Analog models of restraining AUTHORS

Ken McClay Fault Dynamics Research

stepovers in strike-slip Group, Geology Department, Royal Holloway
University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20
fault systems OEX, United Kingdom; ken@gl.rhbnc.ac.uk
Ken McClay comes from Adelaide, Australia.
Ken McClay and Massimo Bonora He has a B.Sc. (honors) degree from Adelaide
University and an M.Sc. degree and Ph.D. in
structural geology from Imperial College,
London. He lectured at Goldsmiths College
ABSTRACT and is now at Royal Holloway University of
London. He has been professor of structural
Scaled sandbox models have successfully simulated the geometries geology since 1991 and is director of the Fault
and progressive evolution of antiformal pop-up structures devel- Dynamics Research Group. He was AAPG
oped in a weak sedimentary cover above restraining stepovers in distinguished lecturer in North America 1994
offset sinistral strike-slip fault systems in rigid basement. Models 1995 and AAPG International distinguished
lecturer 19981999. His research involves
were run both with and without synkinematic sedimentation,
extension, thrust, strike-slip, and inversion
which was added incrementally to cover the growing antiformal terranes and their applications to hydrocarbon
structures. Vertical and horizontal sections of the completed mod- exploration. He publishes widely, consults, and
els permit the full three-dimensional (3-D) structure of the pop- gives short courses to industry.
ups to be analyzed in detail. Three representative end-member ex-
periments are described: 30 underlapping restraining stepovers; Massimo Bonora Midland Valley, 14
Park Circus, Glasgow, G3 6AX, Scotland,
90 neutral restraining stepovers; and 150 overlapping restraining
United Kingdom
stepovers.
Massimo Bonora comes from Ferrara, Italy.
The experimental pop-ups are typically sigmoidal to lozenge-
He received his degree in geological sciences
shaped, antiformal structures having geometries that are dependent from Ferrara University and his M.Sc. degree
on both the stepover angle and stepover width in the underlying in basin evolution and dynamics from Royal
basement faults. Underlapping restraining stepovers typically form Holloway University of London. Between 1995
elongate lozenge-shaped pop-ups; 90 neutral restraining stepovers and 1998 Massimo worked as a research
produce shorter, squat rhomboidal pop-ups; and overlapping re- assistant in the Fault Dynamics Research
straining stepovers produce sigmoidal antiformal pop-ups. Trans Group at Royal Holloway. Massimo is now
pop-up cross fault systems are characteristic at large displacements working as a structural geologist within the
Latin America team at Midland Valley Ltd. in
on the basement fault system. Above the offset principal displace-
Glasgow, Scotland.
ment zones, the pop-ups are commonly small, narrow, positive
ower structures, whereas in the stepover region, they widen out
and become markedly asymmetric. This pop-up asymmetry ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
switches across the center of the stepover, where the pop-ups are
The research for this article has been sup-
largely symmetical. Maximum rotations measured within the cen- ported by the Fault Dynamics Project (spon-
tral highly uplifted region of the pop-ups increase from 7 counter- sored by ARCO British Limited, Petrobras U.K.
clockwise for the underlapping (30) stepovers, to 14 counter- Ltd., BP Exploration, Conoco (U.K.) Limited,
clockwise for the neutral (90) stepovers, to 16 counterclockwise Mobil North Sea Limited, and Sun Oil Britain).
for the overlapping (150) stepovers. Ken McClay also gratefully acknowledges
In models where no synkinematic sediments were added during funding from ARCO British Limited and BP Ex-
deformation, the pop-up structures are bound by convex, atten- ploration. We thank J. Reijs for the data for
Figure 21. Critical reviews by A. Sylvester, D.
ing-upward, oblique-slip reverse fault systems that link downward
Stone, and J. Sheridan were greatly appreci-
to the offsets in the basement fault system. In contrast, in the ated. We thank Tim Dooley for many fruitful
discussions and assistance with drafting dia-
grams. Howard Moore constructed the defor-
Copyright 2001. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved. mation apparatus. Fault Dynamics Publication
Manuscript received November 18, 1997; revised manuscript received March 24, 2000; nal acceptance No. 74.
June 30, 2000.

