Preliminary Year 11 PDHPE Notes: The Body in Motion (How do the musculoskeletal

and cardiorespiratory systems of the body influence and respond to the environment)
Term 1 Exam

Skeletal system

Major bones involved in movement

- Clavicle (collar bone): long bond which provides attachment between shoulder girdle
and the vertebral column. Gives greater mobility to the shoulder joint
- Humerus: major long bone in upper arm joining the shoulder to the elbow
- Radius: long bone found on thumb side of forearm. Works with ulna providing
structure in forearm and enables rotation
- Carpals, metacarpals and phalanges: bones of the wrist and fingers. Carpals are
short bones, metacarpals and phalanges are long. Allow the hand to perform
important fine motor movements
- Femur: longest and strongest bone, covered by large muscles
- Patella (kneecap): small, flat, triangular bone whose main role is to protect the knee
- Tibia (shinbone): larger of the two long bones of the lower leg. Bears most of the
body weight
- Fibula: slender long bone lies parallel with and on the lateral side of the tibia.
Provides support and stability to lower leg
- Tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges: compromises of the bones of the foot. Tarsals
are short bones, metatarsals and phalanges are long

Synovial joints, structure and function

- A joint is a junction of two or more bones and is commonly referred to as an

articulation
- 3 types of joints:
Immovable/fibrous
o No movement is possible
o E.g. cranium bones, fused in lines called sutures
Slightly movable/cartilaginous
o Limited movement
 o
Exists in vertebral column, fibrous cartilage between discs allows
limited range of movement
Freely movable/synovial
o Allows maximum movement
o Most joints in the body are like this, e.g. hip joint

Ligaments

Well defined fibrous bands which connect articulating bones

Assists joint capsule to maintain joint stability, restrains excessive movement,
controls degree and direction of movement
Relatively inelastic structures, may become permanently lengthened when
excessively stretched, can occur in joint injury may lead to joint instability

Tendons

Tough, inelastic cords of tissue which attach muscle to bone

Joints further strengthened by muscle tendons which extend across the joint,
assists ligaments to hold joint closed

Synovial fluid

Acts as a lubricant, keeps joint well oiled and keeps moving surfaces apart
No 2 joint surfaces perfectly fit together perfectly, synovial fluid forms a fluid
cushion between them
Provides nutrition for cartilage carries waste products away
Production of synovial fluid depends on amount of physical activity of joint
 When articular cartilage is under pressure (during movement) fluid is
pumped into the joint space
Fluid viscosity (stickiness) can vary, synovial fluid becomes more viscous as
temperature decreases
Reason for joint stiffness in cold weather

Hyaline cartilage

Has limited blood supply, receives nourishment via the synovial fluid
Allows bones to move freely over each other
This cartilage is thicker in the leg joints where there is more weight to bear
Joint actions

Joint action Description

Flexion A movement that decreases the angle
between the bones at the joint, e.g. bending
the leg at the knee and the arm at the elbow

Extension A movement that increases the angle

between the bones at the joint, e.g.
straightening the leg at the knee

Abduction Movement of a body part away from the

midline of the body, e.g. raising the leg or
arm to the side

Adduction Movement of a body towards the midline of

the body, e.g. lowering the arm or leg
towards the midline

Inversion Rotation of the foot to make the sole of the

foot face inwards

Rotation Moving a body part like the head or trunk

around on its long axis
Circumduction Circular movement of a body part. E.g.
making a large movement with the arm that
describes a cone in space

Pronation Rotation of the hand and forearm that

causes the hand to palm face downwards

Supination Rotation of the hand and forearm that

causes the hand to palm face upwards

Dorsiflexion Flexion of the ankle. Pulls top of foot towards

tibia

Plantar flexion Extension of the ankle. Moves top of foot

from the tibia, pointing the toes
Muscular system

Major muscles involved in movement

- A muscles point of attachment to the more stationary bone is called its origin
- The insertion of a muscle is the point of attachment at the moveable end. The end
tends to be away from the bodys main mass
- The muscle action refers to the movement made at the joint when the muscle
contracts
Muscle Origin Insertion Action
Upper limb (deltoid) Scapula, clavicle Humerus Abduction of arm

