-89. SHIELDED WIRE. With the in-
ever, the listed wires have all been reviewed crease in number of highly sensitive electronic
for such use and have been found suitable, or devices found on modern aircraft, it has be-
have a successful history of such usage. come very important to ensure proper shield-
ing for many electric circuits. Shielding is the
c. Explanations of the various insulation process of applying a metallic covering to
materials mentioned in table 11-11, by abbre- wiring and equipment to eliminate interference
viations, can be found in the glossary. caused by stray electromagnetic energy.
Shielded wire or cable is typically connected to
11-86. OPEN AIRFRAME INTERCON- the aircrafts ground at both ends of the wire,
NECTING WIRE. Interconnecting wire is or at connectors in the cable. Electromagnetic
used in point to point open harnesses, normally Interference (EMI) is caused when electro-
in the interior or pressurized fuselage, with magnetic fields (radio waves) induce high-
each wire providing enough insulation to resist frequency (HF) voltages in a wire or compo-
damage from handling and service exposure. nent. The induced voltage can cause system
(See table 11-11.) Electrical wiring is often in- inaccuracies or even failure, therefore putting
stalled in aircraft without special enclosing the aircraft and passengers at risk. Shielding
means. This practice is known as open wiring helps to eliminate EMI by protecting the pri-
and offers the advantages of ease of mainte- mary conductor with an outer conductor. Re-
nance and reduced weight. fer to MIL-DTL-27500, Cable, Power, Electri-
cal and Cable Special Purpose, Electrical
11-87. PROTECTED WIRE. Airborne Shielded and Unshielded General Specifica-
wire that is used within equipment boxes, or tions.
has additional protection, such as an exterior
MIL-W-22759/1 600 200 Fluoropolymer insulated TFE and TFE Silver coated copper
coated glass
MIL-W-22759/2 600 260 Fluoropolymer insulated TFE and TFE Nickel coated copper
coated glass
MIL-W-22759/3 600 260 Fluoropolymer insulated TFE -glass- Nickel coated copper
TFE
MIL-W-22759/4 600 200 Fluoropolymer insulated TFE -glass- Silver coated copper
FEP
MIL-W-22759/5 600 200 Fluoropolymer insulated extruded TFE Silver coated copper
MIL-W-22759/6 600 260 Fluoropolymer insulated extruded TFE Nickel coated copper
MIL-W-22759/7 600 200 Fluoropolymer insulated extruded TFE Silver coated copper
MIL-W-22759/8 600 260 Fluoropolymer insulated extruded TFE Nickel coated copper
MIL-W-22759/9 1000 200 Fluoropolymer insulated extruded TFE Silver coated copper
MIL-W-22759/10 1000 260 Fluoropolymer insulated extruded TFE Nickel coated copper
MIL-W-22759/13 600 135 Fluoropolymer insulated FEP PVF2 Tin coated copper,
MIL-W-22759/16 600 150 Fluoropolymer insulated extruded Tin coated copper,
ETFE
MIL-W-22759/17 600 150 Fluoropolymer insulated extruded Silver coated high strength cop-
ETFE per alloy
MIL-W-22759/20 1000 200 Fluoropolymer insulated extruded TFE Silver coated high strength cop-
per alloy
MIL-W-22759/21 1000 260 Fluoropolymer insulated extruded TFE Nickel coated high strength
copper alloy
MIL-W-22759/34 600 150 Fluoropolymer insulated crosslinked Tin coated copper
modified ETFE
MIL-W-22759/35 600 200 Fluoropolymer insulated crosslinked Silver coated high strength cop-
modified ETFE per alloy
MIL-W-22759/41 600 200 Fluoropolymer insulated crosslinked Nickel coated copper
modified ETFE
MIL-W-22759/42 600 200 Fluoropolymer insulated crosslinked Nickel coated high strength
modified ETFE copper alloy
MIL-W-22759/43 600 200 Fluoropolymer insulated crosslinked Silver coated copper
modified ETFE
MIL-W-25038/3/2/ 600 260 See specification sheet * See specification sheet
MIL-W-81044/6 600 150 Crosslinked polyalkene Tin coated copper
MIL-W-81044/7 600 150 Crosslinked polyalkene Silver coated high strength cop-
per alloy
MIL-W-81044/9 600 150 Crosslinked polyalkene Tin coated copper
MIL-W-81044/10 600 150 Crosslinked polyalkene Silver coated high strength cop-
per alloy
* Inorganic Fibers - Glass - TFE
MIL-W-22759/11 600 200 Fluoropolymer insulated extruded TFE Silver coated copper
MIL-W-22759/12 600 260 Fluoropolymer insulated extruded TFE Nickel coated copper
MIL-W-22759/14 600 135 Fluoropolymer insulated FEP-PVF2 Tin coated copper
MIL-W-22759/15 600 135 Fluoropolymer insulated FEP-PVF2 Silver plated high strength copper
alloy
MIL-W-22759/18 600 150 Fluoropolymer insulated extruded ETFE Tin coated copper
MIL-W-22759/19 600 150 Fluoropolymer insulated extruded ETFE Silver coated high strength cop-
per alloy
MIL-W-22759/22 600 200 Fluoropolymer insulated extruded TFE Silver coated high strength cop-
per alloy
MIL-W-22759/23 600 260 Fluoropolymer insulated extruded TFE Nickel coated high strength cop-
per alloy
MIL-W-22759/32 600 150 Fluoropolymer insulated crosslinked Tin coated copper
modified ETFE
MIL-W-22759/33 600 200 Fluoropolymer insulated crosslinked Silver coated high strength cop-
modified ETFE per alloy
MIL-W-22759/44 600 200 Fluoropolymer insulated crosslinked Silver coated copper
modified ETFE
MIL-W-22759/45 600 200 Fluoropolymer insulated crosslinked Nickel coated copper
modified ETFE
MIL-W-22759/46 600 200 Fluoropolymer insulated crosslinked Nickel coated high strength cop-
modified ETFE per alloy
MIL-W-81044/12 600 150 Crosslinked polyalkene - PVF2 Tin coated copper
MIL-W-81044/13 600 150 Crosslinked polyalkene - PVF2 Silver coated high strength cop-
per alloy
MIL-W-81381/17 600 200 Fluorocarbon polyimide Silver coated copper
MIL-W-81381/18 600 200 Fluorocarbon polyimide Nickel coated copper
MIL-W-81381/19 600 200 Fluorocarbon polyimide Silver coated high strength cop-
per alloy
MIL-W-81381/20 600 200 Fluorocarbon polyimide Nickel coated high strength cop-
per alloy
MIL-W-81381/21 600 150 Fluorocarbon polyimide Tin coated copper
11-95. [RESERVED.]
11-90.
11-96. GENERAL. Wires and cables e. Clamp retaining screws are properly
should be inspected for adequacy of support, secured so that the movement of wires and ca-
protection, and general condition throughout. bles is restricted to the span between the points
The desirable and undesirable features in air- of support and not on soldered or mechanical
craft wiring installations are listed below and connections at terminal posts or connectors.
indicate conditions that may or may not exist.
Accordingly, aircraft wiring must be visually f. Wire and cables are properly supported
inspected for the following requirements: and bound so that there is no interference with
other wires, cables, and equipment.
CAUTION: For personal safety, and
to avoid the possibility of fire, turn off g. Wires and cables are adequately sup-
all electrical power prior to starting ported to prevent excessive movement in areas
an inspection of the aircraft electrical of high vibration.
system or performing maintenance.
h. Insulating tubing is secured by tying,
a. Wires and cables are supported by tie straps or with clamps.
suitable clamps, grommets, or other devices at
intervals of not more than 24 inches, except i. Continuous lacing (spaced 6 inches
when contained in troughs, ducts, or conduits. apart) is not used, except in panels and junc-
The supporting devices should be of a suitable tion boxes where this practice is optional.
size and type, with the wires and cables held When lacing is installed in this manner, out-
securely in place without damage to the insu- side junction boxes should be removed and re-
lation. placed with individual loops.
n. Ensure cable supports do not restrict fuel, or oxygen line, fuel tank wall, or other
the wires or cables in such a manner as to in- low voltage wiring that enters a fuel tank and
terfere with operation of equipment shock requires electrical isolation to prevent an igni-
mounts. tion hazard. Where 6 inch spacing cannot
practically be provided, a minimum of 2 inches
o. Do not use tape, tie straps, or cord for must be maintained between wiring and such
primary support. lines, related equipment, fuel tank walls and
low voltage wiring that enters a fuel tank.
p. Make sure that drain holes are pres- Such wiring should be closely clamped and
ent in drip loops or in the lowest portion of rigidly supported and tied at intervals such that
tubing placed over the wiring. contact betwe4en such lines, related equip-
ment, fuel tank walls or other wires, would not
q. Ensure that wires and cables are occur, assuming a broken wire and a missing
routed in such a manner that chafing will not wire tie or clamp.
occur against the airframe or other compo-
nents. x. Ensure that a trap or drip loop is
provided to prevent fluids or condensed mois-
r. Ensure that wires and cables are po- ture from running into wires and cables
sitioned in such a manner that they are not dressed downward to a connector, terminal
likely to be used as handholds or as support for block, panel, or junction box.
personal belongings and equipment.
y. Wires and cables installed in bilges
s. Ensure that wires and cables are and other locations where fluids may be
routed, insofar as practicable, so that they are trapped are routed as far from the lowest point
not exposed to damage by personnel moving as possible or otherwise provided with a
within the aircraft. moisture-proof covering.
t. Ensure that wires and cables are lo- z. Separate wires from high-temperature
cated so as not to be susceptible to damage by equipment, such as resistors, exhaust stacks,
the storage or shifting of cargo. heating ducts, etc., to prevent insulation break-
down. Insulate wires that must run through
u. Ensure that wires and cables are hot areas with a high-temperature insulation
routed so that there is not a possibility of dam- material such as fiberglass or PTFE. Avoid
age from battery electrolytes or other corrosive high-temperature areas when using cables
fluids. having soft plastic insulation such as polyeth-
ylene, because these materials are subject to
v. Ensure that wires and cables are ade- deterioration and deformation at elevated tem-
quately protected in wheel wells and other ar- peratures. Many coaxial cables have this type
eas where they may be exposed to damage of insulation.
from impact of rocks, ice, mud, etc. (If re-
routing of wires or cables is not practical, pro- aa. The minimum radius of bends in
tective jacketing may be installed). This type wire groups or bundles must not be less than
of installation must be held to a minimum. 10 times the outside diameter of the largest
wire or cable, except that at the terminal strips
w. Where practical, route electrical wires where wires break out at terminations or re-
and cables above fluid lines and provide a 6
inch separation from any flammable liquid,
verse direction in a bundle. Where the wire is (4) Allow shifting of equipment, as
suitably supported, the radius may be 3 times necessary, to perform alignment, servicing,
the diameter of the wire or cable. Where it is tuning, removal of dust covers, and changing
not practical to install wiring or cables within of internal components while installed in air-
the radius requirements, the bend should be craft.
enclosed in insulating tubing. The radius for
thermocouple wire should be done in accor- ff. Ensure that unused wires are indi-
dance with the manufacturers recommenda- vidually dead-ended, tied into a bundle, and
tion and shall be sufficient to avoid excess secured to a permanent structure. Each wire
losses or damage to the cable. should have strands cut even with the insula-
tion and a pre-insulated closed end connector
bb. Ensure that RF cables, e.g., coaxial or a 1-inch piece of insulating tubing placed
and triaxial are bent at a radius of no less than over the wire with its end folded back and tied.
6 times the outside diameter of the cable.
gg. Ensure that all wires and cables are
cc. Ensure that wires and cables, that identified properly at intervals of not more
are attached to assemblies where relative than 15 inches. Coaxial cables are identified at
movement occurs (such as at hinges and ro- both equipment ends.
tating pieces; particularly doors, control sticks,
control wheels, columns, and flight control 11-97. WIRING REPLACEMENT. Wir-
surfaces), are installed or protected in such a ing must be replaced with equivalent wire (see
manner as to prevent deterioration of the wires paragraph 11-78) when found to have any of
and cables caused by the relative movement of the following defects:
the assembled parts.
a. Wiring that has been subjected to
dd. Ensure that wires and electrical ca- chafing or fraying, that has been severely dam-
bles are separated from mechanical control ca- aged, or that primary insulation is suspected of
bles. In no instance should wire be able to being penetrated.
come closer than 1/2 inch to such controls
when light hand pressure is applied to wires or b. Wiring on which the outer insulation is
controls. In cases where clearance is less than brittle to the point that slight flexing causes it
this, adequate support must be provided to to crack.
prevent chafing.
c. Wiring having weather-cracked outer
ee. Ensure that wires and cables are insulation.
provided with enough slack to meet the fol-
lowing requirements: d. Wiring that is known to have been ex-
posed to electrolyte or on which the insulation
(1) Permit ease of maintenance. appears to be, or is suspected of being, in an
initial stage of deterioration due to the effects
(2) Prevent mechanical strain on the of electrolyte.
wires, cables, junctions, and supports.
e. Check wiring that shows evidence of specific for the degradation mode of the insu-
overheating (even if only to a minor degree) lation. If the samples fail either the electrical
for the cause of the overheating. or chemical integrity tests, then the wiring in
the area surrounding the sampling area is a
f. Wiring on which the insulation has be- candidate for replacement.
come saturated with engine oil, hydraulic fluid,
or another lubricant. 11-98. TERMINALS AND TERMINAL
BLOCKS. Inspect to ensure that the follow-
g. Wiring that bears evidence of having ing installation requirements are met:
been crushed or severely kinked.
a. Insulating tubing is placed over termi-
h. Shielded wiring on which the metallic nals (except pre-insulated types) to provide
shield is frayed and/or corroded. Cleaning electrical protection and mechanical support
agents or preservatives should not be used to and is secured to prevent slippage of the tubing
minimize the effects of corrosion or deteriora- from the terminal.
tion of wire shields.
b. Terminal module blocks are securely
i. Wiring showing evidence of breaks, mounted and provided with adequate electrical
cracks, dirt, or moisture in the plastic sleeves clearances or insulation strips between
placed over wire splices or terminal lugs. mounting hardware and conductive parts, ex-
cept when the terminal block is used for
j. Sections of wire in which splices occur grounding purposes.
at less than 10-foot intervals, unless specifi-
cally authorized, due to parallel connections, c. Terminal connections to terminal
locations, or inaccessibility. module block studs and nuts on unused studs
are tight.
k. When replacing wiring or coaxial ca-
bles, identify them properly at both equipment d. Evidence of overheating and corro-
and power source ends. sion is not present on connections to terminal
module block studs.
l. Wire substitution-In the repair and
modification of existing aircraft, when a re- e. Physical damage to studs, stud threads,
placement wire is required, the maintenance and terminal module blocks is not evident.
manual for that aircraft should first be re- Replace cracked terminal strips and those
viewed to determine if the original aircraft studs with stripped threads.
manufacturer (OAM) has approved any sub-
stitution. If not, then the OAM should be f. The number of terminal connections
contacted for an acceptable replacement. to a terminal block stud does not exceed four,
unless specifically authorized.
m. Testing of the electrical and chemi-
cal integrity of the insulation of sample wires g. Shielding should be dead-ended with
taken from areas of the aircraft that have expe- suitable insulated terminals.
rienced wiring problems in the past, can be
used to supplement visual examination of the h. All wires, terminal blocks, and indi-
wire. The test for chemical integrity should be vidual studs are clearly identified to corre-
spond to aircraft wiring manuals.
i. Terminations should be made using so that tightening of the cable clamp adapter
terminals of the proper size and the appropriate cap provides sufficient grip on the wires to
terminal crimping tools. keep tension from being applied to the con-
nector pins.
