P R E P R I N T ICPWS XV

Berlin, September 811, 2008

Analysis of Cavitation Phenomena in Water and its Application to Prediction of

Cavitation Erosion in Hydraulic Machinery

Milan Sedl a), Patrik Zima b), Tom Nmec b) and Frantiek Mark b)

a)
SIGMA Research and Development Institute s.r.o.
J. Sigmunda 79, 783 50 Lutn, Czech Republic
b)
Institute of Thermomechanics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i.
Dolejkova 5, 182 00 Prague 8, Czech Republic
Email: milan.sedlar@sigma-vvu.cz

The cavitating flow behaviour is very sensitive to nuclei content, which is undoubtedly
dependent on the physical properties of the liquid. For water, it is believed that heterogenous
nucleation initiators prevail over homogeneous nucleation and this is understood to be the reason
why the classical nucleation theories are regarded as unreliable for the treatment of cavitation.
As a result, the problem of nuclei content is typically treated either empirically or
experimentally. In this paper we show how the empirical approach can be used to obtain a useful
picture of the cavitation flow aggressiveness (erosion potential) using numerical modelling of
the turbulent cavitating flow. In addition, we present the latest advances in the understanding of
the bubble nucleation process under cavitating conditions based on the modified binary
nucleation theory. In this article we also shortly describe the experimental research of the
cavitating flow aimed at the validation of the erosion potential model, development of the
nuclei-content measurement and the validation of the bubble nucleation model. As far as the
practical application of our work is concerned, the paper concentrates on an evaluation of the
cavitation erosion potential in the hydraulic machinery, mainly water pumps and turbines.