AAPG Bulletin, v. 85, no. 2 (February 2001), pp. 233260 233

experiments where synkinematic sediments were
added incrementally during deformation, the pop-ups
are formed by oblique-slip reverse faults that steepen
upward into the synkinematic strata with the forma-
tion of fault-propagation growth folds.
The analog models are compared with natural ex-
amples of pop-up structures and show strong similar-
ities in structural geometries and stratal architectures.
These models may provide structural templates for
seismic interpretation of complex contractional struc-
tures in offset strike-slip fault systems.
INTRODUCTION
Interpretation and analysis of complex three-dimen-
sional (3-D) structures in the subsurface is one of the
major challenges in hydrocarbon exploration. Seismic
imaging of strike-slip structures is commonly very poor
because of the steep stratal and fault dips as well as
signicant along-strike variations in structural geome-
tries (cf. Harding, 1990; Sylvester, 1988). Scaled ana-
log modeling has proved to be a powerful tool in de-
veloping an understanding of the geometries and
kinematics of complex 3-D structures in sedimentary
basins (e.g., extension structures: Withjack and Jami-
son, 1986; Serra and Nelson, 1989; McClay, 1990;
Withjack et al., 1990; Tron and Brun, 1991; Vende-
ville, 1991; McClay, 1995a, b; McClay and White,
1995; contractional structures: Lallemand et al., 1992;
Calassou et al., 1993; Malavieille et al., 1993; and
strike-slip structures: Naylor et al., 1986; Mandl, 1988;
Richard et al., 1989, 1991, 1995; Richard and Cob-
bold, 1990; Richard, 1991; Schreurs, 1994; McClay
and Dooley, 1995; Dooley and McClay, 1997).
This article summarizes the results of a compre-
hensive suite of experiments designed to simulate the
geometric and kinematic evolution of structures
squeezed up at restraining bends and stepovers in
strike-slip fault systems; in this article these structures
are termed pop-ups (cf. Stone, 1995). In particular
the models have incorporated syntectonic sedimenta-
tion during the deformation. This research is part of an
ongoing program designed to develop an understand-
ing of the four-dimensional (4-D) evolution of com-
plex structures in sedimentary basins and follows an
earlier article on the modeling of strike-slip pull-apart
basins (Dooley and McClay, 1997). The experimental
results provide templates for seismic interpretation of
strike-slip pop-ups and insights into their kinematic
evolution. The results of the analog models are com-
234 Analog Models of Restraining Strike-Slip Faults
pared and contrasted with natural examples of struc-
tures developed in sedimetary strata above restraining
bends or stepovers in basement strike-slip fault
systems.
Pop-ups and transpressional uplifts are an integral
part of intraplate and interplate strike-slip fault zones
(Sylvester and Smith, 1976; Christie-Blick and Biddle,
1985; Sylvester, 1988; Zolnai, 1991) and form at re-
straining bends or stepovers (e.g., Harding, 1974,
1990; Christie-Blick and Biddle, 1985; Harding et al.,
1985; Lowell, 1985). They typically form anticlinal
uplifts, commonly with doubly plunging arrangements
of folds, and are of limited strike extent. In plan view
they are broadly lozenge-shaped to rhomboidal in
form, whereas in cross section they commonly
bounded convex-up faults that atten upward toward
the surface forming positive ower or palm tree struc-
tures (e.g., Sylvester and Smith, 1987; Sylvester,
1988). In this article we use the general term pop-up
to describe a domal uplift (cf. Stone, 1995) that has
both positive structural and topographic relief. Many
large intraplate strike-slip systems, for example, along
the San Andreas fault system (Harding, 1976; Sylvester
and Smith, 1976; Sylvester, 1988; Brown and Sibson,
1989; Jones et al., 1994; Powell et al., 1993) or along
the Altai fault system in Mongolia (Cunningham et al.,
1996) commonly have large-scale pop-ups associated
with restraining bends and stepovers.
Bends and stepovers (jogs or offsets) in the prin-
cipal displacement zones (PDZs) (e.g., Christie-Blick
and Biddle, 1985) of a strike-slip fault system generally
produce either zones of extension (pull-apart or step-
over basins) at releasing bends or stepovers (Figure 1a)
or regions of compression, uplifts, or pop-up structures
(including positive owerpalm tree structures) at re-
straining bends or restraining stepovers (Figure 1b).
The latter characteristically produce anticlinal uplifts
in the overlying sedimentary section with older strata
or basement exposed in the core (e.g., Crowell, 1974;
Sylvester and Smith, 1976; Mann et al., 1983; Aydin
and Nur, 1985; Christie-Blick and Biddle, 1985; Syl-
vester, 1988). Previous analog model studies of pop-
ups have not fully addressed their progressive evolu-
tion, their 3-D structure, and in particular, their
interaction with syntectonic sedimentation (cf. sand-
box models in Horseeld, 1977, 1980; Naylor et al.,
1986; Mandl, 1988; Richard and Cobbold, 1990; Rich-
ard, 1991; Richard et al., 1991; Schreurs, 1994; and
Richard et al., 1995; and clay models in Wilcox et al.,
1973; Keller et al., 1997). Here the results of a system-
atic series of restraining stepover analog models are
a. Strike-Slip Bend Geometries rig (Figure 2). Thin aluminium base plates cut in such
a way so as to produce restraining strike-slip stepovers
at angles from 30 to 150 (Figure 2) formed the offset
Releasing double bend
fault system at the base of the model. Within the de-
Subsidence formation rig a homogeneous prekinematic sandpack
was constructed by mechanically sieving alternating 2
5 mm thick horizontal layers of white, blue (dyed), and
black (dyed), 190 lm grain size, dry quartz sand. Dry
quartz sand deforms according to Navier-Coulomb
failure (Horseeld, 1977; McClay, 1990) and has been
Restraining double bend widely used to simulate the brittle deformation of sed-
iments in the upper crust (e.g., Horseeld, 1977; Nay-
Uplift
lor et al., 1986; McClay, 1990; Schreurs, 1994; Rich-
ard et al., 1995; McClay and Dooley, 1995). The
models have a model to tectonic prototype scaling ratio
of 105 such that 1 cm in the models represents 1
km in nature (cf. McClay, 1990).
The baseplates of the model were displaced by
computer-controlled stepper motors such that they
b. Strike-Slip Stepover Geometries produced sinistral displacement at constant rate of 4
103 cm/sec. Prior to deformation, a 2 2 cm sand
grid was placed on the upper surface of the model in
Releasing stepover
order that progressive displacements and rotations
Pull-Apart Basin could be monitored during the experiment. For the se-
ries of experiments incorporating synkinematic sedi-
mentation, green and white sand layers were added to
completely cover the pop-up structure after every 2
cm of total displacement on the basement master
faults. The upper surface of each experiment was re-
Restraining stepover corded by time-lapse photography at every 0.25 cm of
displacement. Completed models were impregnated
with a gelling agent and serially sectioned both verti-
cally and horizontally for detailed analysis. Vertical
Pop-Up sections were digitized into a workstation for 3-D re-
construction using 3-D Move. Experiments were run
Figure 1. General characteristics of strike-slip fault systems in at least twice, enabling sectioning in different orienta-
plan view. (a) Bends in the fault surface produce localized zones
tions. In all cases repeat experiments produced similar
of extension and subsidence, whereas restraining bends pro-
results.
duce localized zones of contraction and uplift. (b) Stepovers
between two offset fault systems produce either pull-apart ba- The results of a comprehensive suite of experi-
sins for releasing stepovers or pop-ups and uplifts for restraining ments in which sinistral strike-slip faults in the rigid
stepovers. basement were offset at angles that varied from 30 to
150 in increments of 15 (cf. Figure 2) are presented.
The width of the stepover was varied systematically
presented in 3-D and are compared with a range of from 2.5 to 10 cm, and the thickness of the prekine-
natural examples of in map and section view. matic sandpack was varied from 5 to 10 cm. All ex-
periments involved a total strike-slip displacement of
10 cm on the underlying basement master faults. One
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE suite of experiments was run without the addition of
synkinematic sedimentation, and the second suite with
The scaled analog models were carried out using 5 and synkinematic sediments added incrementally through-
10 cm thick sandpacks in a 120 60 cm deformation out the deformation. In this article, representative