11-99. FUSES AND FUSE HOLDERS.
Inspect as follows: d. Make sure unused plugs and recep-
tacles are covered to prevent inclusion of dust
a. Check security of connections to fuse and moisture. Receptacles should have metal
holders. or composite dust caps attached by their nor-
mal mating method. Plugs may have a dust
b. Inspect for the presence of corrosion cap similar to above or have a piece of
and evidence of overheating on fuses and fuse polyolefin shrink sleeving shrunk over the
holders. Replace corroded fuses and clean connector, starting from the backshell threads,
fuse holders. If evidence of overheating is with a tail sufficiently long enough to double-
found, check for correct rating of fuse. back over the connector and be tied with poly-
ester lacing tape behind the coupling nut. The
c. Check mounting security of fuse cable identification label should be visible be-
holder. hind the connector or a tag should be attached
identifying the associated circuit or attaching
d. Inspect for replenishment of spare equipment. The connector should be attached
fuses used in flight. Replace with fuses of ap- to structure by its normal mounting means or
propriate current rating only. by the use of appropriate clamps.
e. Inspect for exposed fuses susceptible e. Ensure that connectors are fully mated
to shorting. Install cover of nonconducting by checking position and tightness of coupling
material if required. ring or its alignment with fully mated indicator
line on receptacle, if applicable.
11-100. CONNECTORS. Ensure reliability
of connectors by verifying that the following f. Ensure that the coupling nut of MS
conditions are met or that repairs are effected connectors is safetied, by wire or other me-
as required. chanical locking means, as required by appli-
cable aircraft instructional manuals.
a. Inspect connectors for security and
evidence of overheating (cause of over-heating g. Ensure that moisture-absorbent ma-
must be corrected), and exteriors for corrosion terial is not used as fill for MS3057 clamps
and cracks. Also, wires leading to connectors or adapters.
must be inspected for deterioration due to
overheating. Replace corroded connections h. Ensure that there is no evidence of
and overheated connectors. deterioration such as cracking, missing, or
disintegration of the potting material.
b. Ensure installation of cable clamp
(reference MIL-C-85049) adapters on applica- i. Identical connectors in adjacent loca-
ble MS connectors, except those that are tions can lead to incorrect connections. When
moisture-proof. such installations are unavoidable, the attached
wiring must be clearly identified and must be FLEXIBLE METALLIC AND RIGID
routed and clamped so that it cannot be mis- NONMETALLIC. Inspection of conduit as-
matched. semblies should ascertain that:
11-101. JUNCTION BOXES, PANELS, c. Conduits will not trap fluids or con-
SHIELDS, AND MICROSWITCH HOUS- densed moisture. Suitable drain holes should
INGS. Examine housing assemblies to ascer- be provided at the low points.
tain the following:
d. Bonding clamps do not cause damage
a. Verify that one or more suitable to the conduit.
holes, about 3/8-inch diameter, but not less
than 1/8-inch diameter, are provided at the e. Weatherproof shields on flexible con-
lowest point of the box, except vapor-tight duits of the nose and main landing gear and in
boxes, to allow for drainage with the aircraft wheel wells are not broken; that metallic braid
on the ground or in level flight. of weatherproof conduit is not exposed; and
that conduit nuts, ferrules, and conduit fittings
b. Verify that vapor tight or explosion are installed securely.
proof boxes are externally labeled VAPOR-
TIGHT or EXPLOSION PROOF. f. Ends of open conduits are flared or
routed to avoid sharp edges that could chafe
c. Verify that boxes are securely wires exiting from the conduit.
mounted.
11-103. JUNCTIONS. Ensure that only air-
d. Verify that boxes are clean internally craft manufacturer approved devices, such as
and free of foreign objects. solderless type terminals, terminal blocks,
connectors, disconnect splices, permanent
e. Verify that safety wiring is installed splices, and feed-through bushings are used for
on all lid fasteners on J-boxes, panels, shields, cable junctions. Inspect for the provisions
or microswitch housings which are installed in outlined below:
areas not accessible for inspection in flight,
unless the fasteners incorporate self-locking a. Electrical junctions should be pro-
devices. tected from short circuits resulting from
movement of personnel, cargo, cases, and
f. Verify that box wiring is properly other loose or stored materials. Protection
aligned. should be provided by covering the junction,
installing them in junction boxes, or by locat-
g. Verify that there are no unplugged, un- ing them in such a manner that additional pro-
used holes (except drainage holes) in boxes. tection is not required, etc.
11-116. GROUP AND BUNDLE TIES. A ensure all edges are rounded to protect the wire
wire bundle consists of a quantity of wires insulation.
fastened or secured together and all traveling
in the same direction. Wire bundles may con- 11-117. MINIMUM WIRE BEND RADII.
sist of two or more groups of wires. It is often The minimum radii for bends in wire groups or
advantageous to have a number of wire groups bundles must not be less than 10 times the out-
individually tied within the wire bundle for side diameter of their largest wire. They may
ease of identification at a later date. (See fig- be bent at six times their outside diameters at
ure 11-7.) Comb the wire groups and bundles breakouts or six times the diameter where they
so that the wires will lie parallel to each other must reverse direction in a bundle, provided
and minimize the possibility of insulation that they are suitably supported.
abrasion. A combing tool, similar to that
shown in figure 11-8, may be made from any a. RF cables should not bend on a radius
suitable insulating material, taking care to of less than six times the outside diameter of
the cable.
11-122. MOISTURE PROTECTION, sunlight when aircraft are parked for extended
WHEEL WELLS, AND LANDING GEAR periods should also be taken into account.
AREAS. Wires such as in fire detection, fire extin-
guishing, fuel shutoff, and fly-by-wire flight
a. Wires located on landing gear and in control systems that must operate during and
the wheel well area can be exposed to many after a fire, must be selected from types that
hazardous conditions if not suitably protected. are qualified to provide circuit integrity after
Where wire bundles pass flex points, there exposure to fire for a specified period. Wire
must not be any strain on attachments or ex- insulation deteriorates rapidly when subjected
cessive slack when parts are fully extended or to high temperatures. Do not use wire with
retracted. The wiring and protective tubing soft polyethylene insulation in areas subject to
must be inspected frequently and replaced at high temperatures. Use only wires or cables
the first sign of wear. with heat resistance shielding or insulation.
11-134. [RESERVED.]
11-127.
11-145. [RESERVED.]
11-140.
11-146. GENERAL. Wires and wire bun- b. Clamps lined with nonmetallic mate-
dles must be supported by using clamps meet- rial should be used to support the wire bundle
ing Specification MS-21919, or plastic cable along the run. Tying may be used between
straps in accessible areas if correctly applied clamps, but should not be considered as a sub-
within the restrictions of paragraph 11-158. stitute for adequate clamping. Adhesive tapes
Clamps and other primary support devices are subject to age deterioration and, therefore,
must be constructed of materials that are com- are not acceptable as a clamping means.
patible with their installation and environment,
in terms of temperature, fluid resistance, expo- c. The back of the clamp, whenever
sure to ultraviolet (UV) light, and wire bundle practical, should be rested against a structural
mechanical loads. They should be spaced at member. Stand-offs should be used to main-
intervals not exceeding 24 inches. Clamps on tain clearance between the wires and the
wire bundles should be selected so that they structure. Clamps must be installed in such a
have a snug fit without pinching wires, as manner that the electrical wires do not come in
shown in figure 11-11 through figure 11-13. contact with other parts of the aircraft when
subjected to vibration. Sufficient slack should
CAUTION: The use of metal clamps be left between the last clamp and the electri-
on coaxial RF cables may cause prob- cal equipment to prevent strain at the terminal
lems if clamp fit is such that RF ca- and to minimize adverse effects on shock-
bles original cross-section is distorted. mounted equipment. Where wires or wire
bundles pass through bulkheads or other
a. Clamps on wire bundles should not structural members, a grommet or suitable
allow the bundle to move through the clamp clamp should be provided to prevent abrasion.
when a slight axial pull is applied. Clamps on
RF cables must fit without crushing and must d. When wire bundle is clamped into
be snug enough to prevent the cable from position, if there is less than 3/8-inch clearance
moving freely through the clamp, but may al- between the bulkhead cutout and the wire bun-
low the cable to slide through the clamp when dle, a suitable grommet should be installed as
a light axial pull is applied. The cable or wire indicated in figure 11-14. The grommet may
bundle may be wrapped with one or more turns be cut at a 45 degree angle to facilitate instal-
of electrical tape when required to achieve this lation, provided it is cemented in place and the
fit. Plastic clamps or cable ties must not be slot is located at the top of the cutout.
used where their failure could result in inter-
ference with movable controls, wire bundle 11-147. WIRE AND CABLE CLAMPS
contact with movable equipment, or chafing INSPECTION. Inspect wire and cable
damage to essential or unprotected wiring. clamps for proper tightness. Where cables
They must not be used on vertical runs where pass through structure or bulkheads, inspect
inadvertent slack migration could result in for proper clamping and grommets. Inspect
chafing or other damage. Clamps must be in- for sufficient slack between the last clamp and
stalled with their attachment hardware posi- the electronic equipment to prevent strain at
tioned above them, wherever practicable, so the cable terminals and to minimize adverse
that they are unlikely to rotate as the result of effects on shock-mounted equipment.
wire bundle weight or wire bundle chafing.
(See figure 11-11.).
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
11-154. [RESERVED.]
11-148.
Wire Size Conductor material Number of strands per Total allowable nicked and
conductor broken strands
of the strap would permit wiring to move 12 inches apart. A tie consists of a clove hitch,
against parts which could damage the insula- around the wire group or bundle, secured by a
tion and foul mechanical linkages or other square knot as shown in figure 11-17.
moving mechanical parts. They also may not
be used where they could be exposed to UV c. Plastic Ties. Refer to Para-
light, unless the straps are resistant to such ex- graph 11-220 and table 11-21.
posure.
11-159. INSULATION TAPE. Insulation
a. Lacing. Lace wire groups or bundles tape should be of a type suitable for the appli-
inside junction boxes or other enclosures. cation, or as specified for that particular use.
Single cord-lacing method, shown in fig- Insulation tape should be used primarily as a
ure 11-15, and tying tape, meeting specifica- filler under clamps and as secondary support.
tion MIL-T-43435, may be used for wire Nonadhesive tape may be used to wrap around
groups of bundles 1-inch in diameter or less. wiring for additional protection, such as in
The recommended knot for starting the single wheel wells. All tape should have the ends
cord-lacing method is a clove hitch secured by tied or otherwise suitably secured to prevent
a double-looped overhand knot as shown in unwinding. Tape used for protection should be
figure 11-15, step a. Use the double cord- applied so that overlapping layers shed liquids.
lacing method on wire bundles 1-inch in di- Drainage holes should be provided at all trap
ameter or larger as shown in figure 11-16. points and at each low point between clamps.
When using the double cord-lacing method, Plastic tapes, that absorb moisture or have
employ a bowline on a bight as the starting volatile plasticizers that produce chemical re-
knot. actions with other wiring, should not be used.
(Reference MIL-W-5088.)
b. Tying. Use wire group or bundle ties
where the supports for the wire are more than
11-166. [RESERVED.]
11-160.
11-167. GENERAL. Splicing is permitted c. There should not be more than one
on wiring as long as it does not affect the reli- splice in any one wire segment between any
ability and the electromechanical characteris- two connectors or other disconnect points, ex-
tics of the wiring. Splicing of power wires, cept; when attaching to the spare pigtail lead of
coaxial cables, multiplex bus, and large gauge a potted connector, to splice multiple wires to
wire must have approved data. a single wire, to adjust wire size to fit connec-
tor contact crimp barrel size, and to make an
a. Splicing of electrical wire should be approved repair. (Reference MIL-W-5088,
kept to a minimum and avoided entirely in now AS50881A, and NAVAIR 01-1A-505.)
locations subject to extreme vibrations.
Splicing of individual wires in a group or bun- d. Splices in bundles must be staggered
dle should have engineering approval and the so as to minimize any increase in the size of
splice(s) should be located to allow periodic the bundle, preventing the bundle from fitting
inspection. into its designated space, or cause congestion
that will adversely affect maintenance. (See
b. Many types of aircraft splice connec- figure 11-18.)
tors are available for use when splicing indi-
vidual wires. Use of a self-insulated splice e. Splices should not be used within
connector is preferred; however, a noninsu- 12 inches of a termination device, except for
lated splice connector may be used provided paragraph f below.
the splice is covered with plastic sleeving that
is secured at both ends. Environmentally f. Splices may be used within 12 inches
sealed splices, that conform to MIL-T-7928, of a termination device when attaching to the
provide a reliable means of splicing in pigtail spare lead of a potted termination de-
SWAMP areas. However, a noninsulated vice, or to splice multiple wires to a single
splice connector may be used, provided the wire, or to adjust the wire sizes so that they are
splice is covered with dual wall shrink compatible with the contact crimp barrel sizes.
sleeving of a suitable material.
g. Selection of proper crimping tool, re-
fer to paragraph 11-178.