Introduction nuclei flow through the regions with rapidly

In general, there are three major reasons for
numerical modelling of cavitation in industrial
applications. The first reason is to predict changes
in the flow field caused by the cavitation
phenomena, which result mainly in a degradation of
machine performance. The second reason is to
determine cavitation instabilities, which can
generate unwanted noise and vibrations. The third
reason is to assess the potential of material erosion
due to cavitation and to determine the areas on the
blade surface (for example in pumps), which are
most endangered with erosion. In all the above
cases cavitation depends on many factors, which
can be divided into two categories: hydrodynamic
factors (such as flow parameters or turbulence level)
and factors associated with the liquid properties
(such as surface tension, bubble content and liquid
composition). Nevertheless cavitation is mainly
treated as a solely hydrodynamic problem and the
dependence on the physical properties of the liquid
is typically neglected. Prediction of cavitation
phenomena in hydraulic devices is usually based on
the assumption that a given spectrum of cavitation
changing static pressure, which results in a very
complicated dynamic behaviour of the cavitation
bubbles. From the point of view of an engineer one
of the important challenges of the cavitation
research is the determination of the number and size
of the cavitation nuclei. These quantities naturally
depend on the liquid properties; however, they are
usually predicted empirically or by rather expensive
and complicated measurements on the case-to-case
basis. The consequences are most obvious in the
case of water when the experimental measurements
of the cavitation events under exactly the same
hydrodynamic conditions can give very different
results.
The main problem in the theoretical estimation
of the cavitation nuclei spectrum in water is that the
classical nucleation theory predicts only one
(critical) bubble size and that the bubble nucleation
rate is much higher than the experimentally
observed rate. This is true mainly in the case of
pure water. The situation is simplified when we
consider that the water running trough the hydraulic
machinery parts contains a known number of air-
filled or vapour-filled microbubbles of known size
distribution.
Cavitation erosion model
The main contribution to material erosion
caused by cavitation arises from the mechanical
effects of the violent collapses of bubbles near the
solid surface. These effects can be represented by
the impact of a spherical shock wave propagated
from the centre of the collapsing bubble or by a jet
produced during an asymmetric bubble collapse.
These two mechanisms act on the solid surface
either directly or indirectly due to plastic
deformations of the surface. Provided that the
cavitation bubble flows through the regions with
rapidly changing static pressure, its local radius is
obtained as the solution of the Rayleigh-Plesset
equation [1 3]:
D 2 R 3 DR 2 4e DR 2 R EEP = CEi , C = 1/2,
R 2
+ ( ) + + [1 ( 0 )3 1 ] =
Dt 2 Dt R Dt L R R
p v p0 R0 3 p p R D
= [1 ( ) ]+ 0 + ( pg p )
l R l l cl Dt
(1)
Here p0 is the liquid ambient pressure at undisturbed
initial condition, pv is the equilibrium vapour
pressure, pg is the pressure of gas mixture inside the
bubble, l is the liquid density, cl is the sound
velocity of the liquid, is the surface tension of the
liquid and is the polytropic index for the gas
mixture inside the bubble. e represents the
effective viscosity [4]. In the following
calculations the isothermal behaviour of the gas
mixture is supposed, which corresponds to the
value = 1. It is assumed that the bubble interior is
formed by a mixture of non-condensable gases
obeying the polytropic law
pg R3 = pg0 R03 , (2)
and the initial gas pressure holds
pg0 = p0 - pv + 2/R0 (3)
.
This assumption is very important because only
bubbles with gas content can oscillate with their
natural frequency and reach more collapses. The
mass of gas inside the bubble is assumed to be
constant with no phase change.
A new model of the cavitation erosion potential
is presented in this article. It is based on the
estimation of the energy dissipated by the collapses
of the cavitating bubbles. In this model, the Runge-
2
Kutta fourth-order scheme is applied to integrate
the Rayleigh-Plesset equation along the flow
streamlines obtained from the 3D Reynolds-
averaged Navier-Stokes equations. The adaptive
step-size algorithm is employed to provide
sufficiently small time steps for marching through
violent bubble collapses, especially the first one.
The numerical algorithm is fully described in
previous works [1 3] as well as in the proceedings
of ICPWS XIV [5].
By neglecting the energy portion emitted as an
acoustic energy or used to evaporate/condense the
vapour and heat up the non-condensable gas inside
the bubble we can assume that all the energy
dissipated during the bubble collapse is used to
form the shock wave propagating from the bubble
centre. One half of the shock wave energy (emitted
towards the solid surface) is supposed to represent
the erosion potential EEP:
(4)
Ei denotes the energy dissipated during the i-the
collapse of the bubble. Ei is obtained as the
difference between the work done by the pressure
inside the bubble pb against the ambient liquid
pressure p to expand the bubble from the minimum
radius Rmin,i to the maximum radius Rmax,i during the
i-the growth and the same work done during the
(i+1)-th bubble growth [6] :
Ei+1 = Wgrowth R max,i
- Wgrowth R max,i +1
,
R min,i R min,i +1
Rmax
4R 2 ( p pB )dR .
R max
Wgrowth R min = (5)
Rmin
The effect of liquid viscosity, compressibility and
surface tension is neglected in the present model.
The values of EEP must be calculated for each
bubble in the ensemble of bubbles of different
initial sizes and for each individual collapse of a
bubble of the given size along the streamlines
nearest to the solid surface.
Initial spectrum of cavitation nuclei
In our numerical model we take into account a
finite number of nuclei sizes in water with a given
discrete spectrum. Typically, we prescribe 10 initial
nuclei radii in the range from 10-5 m to 2.10-4 m
(Fig. 1). The initial bubble size distribution is
assumed empirically according to measurements.
The spectrum of cavitation nuclei can be measured
in the test facility used for the pump tests or, more
frequently, it is taken from the literature. There is a
lot of data measured in cavitation tunnels with
various configurations (e.g., measurements [7] used
in the cavitation analysis presented in this paper),
but unfortunately there is a lack of measurements
for industrial applications. The reason is that
monitoring the bubble distribution during the
industrial tests of hydraulic machinery is very
expensive and time consuming. Further problems
arise from scaling the cavitation events (from the
test pump to the real-size pump) and from the fact
that during the design of a hydraulic machine little
information is available about the physical
properties of water; the spectrum of cavitation
nuclei is typically missing. The situation would be
less complicated if there was a correct physical
model able to predict the nuclei distribution based
on the basic properties of water (like temperature,
ambient pressure, surface tension etc.).
Figure 1: Nuclei density distribution
The modified theory of homogenous nucleation
shown later in this article has already shown some
promise and could become useful in determining
the initial bubble spectrum.
Experimental research in a cavitation tunnel
In 2007, a new cavitation tunnel was built and
put into operation in the SIGMA R&D Institute.
The tunnel was designed to study the development
of cavitation in hydraulic machines, and especially
the erosion process triggered by cavitation. The
facility is a closed, variable pressure, horizontal
plane water tunnel (Fig. 2) for isolated 2-D and 3-D
hydrofoils. The rectangular test section has inner
dimensions 150 x 150 x 500 mm, which correspond
to the tunnel inlet velocity 25 m/s for the maximum
flow rate of the variable-speed driven axial-flow
pump. The capacity of the main tank equipped with
two sets of honeycombs is 35m3. The closed loop is
equipped with both compressor and vacuum pumps
capable of creating different pressure levels while
3
maintaining constant volume flow rate. The transit
time of one fluid particle resulting simply from a
complete tunnel loop capacity is 72s for the
maximum flow rate.
The currently tested hydrofoils are prismatic
with a typical chord length of 100 mm and a
maximum span of 150 mm (corresponding to the
width of the test section). The profile incidence
angle can vary between 0 and 180. The test
section is made of organic glass to facilitate
visualization (Fig. 3).
To enable monitoring of the cavitation nuclei in
the inlet flow to the test section a bypass section is
installed allowing to measure nuclei content using
the acoustic spectrometer. Before the nuclei-content
measurement is put into operation we assume for
the inlet flow in our present numerical simulations
the nucleus population shown in Fig. 1.
Figure 2: Cavitation tunnel
An extensive tunnel testing has been performed
to verify the tunnel functionality for a wide range of
flow regimes and to compare observations with the
preliminary numerical analysis. Figure 4 shows a
typical pattern of attached cavitation starting behind
the leading edge at about 8% of the chord length
and disappearing at about 37% of the cord length.
Supercavitation regime with the bubbles collapsing
far behind the blade trailing edge can be seen in
Fig. 5.