Upper limb (biceps Humerus, scapula Radius Flexion of arm and

brachii) forearm, supination
of forearm

Upper limb (triceps) Scapula, humerus Ulna (proximal Extension of arm

end) and forearm

Trunk (Latissimus Spine (T6 L5 Humerus (proximal Adduction,

dorsi) vertebrae, iliac crest) end) extension and
rotation of arm

Trunk (Trapezius) Base of skull (C7 T5 Scapula (upper Adduction of

vertebrae) surface), clavicle scapula, elevation
of shoulders
Trunk (pectorals) Sternum, clavicle Head of humerus Flexion and
adduction of arm

Trunk (Erector spinae Base of skull Sacrum Extension of back

or sacrospinalis) (trunk)

Gluteus maximus Posterior surface of Femur Extension and

pelvis, sacrum abduction of thigh

Trunk (External Lower 8 ribs Iliac crest Flexion and

obliques) rotation of trunk
Lower limb Ischium, femur Tibia, head of Extension of thigh,
(Hamstrings) fibula flexion of lower leg

Lower limb Iliac crest, femur Tibia (proximal Flexion of hip,

(Quadriceps) end), patella extension of lower
leg
Lower limb Femur (distal end) Heel bone Knee flexon,
(Gastrocnemius) (posterior) plantar flexion of
foot

Lower limb (soleus) Tibia and fibula Heel bone Plantar flexion of
(posterior) foot
Lower limb(Tibiallis Tibia Ankle, tarsal, Dorsiflexion and
anterior) metatarsal inversion of foot

Muscle relationships

Agonist

- Muscle which is causing the major action

- Agonists are there for all movable joints, more than one is normally involved to move
a particular joint

Antagonist

- Muscle which lengthens and relaxes

- Allows agonist to contract
- Agonist and antagonist work together
- The roles of each of the muscles are exchangeable depending on direction of
movement
- Antagonist produces action opposite to that of agonist
Figure 1 the flexor (biceps) is the Figure 2 the extensor
agonist, the extensor (triceps) is the (triceps) is the agonist,
antagonist, relaxing for flexion to the flexor (biceps) is the
occur antagonist

Stabiliser

- Acts at a joint to stabilise it, gives muscles a fixed base

- The muscle shortens by a small amount during its contraction, causing minimal
movement
- This action permits the movement to be carried out correctly and other joints can
work more effectively
- In dynamic movements like throwing, some shoulder muscles serve to propel the
object, others act as stabilisers to allow the efficient working of the elbow joint and to
reduce the possibility of damage to the joints

Types of muscle contraction

Concentric

- Most common type

- Muscle shortens, causing movement at joint
- Isotonic contraction (length changes)

Eccentric

- Muscle lengthens under pressure

- Action happens with help of gravity
- Isotonic contraction (length is changed)

Isometric

- Muscle fibres are activated and develop force

Respiratory system

Structure and function

- All of our cells needs a constant

supply of oxygen and food to
maintain life and keep the body
operating effectively
- We take in oxygen and breathe out
carbon dioxide, this process is
called respiration
- This can be described using a
chemical reaction:
Glucose (from food) + Oxygen
(breathed in) Carbon
dioxide (CO2 breathed out) +
energy + water

Figure 3 The respiratory system

Section of graph Description

1 - Air containing oxygen from the
atmosphere enters the body either
through the nose, body or mouth
- When entering through the nose it
passes through the nasal cavities and
is warmed, moistened and is filtered
of any foreign material
2 - Pharynx or throat serves as a
common passage for air to the
trachea or food to the oesophagus
- Leads from nasal cavity to larynx
(voice box) located at the beginning
of the trachea
3 - Strengthened hollow tube kept open
by rings of cartilage
- When it enters the chest cavity or
thorax, the trachea divides into a right
and left bronchus (bronchial tube),
which leads to the right and left lungs
respectively
4 - Inner lining of air passages produces
mucous which catches and holds dirt
and germs
- Covered with microscopic hairs (cilia)
which remove dirt, irritants and
mucous through steady rhythmic
movements
 5 - The lungs consist of 2 bag like
organs, one on each side of the heart
- Enclosed in thoracic cavity by the ribs
at the sides, the sternum at the front,
the vertebral column at the back and
the diaphragm at the base
- Light, soft lung tissue is compressed
and folded, like a sponge composed
of tiny air pockets

- Right and left bronchi divide into a number of bronchioles within each lung
- These then branch many times and end with tiny clusters of air sacs (alveoli or
alveolus)
- Walls of alveoli are very thin, with a network of capillaries (tiny blood carrying
vessels) surrounding each like a string bag (shown in the diagram below)
- Oxygen from the air is exchanged for carbon dioxide in our bloodstream here
Lung function (inspiration and expiration)