11-173. [RESERVED.]
11-168.
11-174. GENERAL. Terminals are attached b. Terminal Strips. Wires are usually
to the ends of electrical wires to facilitate con joined at terminal strips. A terminal strip fit
nection of the wires to terminal strips or items ted with barriers should be used to prevent the
of equipment. The tensile strength of the wire terminals on adjacent studs from contacting
to-terminal joint should be at least equivalent each other. Studs should be anchored against
to the tensile strength of the wire itself, and its rotation. When more than four terminals are to
resistance negligible relative to the normal re be connected together, a small metal bus
sistance of the wire. should be mounted across two or more adja
cent studs. In all cases, the current should be
a. Selection of Wire Terminals. The carried by the terminal contact surfaces and not
following should be considered in the selection by the stud itself. Defective studs should be
of wire terminals. replaced with studs of the same size and mate
rial since terminal strip studs of the smaller
(1) Current rating. sizes may shear due to overtightening the nut.
The replacement stud should be securely
(2) Wire size (gauge) and insulation mounted in the terminal strip and the terminal
diameter. securing nut should be tight. Terminal strips
should be mounted in such a manner that loose
(3) Conductor material compatibility. metallic objects cannot fall across the termi
nals or studs. It is good practice to provide at
(4) Stud size. least one spare stud for future circuit expan
sion or in case a stud is broken. Terminal strips
(5) Insulation material compatibility. that provide connection of radio and electronic
systems to the aircraft electrical system should
(6) Application environment. be inspected for loose connections, metallic
objects that may have fallen across the termi
(7) Solder/solderless. nal strip, dirt and grease accumulation, etc.
These type conditions can cause arcing which
Pre-insulated crimp-type ring-tongue terminals may result in a fire, or system failures.
are preferred. The strength, size, and support
ing means of studs and binding posts, as well c. Terminal Lugs. Wire terminal lugs
as the wire size, should be considered when should be used to connect wiring to terminal
determining the number of terminals to be at block studs or equipment terminal studs. No
tached to any one post. In high-temperature more than four terminal lugs or three terminal
applications, the terminal temperature rating lugs and a bus bar should be connected to any
must be greater than the ambient temperature one stud. Total number of terminal lugs per
plus current related temperature rise. Use of stud includes a common bus bar joining adja
nickel-plated terminals and of uninsulated ter cent studs. Four terminal lugs plus a common
minals with high-temperature insulating bus bar thus are not permitted on one stud.
sleeves should be considered. Terminal blocks Terminal lugs should be selected with a stud
should be provided with adequate electrical hole diameter that matches the diameter of the
clearance or insulation strips between mount stud. However, when the terminal lugs at
ing hardware and conductive parts. tached to a stud vary in diameter, the greatest
diameter should be placed on the bottom and Class 1 terminal lugs to be used for service re
the smallest diameter on top. Tightening ter placement of any Class 2 terminal lugs in
minal connections should not deform the ter stalled.
minal lugs or the studs. Terminal lugs should
be so positioned that bending of the terminal g. Termination of Shielded Wire. For
lug is not required to remove the fastening termination of shielded wire refer to
screw or nut, and movement of the terminal MIL-DTL-27500.
lugs will tend to tighten the connection.
11-175. ATTACHMENT OF TERMI-
d. Copper Terminal Lugs. Solderless NALS TO STUDS. Connectors and terminals
crimp style, copper wire, terminal lugs should in aircraft require special attention to ensure a
be used and conform to MIL-T-7928. Spacers safe and satisfactory installation. Every possi
or washers should not be used between the bility of short circuits, due to misinstallation,
tongues of terminal lugs. poor maintenance, and service life, should be
addressed in the design. Electrical equipment
e. Aluminum Terminal Lugs. The alu malfunction has frequently been traced to poor
minum terminal lugs conforming to terminal connections at terminal boards.
MIL-T-7099 (MS-25435, MS-25436, Loose, dirty, or corroded contact surfaces can
MS-25437, and MS-25438) should be crimped produce localized heating that may ignite
to aluminum wire only. The tongue of the nearby combustible materials or overheat adja
aluminum terminal lugs or the total number of cent wire insulation. (See paragraph 11-178)
tongues of aluminum terminal lugs when
stacked, should be sandwiched between two 11-176. STUDS AND INSULATORS. The
MS-25440 flat washers when terminated on following recommendations concerning studs
terminal studs. Spacers or washers should not also apply to other feed-through conductors.
be used between the tongues of terminal lugs.
Special attention should be given to aluminum a. Current Carrying Stud Resistance.
wire and cable installations to guard against Due to heat loss arising from wire-to-lug and
conditions that would result in excessive volt lug-to-stud voltage drop, the resistance per unit
age drop and high resistance at junctions that length of a current carrying stud should not be
may ultimately lead to failure of the junction. greater than that of the wire.
Examples of such conditions are improper in
stallation of terminals and washers, improper b. Size of Studs. In designing the stud for
torsion (torquing of nuts), and inadequate a feed-through connection, attention should be
terminal contact areas. given to the higher resistance of brass, as com
pared to copper. A suggested method of de
f. Class 2 Terminal Lugs. The Class 2 termining the size is to use a current density in
terminal lugs conforming to MIL-T-7928 may the stud equivalent to that of the wire, com
be used for installation, provided that in such pensating for the difference of resistance of the
installations, Class 1 terminal lugs are ade metals. Consideration should also be given to
quate for replacement without rework of in mechanical strength.
stallation or terminal lugs. Class 2 terminal
lugs should be the insulated type, unless the c. Support for Studs. The main stud
conductor temperature exceeds 105 C. In that support in the feed-through insulation should
case uninsulated terminal lugs should be used. be independent of the attachment of the lugs to
Parts lists should indicate the appropriate the stud. Therefore, loosening of the insula
tion support of the stud will not affect the
electric contact efficiency. In other words, the 11-178. CRIMP ON TERMINAL LUGS
contact pressure on the wire lugs should not in AND SPLICES (pre-insulated crimp type).
any way be affected by the loosening of the The crimp on terminal lugs and splices must
stud in the insulator. be installed using a high quality ratchet-type,
crimping tool. We recommend the use of the
d. Support of Wire at Studs. Unless proper calibrated tool. Aircraft quality crimp
some other positive locking action is provided, tools are manufactured to standards. Such
the lug or wire should be supported next to the tools are provided with positioners for the wire
stud to prevent loosening the connection with a size and are adjusted for each wire size. It is
side pull on the wire. Torque recommenda essential that the crimp depth be appropriate
tions for attaching electrical wiring devices to for each wire size. If the crimp is too deep or
terminal boards or blocks, studs, posts, etc., not deep enough, it may break or cut individ
are normally found in the manufacturers ual strands, or it may not be tight enough to
maintenance instruction manual. retain the wire in the terminal or connector.
Crimps that are not tight enough are also sus
e. Feed-Through Insulator and Stud ceptible to high resistance due to corrosion
Design. Feed-through insulator design should build-up between the crimped terminal and the
be such as to prevent a loose insulator from wire. MIL-C22520/2 or MIL-T-DTl2250G
failing to provide circuit isolation. It should specification covers in detail the general re
not be able to move from between the stud and quirement for crimp tools, inspection gages
the structure, thus allowing the two to come and tool kits.
into contact. The assembly should be so de
signed that it is impossible to inadvertently a. Hand, portable, and stationary
misassemble the parts so that faults will result. power tools are available for crimping termi
Also, it is desirable to provide means to pre nal lugs. These tools crimp the barrel to the
vent the feed-through stud from turning while conductor, and simultaneously from the insu
tightening the connection. lation support to the wire insulation.
11-184. [RESERVED.]
11-180.
11-185. GENERAL. One of the more im ground return should be labeled ac Right.
portant factors in the design and maintenance The return currents for the left generator
of aircraft electrical systems is proper bonding should be connected to a ground point labeled
and grounding. Inadequate bonding or ac Left
grounding can lead to unreliable operation of
systems, e.g., EMI, electrostatic discharge b. Current Return Paths. The design of
damage to sensitive electronics, personnel the ground return circuit should be given as
shock hazard, or damage from lightning strike. much attention as the other leads of a circuit.
This section provides an overview of the prin A requirement for proper ground connections
ciples involved in the design and maintenance is that they maintain an impedance that is es
of electrical bonding and grounding. sentially constant. Ground return circuits
SAE ARP-1870 provides for more complete should have a current rating and voltage drop
detailed information on grounding and bond adequate for satisfactory operation of the con
ing, and the application of related hardware. nected electrical and electronic equipment.
EMI problems, that can be caused by a sys
11-186. GROUNDING. Grounding is the tems power wire, can be reduced substantially
process of electrically connecting conductive by locating the associated ground return near
objects to either a conductive structure or some the origin of the power wiring (e.g. circuit
other conductive return path for the purpose of breaker panel) and routing the power wire and
safely completing either a normal or fault cir its ground return in a twisted pair. Special care
cuit. should be exercised to ensure replacement on
ground return leads. The use of numbered in
a. Types of Grounding. If wires carrying sulated wire leads instead of bare grounding
return currents from different types of sources, jumpers may aid in this respect. In general,
such as signals of DC and AC generators, are equipment items should have an external
connected to the same ground point or have a ground connection, even when internally
common connection in the return paths, an in grounded. Direct connections to a magnesium
teraction of the currents will occur. Mixing (which may create a fire hazard) structure must
return currents from various sources should be not be used for ground return.
avoided because noise will be coupled from
one source to another and can be a major c. Heavy-Current Grounds. Power
problem for digital systems. To minimize the ground connections, for generators, trans
interaction between various return currents, former rectifiers, batteries, external power re
different types of grounds should be identified ceptacles, and other heavy-current, loads must
and used. As a minimum, the design should be attached to individual grounding brackets
use three ground types: (1) ac returns, (2) dc that are attached to aircraft structure with a
returns, and (3) all others. For distributed proper metal-to-metal bonding attachment.
power systems, the power return point for an This attachment and the surrounding structure
alternative power source would be separated. must provide adequate conductivity to ac
For example, in a two-ac generator (one on the commodate normal and fault currents of the
right side and the other on the left side) sys system without creating excessive voltage drop
tem, if the right ac generator were supplying or damage to the structure. At least three fas
backup power to equipment located in the left teners, located in a triangular or rectangular
side, (left equipment rack) the backup ac pattern, must be used to secure such brackets
f. Grounds for Sensitive Circuits. Spe be necessary for some objects such as antenna
cial consideration should be given to grounds elements, whose function requires them to be
for sensitive circuits. For example: electrically isolated from the airframe. Such
items should be provided with an alternative
(1) Grounding of a signal circuit means to conduct static charges and/or light
through a power current lead introduces power ning currents, as appropriate.
current return voltage drop into the signal cir
cuit. c. Static Bonds. All isolated conducting
parts inside and outside the aircraft, having an
(2) Running power wires too close will area greater than 3 in2 and a linear dimension
cause signal interference. over 3 inches, that are subjected to appreciable
electrostatic charging due to precipitation,
(3) Separately grounding two compo fluid, or air in motion, should have a mechani
nents of a transducer system may introduce cally secure electrical connection to the aircraft
ground plane voltage variations into the sys structure of sufficient conductivity to dissipate
tem. possible static charges. A resistance of less
than 1 ohm when clean and dry will generally
(4) Single point grounds for signal cir ensure such dissipation on larger objects.
cuits, with such grounds being at the signal Higher resistances are permissible in connect
source, are often a good way to minimize the ing smaller objects to airframe structure.
effects of EMI, lightning, and other sources of
interference. 11-188. BONDING INSPECTION. In
spect for the following:
11-187. BONDING. The following bonding
requirements must be considered: a. If there is evidence of electrical arc-
ing, check for intermittent electrical contact
a. Equipment Bonding. Low-impedance between conducting surfaces, that may become
paths to aircraft structure are normally required a part of a ground plane or a current path.
for electronic equipment to provide radio fre Arcing can be prevented either by bonding, or
quency return circuits and for most electrical by insulation if bonding is not necessary.
equipment to facilitate reduction in EMI. The
cases of components which produce electro b. The metallic conduit should be
magnetic energy should be grounded to struc bonded to the aircraft structure at each termi
ture. To ensure proper operation of electronic nating and break point. The conduit bonding
equipment, it is particularly important to con strap should be located ahead of the piece of
form the systems installation specification equipment that is connected to the cable wire
when interconnections, bonding, and ground inside the conduit.
ing are being accomplished.
c. Bond connections should be secure and
b. Metallic Surface Bonding. All con free from corrosion.
ducting objects on the exterior of the airframe
must be electrically connected to the airframe d. Bonding jumpers should be installed
through mechanical joints, conductive hinges, in such a manner as not to interfere in any way
or bond straps capable of conducting static with the operation of movable components of
charges and lightning strikes. Exceptions may the aircraft.
e. Self-tapping screws should not be used ensure proper operation and suppression of ra
for bonding purposes. Only standard threaded dio interference from hazards, electrical
screws or bolts of appropriate size should be bonding of equipment must conform to the
used. manufacturers specifications.
h. Bonds must be installed to ensure that k. Use appropriate washers when bond
the structure and equipment are electrically ing aluminum or copper to dissimilar metallic
stable and free from the hazards of lightning, structures so that any corrosion that may occur
static discharge, electrical shock, etc. To will be on the washer.