Figure 3: Tunnel test section
Figure 4: Attached cavitation regime
Figure 5: Supercavitation regime
As was already stated, the design of the tunnel
is oriented especially for a study of the cavitation
erosion. This phenomenon exhibits a rather
complicated time evolution of the mass-loss rate.
Many different types of dependencies can be
obtained experimentally depending on the material
used and the erosion process typically undergoes
four basic modes [7]:
Incubation, during which no mass loss is
observed. During this period the material undergoes
plastic deformation in the form of rather small pits,
which do not overlap.
Acceleration, during which the rate of mass loss
of eroded material grows linearly with time.
Steady state, during which the mass loss rate is
constant in time.
Attenuation, during which the mass loss rate
decreases with time. The decrease may be a
consequence of weaker collapses due to decreased
adverse pressure gradient.
4
As a result, the actual erosion pattern on the
blade surface is a function of time and the
development of the erosion pattern has to be
recorded during the experiment. In addition, the
nuclei content has to be known and controlled
accurately during the experiment. The first
hydrodynamic tests in the tunnel are aimed to
quantify the erosion potential by pitting tests during
the incubation period. The erosion pits in the metal
surface are usually circular with a diameter ranging
from a few micrometers to one millimeter. The
larger the initial cavitation nuclei, the larger the
resulting pits. From a typical nuclei distribution
(Fig. 1) we can conclude that the number of small
pits is much higher than the number of the large
ones. While the dependence of the number of
events on the pit diameter has no inflexion point
[8], the contribution to the eroded area has its
maximum depending on the initial nuclei density
distribution. Usually the nuclei in the range
from 10 m to 200 m give the highest contribution
to the material erosion [8]. Figure 6 shows the
region on the hydrofoil where the material suffered
from the plastic deformation. In Fig. 7 detail of the
pits of different size is shown.
When first signs of cavitation erosion are
observed on the hydrofoil the pits are scanned using
the optical profilometer FRT. The scan of the
surface is recorded and the cavitation experiment is
resumed with the same operating conditions. The
procedure is repeated several times during the
initial stages of erosion pattern development. An
example image of the profilometric measurement of
the eroded surface is shown in Fig. 8. The size of
the scanned area shown in the figure is 3x3 mm.
Figure 6: Incubation mode of cavitation
 13 times. Generally, the larger the nuclei, the lower
the relative growth. Smaller bubbles collapse
sooner than the larger ones. All first collapses are
located between 34% and 36.5% of the chord
length. In reality, the bubbles typically survive only
the first few rebounds before they fission. As a
result the most important collapses can be found in
the region 34-40% of the chord length, which
agrees well with the experimental observation
Figure 7: Pits of different sizes on the blade (Fig. 4). Figure 11 shows the cumulative erosion
surface potential of all bubbles of the same size along the
streamline. The erosion potential of the first
collapses is several orders higher than for the
successive rebounds. In the detail picture of Fig. 11
the location of the first collapses can be seen for
bubbles originating from different nuclei sizes. The
maximum of the cumulative energy of the first
collapses can be found for the bubbles with the
initial radius 14 m.