McClay and Bonora 235

Figure 2. Experimental appa- a. Predeformation
ratus. (a) Plan view of experi-
mental apparatus showing the
two parts of the deformation
table and computer-controlled
stepper motors that drive each
half. The model is constructed
in the central part of the rig, b. Postdeformation
and the sandpack is layered on
top of baseplates having prede-
Motor drive
termined stepover geometries.
(b) Stepover geometries ana-
lyzed in this article: 30 under-
Rig Dimensions: 120 x 50 x 10 cm
lapping, 90 neutral, and 150
overlapping systems.
results from these two groups of experimental results
are shown for basement fault restraining stepover
widths of 10 cm and prekinematic sandpack thick-
nesses of 5 cm. The stepover geometries used were 30
underlapping stepover, 90 neutral stepover, and 150
overlapping stepover (these angles are measured be-
tween the strike of the main fault segments and the
line joining the tips of these faults in the stepover re-
gion, e.g., Figure 2).
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The results from key representative stepover models
are presented in the following section and summarized
in Table 1. For this article, models having a sandpack
thickness of 5 cm were chosen because they produced
pop-ups that had more than one set of oblique reverse
faults, as well as well dened internal structures. Mod-
els having 10 cm thick sandpacks produced compara-
tively simple pop-ups bounded by only two oblique-
slip reverse faults and with little internal structure.
Experiment Series 1: Without Synkinematic Sedimentation
30 Underlapping Restraining Stepover
After 12 cm sinistral strike-slip displacement on the
basement faults, experiment W306 produced an initial
broad zone of uplift localized above the basement step-
over (Table 1; Figure 3a). The uplift was bounded by
two sinistral, oblique reverse fault segments (Figure
3a). At 2 cm displacement, well-dened sinistral
oblique-slip Riedel shears appeared above the main
strands of the basement faults (Figure 3a). The central
part of the model showed 5 counterclockwise rotation
236 Analog Models of Restraining Strike-Slip Faults
c. Stepover geometries
i. Underlapping - 30 restraining stepover
d = 10 cm
w= 10 cm
ii. Neutral- 90 restraining stepover
w= 10 cm
Motor drive
iii. Overlapping - 150 restraining stepover
w= 10 cm
at this stage. With increased displacement, these Riedel
shears link into an anastomosing array of faults that
form the principal displacement zones (PDZs) in the
sandpack. At 4 cm displacement, the pop-up structure
is well dened, having two sets of reverse faults den-
ing a rhomboidal uplift (Figure 3b). The outer pair of
reverse faults dened the extremities of the uplift, and
the internal pair of faults dened an inner zone of
greater relief. At this stage, the maximum rotation of
the central section of the model had increased slightly
to 6. From 4 to 6 cm displacement, the uplift in-
creased in amplitude, and deformation was mainly fo-
cused in the central part of the model. By 8 cm dis-
placement a pair of oblique-slip, sinistral strike-slip
faults cut across the central region of the pop-up and
linked the two PDZs at each end of the model (Table
1; Figure 3d). The nal structure after 10 cm of dis-
placement consisted of an elongate, deformed rhom-
boidal pop-up in which the cross faults linked the two
PDZs and concentrated much of the late stage dis-
placement (Figure 3e). Maximum rotation of the cen-
tral part of the pop-up was only 7 counterclockwise.
Vertical serial sections through the completed
model (Figure 4) show the along-strike change in sym-
metry within the model. In the sandpack beyond the
extremities of the basement stepover, the PDZs form
positive ower or palm tree structures that become
asymmetric toward the basement stepover. The asym-
metric pop-ups are formed by one steeply dipping re-
verse fault and by one more shallowly dipping oblique
reverse fault (Figure 4). The sense of asymmetry
switches across the center of the stepover (Figure 4).
At the center of the stepover in the basement faults,
the pop-up is symmetric and bounded on each side by
divergent reverse faults (section 30 in Figure 4). The
 Table 1. Summary of Experimental Results*
W306
30 Underlapping
EXPT. No. No Sedimentation
Progressive 2 cm: Broad uplift over
Evolution stepover. PDZs dened
by Riedel shears. Two
outer sinistral reverse
faults.
4 cm: Two inner sinistral
reverse faults.
6 rotation.
8 cm: Trans pop-up strike-
slip faults link the PDZs.
Final Rhomboidal pop-up.
Pop-up Maximum uplift over
Geometry center of stepover.
Two outer and two inner
sinistral reverse faults.
7 rotation.
Trans pop-up strike-slip
faults link the PDZs.
Cross Positive ower structures
Section over PDZs at ends of the
Structures stepover.
McClay and Bonora
W303
90 Neutral
No Sedimentation
2 cm: Elongate uplift over
stepover. PDZs dened
by Riedel shears. Two
outer curved sinistal
reverse faults.
4 cm: Two inner sinistral
faults.
9 rotation.
68 cm: Trans pop-up
strike-slip faults link the
PDZs.
Rhomboidal pop-up.
Maximum uplift over
center of stepover.
Two outer and two inner
sinistral reverse faults.
14 rotation.
Trans pop-up strike-slip
faults link the PDZs.
Network of dextral and
sinistral strike-slip faults
in the pop-up.
Positive ower structures
over PDZs at either end
of the stepover.
W309 W324 W314 W325
150 Underlapping 30 Underlapping 90 Neutral 150 Underlapping
No Sedimentation Sedimentation Sedimentation Sedimentation
2 cm: Elongate uplift over 2 cm: Wide uplift over 2 cm: Wide rhomboidal 2 cm: Wide rhomboidal
stepover. PDZs dened stepover. PDZs dened uplift over stepover. uplift over stepover.
by Riedel shears. Two by Riedel shears. Two PDZs dened by Riedel PDZs dened by Riedel
outer sigmoidal sinistal inner sigmoidal sinistral shears. shears.
reverse faults. reverse faults. Two inner sigmoidal Two inner sigmoidal
4 cm: Two inner sinistral 4 cm: Two outer sinistral sinistral reverse faults. sinistral reverse faults.
reverse faults. faults. 4 cm: Two outer sinistral 4 cm: Two outer sinistral
11.5 rotation. 5 rotation, rst 2 cm; reverse faults. reverse faults.
6 and 8 cm: Trans pop-up 1.52 rotation, 3.5 rotation., rst 2 cm; 5 rotation, rst 2 x 2 cm;
strike-slip faults link the subsequent 2 cm 22.5 rotation, 23.5 rotation,
PDZs. Dextral anithetic increments. subsequent 2 cm subsequent 2 cm
shears cut the pop-up. increments. increments.
8 cm: Sinistral cross faults. 68 cm: Sinistral cross
faults.
Sigmoidal pop-up. Broad rhomboidal pop-up. Broad sigmoidal pop-up. Broad strongly sigmoidal
Maximum uplift over Maximum uplift over Maximum uplift over pop-up.
center of stepover. center of stepover. center of stepover. Maximum uplift over
Two outer and two inner Inner oblique, sinistral Inner and outer oblique, center of stepover.
sinistral reverse faults. reverse faults dominant. sinistral reverse faults. Inner and outer oblique,
16 rotation. 12 total rotation. Small dextral cross faults. sinistral reverse faults.
Trans pop-up strike-slip 12.5 total rotation. Inner sinistral trans pop-
faults link the PDZs. up faults.
Dextral strike-slip faults 18 total rotation.
transect the pop-up.
Positive ower structures Positive ower structures Positive ower structures Positive ower structures
over PDZs. over PDZs. over PDZs. over PDZs.
Asymmetric pop-up either Asymmetric pop-up Asymmetric pop-up Asymmetric pop-up