Magnesium
Alloys1
Magnesium Alloys Cadmium Plated Aluminum Alloy Cadmium Plated Cadmium Plated None or Mag
Steel Steel Steel or nesium Alloy
Aluminum
Steel, Cadmium Cadmium Plated Corrosion Cadmium Plated Cadmium Plated None
Plated Steel Resisting Steel Steel Steel or
Aluminum
Steel, Corrosion Re- Corrosion Resisting Corrosion Cadmium Plated Cadmium Plated Cadmium
sisting Steel or Cadmium Resisting Steel Steel Steel or Plated Steel
Plated Steel Aluminum
Tinned Copper Terminal and Jumper
Aluminum Alloys Cadmium Plated Aluminum Alloy Cadmium Plated Cadmium Plated Aluminum2
Steel Steel Steel Alloy
Magnesium Alloys1
Steel, Cadmium Cadmium Plated Corrosion Cadmium Plated Cadmium Plated None
Plated Steel Resisting Steel Steel Steel
Steel, Corrosion Corrosion Resisting Corrosion Cadmium Plated Cadmium Plated None
Resisting Steel Resisting Steel Steel Steel
1
Avoid connecting copper to magnesium.
2.
Use washers having a conductive finished treated to prevent corrosion, suggest AN960JD10L
Magnesium Alloys Cadmium Plated Cadmium Plated Magnesium Alloy None or Cadmium Plated
Steel Steel Magnesium alloy Steel or
Aluminum
Steel, Cadmium Cadmium Plated Cadmium Plated Cadmium Plated Cadmium Cadmium Plated
Plated Steel Steel Steel Plated Steel Steel or
Aluminum
Steel, Corrosion Re- Corrosion Resisting Cadmium Plated Corrosion Cadmium Cadmium Plated
sisting Steel or Cadmium Steel Resisting Steel Plated Steel Steel or
Plated Steel Aluminum
Tinned Copper Terminal and Jumper
Aluminum Alloy Cadmium Plated Cadmium Plated Cadmium Plated Aluminum2 Cadmium
Steel Steel Steel Alloy Plated Steel
Magnesium Alloy1
Steel, Cadmium Cadmium Plated Cadmium Plated Cadmium Plated None Cadmium
Plated Steel Steel Steel Plated Steel
Steel, Corrosion Re Corrosion Resisting Cadmium Plated Corrosion Resisting None Cadmium
sisting Steel or Cadmium Steel Steel Plated Steel
Plated Steel
1
Avoid connecting copper to magnesium.
2.
Use washers having a conductive finished treated to prevent corrosion, suggest AN960JD10L
across each hinge. In any case, not less than ground personnel coming in contact with an
two 6500 circular mil jumpers should be used aircraft after landing. Normally, there is ade
on each control surface. The installation loca quate conductivity in the tires for this, but if
tion of these jumpers should be carefully cho not, a static ground should be applied before
sen to provide a low-impedance shunt for personnel come into contact with the aircraft.
lightning current across the hinge to the struc Fuel nozzle grounding receptacles should be
ture. When jumpers may be subjected to arc installed in accordance with the manufac
ing, substantially larger wire sizes of turers specifications. Grounding receptacles
40,000 circular mils or a larger cross section should provide a means to eliminate the static-
are required to provide protection against mul induced voltage that might otherwise cause a
tiple strikes. Sharp bends and loops in such spark between a fuel nozzle and fuel tank ac
jumpers can create susceptibility to breakage cess covers and inlets. In addition, static dis
when subjected to the inductive forces created charging wicks are installed on wings and tail
by lightning current, and should be avoided. surfaces to discharge static changes while in
flight.
b. Control Cable Lightning Protection
Bonding. To prevent damage to the control 11-196. CLEANING. In order to ensure
system or injury to flight personnel due to proper ground connection conductivity, all
lightning strike, cables and levers coming from paint, primer, anodize coating, grease, and
each control surface should be protected by other foreign material must be carefully re
one or more bonding jumpers located as close moved from areas that conduct electricity. On
to the control surface as possible. Metal pul aluminum surfaces, apply chemical surface
leys are considered a satisfactory ground for treatment to the cleaned bare metal surface in
control cables. accordance with the manufacturers instruc
tions within 4-8 hours, depending on ambient
11-194. LIGHTNING PROTECTION moisture/contaminate content.
FOR ANTENNAS AND AIR DATA
PROBES. Antenna and air data probes that 11-197. HARDWARE ASSEMBLY. De
are mounted on exterior surfaces within light tails of bonding connections must be de
ning strike zones should be provided with a scribed in maintenance manuals and adhered to
means to safely transfer lightning currents to carefully when connections are removed or re
the airframe, and to prevent hazardous surges placed during maintenance operations. In or
from being conducted into the airframe via der to avoid corrosion problems and ensure
antenna cables or wire harnesses. Usually, the long-term integrity of the electrical connection,
antenna mounting bolts provide adequate hardware used for this purpose must be as de
lightning current paths. Surge protectors built fined in these documents or at least be
into antennas or installed in coaxial antenna equivalent in material and surface. Installation
cables or probe wire harnesses will fulfill these of fasteners used in bonded or grounded con
requirements. Candidate designs should be nections should be made in accordance with
verified by simulated lightning tests in accor SAE ARP-1870. Threaded fasteners must be
dance with RTCA DO-160C, Section 23. torqued to the level required by SAE
ARP-1928.
11-195. STATIC-DISCHARGE DEVICE.
Means should be provided to bleed accumu 11-204. [RESERVED.]
11-198.
lated static charges from aircraft prior to
the color should contrast with the wire insula- tion or sleeve.
3 15 15 3
H215A20 H215A20 H215A20
contour of the wire, are heated to the desired pending on equipment configuration, dot ma
temperature. Wire is pulled through a channel trix can mark wire from 0.037 to 0.5-inch out
directly underneath the characters. The heat of side diameter. Multi-conductor cable can also
the type set characters transfers the ink from be marked.
the marking foil onto the wire.
11-212. INK JET MARKING. This is a
a. Good marking is obtained only by the non-impact marking method wherein ink
proper combination of temperature, pressure, droplets are electrically charged and then di
and dwelling. Hot stamp will mark wire with rected onto the moving wire to form the char
an outside diameter of 0.038 to 0.25-inch. acters. Two basic ink types are available:
thermal cure and UV cure.
b. Before producing hot stamp wire, it
must be assured that the marking machine is a. Thermal cure inks must generally be
properly adjusted to provide the best wire heated in an oven for a length of time after
marking with the least wire insulation deterio marking to obtain their durability. UV cure
ration. The marking should never create an inks are cured in line much like dot matrix.
indent greater than 10 percent of the insulation
wall. b. Ink jet marks the wire on the fly and
makes a reasonably durable and legible mark
CAUTION: The traditional Hot without damaging the insulation. Ink jets
Stamp method is not recommended normally mark wire from 0.030 to 0.25-inch
for use on wire with outside diameters outside diameter. Multiconductor cable can
of less than 0.035. (REF. SAE also be marked.
ARP5369). Stamping dies may cause
fracture of the insulation wall and 11-213. LASER MARKING. Of the variety
penetration to the conductor of these of laser marking machines, UV lasers are
materials. When various fluids wet proving to be the best. This method marks
these opening in service, arcing and into the surface of the wires insulation without
surface tracking damage wire bun- degradation to its performance. One common
dles. Later in service, when various type of UV laser is referred to as an excimer
fluids have wet these openings, serious laser marker. UV laser produces the most du
arcing and surface tracking will have rable marks because it marks into the insula
damaged wire bundles. tion instead of on the surface. However, exci
mer laser will only mark insulation that con
11-211. DOT MATRIX MARKING. The tain appropriate percentages of titanium diox
dot matrix marking is imprinted onto the wire ide (TiO2). The wire can be marked on the fly.
or cable very similar to that of a dot matrix UV can mark from 0.030 to 0.25-inch outside
computer printer. The wire must go through a diameter. The UV laser makes only gray
cleaning process to make sure it is clean and marks and they appear more legible on white
dry for the ink to adhere. Wires marked with or pastel-colored insulation.
dot matrix equipment require a cure consisting
of an UV curing process, which is normally 11-214. IDENTIFICATION SLEEVES.
applied by the marking equipment. This cure Flexible sleeving, either clear or opaque, is
should normally be complete 16 to 24 hours satisfactory for general use. When color-coded
after marking. Dot matrix makes a legible or striped component wire is used as part of a
mark without damaging the insulation. De cable, the identification sleeve should
specify which color is associated with each 11-216. OPERATING CONDITIONS. For
wire identification code. Identification sleeves sleeving exposed to high temperatures (over
are normally used for identifying the following 400 F), materials such as silicone fiberglass
types of wire or cable: should be used.
a. Wires for which identifications are FIGURE 11-26. Standard sleeves (135 C).
reassigned after installation, may be remarked
on sleeves at the termination of each wire
segment. It may be necessary to reidentify
such wires throughout their lengths to facili
tate ease of maintenance.
FIGURE 11-31. Completed installation. f. Secure each end of clear sleeve with
lacing tape spot tie to prevent loosening of
sleeve.
11-229. [RESERVED.]
11-223.
MS CONNECTOR
N Series Connectors
C Series Connectors
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
SC Series Connectors
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
When used as grounding modules, they save 11-233. VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
and reduce hardware installation on the air- RATING. Selected connectors must be rated
craft. Standardized modules are available with for continuous operation under the maximum
wire end grommet seals for environmental ap- combination of ambient temperature and cir-
plications and are track-mounted. Function cuit current load. Hermetic connectors and
module blocks are used to provide an easily connectors used in circuit applications involv-
wired package for environment-resistant ing high-inrush currents should be derated. It
mounting of small resistors, diodes, filters, and is good engineering practice to conduct pre-
suppression networks. In-line terminal junc- liminary testing in any situation where the
tions are sometimes used in lieu of a connector connector is to operate with most or all of its
when only a few wires are terminated and contacts at maximum rated current load. When
when the ability to disconnect the wires is de- wiring is operating with a high conductor tem-
sired. The in-line terminal junction is envi- perature near its rated temperature, connector
ronment-resistant. The terminal junction contact sizes should be suitably rated for the
splice is small and may be tied to the surface circuit load. This may require an increase in
of a wire bundle when approved by the OAM. wire size also. Voltage derating is required
when connectors are used at high altitude in
separate strain relief accessory. Strain relief compound. Preparation and storage of potting
clamps should not impart tension on wires materials should receive special attention.
between the clamp and contact. Careful inspection and handling during all
stages of the connector fabrication until the
f. Slack. Sufficient wire length must be potting compound has fully cured is recom-
provided at connectors to ensure a proper drip mended. Potting compounds selected must not
loop and that there is no strain on termination revert to liquid or become gummy or sticky
after a complete replacement of the connector due to high humidity or contact with chemical
and its contacts. fluids.
moisture in the connectors. A secondary bene- the wire bundle. Clean the areas to be potted
fit of potting is the reduced possibility of with dry solvent and complete the potting op-
breakage between the contact and wire due to eration within 2 hours after this cleaning. Al-
vibration. low the potting compound to cure for 24 hours
at a room temperature of 70 F to 75 F or
a. Connectors specifically designed for carefully placed in a drying oven at 100 F for
potting compounds should be potted to pro- 3 to 4 hours. In all cases follow manufac-
vide environment resistance. An o-ring or turers instructions.
sealed gasket should be included to seal the
interface area of the mated connector. A plas- 11-240. THROUGH BOLTS. Through
tic potting mold, that remains on the connector bolts are sometimes used to make feeder con-
after the potting compounds have cured, nections through bulkheads, fuselage skin, or
should also be considered. To facilitate circuit firewalls. Mounting plates for through bolts
changes, spare wires may be installed to all must be a material that provides the necessary
unused contacts prior to filling the connector fire barrier, insulation, and thermal properties
with potting compound. for the application. Sufficient cross section
should be provided to ensure adequate con-
b. Connect wires to all contacts of the ductivity against overheating. Secure through
connector prior to the application of the pot- bolts mechanically and independently of the
ting compound. Wires that are not to be used terminal mounting nuts, taking particular care
should be long enough to permit splicing at a to avoid dissimilar metals among the terminal
later date. Unused wires should be as shown hardware. During inspection, pay particular
in figure 11-38 and the cut ends capped with attention to the condition of the insulator plate
heat-shrinkable caps or crimped insulated end or spacer and the insulating boot that covers
caps such as the MS 25274 prior to securing to the completed terminal assembly.
11-247. [RESERVED.]
11-241.
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
11-253. FLEXIBLE CONDUIT. Flexible cutting through the tape. After cutting the
aluminum conduit conforming to Specifica- flexible conduit, the transparent tape should
tion MIL-C-6136 is available in two types: be removed, the frayed braid ends trimmed,
Type I, Bare Flexible Conduit, and Type II, burrs removed from inside the conduit, and
Rubber Covered Flexible Conduit. Flexible coupling nut and ferrule installed. Minimum
brass conduit conforming to Specification acceptable bending radii for flexible conduit
MIL-C-7931 is available and normally used are shown in table 11-24.
instead of flexible aluminum where necessary
to minimize radio interference. Also avail- TABLE 11-24. Minimum bending radii for flexible alu-
able is a plastic flexible tubing. (Reference minum or brass conduit.
MIL-T-8191A.) Flexible conduit may be used Nominal I.D. of conduit Minimum bending radius
(inches) inside (inches)
where it is impractical to use rigid conduit,
3/16 2 1/4
such as areas that have motion between con- 1/4 2 3/4
duit ends or where complex bends are neces- 3/8 3 3/4
1/2 3 3/4
sary. The use of transparent adhesive tape is 5/8 3 3/4
recommended when cutting flexible tubing 3/4 4 1/4
1 5 3/4
with a hacksaw to minimize fraying of the 1 1/4 8
braid. The tape should be centered over the 1 1/2 8 1/4
1 3/4 9
cutting reference mark with the saw 2 9 3/4
2 1/2 10
11-259. [RESERVED.]
11-254.
11-260. GENERAL. Connectors may have perature (greater than 250 C) lacing cord.
one or more contact cavities that are not used. Nylon cable ties are not allowed for this in-
Depending on the connector installation, un- stallation.
used connector contact cavities may need to be
properly sealed to avoid damage to the con- NOTE: Both connectors mating
nector, or have string wire installed. Unused through the engine fire-seal are con-
wires can be secured by tying into a bundle or sidered firewall connectors. Connec-
secured to a permanent structure; individually tors mounted on or near, but not
cut with strands even with insulation; or pre- through, the engine fire-seal are not
insulated closed end connector or 1 inch piece considered firewall connectors.
of insulating tubing folded and tied back. b. Non-firewall Connector Installations.