Figure 8: Scan of the eroded surface with FRT

optical profilometer. Size of scanned
area 3x3 mm, resolution 10 m

Numerical analysis of cavitating flow in

cavitation tunnel

Detailed numerical analysis of the cavitating

flow in the cavitation tunnel was carried out using
the numerical method and cavitation erosion model
described above. Various flow regimes were tested;
however, to compare the results with those of
experiments only one case of closed cavitation Figure 9: Streamline at mid-span and the
regime on the hydrofoil surface was considered. corresponding distribution of static
This regime corresponds to the flow conditions pressure
represented by the visualisation in Fig. 4. To avoid
the influence of the side boundary layers the results
were evaluated at mid-span of the hydrofoil.
Figure 9 shows the typical streamline in the
mid-span plane close to the blade surface and the
corresponding static pressure distribution. The
dynamics of two bubbles originating from the
smallest (10 m) and the largest (200 m)
cavitation nuclei (see nuclei distribution in Fig. 1)
can be seen in Fig. 10. The relative growth of the
two nuclei is quite different: the radius of the
smallest nuclei increases 185 times before the first Figure 10: Dynamics of the smallest (fine line)
and the largest (thick line) cavitation
collapse while the largest one increases about
nucleus along the streamline in Fig. 9

5
 the first collapses is slightly lower now, which
corresponds to slightly lower bubble relative
growth (the radius of the smallest nuclei increases
169 times while the largest one increases 11 times).

Figure 11: Cumulative erosion potential of

bubbles of different size along the
streamline from Fig. 9

Numerical analysis of cavitating flow in pump

impeller
Figure 12: Impeller geometry and cavitation
damage of the blades
As stated above our aim is to study cavitation in
hydraulic machines, and especially the erosion
process associated with this phenomenon. Our test
case for the theory and methodology used above is
the blade damage of the cast-iron mixed-flow pump
impeller. The 3D model as well as the picture of the
cavitation damage on the real impeller can be seen
in Fig. 12. Figure 13 shows several streamlines near
the suction surface of the blade, along which the
cavitation analysis was performed for 10 initial
nuclei radii in the range from 10-5 m to 2.10-4 m
with the nuclei-density distribution seen in Figure 1.
As described in the previous paragraph, the erosion Figure 13: Computational streamlines close to the
potential of the first collapses is several orders suction surface of impeller blade
higher than the potential of other ones. As a result
the region on the blade surface most endangered Advanced cavitation modelling using multi-
with the cavitation erosion should coincide with the component classical nucleation theory
location of the calculated first collapses of the
cavitation bubbles. Figure 14 compares the location In this section, an outlook of the future
of the first calculated collapses with the real erosion possibilities in cavitation modelling using the
pattern. The agreement is very good. The fact that Classical Nucleation Theory (CNT) is presented.
the region on the blade damaged with cavitation As shown earlier in this paper, the current state of
erosion is quite wide can be related to the flow cavitation modelling in the commercial CFD codes
unsteadiness and to changes of the pump operating is restricted to the description of bubble dynamics
point. The erosion potential along the streamline using a severely reduced Rayleigh-Plesset equation,
passing through the centre of the erosion hole can with the nuclei density distribution prescribed
be seen in Fig. 15. Comparing to the case of the empirically. The reason for relying on empirical
tunnel hydrofoil (Fig. 11), the erosion potential of distributions lies in the fact that the existing