Asymmetric pop-up either
side of center of
stepover.
Symmetric pop-up at
center of stepover.
Both concave and convex-
up oblique reverse faults
in the pop-up.
237
Asymmetric pop-up either
side center of stepover;
switch in asymmetry
across the stepover
center.
Symmetric pop-up at
center of stepover.
Both concave and convex-
up oblique reverse faults
in the pop-up.
side center of stepover;
switch in asymmetry
across the stepover
center.
Symmetric pop-up at
center of stepover.
Dominantly convex-up
oblique reverse faults in
the pop-up.
toward center of toward center of toward center of
stepover; switch in stepover; switch in stepover; switch in
asymmetry across the asymmetry across the asymmetry across the
stepover center. stepover center. stepover center.
Symmetric pop-up at Broad symmetric pop-up Broad symmetric pop-up
center of stepover. at center of stepover. at center of stepover.
Planar to concave-up Planar to concave-up Planar to concave-up
oblique reverse faults in oblique reverse faults in oblique reverse faults in
the pop-up. the pop-up. the pop-up.

*Results are for 5 cm thick sandpacks above restraining stepovers with and without synkinematic sedimentation.
Figure 3. Sequential top-surface photographs showing the progressive evolution of experiment W306, 30 restraining stepover. (a)
2 cm displacement; (b) 4 cm displacement; (c) 6 cm displacement; (d) 8 cm displacement; (e) 10 cm displacement.

Figure 5. Sequential top surface photographs showing the progressive evolution of experiment W303, 90 restraining stepover. (a)
2 cm displacement; (b) 4 cm displacement; (c) 6 cm displacement; (d) 8 cm displacement; (e) 10 cm displacement.

238 Analog Models of Restraining Strike-Slip Faults

Figure 4. Serial vertical sections and a line diagram of the surface of experiment W306 after 10 cm sinistral strike-slip displacement
on the basement fault system. Fifty serial sections were cut at 1 cm intervals across the model. Faults are numbered to permit
correlation between the plan view diagram and the vertical sections.

McClay and Bonora 239

opposing asymmetries of the pop-ups at either end of
the stepover reect the decrease in along-strike dis-
placement on the outer oblique reverse faults (Figure
4). The steep crosscutting strike-slip faults that link the
PDZs appear to cut the earlier formed lower angle
convex-up reverse faults that dene the dominant
asymmetric positive ower structure of the pop-up
(Figure 4).
90 Neutral Restraining Stepover
Experiment W303, a 90 neutral restraining stepover,
displayed a similar evolution to the 30 model de-
scribed previously. A rhomboidal to slightly sigmoidal
pop-up structure bounded by curved, oblique-slip re-
verse faults formed above the basement stepover (Ta-
ble 1; Figure 5). The main differences in the evolution
of this model were the shorter pop-up and the in-
creased rotation and the development of small dis-
placement antithetic, dextral shears in the central re-
gion of the pop-up (Table 1; Figure 5). In cross section
the pop-up shows a distinct asymmetry, the sense of
which switches across the center of the basement step-
over (Figure 6).
150 Overlapping Restraining Stepover
Experiment W309, a 150 overlapping restraining
stepover, displayed a similar evolution to the models
previously described but developed a strongly sigmoi-
dal pop-up structure bounded by curved, oblique-slip
reverse faults above the basement stepover (Table 1;
Figure 7). This model also displayed increased rotation
(16 after 10 cm of displacement) (Table 1) and the
development of small displacement dextral and sinis-
tral shears in the central region of the pop-up (Table
1; Figure 7). As in the other models described previ-
ously, the cross sections of the pop-up show a distinct
asymmetry, which switches across the center of the
basement stepover (Figure 8).
Horizontal Sections
In addition to vertical serial sections, some models
were sectioned horizontally to analyze the geometry at
depth. Figure 9 shows the top-surface geometry and a
horizontal section, at 2.5 cm below the crest of the
pop-up, through experiment W305, a 90 neutral re-
straining stepover. The rhomboidal shape is clearly de-
lineated together with the two pairs of sigmoidal,
oblique-slip reverse faults that bound the inner and
outer parts of the uplifted area. Note also the doubly
plunging anticlinal nature of the pop-up with the main
anticlinal axis that strikes counter to the overall sinis-
240 Analog Models of Restraining Strike-Slip Faults
tral shear displacement of the main fault systems (Fig-
ure 9c). The inner set of reverse faults denes a zone
of greater uplift. The cross pop-up strike-slip faults that
are seen on the upper surface of the model (Figure 9a)
have sigmoidal traces in the horizontal section (Figure
9b) and link to the main PDZs at either end of the
stepover structure. The synthetic and antithetic Riedel
shears that are observed on the surface of the model
(Figure 9a) are not found in the horizontal section, in-
dicating their limited slip and relatively late stage of
development.
Experiment Series 2: With Synkinematic Sedimentation
In this series of experiments, synkinematic sedimen-
tation was added at the end of each increment of de-
formation burying the pop-ups and preventing the de-
velopment of steep surface scarps above emergent fault
surfaces. The photographs of the top surfaces of the
models at each stage of the deformation therefore show
the effects of the last deformation increment in the
synkinematic layer.
30 Underlapping Restraining Stepover
After 12 cm of sinistral strike-slip displacement on the
basement faults, synthetic Riedel shears formed above
the offset segments of these faults together with a wide
zone of gentle uplift above the basement stepover (Fig-
ure 10a). This uplift zone was bound by two weakly
developed oblique-slip reverse faults, which with in-
creased displacement, propagated along strike and
formed sigmoidal linkages to the main PDZs (Figure
10b). At 4 cm of displacement a second set of sinistral,
oblique-slip reverse faults formed at the extremities of
the uplifted area. At this stage (Figure 10b), the inter-
nal pair of reverse faults dened an inner zone of
greater relief, similar to that in the models without syn-
kinematic sedimentation (cf. Figure 3). After 6 cm dis-
placement (Figure 10c), activity on the inner right-
hand oblique reverse fault ceased, and much of the
late-stage displacement focused on the remaining
faults (Figure 10d), forming an elongate deformed
rhomboidal pop-up. This was also the geometry of the
nal structure after 10 cm displacement (Figure 10e).
Trans pop-up oblique sinistral strike-slip faults do not
appear to cut the structure. The rotations of the marker
grid on the upper surface of the model are only very
small (Figure 10), decreasing from 5 counterclockwise
rotation at 2 cm displacement to only 1.5 to 2 rotation
for each 2 cm deformation increment thereafter
(Table 1).
Figure 6. Serial vertical sections and a line diagram of the surface of experiment W303 after 10 cm sinistral strike-slip displacement
on the basement fault system. Fifty serial sections were cut at 1 cm intervals across the model. Faults are numbered to permit
correlation between the plan view diagram and the vertical sections.