11-261. QUICK REFERENCE CHART. In this type of installation all unused connector
A quick reference chart of unused connector cavities must also be filled with spare contacts.
contact cavity requirements is given in ta- It is not required, however, to crimp stub wires
ble 11-25. These requirements apply to har- on filling contacts.
ness manufacturing or connector replacement Fill unused contact cavities with spare contacts
only. and Teflon sealing plugs or rods. (See fig-
11-262. UNPRESSURIZED AREA CON- ure 11-40.) Rods shall be cut so that they ex-
NECTORS. Connectors may be installed in tend 1/8 to 1/4 inch beyond the surface of the
unpressurized areas of the aircraft. Unused grommet when bottomed against the end of the
connector contact cavities installed in unpres- spare contact. (See table 11-26 for dimen-
surized areas should be properly sealed as fol- sions.)
lows: 11-263. PRESSURIZED AREAS. Con-
a. Firewall Connectors Installations. nectors installed in pressurized areas of the
Firewall unused connector contact cavities aircraft may be divided into two main installa-
should be filled with spare contacts and stub tion categories, sealed and unsealed.
wires. (See figure 11-39.) a. Sealed connector installations. Sealed
(1) Construct stub wires using high connectors installed in pressurized areas must
temperature wire (260 C). Ensure that stub have their unused contact cavities filled with
wires are of the same type of wires in the bun- Teflon sealing plugs or rods. (See fig-
dle. ure 11-40.) Installation of spare contacts is
optional, except for future wiring addition re-
(2) Crimp the proper contact, for the quirements. (See paragraph 11-234). No stub
connector and cavity being used, onto the wire. wires are required.
Install the crimped contact into the unused
cavity. b. Unsealed Connector Installations. It
is not required to fill unused contact cavities of
(3) Extend stub wires beyond the back unsealed connectors installed in pressurized
of the connector clamp from 1.5 to 6 inches. areas with Teflon sealing plugs or rods. In-
Feather trim stub wires to taper wire bundle. stallation of spare contacts is optional, except
for future wiring addition requirements. (See
(4) Secure wire ends with high tem paragraph 11-234.)
NOTE 2: Stub wires must be of the same type as the other wires of the bundle.
11-270. [RESERVED.]
11-264.
11-271. GENERAL. The electrical and 11-272. SYMBOLS. Only those symbols
electronic symbols shown here are those that associated with aircraft electrical and elec-
are likely to be encountered by the aviation tronic wiring have been listed in general. Re-
maintenance technician. They are in accor- fer to ANSI-Y32.2-1975 for more specific
dance with ANSI-Y32.2-1975. detail on each symbol.
Symbol Meaning
Adjustability Variability
Radiation Indicators
Test-Point Recognition
Polarity Markings
Kind of Current
Envelope Enclosure
Shield Shielding
Symbol Meaning
Resistor
Capacitor
Antenna
Battery
Thermocouple
Ignitor Plug
Symbol Meaning
Transmission Patch
Conductor
Cable
Wiring
Distribution Lines
Transmission Lines
Associated or Future
Symbol Meaning
Waveguide
Termination
Circuit Return
Switching Function
Electrical Contact
Symbol Meaning
Operating Coil
Relay Coil
Switch
Symbol Meaning
Locking Switch
Key-Type Switch
Lever Switch
Symbol Meaning
Safety Interlock
Limit Switch
Sensitive Switch
Flow-Actuated Switch
Symbol Meaning
Temperature-Actuated Switch
Thermostat
Flasher
Self-Interrupting Switch
Foot-Operated Switch
Foot Switch
Symbol Meaning
Governor
Speed Regulator
Relay
Inertia Switch
Mercur Switch
Terminals
Symbol Meaning
Cable Termination
Connector
Disconnecting Device
Test Blocks
Coaxial Connector
Waveguide Flanges
Waveguide Junction
Symbol Meaning
Fuse
Lightning Arrester
Arrester
Gap
Circuit Breaker
Protective Relay
Audible-Signaling Device
Microphone
Symbol Meaning
Handset
Operators Set
Lamp
Visual-Signaling Device
Mechanical Connection
Mechanical Interlock
Mechanical Motion
Clutch Brake
Symbol Meaning
Manual Control
Gyro
Gyroscope
Gyrocompass
Position Indicator
Position Transmitter
Radio Station
Space Station
Integrated Circuit
Amplifiers
Logic Gates
Diode
Transistor Symbols
11-283. [RESERVED.]
11-273.
(ELECTRICAL)
12-8. GENERAL. When the operating or (4) Check to assure that the radios and
airworthiness regulations require a system to instruments are secured to the instrument
perform its intended function, the use of the panel.
Technical Standard Order (TSO) equipment or
the submission of data substantiating the (5) Check that all avionics are free of
equipment performance is strongly recom dust, dirt, lint, or any other airborne contami
mended. An operation check of avionics is the nates. If there is a forced air cooling system, it
responsibility of the pilot in command. How must be inspected for proper operation.
ever, it is recommended that after replacement Equipment ventilation openings must not be
of equipment during 100 hour or annual in obstructed.
spections, an operational check of avionics
equipment be performed. The accomplish (6) Check the microphone headset
ments of these checks must be done in accor plugs and connectors and all switches and
dance with the recommendations and proce controls for condition and operation. Check
dures set forth in the aircrafts flight manual all avionics instruments for placards. Check
instructions published by the avionics equip lightening, annunciator lights, and cockpit in
ment manufacturers. terphone for proper operation.
(6) missing or poor sealant at base of (2) assurance that one inch of the inner
antenna braid of flexible vinyl cover wicks extends be
yond the vinyl covering,
(7) correct installation
(3) assurance that all dischargers are
(8) signs of corrosion, and present and securely mounted to their base,
(9) the condition of paint/bonding and (4) assurance that all bases are securely
grounding. bonded to skin of aircraft in order to prevent
the existence in voltage level differences be
(10) Check the bonding of each antenna tween two surfaces,
from mounting base to the aircraft skin. Tol
erance: .1 ohm, maximum. (5) signs of excessive erosion or dete
rioration of discharger tip,
(a) Test Equipment:
(6) lighting damage as evidenced by
1 1502B Metallic Time Domain pitting of the metal base, and
Reflectometer or equivalent.
(7) megohm value of static wick itself
2 Thruline Wattmeter. as per manufacturers instructions. It should
not be open.
(b) Perform the antenna evaluation
check using the domain reflectometer to de d. Subsequent inspection must be made
termine the condition of the antenna and coax after a maintenance action on a transponder.
cables. Refer to manufacturers maintenance Refer to Title 14 of the Code of Federal
procedures. Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, sections 91.411
and 91.413.
(c) Use thruline wattmeter as needed
for addition evaluation. Refer to manufac e. Inspection of the emergency locator
turers maintenance procedures. Check for the transmitter operation, condition and date of
following: the battery.
transmission, squelch, operations using head at a different frequency. The aircraft unit
phones, speaker(s), and hand microphone. If a measures the time it takes to transmit and then
receiver or transmitter is found to be defective, receive the signal, which then is translated into
it should be removed from the aircraft and re distance. DME operates on frequencies from
paired. 962 MHz to 1213 MHz. Because of the cur
vature of earth, this line-of-sight signal is reli
12-11. VHF OMNI-DIRECTIONAL able up to 199 nautical mile (NM) at the high
RANGE (VOR). A VOR operates within the end of the controlled airspace with an accuracy
108.0 to 111.85 MHz, and 112.0 to 117.95 of 1/2 mile or 3 percent of the distance. DME
MHz frequency bands. The display usually inspection/maintenance on the aircraft is most
consists of a deviation indicator and a commonly limited to a visual check of the in
TO/FROM indicator. The controls consist of a stallation, and if there have been previously
frequency selector for selecting the ground reported problems, the antenna must be in
station and an OBS, which is used for course spected for proper bonding and the absence of
selection. An ON/OFF flag is used to deter corrosion, both on the mounting surface, as
mine adequate field strength and presence of a well as the coax connector. Accuracy can be
valid signal. There are numerous configura determined by evaluating performance during
tions when integrated into flight directors flight operations, as well as with ground test
and/or when using a slaved compass system, equipment. If a discrepancy is reported and
which uses an additional indicator that points corrected, it is good practice to make the accu
continually to the selected omni station re racy determination before instrument flight.
gardless of OBS selection. In order to deter Tune the DME to a local station, or use the
mine the accuracy specified in a functional proper ground test equipment to check audio
check, a ground test set must be used in accor identification, and DME hold function verify
dance with the manufacturers specifications. correct display operation.
For the purpose of this inspection/maintenance
activity, the following operational check can 12-13. AUTOMATIC DIRECTION
be accomplished to determine if the equipment FINDER (ADF). The ADF receivers are pri
has the accuracy required for operation in in marily designed to receive nondirectional bea
strument flight rules (IFR) environment. Ver cons (NDB) in the 19 to 535 kHz amplitude
ify audio identification, OBS operation, flag modulation (AM) broadcast low band. The
operation, radio magnetic indicator (RMI) in receivers will also operate in the commercial
terface, and applicable navigation (NAV) AM band. The ADF display pointer will indi
switching functions. The operational check is cate the relative bearing to a selected AM band
also published in the AIM, section 1-1-4. This transmitter that is in range. An ADF system
check is required by 14 CFR part 91, sec must be checked by tuning to an adequate
tion 91.171 before instrument flight opera NDB or commercial AM station. Verify
tions. proper bearing to station, audio identification
and tone/beat frequency oscillator (BFO), cor
12-12. DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIP- rect operation in closed circuit (LOOP) and
MENT (DME). The operation of DME con sense modes. Note the orientation of the se
sists of paired pulses at a specific spacing, sent lected station to the aircraft using an appropri
out from the aircraft (this is what is called in ate chart. Observe the ADF relative bearing
terrogation), and are received by the ground reading, and compare to the chart. Slew the
station, which then responds with paired pulses needle and observe how fast (or slowly) it re
at the specific spacing sent by the aircraft, but turns to the reading. ADF performance may
be degraded by lightning activity, airframe must be conducted under visual flight rules
charging, ignition noise and atmospheric phe (VFR) conditions. A failed or misleading
nomena. system must be serviced by an appropriately-
rated repair station. Ground test equipment
12-14. INSTRUMENT LANDING can be used to verify glide slope operation.
SYSTEMS (ILS). The ILS consist of several
components, such as the localizer, glide slope, c. Localizer/Glide Slope (LOC/GS) may
marker beacon, radio altimeter, and DME. have self test function, otherwise the proper
Localizer and glide slope receivers and marker ground test equipment must be used. Refer to
beacons will be discussed in this section. manufacturers or aircraft instruction manual.
(VHF) navigation and communications sys ment flight rule (IFR) are required to have
tems. This system has an automatic test their static system(s) and each altimeter in
equipment (ATE). strument inspected and tested within the previ
ous 24 calendar months. Frequent functional
NOTE: Aircraft must be outside of checks of all altimeters and automatic pressure
hangar for LORAN to operate. altitude reporting systems are recommended.
Normally self test check units, verification of a. The tests required must be performed
position, and loading of flight plan will verify by:
operation verification of proper flight manual
supplements and operating handbooks on (1) The manufacturer of the aircraft on
board, and proper software status can also be which the tests and inspection are to be per
verified. formed.
(2) A certificated repair station properly
12-17. GLOBAL POSITIONING equipped to perform those functions and
SYSTEM (GPS). The GPS is at the forefront holding:
of present generation navigation systems. This (a) An instrument rating Class I.
space-based navigation system is based on a (b) A limited instrument rating ap
24-satellite system and is highly accurate propriate to the make and model of appliance
(within 100 meters) for establishing position. to be tested.
The system is unaffected by weather and pro (c) A certified/qualified mechanic
vides a world-wide common grid reference with an airframe rating(static system tests and
system. Database updating and antenna main inspections only). Any adjustments shall be
tenance are of primary concern to the GPS accomplished only by an instrument shop cer
user. tified/qualified person using proper test
equipment and adequate reference to the
NOTE: Aircraft must be outside of manufacturers maintenance manuals. The
hangar for ground test of GPS. altimeter correlation adjustment shall not be
adjusted in the field. Changing this adjustment
12-18. AUTOPILOT SYSTEMS. Auto will nullify the correspondence between the
matic Flight Control Systems (AFCS) are the basic test equipment calibration standards and
most efficient managers of aircraft perform the altimeter. It will also nullify correspon
ance and control. There are three kinds of dence between the encoding altimeter and its
autopilot; two axes, three axes, and three axes encoding digitizer or the associated blind en
with coupled approach capability. Attention coder.
must be given to the disconnect switch opera
tion, aural and visual alerts of automatic and b. Examine the altimeter face for evi
intentional autopilot disconnects, override dence of needle scrapes or other damage.
forces and mode annunciation, servo opera Check smoothness of operation, with particu
tion, rigging and bridle cable tension, and con lar attention to altimeter performance during
dition. In all cases the manufacturers inspec decent.
tion and maintenance instructions must be
followed. c. Contact an appropriate air traffic fa-
cility for the pressure altitude displayed to the
12-19. ALTIMETERS. Aircraft conducting controller from your aircraft. Correct the re
operations in controlled airspace under instru ported altitude as needed, and compare to the
reading on the altimeter instrument. The dif previously installed VHF antennas could be
ference must not exceed 125 feet. measured after an ELT installation. Tests
should be conducted during the first 5 minutes
12-20. TRANSPONDERS. There are three after any hour. If operational tests must be
modes (types) of transponders that can be used made outside of this time frame, they should
on various aircraft. Mode A provides a be coordinated with the nearest FAA Control
(non altitude-reporting) four-digit coded reply; Tower or FSS. Tests should be no longer than
Mode C provides a code reply identical to three audible sweeps.