Inspiration

- Defined as movement of atmosphere into lungs (breathing in)

- The lungs contract and flatten as external intercostal muscles lift the ribs outwards
and upwards
- This movement increases the volume of the chest cavity and pulls the lung walls
outwards
- This decreases the air pressure within the lungs
- As a result, external air rushes into the body through the air passages

Expiration

- Air movement from the lungs to the atmosphere (breathing out)

- Diaphragm relaxes and moves upwards as internal intercostal muscles allow ribs and
other structures to return to their resting position
- Volume of chest cavity therefore decreased and increases air pressure inside the
lungs
- Air constantly forced out to make air inside and outside body approximately equal
Exchange of gases (internal, external)

- During inspiration that alveoli is supplied with air that is high in oxygen and low in
carbon dioxide
- Blood in the capillaries is low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide
- Different concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli and blood cause
a pressure difference
Gas Inhaled air (%) Exhaled air (%)
Oxygen (O2) 20.93 16.4
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.03 4.1
Nitrogen (N) and other 79.04 79.5
gases
- Gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide move from areas of high concentration or
pressure to areas of low concentration or pressure
- Oxygen, therefore moves from the air in the alveoli across the alveolar capillary wall
into the blood, it attaches itself to haemoglobin in the red blood cells
- Simultaneously, carbon dioxide is unloaded from the blood into the alveoli across the
alveolar capillary wall to be breathed out
- This two way diffusion is known as the exchange of gases or gaseous exchange, this
is summarised in the diagram below:

As blood goes past an alveolus it gives up carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. Gases move in and out through the
thin alveolar walls.

- The same type of exchange occurs between the blood in the capillaries and the cells
of the body
- E.g. muscle cells, oxygen is unloaded to the muscle cells, while carbon dioxide
resulting from cell metabolism is given up to the blood
- Blood which is high in CO2 content (deoxygenated blood) is carried back to the lungs
and unloads carbon dioxide
Circulatory system

The circulatory system consists of:

- Blood
- The heart
- Blood vessels arteries, capillaries and veins

Components of blood

- Blood is a complex fluid circulated by the pumping action of the heart, nourishes
every body cell. Average sized person about 5 litres of blood
- The functions of blood include
Transportation of oxygen and nutrients to tissues
and removal of carbon dioxide and wastes
Protection of body through immune system and
clotting to prevent blood loss
Regulation of body temperature and fluid content of
body tissues
- Blood has a liquid component called plasma (55%) and a
solid component, red, white blood cells and platelets (45%)
Plasma
Substances like plasma proteins, nutrients, hormones, mineral wastes and
wastes are dissolved in the plasma, necessary for nourishment and
functioning of tissues
Most of the CO2 and small amounts of oxygen are carried in plasma in their
dissolved state
Water is an important part of the circulatory system and controls body heat
through sweating
When we work hard, blood transfers excess heat generated by the surface of
the body to the surface of the skin to be lost
If there is extreme sweating, excessive loss of water from plasma and tissues
can reduce blood volume, increasing the need for frequent hydration

Red blood cells

Formed in bone marrow, carries O2 and CO2 around the body, contains iron
and haemoglobin
Haemoglobin readily combines with oxygen, carries it from lungs to cells
Red blood cells outnumber white blood cells by 700 to 1
Flat disc shape, large surface for providing oxygen, approx. 2 million blood
cells destroyed and repaired every second
Each cell lives for approx. 4 months
On average, men have 16g haemoglobin per 100 mL blood whereas women
have 14

White blood cells

Formed in bone marrow and lymph nodes

Provides body with mobile protection system against disease
 Can change shape and move against blood flow to areas of infection or
disease
There are 2 types
Type of white blood cell Function
Phagocytes - Engulfs foreign material and
harmful bacteria
Lymphocytes - Produces antibodies to fight
disease
- Diseases like HIV/AIDS
suppress the activity of the
immune system by disrupting
the normal function of white
blood cells
Platelets

Tiny structures formed in bone marrow, these cells have no nucleus

Produces clotting substances helpful for preventing blood loss when a blood
vessel is damaged

Structure and function of the heart, veins and capillaries

Heart

- Muscular pump, rhythmically contracts, providing force to keep blood circulating

around body
- Slightly larger than clenched fist and is the shape of a large pear
- Heart lies in chest cavity between the lungs and above the diaphragm protected by
ribs and sternum
- Beats approx. 70 times per min