McClay and Bonora 241

Figure 7. Sequential top-surface photographs showing the progressive evolution of experiment W309, 150 restraining stepover.
(a) 2 cm displacement; (b) 4 cm displacement; (c) 6 cm displacement; (d) 8 cm displacement; (e) 10 cm displacement.

Figure 10. Sequential top-surface photographs showing the progressive evolution of experiment W324, 30 restraining stepover.
Synkinematic sedimentation was added incrementally after each 2 cm of displacement. (a) 2 cm displacement; (b) 4 cm displacement;
(c) 6 cm displacement; (d) 8 cm displacement; (e) 10 cm displacement.

242 Analog Models of Restraining Strike-Slip Faults

Figure 8. Serial vertical sections and a line diagram of the surface of experiment W309 after 10 cm sinistral strike-slip displacement
on the basement fault system. Fifty serial sections were cut at 1 cm intervals across the model. Faults are numbered to permit
correlation between the plan view diagram and the vertical sections.

McClay and Bonora 243

 Serial vertical sections across the nal structure re-
vealed the internal geometry of the pop-up (Figure
11). At the extremities of the pop-up structure, the
narrow positive ower structures developed above
both PDZs (Figure 11). The pop-up structure itself is
characterized by distinctly asymmetric positive ower
structures that switch polarities along strike (Figure
11). The positive ower structures are formed by
oblique-slip reverse faults that are planar in the pre-
kinematic strata and steepen upward in the synkine-
matic strata (Figure 11). The structure above the cen-
ter of the basement stepover was symmetric, and the
uplift was bounded on each side by two divergent re-
verse faults (Section 28 in Figure 11). Thickness
changes in the synkinematic strata occurred where
they thinned onto the hanging walls of the oblique-slip
reverse faults forming fault-propagation growth folds
(Figure 11).
90 Neutral Restraining Stepover
A similar progressive deformation pattern was exhib-
ited by experiment W314, a 90 restraining stepover
(Table 1; Figure 12). In contrast to experiment W324
(30 stepover) the pop-up was much broader and
bounded by sigmoidal oblique reverse faults (Figure
12). Two trans pop-up cross faults cut the center of
the uplifted area and linked to the offset PDZs. In the
latter deformation stages, these sinistral faults accom-
modated much of the displacement (Figure 12d). In
addition small displacement dextral shears were also
developed in the center of the model during the late
stages of deformation (Figure 12ce). For each incre-
ment of deformation the maximum counterclockwise
(i.e., sinistral) rotation of the marker grid lines was 2
to 3.5 (Table 1; Figure 12).
Serial vertical sections across the completed model
revealed symmetric to slightly asymmetric positive
ower structures formed along the main strands of the
PDZs (Figure 13). The central section of the pop-up is
symmetric and bound by moderately dipping, oblique-
slip, concave-up reverse faults. The central part of the
pop-up structure was also cut by well-developed cross
faults (Section 19 in Figure 13). The synkinematic sed-
iments thinned onto the crest of the pop-up and pre-
vented the active faults from attening out upsection
toward the free upper surface of the model.
150 Overlapping Restraining Stepover
Experiment W325, 150 stepover, showed a similar
evolution to model W314 (cf. Table 1; Figure 14) with
the development of a strongly sigmoidal pop-up, the
244 Analog Models of Restraining Strike-Slip Faults
central section of which was cut by several sinistral
cross faults (Figure 14). These cross faults were very
distinct in the vertical sections (sections 2430; Figure
15). For the initial two 2 cm increments of deformation
(Figure 14), the maximum counterclockwise rotation
of the grid lines was 45, decreasing to 2 thereafter.
As in all experiments, the pop-up was distinctly asym-
metric either side of the central section of the base-
ment stepover.
3-D Geometry and Variations in Stepover Width
In all of the experiments described previously and sum-
marized in Table 1, the stepover width was xed at 10
cm. Reduction of the stepover width to 5 cm reduced
the width of the resultant pop-up and for the same
amount of displacement on the basement fault system
produced pop-ups having more uplift and greater com-
plexity of internal structure (Figure 16; experiment
W307, 90 neutral stepover; Figure 17, see following
section). Structure contours on top of the prekinematic
surface for this model clearly revealed the strongly el-
evated core of the pop-up, the dissected nature of this
central part, and the elongated rhomboidal nature of
the whole structure. The complexity of internal fault-
ing in this model was revealed by 3-D reconstruction
using 3-D Move, where a perspective view of the faults
was generated (Figure 16c). This clearly showed the
sigmoidal shape of the oblique-bounding faults of the
pop-up and the crosscutting faults in the center of the
structure. As in most of the models constructed in this
experimental program, all the faults that bound the
pop-up structure root downward into the offset linear
faults at the base of the model (Figure 16c). The asym-
metry characteristic of the pop-ups produced in these
experiments was produced by the changing 3-D ge-
ometry of the primary oblique reverse faults that link
the offset PDZs.
In experiments where the width of the stepover
was varied from 10 to 2.5 cm (summarized in Figure
17), a decrease in the stepover width produced a pro-
portional decrease in the width of the pop-up and a
corresponding increase in the surface relief of the pop-
up, as the total displacement remained constant. Hav-
ing stepover widths less than half of the total displace-
ment along the master faults, underlapping and neutral
basement congurations produced structures that can
be best described as in-line uplifts (the axis of uplift
closely parallels the PDZ) (Figure 17g, h) and only ex-
treme overlap such as that in the 150 conguration
produces a rhombic-shaped pop-up (Figure 17i).
Figure 9. Experiment W305 after 10 cm sinistral displacement. (a) Top surface of model showing pop-up faults. (b) Horizontal
section taken 1 cm below top surface. (c) Interpretation of b, showing the folds, faults, and bed-dip directions.