Mode A with an altitude-reporting signal; and
Mode S has the same capabilities as Mode A 12-22. INSPECTION OF ELT. An in
and Mode C and responds to traffic alert and spection of the following must be accom
collision avoidance system (TCAS)-Equipped plished by a properly certified person or repair
Aircraft. station within 12-calendar months after the last
a. Ground ramp equipment must be inspection:
used to demonstrate proper operation. Enough
codes must be selected so that each switchpo a. Proper Installation.
sition is checked at least once. Low and high
sensitivity operation must be checked. Identi (1) Remove all interconnections to the
fication operation must be checked. Altitude ELT unit and ELT antenna. Visually inspect
reporting mode must be demonstrated. Dem and confirm proper seating of all connector
onstrate that the transponder system does not pins. Special attention should be given to co
interfere with other systems aboard the aircraft, axial center conductor pins, which are prone to
and that other equipment does not interfere retracting into the connector housing.
with transponder operation. Special consid
eration must be given to other pulse equip (2) Remove the ELT from the mount
ment, such as DME and weather radar. and inspect the mounting hardware for proper
installation and security.
b. All transponders must be tested every
24-calendar months, or during an annual in (3) Reinstall the ELT into its mount and
spection, if requested by the owner. The test verify the proper direction for crash activation.
must be conducted by an authorized avionics Reconnect all cables. They should have some
repair facility. slack at each end and should be properly se
cured to the airplane structure for support and
12-21. EMERGENCY LOCATOR protection.
TRANS- MITTERS (ELT). The ELT must
be evaluated in accordance with TSO-C91a, b. Battery Corrosion. Gain access to the
TSO-C126 for 406 MHz ELTs, or later TSOs ELT battery and inspect. No corrosion should
issued for ELTs. ELT installations must be be detectable. Verify the ELT battery is ap
examined for potential operational problems at proved and check its expiration date.
least once a year (section 91.207(d)). There
have been numerous instances of interaction c. Operation of the Controls and Crash
between ELT and other VHF installations. Sensor. Activate the ELT using an applied
Antenna location should be as far as possible force. Consult the ELT manufacturers in
from other antennas to prevent efficiency structions before activation. The direction for
losses. Check ELT antenna installations in mounting and force activation is indicated on
close proximity to other VHF antennas for
suspected interference. Antenna patterns of
the ELT. A TSO-C91 ELT can be activated by NOTE 2: This is not a measured
using a quick rap with the palm. A TSO-C91a check; but it does provide confidence
ELT can be activated by using a rapid forward that the antenna is radiating with suf-
(throwing) motion coupled by a rapid revers ficient power to aid search and rescue.
ing action. Verify that the ELT can be acti The signal may be weak even if it is
vated using a watt meter, the airplanes VHF picked up by an aircraft VHF receiver
radio communications receiver tuned to located at a considerable distance
121.5 MHz, or other means (see NOTE 1). from the radiating ELT. Therefore,
Insure that the G switch has been reset if ap this check does not check the integrity
plicable. of the ELT system or provide the same
level of confidence as does the AM ra-
d. For a Sufficient Signal Radiated dio check.
From its Antenna. Activate the ELT using
the ON or ELT TEST switch. A low-quality NOTE 3: Because the ELT radiates
AM broadcast radio receiver should be used to on the emergency frequency, the Fed-
determine if energy is being transmitted from eral Communications Commission al-
the antenna. When the antenna of the AM lows these tests only to be conducted
broadcast radio receiver (tuning dial on any within the first five minutes after any
setting) is held about 6 inches from the acti hour and is limited in three sweeps of
vated ELT antenna, the ELT aural tone will be the transmitter audio modulation.
heard (see NOTE 2 and 3).
12-23. FLIGHT DATA RECORDER. The
e. Verify that All Switches are Properly flight data recorder is housed in a crush-proof
Labeled and Positioned. container located near the tail section of the
aircraft. The tape unit is fire resistant, and
f. Record the Inspection. Record the in contains a radio transmitter to help crash in
spection in the aircraft maintenance records vestigators locate the unit under water. In-
according to 14 CFR part 43, section 43.9. We spection/Operational checks include:
suggest the following:
a. Check special sticker on front of the
I inspected the Make/Model ______________ flight data recorder for the date of the next tape
ELT system in this aircraft according to appli replacement, if applicable.
cable Aircraft and ELT manufacturers in
structions and applicable FAA guidance and b. Remove recorder magazine and in
found that it meets the requirements of sec spect tape for the following:
tion 91.207(d).
(1) broken or torn tape,
Signed: ______________________
Certificate No. ______________________ (2) proper feed of tape, and
Date: ______________________
(3) all scribes were recording properly
NOTE 1: This is not a measured for approximately the last hour of flight.
check; it only indicates that the
G-switch is working. c. Conditions for tape replacement (as
applicable):
(1) There is less than 20 hours remain erase CVR mode, consult the operational man
ing in the magazine as read on the ual of the manufacturer for the CVR.
tape remaining indicator.
a. Playback is possible only after the re
(2) Tape has run out. corder is removed from the aircraft.
12-36. [RESERVED.]
12-29.
(NON ELECTRICAL)
12-37. COMPASS SWING must be per (9) After aircraft has been parked on
formed whenever any ferrous component of one heading for over a year.
the system (i.e. flux valve compensator, or
Standby Compass) is installed, removed, re (10) When flux valves are replaced.
paired, or a new compass is installed. The
magnetic compass can be checked for accuracy b. Precautions.
by using a compass rose located on an airport.
The compass swing is normally effected by (1) The magnetic compass must be
placing the aircraft on various magnetic head checked for accuracy in a location free of steel
ings and comparing the deviations with those structures, underground pipes or cables, or
on the deviation cards. Refer to CFR14, equipment that produces magnetic fields.
23.1327, 14 CFR 23.1547, and the equipment
or aircraft manufacturer's manual. (2) Personnel engaged in the compen
sation of the compass shall remove all mag
a. A compass swing must be performed on netic or ferrous material from their possession.
the following occasions:
(3) Use only nonmagnetic tools when
(1) When the accuracy of the compass adjusting the compass.
is suspected.
(4) Position the aircraft at least 100
(2) After any cockpit modification or yards from any metal object.
major replacement involving ferrous metal.
(5) All equipment in the aircraft having
(3) Whenever a compass has been sub any magnetic effect on the compass must be
jected to a shock; for example, after a hard secured in the position occupied in normal
landing or turbulence. flight.
compass. Once aligned on the heading, the pass reading every 30. There should be not
person in the cockpit runs the engine(s) to ap more than a plus or minus 10 difference be
proximately 1,700 rpm to duplicate the air tween any of the compass heading and the
crafts magnetic field and then the person reads magnetic heading of the aircraft.
the compass.
(4) If the compass cannot be adjusted to
NOTE: (1) For conventional gear air- meet the requirements, install another one.
craft, the mechanic will have to posi-
tion the magnetic compass in the NOTE: A common error that affects
straight and level position or mount the compass accuracy is the mounting
the tail of the aircraft on a moveable of a compass or instruments on or in
dolly to simulate a straight and level the instrument panel using steel ma-
cruise configuration. (2) Remember chine screws/nuts rather than brass
the hairline sight compass is only in- hardware, magnetized control yoke,
tended to be used as a general piece of structural tubing, and improperly
test equipment. routed electrical wiring, which can
cause unreasonable compass error.
(2) If the aircraft compass is not in
alignment with the magnetic North of the (5) If the aircraft has an electrical sys
master compass, correct the error by making tem, two complete compass checks should be
small adjustments to the North-South brass performed, one with minimum electrical
adjustment screw with a nonmetallic screw equipment operating and the other with all
driver (made out of brass stock, or stainless electrical accessories on (e.g. radios, naviga
steel welding rod). Adjust the N-S compen tion, radar, and lights). If the compass read
sator screw until the compass reads North (0). ings are not identical, the mechanic should
Turn the aircraft until it is aligned with the make up two separate compass correction
East-West, pointing East. Adjust the E-W cards, one with all the equipment on and one
compensator screw until it reads 90. Con with the equipment off.
tinue by turning the aircraft South 180 and
adjust the N-S screw to remove one-half of the (6) When the compass is satisfactorily
Souths heading error. This will throw the swung, fill out the calibration card properly
North off, but the total North-South should be and put it in the holder in full view for the pi
divided equally between the two headings. lots reference.
Turn the aircraft until it is heading West 270,
and adjust the E-W screw on the compensator d. Standby (wet) Compass. Adjustment
to remove one-half of the West error. This and compensation of the Standby Compass
should divide equally the total E-W error. The may also be accomplished by using the com
engine(s) should be running. pass swing method.
12-38. PNEUMATIC GYROS. when they are most needed, they may become
unusable.
a. Venturi Systems. The early gyro in
struments were all operated by air flowing out (2) There are two sizes of venturi tubes:
of a jet over buckets cut into the periphery of those which produce four inches of suction are
the gyro rotor. A venturi was mounted on the used to drive the attitude gyros, and smaller
outside of the aircraft to produce a low pres tubes, which produce two inches of suction,
sure, or vacuum, which evacuated the instru are used for the turn and slip indicator. Some
ment case, and air flowed into the instrument installations use two of the larger venturi tubes
through a paper filter and then through a noz connected in parallel to the two attitude gyros,
zle onto the rotor. and the turn and slip indicator is connected to
one of these instruments with a needle valve
(1) Venturi systems have the advantage between them. A suction gage is temporarily
of being extremely simple and requiring no connected to the turn and slip indicator, and
power from the engine, nor from any of the the aircraft is flown so the needle valve can be
other aircraft systems; but they do have the adjusted to the required suction at the instru
disadvantage of being susceptible to ice, and ment when the aircraft is operated at its cruise
speed. (See figure 12-1.)
FIGURE 12-1. Venturi system for providing airflow through gyro instruments.
b. Vacuum Pump Systems. In order to (3) The more modern vacuum pumps
overcome the major drawback of the venturi are of the dry type. These pumps use carbon
tube, that is, its susceptibility to ice, aircraft vanes and do not require any lubrication, as the
were equipped with engine driven vacuum vanes provide their own lubrication as they
pumps and the gyro instruments were driven wear away at a carefully predetermined rate.
by air pulled through the instrument by the Other than the fact that they do not require an
suction produced by these pumps. A suction oil separator, systems using dry air pumps are
relief valve maintained the desired pressure quite similar to those using a wet pump. One
(usually about four inches of mercury) on the slight difference, however, is in the need for
attitude gyro instruments, and a needle valve keeping the inside of the pump perfectly clean.
between one of the attitude indicators and the Any solid particles drawn into the system
turn and slip indicator restricted the airflow to through the suction relief valve can damage
maintain the desired 2 inches of suction in its one of the carbon vanes, and this can lead to
case. Most of the early instruments used only destruction of the pump, as the particles bro
paper filters in each of the instrument cases, ken off of one vane will damage all of the
but in some installations a central air filter was other vanes. To prevent particles entering the
used to remove contaminants from the cabin relief valve, its air inlet is covered with a filter,
air before it entered the instrument case. and this must be cleaned or replaced at the in
terval recommended by the aircraft manufac
(1) The early vacuum pumps were turer.
vane-type pumps of what is called the wet
type-one with a cast iron housing and steel c. Positive Pressure Systems. Above
vanes. Engine oil was metered into the pump about 18,000 feet there is not enough mass to
to provide sealing, lubrication, and cooling, the air drawn through the instruments to pro
and then this oil, along with the air, was blown vide sufficient rotor speed, and, to remedy this
through an oil separator where the oil collected problem, many aircraft that fly at high altitude
on baffles and was returned to the engine use positive pressure systems to drive the gy
crankcase. The air was then exhausted over ros. These systems use the same type of air
board. Aircraft equipped with rubber deicer pump as is used for vacuum systems, but the
boots used this discharge air to inflate the discharged air from the pump is filtered and
boots. But before it could be used, this air was directed into the instrument case through the
passed through a second stage of oil separation same fitting that receives the filtered air when
and then to the distributor valve and finally to the vacuum system is used. A filter is installed
the boots. (See figure 12-2.) on the inlet of the pump, and then, before the
air is directed into the instrument case, it is
(2) The airflow through the instruments again filtered. A pressure regulator is located
is controlled by maintaining the suction in the between the pump and the in-line filter to con
instrument case at the desired level with a suc trol the air pressure so only the correct amount
tion relief valve mounted between the pump is directed into the instrument case.
and the instruments. This valve has a
spring-loaded poppet that offsets to allow System Filters. The life of an air-driven gyro
cabin air to enter the pump and maintain the instrument is determined to a great extent by
correct negative pressure inside the instrument the cleanliness of the air that flows over the
case. rotor. In vacuum systems, this air is taken
from the cabin where there is usually a good pumps are also subject to damage from in-
deal of dust and very often tobacco smoke. gested contaminants, and all of the filters in
Unless all of the solid contaminants are re- the system must be replaced on the schedule
moved from the air before it enters the instru- recommended by the aircraft manufacturer,
ment, they will accumulate, usually in the rotor and more often if the aircraft is operated under
bearings, and slow the rotor. This causes an particularly dusty conditions, especially if the
inaccurate indication of the instrument and occupants of the aircraft regularly smoke while
will definitely shorten its service life. Dry air flying. (See figures 12-3 and 12-4.)
12-50. [RESERVED.]
12-39.
12-51. GENERAL. In order for the pitot 12-53. PITOT/STATIC TUBES AND
static instruments to work properly, they must LINES. The pitot tube (see figure 12-6) is in
be connected into a system that senses the im stalled at the leading edge of the wing of a sin
pact air pressure with minimum distortion and gle-engine aircraft, outside the propeller slip
picks up undisturbed static air pressure. stream or on the fuselage of a multiengine air
craft with the axis parallel to the longitudinal
Pitot pressure is ram air pressure picked up by axis of the aircraft, unless otherwise specified
a small open-ended tube about a -inch in di by the manufacturer.
ameter that sticks directly into the air stream
that produces a pressure proportional to the 12-54. STATIC PORTS AND VENTS
speed of the air movement. Static pressure is (more modern trend) should be mounted flush
the pressure of the still air used to measure the with fuselage skin. One port is located on ei
altitude and serves as a reference in the meas ther side of the fuselage, usually behind the
urement of airspeed. cabin.