6
theoretical predictions of homogeneous nucleation
rates for cavitation in water are rather inaccurate.
The usual formulation of CNT [4, 9, 10, 12]
predicts the nucleation process to occur at large
negative pressures of hundreds of megapascals at
room temperature rendering the homogeneous
nucleation process highly improbable under the
thermodynamic conditions of the water flow in
hydrodynamic machines studied in this work.
Figure 14: Location of the first calculated
collapses compared with the erosion
pattern
Figure 15: Cumulative erosion potential of the
first collapses of bubbles along the
streamline passing through the centre
of the hole in Fig. 14
Let us point out here that the deficiencies of the
CNT predictions are caused by the oversimplifying
assumptions made within the theory. In this work,
we demonstrate the procedure required to increase
the accuracy of CNT.
Emphasis will be placed on the proper
evaluation of the nucleation work whose extreme
(saddle point) is critical for the evaluation of the
nucleation rate. The nucleation work is the work
necessary to create a bubble of a given volume
V and composition (mole fractions) xg1,...xgN of the
components 1, , N within a liquid mixture of
temperature T, pressure p, and composition xl1,...,xlN.
7
We will ascribe the prevailing component (water in
this case) the subscript 1. The additional
components of the liquid can be, such as in our case,
the dissolved gases. The nucleation work is
evaluated consistently as an increase of the grand
thermodynamic potential whose total differential
follows
d = SdT pdV ni d i + dA , (6)
i
where S is entropy, ni are numbers of molecules of
the i-th component, i is the chemical potential of
the i-th component, is the surface tension of
water [13], and A is the surface area. The
differential (6) has to be integrated over a reversible
path between the thermodynamic state of the parent
aqueous mixture and the thermodynamic state of a
given bubble surrounded by the aqueous liquid
mixture. As a result, the nucleation work W takes
the form
N
W = A + Vp + ni i , (7)
i =1
where i is the difference between the chemical
potentials of the gaseous- and the liquid-phase
thermodynamic states of component i. The general
formula for nucleation work of an N-component
bubble (7) has to be evaluated for the particular
mixture of our interest. For our flow of ordinary
water in a pump we choose to describe the flow
medium as a mixture of water and dissolved air
(constituted by nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and carbon
dioxide). The concentrations of the respective gases
in water are given by their equilibrium
concentrations under the pressure of one
atmosphere, which can be calculated using the
Henry constant (shown in Table 1 for selected
gases).
kH pi xi
[GPa] [Pa] [1]
N2 8.772 79118.6 9.02 10-6
O2 4.492 21223.5 4.72 10-6
CO2 0.174 38.8074 2.24 10-7
Table 1: Henry constant kH [11] at 300 K for
nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide;
their partial pressure pi in air at one
atmosphere, and the corresponding
equilibrium mole fractions in water xi
To make the theoretical description and its
numerical solution feasible, we will, however,
simplify the water-air mixture to a binary system of
water and nitrogen as the first approximation. In
such a case the nucleation work takes the form
4 of the nucleation work can be observed, forming an
W = 4r 2 + pr 3 +
3 energy barrier to nucleation. The lowest maximum
xl1 p x p
+ kTn1 ln + kTn2 ln l2 , (8)
psat xg1 kH xg2
where r is the bubble radius, psat is the saturation
pressure of water [15], kH is the Henry constant [11]
given by
pg2
k H = lim . (9)
xl 2 0 xl2
ni is the number of molecules of water (subscript 1),
and nitrogen respectively (subscript 2), inside the
bubble and it can be calculated as
xgiVN A
ni = , (10)
N xgi M i
i =1 gi
where gi is the density of the (gas-phase)
component i inside the bubble (under the pressure
2 nucleation in the cavitating water-air system.
pg = p + ) and NA is the Avogadro constant.
r In Figs. 17 21 the nucleation parameters of the
The nucleation work is shown in Fig. 16 as a
function of the bubble radius (in nanometers) and
the mole fraction of nitrogen
Figure 16: Nucleation work W of the water-
nitrogen binary bubble as a function of
the bubble radius and nitrogen mole
fraction (1 zeptojoule [zJ] is 10-21 J).
The saddle point of the nucleation
work W is denoted by the black dot .
The thermodynamic state of the parent
liquid mixture is 300 K, 101325 Pa,
xl2 = 1.16 10-5 (i.e., the equilibrium
concentration of dissolved nitrogen
under 1 atm according to the Henry
8
constant [11])
inside the bubble. A typical saddle-shaped surface
of this energy barrier W (i.e., the saddle point) is
crucial for the evaluation of the nucleation rate