DISCUSSION straining stepover pop-ups were fundamentally con-

Pop-Up Geometries
The experimental models of strike-slip pop-ups in this
article reveal their progressive evolution in plan view
and their 3-D structure in both vertical and horizontal
sections (e.g., Figures 39, 16). The geometries of re-
trolled by the geometry of the stepover (underlapping-
overlapping), the width of the stepover in the rigid
basement beneath the sandpack (Figures 39, 16), and
the thickness of the sandpack.
In models without synkinematic sedimentation,
the nite pop-up geometries varied from elongate
lozenge-shaped uplifts for 30 underlapping stepovers

McClay and Bonora 245

Figure 11. Serial vertical sections and a line diagram of the surface of experiment W324 after 10 cm sinistral strike-slip displacement
on the basement fault system. Fifty serial sections were cut at 1 cm intervals across the model. Faults are numbered to permit
correlation between the plan view diagram and the vertical sections.

246 Analog Models of Restraining Strike-Slip Faults

Figure 12. Sequential top-surface photographs showing the progressive evolution of experiment W314, 90 restraining stepover.
Synkinematic sedimentation was added incrementally after each 2 cm of displacement. (a) 2 cm displacement; (b) 4 cm displacement;
(c) 6 cm displacement; (d) 8 cm displacement; (e) 10 cm displacement.

Figure 14. Sequential top-surface photographs showing the progressive evolution of experiment W325, 150 restraining stepover.
Synkinematic sedimentation was added incrementally after each 2 cm of displacement. (a) 2 cm displacement; (b) 4 cm displacement;
(c) 6 cm displacement; (d) 8 cm displacement; (e) 10 cm displacement.

McClay and Bonora 247

(Figures 3, 16), to broad rhomboidal shapes for 90
stepovers (Figures 5, 9, 13), to sigmoidal shapes for
150 overlapping stepovers (Figures 7, 15). All pop-
ups are characterized by doubly plunging anticlines
that produce four-way dip closures above the restrain-
ing stepover (Figures 9, 16). Having an increase in the
amount of stepover, the pop-ups became wider, more
sigmoidal, and developed crosscutting faults that
linked the offset PDZs (Figures 5, 7, 9). In some mod-
els, small, antithetic (dextral) shears also cut the crests
of the pop-ups. The addition of synkinematic sedimen-
tation produced broader structures (Figures 10, 12, 14)
as the sidewall bounding faults to the pop-up propa-
gated upward through the synkinematic layers rather
than attening at the surface as in the models that had
no synkinematic sedimentation. A decrease in the
width of the stepover produced narrower pop-ups
(Figure 17), but they had more complex internal struc-
tures (Figure 16). As in all sand analog models, the
fault density decreases as sandpack thickness increases,
such that 10 cm sandpacks generated relatively simple
broad pop-up. Models run that had stepover widths of
less than 50% total displacement produced narrow, in-
line uplifts for underlapping to neutral baseplate
congurations.
In vertical sections (cf. Figures 4, 6, 8), the PDZs
at the extremities of the models were characterized by
narrow positive ower structures. Deformation in the
stepover consisted of strongly asymmetric pop-ups, ex-
cept in their very centers, where broad symmetric pop-
ups were formed. In most models, two pairs of oblique-
slip reverse sidewall faults bound the pop-up. The
inner fault pair produced a central zone of greater up-
lift and surface relief (Figures 3e, 5e, 7e). For models
without synkinematic sedimentation, the bounding
faults to the pop-ups are very steep, having dips 75
in the basal parts of the model and atten upward to-
ward the free upper surface, giving a general convex-
up fault prole. Models having synkinematic sedimen-
tation typically produced pop-up faults that were
gently concave upward (Figures 11, 13, 15) in cross
section as a result of propagation through the synki-
nematic layers producing fault-propagation growth
folds. The synkinematic strata thinned onto the crest
of the pop-up anticlines and thickened away from
them (Figures 11, 13, 15).
The upper surfaces of the pop-ups showed coun-
terclockwise (sinistral) rotation indicated by the defor-
mation of the grid lines on the surface of the models.
The maximum rotation, after 10 cm displacement on
the basement fault system, increased from only 77.5
248 Analog Models of Restraining Strike-Slip Faults
counterclockwise for the 30 underlapping stepover
(Figure 3), to 1214 for the 90 neutral stepover (Fig-
ure 5); to 16 for the 150 overlapping stepover (Figure
7). The same pattern of increased rotation was ob-
served for strike-slip pull-apart models (Dooley and
McClay, 1997) and reect the increasing difculty of
displacement transfer across the stepover with in-
creased amount of stepover ( i.e., 30 to 90 to 150).
These rotations, however, are relatively small com-
pared with those that might be expected in block-fault
rotational strike-slip models (cf. McKenzie and Jack-
son, 1986) and those that are observed in complex re-
straining stepover systems along the San Andreas fault
system in southern California (cf. 37 to 85) (Dickin-
son, 1996; Sylvester, 1988). This most likely reects
the isotropic nature of the sandpack in the models, and
larger rotations might be expected if competency con-
trasts and anisotropies were introduced into the
models.
Figure 18 is a 3-D synoptic model of the funda-
mental pop-up architecture as seen in the analog mod-
els. This illustrates the curved nature of the primary
sidewall reverse faults and the change in their geome-
tries along strike. The pop-up asymmetry is generated
as the bounding faults change from strike-slip to
oblique reverse-slip along strike and as they link to the
PDZs at the ends of the stepovers.
Comparisons with Natural Examples of Pop-Up Structures
Many strike-slip fault systems are strongly segmented
(e.g., the San Andreas system) (Jones et al., 1994; Pe-
ters et al., 1994; Zolnai, 1991; Sylvester, 1988; Powell
et al., 1993), having thrust faults and anticlinal uplifts
formed in regions of restraining stepovers in the fault
system. Well-described natural examples of pop-ups
are uncommon, probably because of the complex 3-D
geometries of the fault systems and also because they
are regions of uplift and, once formed, rapidly become
eroded. Sylvester and Smith (1976) described complex
palm tree structures: pop-up features having attening
upward reverse faults from the Mecca Hills region of
the San Andreas fault system, southern California.
Cunningham et al. (1996) interpreted several short,
elevated mountain ranges along the North GobiAltai
fault zone to have formed above restraining bends and
stepovers in this sinistral strike-slip fault system. These
mountain ranges have broad, doubly plunging antifor-
mal shapes and are bounded by steep reverse faults.
Their general form and topographic morphology are
similar to that produced in the analog models described
Figure 13. Serial vertical sections and a line diagram of the surface of experiment W314 after 10 cm sinistral strike-slip displacement
on the basement fault system. Fifty serial sections were cut at 1 cm intervals across the model. Faults are numbered to permit
correlation between the plan view diagram and the vertical sections.