Airspeed requires pitot, altimeter, rate of Inspect for elevation or depression of the port
climb, and transponder-required static. or vent fitting. Such elevation or depression
may cause airflow disturbances at high speeds
12-52. SYSTEM COMPONENTS. The and result in erroneous airspeed and altitude
conventional design of the pitot system con indications.
sists of pitot-static tubes or pitot tubes with
static pressure parts and vents, lines, tubing, 12-55. HEATER ELEMENTS. A heating
water drains and traps, selector valves, and element is located within the tube head to pre
various pressure-actuated indicators or control vent the unit from becoming clogged during
units such as the altimeter, airspeed and rate icing conditions experienced during flight. A
of-climb indicators, and the encoding altimeter switch in the cockpit controls the heater.
connected to the system. (See figure 12-5.) Some pitot-static tubes have replaceable heater
elements while others do not. Check the
heater element or the entire tube for proper op
eration by noting either ammeter current or
that the tube or port is hot to the touch. (See
figure 12-6.)
b. Do not blow air through the line to d. If the airspeed indicator reading de-
ward the instrument panel. This may seriously clines, check the system for leaky hoses and
damage the instruments. Be sure to disconnect loose connections.
the instrument lines so no pressure can reach
the instruments. e. Inspect the hoses for signs of deterio
ration, particularly at bends and at the connec
c. Apply a vacuum equivalent to 1,000 tion points to the pitot mast and airspeed indi
feet altitude, (differential pressure of approxi cator. Replace hoses that are cracked or hard
mately 1.07 inches of mercury or 14.5 inches ened with identical specification hoses. Any
of water) and hold. time a hose is replaced, perform a pressure
check.
d. After 1 minute, check to see that the
leak has not exceeded the equivalent of 100 Warning: Do not apply suction to pi-
feet of altitude (decrease in differential pres tot lines.
sure of approximately 0.0105 inches of mer
cury or 1.43 inches of water). 12-60. MAINTENANCE PRECAUTIONS.
Observe the following precautions in all pitot
12-59. TEST PITOT SYSTEM in accor static system leak testing:
dance with the aircraft manufacturers instruc
tions. If the manufacturer has not issued in
b. A system diagram will help to deter d. Check the lines for leaks.
mine the location of all instruments as well as
locate a leak while observing instrument indi 12-62. RELOCATON OF PITOT TUBE. If
cations. If a diagram is not available, instru pitot tube relocation is necessary, perform the
ments can be located by tracing physical in relocation in accordance with the manufac
stallation. turers recommendations and consider the fol
lowing:
c. Be certain that no leaks exist in the
test equipment. a. Freedom of aerodynamic distur-
bances caused by the aircraft.
d. Run full range tests only if you are
thoroughly familiar with the aircraft instru b. Location protected from accidental
ment system and test equipment. damage.
e. Make certain the pressure in the pitot c. Alignment with the longitudinal axis
system is always equal to, or greater than, that of the aircraft when in cruising flight.
in the static system. A negative differential
pressure across an airspeed indicator can dam 12-63. TROUBLESHOOTING THE PI-
age the instrument. TOT/STATIC PRESSURE SYSTEM.
12-64.12-69. [RESERVED.]
DO I HAVE THE KNOWLEDGE TO PER- DID I PERFORM THE JOB TASK TO THE
FORM THE TASK? BEST OF MY ABILITIES?
HAVE I PERFORMED THE TASK PREVI- WAS THE JOB TASK PERFORMED IN AC-
OUSLY? CORDANCE WITH APPROPRIATE DATA?
DO I HAVE THE PROPER TOOLS AND DID I USE ALL THE METHODS, TECH-
EQUIPMENT TO PERFORM THE TASK? NIQUES, AND PRACTICES ACCEPTABLE
TO INDUSTRY?
HAVE I HAD THE PROPER TRAINING TO DID I PERFORM THE JOB TASK WITHOUT
SUPPORT THE JOB TASK? PRESSURES, STRESS, AND DISTRAC-
TIONS?
AM I MENTALLY PREPARED TO PER- DID I REINSPECT MY WORK OR HAVE
FORM THE JOB TASK? SOMEONE INSPECT MY WORK BEFORE
RETURNING TO SERVICE?
AM I PHYSICALLY PREPARED TO PER- DID I MAKE THE PROPER RECORD EN-
FORM THE TASK? TRIES FOR THE WORK PERFORMED?
abrasion resistant PTFE a solid insulation wall of or intended to be used in operating or controlling
PTFE with hard, nonconductive grit positioned mid an aircraft in flight, is installed in or attached to the
way in the wall thickness, and significantly improves aircraft, and is not part of an airframe, engine or
the resistance of the PTFE material to damage from propeller.
wear.
arm a measurement of distance, in inches, feet,
acetylenegas composed of two parts of carbon etc., used in weight and balance calculations.
and two parts of hydrogen. When burned in the Normally only the longitudinal arm is of practical
atmosphere of oxygen, it produces one of the high importance. The three axial arms are longitudinal
est flame temperatures obtainable. arm, lateral arm, and vertical arm.
1
AC 43.13-1B CHG 1 9/27/01
Appendix 1
blade stationis a reference position on a blade an instrument or standard, for the purpose of de
that is a specified distance from the center of the tecting and reporting, or eliminating by adjustment,
hub. errors in the instrument tested.
bondthe adhesion of one surface to another, center of gravity that point about which the air
with or without the use of an adhesive as a bonding craft would balance if suspended. For field weight
agent. and balance purposes/control, the center of gravity
is normally calculated only along its longitudinal
bondinga general term applied to the process of axis (nose to tail), disregarding both the lateral and
electrically connecting two or more conductive ob vertical location.
jects. In aircraft, the purpose of bonding (except as
applied to individual connections in the wiring and certificationimplies that a certificate is in exis
grounding systems) is to provide conductive paths tence which certifies or states a qualification.
for electric currents. This is accomplished by pro
viding suitable low-impedance connections joining checka lengthwise separation of the wood, the
conductive aircraft components and the aircraft greater part of which occurs across the rings of an
structure. Another purpose of bonding is to ensure nual growth.
the safe passage of current caused by lightning or
static electricity through the aircraft structure. chemical conversion coating (Specification
MIL-C-81706)is a chemical surface treatment
borescopea long, tubular optical instrument de used on aluminum alloys to inhibit corrosion and to
signed for remote visual inspection of surfaces. provide a proper surface for paint finishing.
brashnessa condition of wood characterized by chordan imaginary straight line joining the leading
low resistance to shock and by an abrupt failure and trailing edges of an airfoil.
across the grain without splintering.
circuita closed path or mesh of closed paths
braze weldinga welding process variation in usually including a source of EMF.
which a filler metal, having a liquidus above 450 C
(840 F) and below the solidus of the base metal is circuit breakera protective device for opening a
used. Unlike brazing, in braze welding the filler circuit automatically when excessive current is
metal is not distributed in the joint by capillary ac flowing through it.
tion.
close-grained woodwood with narrow and in
brazingthe joining of two pieces of metal by wet conspicuous annual rings. The term is sometimes
ting their surface with molten alloy of copper, zinc, used to designate wood having small and closely-
or tin. spaced pores, but in this sense the term fine
textured is more often used.
bus or bus barsolid copper strips to carry cur
rent between primary and secondary circuits; also coil shotproduction of longitudinal magnetization
used as jumpers. accomplished by passing current through a coil en
circling the part being inspected.
butt jointa joint between two members aligned
approximately in the same plane. compass a device used to determine direction
on the Earths surface. A magnetic compass util
butyrate dopea finish for aircraft fabric consist izes the Earths magnetic field to establish direc
ing of a film base of cellulose fibers dissolved in tion.
solvents with the necessary plasticizers, solvent,
and thinners. compression woodidentified by its relatively
wide annual rings, usually eccentric, and its rela
cable(electrical)assembly of one or more con tively large amount of summer wood, usually more
ductors within an enveloping protective sheath so than 50 percent of the width of the annual rings in
constructed as to permit use of conductors sepa which it occurs. Compression wood shrinks ex
rately or in a group. cessively lengthwise as compared with normal
calibration a set of operations, performed in ac wood.
cordance with a definite document procedure,
which compares the measurements performed by
2
9/27/01 AC 43.13-1B CHG 1
Appendix 1
conductora wire or other material suitable for datainformation that supports and/or describes
conducting electricity. the original aircraft design, alteration or repair includ
ing the following: (1) drawings, sketches, and or pho
conduit a rigid metallic or nonmetallic casing, or tographs; (2) engineering analysis; (3) engineering
a flexible metallic casing covered with a woven orders; and (4) operating limitations.
braid or synthetic rubber used to encase electrical
cables. datum imaginary vertical plane from which all hori
zontal measurements are made or indicated when
contact electrical connectors in a switch, sole the aircraft is in level flight attitude.
noid or relay that controls the flow of current.
deratingis a technique whereby a part is
control panel an upright panel, open or closed, stressed in actual usage at values well below the
where switches, rheostats, meters, etc., are in manufacturers rating for the part. By decreasing
stalled for the control and protection of electrical mechanical, thermal, and electrical stresses, the
machinery. probability of degradation or catastrophic failure is
lessened.
corrosionthe electrochemical deterioration of a
metal resulting from chemical reaction to the sur direct current electrode negativethe arrange
rounding environment. ment of direct current arc welding leads in which
the work is the positive pole and the electrode is
crackis a partial separation of material caused the negative pole of the welding arc.
by vibration, overloading, internal stresses, nicks,
defective assemblies, fatigue, or rapid changes in direct current electrode positivethe arrange
temperature. ment of direct current arc welding leads in which
the work is the negative pole and the electrode is
creepageis the conducting of electrical current the positive pole of the welding arc.
along a surface between two points at different po
tentials. The currents ability to pass between two discontinuityan interruption in the normal physi
points increases with higher voltage and when de cal structure or configuration of a part, such as a
posits of moisture or other conductive materials ex crack, lap, seam, inclusion, or porosity.
ist on the surfaces.
distal tipthe tip, lens end, of a borescope.
cross graingrain not parallel with the axis of a
piece. It may be either diagonal or spiral grain or a dopeliquid applied to fabric to tauten it by shrink
combination of the two. ing, strengthen it, and render it airtight by acting as
a filler.
cross coata double coat of dope or paint. It is
sprayed on in one direction, and then immediately Dope-proofingprotecting a surface from the
after the solvent flash-off, it is sprayed at right an chemicals and chafing qualities of dope and doped
gles to the first coat. fabrics.
cureto change the properties of a thermosetting drapethe ability of tape and broad goods to con
resin irreversibly by vulcanization or chemical reac form to a contoured shape.
tion. May be accomplished by the addition of curing
(cross-linking) agents, with or without a catalyst, and a bundle installation method used to
drip loop
with or without heat or pressure. prevent water or other fluid contaminants from run
ning down the wiring into a connector.
temperature to which a resin
curing temperature
or an assembly is subjected in order to cure the dry rota term loosely applied to many types of
resin. wood decay but especially to that which, when in
an advanced stage, permits the wood to be easily
cutting torcha device used in gas cutting of crushed to a dry powder. The term is actually a
metals. misnomer for any decay, since all fungi require
considerable moisture for growth.
damping limiting the duration of vibration by ei
ther electrical or mechanical means.
3
AC 43.13-1B CHG 1 9/27/01
Appendix 1
dwell timethe total time that a penetrant, emulsi emulsion-type cleanera chemical cleaner which
fier (or remover), or developer remains on the sur mixes with water or petroleum solvent to form an
face of the test part. emulsion (a mixture which will separate if allowed
to stand). It is used to loosen dirt, soot, or oxide
dye penetrant inspectionan inspection method films from the surface of an aircraft.
for surface cracks in which a penetrating dye is al
lowed to enter any cracks present and is pulled out epoxyone of various usually thermosetting res
of the crack by an absorbent developer. A crack ins capable of forming tight cross-linked polymer
appears as a line on the surface of the developer. structures marked by toughness, strong adhesion,
high corrosion, and chemical resistance, used es
edge grainedge-grain lumber has been sawed pecially in adhesives and surface coating.
parallel with the pith of the log and approximately at
right angles to the growth rings; that is, the rings epoxy primera two-part catalyzed material used
form an angle of 45 degrees or more with the sur to provide a good bond between a surface and a
face of the piece. surface coating.