whose general form is [14]
c0 (1) W*
J= exp .
(11)
2kT det D kT
The evaluation of formula (11) involves, first of
all, the determination of the saddle point W of Eq.
(7). As the nucleation work is generally a function
of N independent variables (bubble radius r , and
mole fractions of admixtures xg2,...xgN) the search
for the saddle point might become computationally
intensive. We, therefore, selected a simpler binary
mixture of water-nitrogen for an exemplary
calculation. On the other hand, as nitrogen is the
main component of air, the nucleation
characteristics of this binary system can be taken as
a rough approximation for the description of bubble
water-nitrogen liquid mixture, calculated using the
theory presented above, are shown as functions of
temperature (0 80 C ) and pressure (1 15 kPa).
The mole fraction of nitrogen in water was taken
xl2 = 1.16 10-5, i.e., its equilibrium value at 300 K
Figure 17: The log 10 -scaled nucleation rate
J [m 3 s 1 ] in the water-nitrogen liquid
mixture calculated according to Eq. (11)
as a function of pressure and
temperature of the liquid. The mole
fraction of the dissolved nitrogen is
xl2 = 1.16 10-5. The dashed line shows
the saturation pressure of water [15]
Figure 18: The critical nucleation work W [zJ]
corresponding to the nucleation rate
shown in Fig. 17. The values are
calculated numerically from the saddle
point of Eq. (8)
Figure 19: Critical radius r [nm] corresponding
to Fig. 17
Figure 20: Number ng1* of water molecules in the
critical bubble corresponding to Fig. 17
9
Figure 21: Number ng2 of nitrogen molecules in
the critical bubble corresponding to
Fig. 17
(according to the Henry constant [11]). For clarity,
the saturation curve psat(T) [15] is shown in all the
figures as a dashed line. We can see that we no
longer need the large negative pressures required by
the previous theoretical descriptions [10, 12] to
achieve an observable homogeneous nucleation
process; we just need to sufficiently lower the
pressure under the saturation pressure of water. At
25 C , for example, the nucleation process is
predicted to occur at a pressure of roughly 1 kPa,
which is a small but positive pressure. The result of
our theoretical treatment can be summarized as
follows: if the thermodynamic state of water is
around 20 C above its saturation curve at a given
pressure, one can expect homogeneous nucleation
of bubbles (see the temperature difference between
the saturation curve and the curve of
J = 1010 m 3 s 1 in Fig. 17).
Summary and Conclusion
In this paper we have shortly described the
numerical modelling as well as the experimental
research of cavitation in hydraulic machines. The
main interest was focused on the flow
aggressiveness associated with cavitation.
The presented numerical model predicts regions
highly endangered by the bubble collapses as well
as the energy of these collapses denoted as erosion
potential. The first stage of experimental research
in the cavitation tunnel was also presented. This
stage is aimed at validation of the erosion potential
model, visualisation of the cavitation bubbles,
development of the nuclei content measurement and
the validation of the bubble nucleation model.
Though the nuclei content in the numerical model
was still determined empirically, the agreement of
the theoretical results and the observations is [8] J. P. Franc and J. M. Michel: Fundamentals
encouraging. The measurements of the cavitation of Cavitation, Kluwer Academic Publishers
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(1975).
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improved to reliably predict the process of bubble [10] F. Caupin and E. Herbert: Cavitation in
Water: A Review. C. R. Phys. 7: 1000-1017
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(2006).
As far as the practical application of our work is
[11] R. Fernandez-Prini, J. L. Alvarez, and A. H.
concerned, the paper demonstrates the analysis of
Harvey: Henry's Constants and Vapor-liquid
the cavitation erosion in the impeller of the mixed- Distribution Constants for Gaseous Solutes in
flow water pump. H2O and D2O at High Temperatures. J. Phys.
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Acknowledgments
[12] S. F. Jones, G. M. Evans, and K. P. Galvin:
This work has been supported by the Grant Bubble Nucleation from Gas Cavities - A
Agency of Czech Republic under grant Review. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 80: 27-50
101/07/1612 The effect of physical properties of (1999).
water on bubble nucleation and cavitation damage [13] IAPWS Release on Surface Tension of
in pumps and by the Grant Agency of the Czech Ordinary Water Substance. IAPWS (1994).
Academy of Sciences under grant KJB400760701 [14] T. Nmec: Homogeneous Nucleation in
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