McClay and Bonora 249

Figure 15. Serial vertical sections and a line diagram of the surface of experiment W325 after 10 cm sinistral strike-slip displacement
on the basement fault system. Fifty serial sections were cut at 1 cm intervals across the model. Faults are numbered to permit
correlation between the plan view diagram and the vertical sections.

250 Analog Models of Restraining Strike-Slip Faults

Figure 16. Experiment E307: 90 neutral stepover and 5 cm stepover width. (a) Photograph of the upper surface of the model after
10 cm displacement on the basement faults. (b) Structure contours of the upper surface of the model as interpolated from fty serial
sections across the completed model. (c) Longitudinal sections across model W307. (d) Perspective view of a 3-D visualization of the
faults in model W307.

McClay and Bonora 251

 Basement Fault Geometry

a b c
Stepover Width
10 cm

d e f
5.0 cm

g h i
2.5 cm

20cm

Figure 17. Summary of pop-up structures for restraining stepover spacing from 10 to 2.5 cm. In all experiments displacement on
the basement master faults was 10 cm. Sandpack thickness 5 cm.

Figure 18. Synoptic diagram illustrating the 3-D geometry of an idealized pop-up structure based on the results of the analog
modeling program. T baseplate movement toward viewer; A baseplate movement away from viewer.

252 Analog Models of Restraining Strike-Slip Faults

 Bitter Spring Valley
Fault Zone N
D
D U
D
U
U

Bitter Spring Valley

Fault Zone

Nevada
Virgin
N Mts
U
Muddy
Mts D

LMFS
LVSZ Gold
Las Butte Folded Cenozoic Thrust
Vegas Mead
Lake
Limit of Uplift 1 km
20 km

Figure 19. Map of the Echo Hills restraining stepover, south-eastern Nevada (modied from Campagna and Aydin, 1991). LVSZ
Las Vegas shear zone; LMFS Lake Mead fault system.

109 Figure 20. Simplied map of

the Owl Creek pop-up struc-
N ture, Wyoming (modied from
North Owl Paylor and Yin, 1993).
Creek Fault

D
U

4330

Shotgun B
utte Thrust

20 km

in this article. Natural pop-ups that show similar mor- Example 1: Echo Hills, Southeastern Nevada
phologies and structures to the analog models are The Echo Hills formed in a restraining stepover in the
briey discussed in the following section. Bitter Spring Valley fault zone, north of Lake Mead,

McClay and Bonora 253

Figure 21. (a) Landsat image of the Cerro de la Mica, Atacama strike-slip fault system, northern Chile. (b) Structural map of the
Cerro de la Mica, northern Chile (map data courtesy of J. Reijs [1997, personal communication]).

254 Analog Models of Restraining Strike-Slip Faults

Figure 21. Continued.