4
9/27/01 AC 43.13-1B CHG 1
Appendix 1
5
AC 43.13-1B CHG 1 9/27/01
Appendix 1
laminatea product obtained by bonding two or nomex braid NOMEX is the trade name for a
more laminae of the same material or of different high-temperature polyamide thread that is braided
materials. over the larger sizes (# 8 gage and larger) of many
of the military specification wires. It can be encoun
laminated wooda piece of wood built up of plies tered in either an off-white or black/green color.
or laminations that have been joined either with
glue or with mechanical fastenings. The term is normalizingreforming of the grain structure of a
most frequently applied where the plies are too metal or alloy by proper heat treatment to relieve
thick to be classified as veneer and when the grain internal stresses.
of all plies is parallel.
an incomplete or broken electrical
open circuit
leakage fieldthe magnetic field forced out into circuit.
the air by the distortion of the field within a part,
caused by the presence of a discontinuity or open-grained woodcommon classification of
change in section configuration. painters for woods with large pores, such as oak,
ash, chestnut, and walnut. Also known as coarse
the short fiber left on the cotton seed after
linter textured.
ginning.
operational check this is an operational test to
that section of an ILS that produces the
localizer determine whether a system or component is func
directional reference beam. tioning properly in all aspects in conformance with
minimum acceptable manufacture design
LORAN (Long-Range Navigation) a radio navi specifications.
gation system utilizing master and slave stations
transmitting timed pulses. The time difference in optical fiberany filament or fiber made of dielec
reception of pulses from several stations estab tric materials that guides light whether or not it is
lishes a hyperbolic line of position that may be used to transmit signals.
identified on a LORAN chart. By utilizing signals rificeopening through which gas or air flows. It
from two pairs of stations, a fix in position is ob is usually the final opening controlled by a valve.
tained.
magnetic fieldthe space around a source of oxidizingcombining oxygen with any other sub
magnetic flux in which the effects of magnetism stance. For example, a metal is oxidized when the
can be determined. metal is burned, i.e., oxygen is combined with all
the metal or parts of it
marker beacon a radio navigation aid used in an
instrument approach to identify distance to the oxidizing flamean oxy-fuel gas flame having an
runway. As the aircraft crosses over the marker- oxidizing effect due to excess oxygen.
beacon transmitter, the pilot receives an accurate
indication of the airplanes distance from the run oxygen cuttingcutting metal using the oxygen
way through the medium of a flashing light and an jet which is added to an oxygen-acetylene flame.
aural signal.
oxygen regulatormanually-adjustable device
master switch a switch designed to control all used to reduce cylinder pressure to torch pressure
electric power to all circuits in a system. and to keep the pressure constant. They are never
to be used as fuel gas regulators.
moisture content of woodweight of the water
contained in the wood usually expressed in per peel plya layer of resin-free material used to pro
centage of the weight of the kiln-dry wood. tect a laminate for later secondary bonding (some
times referred to as a release film).
multiconductor cableconsists of two or more
cables or wires, all of which are encased in an picklingthe treatment of a metal surface by an
outer covering composed of synthetic rubber, fab acid to remove surface corrosion.
ric, or other material.
pitchis the distance, in inches, that a propeller
nicka sharp notch-like displacement of metal section will move forward in one revolution, or the
surface. distance a nut will advance in one revolution of the
screw in a single thread.
6
9/27/01 AC 43.13-1B CHG 1
Appendix 1
plastic an organic substance of large molecular radar (radio detecting and ranging) radio
weight which is solid in its finished state and, at equipment that utilizes reflected pulse signals to lo
some stage during its manufacture or its processing cate and determine the distance to any reflecting
into a finished article, can be shaped by flow. object within its range.
polyester braid a plastic braiding thread, when
used as the outer surface of a wire, provides a cloth- radomea nonmetallic cover used to protect the
like appearance. antenna assembly of a radar system.
polyimide tape a plastic film (commonly referred rectifiera device for converting alternating cur
to by the trade name, KAPTON). The tape has a rent to direct current.
dark brown color, and is frequently coated with a
polyimide varnish that has a very distinct mustard reinforcing tapea narrow woven cotton or poly
yellow color. At times, the spiral edge of the outer ester tape used over aircraft fabric to reinforce it at
most tape is apparent under the varnish topcoat. It the stitching attachments.
may be used for wire insulation. Total polyimide tape
insulated wire constructions are inactive for new de an electrically-operated remote-control
relay
sign on military aircraft and are subject to the proce switch.
dures defined in FAA Advisory Circular AC 29-2A
Change 2 Paragraph 29.1359 in Civil Aircraft. resinvast profusion of natural and increasingly,
synthetic materials used as adhesives, fillers, bind
polyimide varnish a liquid form of polyimide that ers and for insulation.
is applied to the outer surface of a wire through the
process of repeated dipping through the varnish resistance the opposition a device or material of
bath with subsequent heat curing. The successive fers to the flow or current.
layers rarely reach a total buildup of 1 mil.
resonance method (ringing) of ultrasonic in-
polymerizationbasic processes for making large spectiona method of detecting material thick
(high-polymer) molecules from small ones, nor ness or indications of internal damage by injecting
mally without chemical change; can be by addition, variable frequency ultrasonic energy into a mate
condensation, rearrangement, or other methods. rial. A specific frequency of energy will produce the
clearest indication of damage in a given thickness
porositycavity-type discontinuities in metal of material. When the equipment is calibrated for a
formed by gas entrapment during solidification. specific thickness, and this thickness changes, an
aural or visual alert is given.
preprega mat, a fabric, or covering impregnated
with resin that is ready for lay up and curing. resonant frequencythe frequency of a source of
vibration that is exactly the same as the natural
propelleris a rotating airfoil that consists of two vibration frequency of the structure.
or more blades attached to a central hub which is
mounted on the engine crankshaft. resonatea mechanical system is said to reso
nate when its natural vibration frequency is exactly
protractoris a device for measuring angles. the same as the frequency of the force applied.
When an object resonates at a particular fre
PTFE Tape (Insulation) polytetrafluoroethylene quency, the amplitude in its vibration will increase
tape (commonly known by the trade name, TEF- immensely as that frequency is reached and will be
LON), wrapped around a conductor and then cen- less on either side of that frequency.
7
AC 43.13-1B CHG 1 9/27/01
Appendix 1
scratcha superficial small cut on a surface. tapea tape or a narrow fabric is loosely defined
as a material that ranges in width from 1/4 inch to
semiconductor device any device based on ei 12 inches.
ther preferred conduction through a solid in one di
rection, as in rectifiers; or on a variation in conduc TCAS traffic alert and collision avoidance system.
tion characteristics through a partially conductive An airborne system that interrogates mode A, C,
material, as in a transistor. and S transponders in nearby aircraft and uses the
replies to identify and display potential and pre
severe wind and moisture problem (SWAMP) dicted collision threats.
areas such as wheel wells, wing folds, and
areas
near wing flaps, and areas directly exposed to ex thermocouple device to convert heat energy into
tended weather conditions are considered SWAMP electrical energy.
areas on aircraft.
thermoplastic material a material that can be re
silicone rubber a high temperature (200 C) plas peatedly softened by an increase in the temperature
tic insulation that has a substantial silicone content. and hardened by a decrease in the temperature with
no accompanying chemical change. For example, a
solderinga group of welding processes that pro puddle of tar on the road in the summer during the
duces coalescence of materials by heating them to heat of day: the tar is soft and fluid; however, when
the soldering temperature and by using a filler cooler in the evening, it becomes solid again.
metal having a liquidus not exceeding 450 C
(840 F) and below the solidus of the base metals. thermoset material a material which becomes
The filler metal is distributed between the closely- substantially infusible and insoluble when cured by
fitted surfaces of the joint by capillary action. the application of heat or by chemical means. A ma
terial that will undergo, or has undergone, a chemical
solenoida tubular coil for the production of a reaction (different from a thermoplastics physical re
magnetic field; electromagnet with a core which is action) by the action of heat, catalysts, ultraviolet
able to move in and out. light, etc. Once the plastic becomes hard, additional
heat will not change it back into a liquid as would be
sparmain spanwise structural member(s) of an the case with a thermoplastic.
aircraft wing or rotorcraft rotor. A wing may have
one or two made into a single strong box to which tippart of the torch at the end where the gas
burns, producing the high-temperature flame.
8
9/27/01 AC 43.13-1B CHG 1
Appendix 1
a frequency between
very high frequency (VHF) wood decay - typical or advancedthe stage of
30 and 300 MHz decay in which the disintegration is readily recog
nized because the wood has become punky, soft
VHF omnirange (VOR) an electronic air naviga and spongy, stringy, pitted, or crumbly.
tion system that provides accurate direction infor
mation in relation to a certain ground station. x-raya radiographic test method used to detect
internal defects in a weld.
videoscopea type of borescope.
XL-ETFE A process of radiation cross-linking the
visible lightelectromagnetic radiation that has a polymer chains is used to thermally set the plastic.
wavelength in the range from about 3,900 to 7,700 This prevents the material from softening and melt
angstroms and that may be seen by the unaided ing at elevated temperature.
human eye.
XL-Polyalkene an insulation material based on the
visual check utilizing acceptable methods, tech polyolefin family that has its normally thermomelt
niques, and practices to determine physical condi characteristic altered by the radiation cross-linking
tion and safety item. process to that of a nonmelt, therm-set material.
9
9/27/01 AC 43.13-1B CHG 1
Appendix 2
APPENDIX 2. ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
The acronyms and abbreviations listed are some AWSAir Weather Service
of many that are likely to be encountered by the B/CUbattery/charger unit
aviation mechanic or technician involved in the BAT or BATT battery
maintenance of aircraft. BCDbinary-coded decimal
binary digit; built-in test
BIT
ARINC 429 data bus standard
429 built-in test equipment
BITE
ARINC 629 data bus standard
629 bus interconnect transfer switch
BITS
analog/digital; analog-to -digital
A/D BNRbinary numerical reference; binary
A/D CONV analog-to -digital converter BPband-pass
autoland
A/L BPCU bus power control unit
ACAdvisory Circular BTbus tie
alternating current
ac BTBbus tie breaker
ACARS ARINC Communication Addressing and BTCbefore top center
Reporting System BUSelectrical bus; 429 digital data bus
ACOAircraft Certification Office Center of Gravity
C.G.
ADAirworthiness Directive CACcaution advisory computer
ADCair-data computer CAGE commercial and government entity code
ADCPATC dual-control panel CAWS central aural warning system; caution
ADEDS advanced electronic display system and warning system
ADFautomatic direction finder CB, C/B, or CKT/BKR circuit breaker
attitude-director indicator; air data
ADI course-deviation indicator
CDI
instrument CDUcentral display unit
AFCautomatic frequency control CFCcarbon fiber composite
AFCSautomatic flight control system CFDIUcentralized fault display interface unit
AFDSautopilot flight director system CFDScentralized fault display system
Aeronautical Information Manual
AIM CH or CHAN channel
AIRCOM air/ground communications CHGR charger
AMamplitude modulation CKTcircuit
AMP or AMPL amplifier CLKclock
AMPamperes CLRclear
AMSAerospace Material Specification CMCS central maintenance computer system
ANArmy/Navy CMPTR computer
ANDArmy Navy Design COcarbon monoxide
ANSIAmerican National Standards Institute COAX coaxial
ANTantenna COPcopper
APautopilot CPcontrol panel
APBauxiliary power breaker CRTcathode-ray tube; circuit
APCUauxiliary power control unit CSE or CSEU control system electronics unit
APUauxiliary power unit CSEUP control system electronics unit panel
ARINCAeronautical Radio Incorporated CTcomputed tomography
ARNC IO ARINC I/O error CTcurrent transformer
ARNC STP ARINC I/O UART data strip error CTNcaution
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials CUcontrol unit; copper
ATAAir Transport Association CVRcockpit voice recorder
ATCair traffic control CWcontinuous wave
ATCTATC transponder digital-to-analog
D/A
ATCTS ATC transponder system DACdigital-to analog converter
AUXauxiliary DADC digital air-data computer
AVCautomatic volume control DBTdead bus tie
AWG American Wire Gauge direct current
dc
1
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
Appendix 2
2
9/8/98 AC 43.13-1B
Appendix 2
HI Zhigh impedance MICRO-P microprocessor
HZhertz MIGmetal inert gas
inner diameter
I.D. MILLIone one-thousandth (0.001)
input/output
I/O MKR BCN marker beacon
IAPSintegrated avionics processor system MSmilitary standard
IASindicated airspeed MSDS Material Safety Data Sheets
IDGintegrated drive generator MSEC (ms) milliseconds
intermediate frequency
IF MSG message
IFRinstrument flight rules MTBF mean time-between-failure
IGNignition MUX multiplexer
integrated instrument system
IIS mVmillivolts
ILSinstrument landing system NASNational Aerospace Standard
INDL indicator light NAVnavigation
INSTinstrument NCnormally closed; not connected;
INSTR instrument no connection
INTCON interconnect NDB nondirectional beacon
INTEC interface NDINondestructive Inspection
INTER interrogation NEG negative
INTPH interphone NSEC (ns) nanoseconds
INVinverter NTSB National Transportation Safety Board
IR ILSreceiver NVM nonvolatile memory
kHzkilohertz OAM original aircraft manufacturer
KSIthousands of pounds per square inch OBS omni bearing selection
kVkilovolts OCovercurrent
kVA kilovoltamperes OEM original equipment manufacturer
kVAR kilovoltampere reactive OFover-frequency
L-Band radio frequency band (390 to 1550 MHz) OVV or OV overvoltage
LCD liquid-crystal display OVVCO or OVCO overvoltage cutout
LDload P-Sparallel to series
LED light-emitting diode PApassenger address; power amplifier
LF (lf) low frequency (30 to 300 kHz) PARA/SER parallel to serial
LO Zlow impedance PCU passenger control unit; power control unit
LOC localizer PFDpermanent-magnet generator
LRU line replaceable unit PMA Parts Manufacturer Approval
LSloudspeaker POS positive
LSB lower sideband POTpotentiometer; plan of test
LSPTM limit switch position transmitter module PRpower relay
LTlight PRLparallel
LTS lights PROM programmable read-only memory
MAC mean aerodynamic chord PROX proximity
MAN/ELEC manual/electric PSEU proximity switch electronic unit
MBA marker-beacon antenna PSIpounds per square inch
MCDP maintenance control and display panel PWR power
MCDU multipurpose control and display unit PWR SPLY power supply
MDE modern digital electronics QPLQualified Products List
MEC main equipment center; main engine QTY quantity
control receiver-transmitter
r-t
MEG or MEGA million RAradio altimeter; radio altitude
MEK methylethylketone RAD radio
MEM memory
METO Maximum except-take off
MF (mf) medium frequency (300 kHz to 3 MHz)
MHz megahertz
MICmicrophone
3
AC 43.13-1B 9/8/98
Appendix 2
4
APPENDIX 3. METRIC-BASED PREFIXES AND POWERS OF 10
-18
Atto (a) = quintillionth of = 10 times
-15
Femto (f) = quadrillionth of = 10 times
Pico (p), or
-12
= trillionth of = 10 times
Nano (n), or m
-9
= billionth of = 10 times
Micro ()
-6
= millionth of = 10 times
-3
Milli (m) = thousandth of = 10 times`
-2
Centi (c) = hundredth of = 10 times
-1
Deci (d) = tenth of = 10 times
0
unity = 10 = 1
Deka (da) = ten times = 10 times
2
Hecto (h) = hundred times = 10 times
3
Kilo (k) = thousand times = 10 times
6
Mega (M) = million times = 10 times
9
Giga (G), or kM = billion times = 10 times
12
Tera (T) = trillion times = 10 times