McClay and Bonora 255

Nevada. The topography and fault patterns (Figure
19) as mapped by Campagna and Aydin (1991) show
a rhomboidal zone of uplift that is bounded by steep
reverse faults. The center of the uplifted block is cut
by sinistral strike-slip faults that link the two PDZs
(Figure 19). The structure of this pop-up is similar to
the analog models and the map is most comparable
to the surface views of the 30 restraining stepover
models (cf. Figures 3, 4, 10).
Example 2: Owl Creek Mountains, Central Wyoming
The Owl Creek pop-up, central Wyoming (Paylor and
Yin, 1993), formed in the stepover between the
steeply dipping North Owl Creek fault in the north-
west and the Shotgun Butte thrust system in the
southeast (Figure 20). The Owl Creek structure con-
sists of three dominant northwest-southeasttrending
anticlines involving Precambrian through Permian
rocks (Paylor and Yin, 1993) forming a complex pop-
up structure. Its lozenge shape and map expression is
similar to the patterns produced by the underlapping
restraining stepover models (Figures 3, 4, 10).
Example 3: Cerro de la Mica, Atacama Fault System,
Northern Chile
Cerro de la Mica, is a short, isolated range of uplifted
Paleozoic volcanic and sedimentary rocks along the
northern Atacama fault zone (Figure 21). Cerro de la
Mica occurs at the stepover between two segments of
the JurassicCretaceous sinistral northern Atacama
fault zone. The range is 800 m above base level, elon-
gate, and bounded by steep reverse faults on each side.
The internal structure is complex and has steeply dip-
ping Paleozoic volcanic and sedimentary rocks (Figure
21b). The morphology and fault architecture of the
Cerro del Mica is comparable to our experimental
models where the restraining stepover was oriented at
30 (e.g., Figures 3, 4, 10).
Example 4: Pijnacker Field, West Netherlands
The Pijnacker eld (Figure 22) is located at a right-
stepping, restraining offset in a northwest-southeast
trending dextral strike-slip fault system (Racero-
Baema and Drake, 1996). The eld is located in an
elongate lozenge-shaped pop-up that formed by in-
version of an older rhomboidal pull-apart as a result
of early Tertiary reversal of slip on the northwest-
southeast boundary faults. The pop-up is bounded by
concave-up reverse faults that produce an elongate S-
shaped anticlinal structure (Figure 22). In this case the
plan geometry of the pop-up indicates that the con-
256 Analog Models of Restraining Strike-Slip Faults
trolling faults were offset in an underlapping stepover
geometry (cf. Figures 3, 5). The reservoir unit in this
oil eld is the Rijswijk sandstone (Racero-Baema and
Drake, 1996).
Example 5: Quealy Dome, Wyoming
The Quealy dome (Figure 23) is formed between two
northeast-trending, basement-involved, sinistral
strike-slip faults in the Laramie basin, Wyoming
(Stone, 1995). The pop-up formed between the
North Quealy and South Quealy fault systems, 3.2
km apart (Figure 23a), and is characterized by an
asymmetric dome bounded by gently concave-up
thrust faults (Overland thrust and West Quealy
thrust) (Figure 23). The map and cross sectional ge-
ometry of the Quealy pop-up closely matches the
architecture of the 90 neutral stepover models (Fig-
ures 5, 6) and, in particular, the map pattern is very
similar to the horizontal section of model W305 (Fig-
ure 9b).
Limitations of the Analog Models
The geometries and kinematics of pop-up structures
developed at retraining bends and stepovers in strike-
slip fault systems can be successfully simulated using
analog models as described previously. Important lim-
itations to sandbox modeling, however, must always
be considered when applying the results to studies of
natural fault systems. Sandbox models cannot accu-
rately simulate the thermal, exural, and isostatic ef-
fects generated by, or associated with, faulting in the
upper crust, nor do they consider the effects of pore-
uid pressures and compaction. Pure sand models,
such as those described in this article, are isotropic,
whereas in natural systems, the upper crustal strata
would be expected to exhibit competency contrasts
and anisotropies that would affect the fault geometries
and in particular the development of folds and rigid
block rotations. Natural pop-ups such as the Owl
Creek (Figure 20) and the Ocotillo Badlands struc-
tures (Brown and Sibson, 1989) are strongly folded as
a result of anisotropic layers in the stepover structure.
In particular the models presented in this article do
not incorporate plastic or ductile layers designed to
simulate weak rocks such as salt or overpressured
shale. Nevertheless, the usefulness of the analog mod-
els in understanding the progressive evolution of
strike-slip pop-ups is demonstrated by the strong geo-
metric similarities between the models and the natural
examples described previously.
Map at base Vlieland
B sections across the Pijnacker oil
A eld, West Netherlands basin.
B
2 km A Satellites to Field
A A B
V V
R
R
A A
T T
2 km 2 km
Implications for Hydrocarbon Exploration
Strike-slip fault zones have long been associated with
major hydrocarbon accumulations (e.g., Harding,
1973, 1974, 1976, 1990; Sylvester and Smith, 1976;
Harding et al., 1985; Lowell, 1985; Biddle, 1991;
Wright, 1991; Peters et al., 1994; Stone, 1995). Typ-
ical trapping mechanisms appear to be en echelon an-
ticlines, in places combined with stratigraphic traps
(Harding, 1974, 1990), formed at restraining bends or
stepovers in the strike-slip fault system. Detailed 3-D
structural analyses of such traps are uncommon ex-
cept for the Pijnacker and Quealy elds described pre-
viously (Figures 20, 23). Other hydrocarbon accu-
mulations that may occur in pop-up structures include
those along the NewportInglewood fault trend, Los
Angeles basin (Harding, 1973; Wright, 1991); the
Whittier oil eld, Los Angeles basin (Harding, 1974);
the Wilmington oil eld, Los Angeles basin (Wright,
1991); and the Point Arguello eld, Santa Maria basin,
offshore California (Mero, 1991). The structural in-
formation provided for these elds, however, is insuf-
cient to enable accurate comparisons with the analog
models presented in this article.
In the analog models anticlinal four-way dip clo-
sures are generated above restraining stepovers in the
basement fault system. These are characterized steep
Figure 22. Map and structure
Modied from Racero-Baema
and Drake (1996).
Pijnacker Field
Possible Extension/
B
V - Top Vlieland Subgroup
R - Top Rijswijk Sandstone
T Motion out of page
A Motion into page
reverse faults that bound the pop-ups and by elongate
structure contour patterns (Figure 16b). The axes of
the pop-up anticlines are oblique to the PDZs of the
main basement fault systems (Figure 9c) Trans pop-
up faults are late stage, compartmentalize the anti-
clines, and may result in fractured seals in the upper
sections of the pop-ups. Three-dimensional visualiza-
tion of pop-up fault systems (Figure 16c) illustrates
the structural complexities and curvatures of the
oblique-slip reverse faults that bound the pop-ups.
Steep fault and stratal dips will probably not image
well, and hence the analog models may provide guide-
lines for the structural interpretation of seismic sec-
tions across restraining stepovers in strike-slip fault
systems.
Restraining stepovers are barriers to continued slip
along major strike-slip fault systems. With increased
displacement, the stepovers tend to be smoothed out
by the development of through-going shears that tran-
sect the pop-ups and link the PDZs (cf. Figures 4, 6,
8). As a result, early-formed uplifted areas will become
dissected, and fragmented pop-ups will be transported
along the major strike-slip system. Cross sections
through many of the oil elds along the Newport-
Inglewood trend of the Los Angeles basin (Wright,
1991) resemble partial pop-up structures as would be
expected to form if the analog model structures
McClay and Bonora 257
Figure 23. (a) Map of the -1500
Quealy pop-up, Laramie basin, North Quealy Fault N
Wyoming. Structure contours D 'A 100
0

are on top of the Lower Creta- U

ceous Muddy sandstone, the
uppermost reservoir unit in the -50
0

Quealy Dome oil eld. Map af- sl

0
1 km
300
ter Stone (1995). (b) Cross sec-

20
00

00
-5
tion AA through the Quealy
Dome structure. Modied (mir-

300
0
ror image) from gure 6 of

2000
Overland Thrust
Stone (1995).

0
South Quealy Fault

300
West Quealy Thrust

4000

0001
U
D
0
100
sl
U
D

0
00
-1
Structural contour map on Lower Cretaceous
a -500 A Muddy SST. Contours in feet

'A A
Land Surface
South Quealy Fault
Overland Thrust
6000

Top Muddy Datum

North Quealy WQT 4000
Fault

2000

-2000
Pre-Cambrian
Basement

-4000

b 1 km

previously described were dissected and transported
along a linked major strike-slip fault system.
CONCLUSIONS
Scaled analog modeling has successfully simulated the
development of pop-ups in a relatively weak sedimen-
tary cover above restraining stepovers in sinistral strike-
slip faults in rigid basement. In particular the models
illustrate the progressive evolution of the pop-ups to-
gether with the geometries of the growth sequences
deposited at the same time as the uplift developed.
Vertical and horizontal sectioning of the completed
models allowed the full 3-D architecture of the pop-
up system to be visualized. Lozenge-shaped pop-ups
are characteristic of underlapping stepovers, whereas
rhomboidal and strongly sigmoidal pop-ups are char-
acteristic of neutral and overlapping stepovers, respec-
tively. In cross section the pop-ups are dominantly
asymmetric with the bounding faults dipping inward
into the basement fault systems. Symmetric pop-up

258 Analog Models of Restraining Strike-Slip Faults

geometries are only found above the central sections
of the basement stepovers. All pop-ups produced in
the modeling program were doubly plunging anticlines
that produced four-way dip closures. With increased
stepover angle (neutral to overlapping) and increased
displacement on the basement fault systems, crosscut-
ting faults transect the central sections of the model
pop-ups.
Natural examples of pop-ups from various strike-
slip terranes show comparable morphologies and struc-
tures to the analog models. Many pop-ups, however,
are eroded, and their full 3-D fault architecture is not
discernible. The analog models described in this article
may provide guidelines for the interpretation of seis-
mic sections across restraining stepovers in strike-slip
systems. Additional, well-imaged, 3-D seismic exam-
ples of contractional structures at strike-slip restraining
bends and stepovers are needed, however, to fully test
the applicability of these analog models to natural
strike-slip systems.
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