INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Internal combustion engines produce mechanical power by release

of chemical energy from fuels.
In internal combustionengines, this energy is released byburning of
the fuel inside the engine.
The fuel-air mixture before combustion and the burned products
after are what constitute the actual working fluids.
The IC engines consist of spark-ignitionengines (sometimes called
Otto engines, and compression-ignition or diesel engines.
Because oftheir simplicity, ruggedness and high power to weight
ratio, these two types ofengine have found wide application in
transportation (land, sea, and air) andpower generation.
One of the successful design of the IC engine was based on a air-
breathing device introduced in 1867by Nicolaus A. Otto (1832-
1891)
To overcome this engine's shortcomings of low thermal efficiency
andexcessive weight, Otto proposed an engine cycle with four
piston strokes:
anintake stroke,
then a compression stroke before ignition,
an expansion or powerstroke where work was delivered to the
crankshaft,
and finally an exhaust stroke.

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A recent major development has been the rotary internal
combustionengine. Although a wide variety of experimental rotary
engines have beenproposed over the years,' the first practical
rotary internal combustion engine, theWankel, was not
successfully tested until 1957.

Fuels have also had a major impact on engine

development. The earliestengines used for generating
mechanical power burned gas. Gasoline, and
lighterfractions of crude oil, became available in the late
1800s and various types ofcarburetors were developed to
vaporize the fuel and mix it with air.

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 ENGINE TYPES AND THEIR OPERATION
During the past three decades, new factors for change have
become importantand they now significantly affect engine design
and operation.
These two factors are,
a. The need to control the automotive contribution to urban air
pollution.
b. The need to achieve significant improvements in automotive
fuel consumption.
EMMISSIONS
The automotive air-pollution problem became apparent in the
1940s.
In 1952, it was demonstrated by Prof. A. J. Haagen-Smitthat the
smog problem resulted from reactions between oxides of nitrogen
andhydrocarbon compounds in the presence of sunlight.
In due course it became clear that the automobile was a major
contributor to hydrocarbon and oxides ofnitrogen emissions, as
well as the prime cause of high carbon monoxide levels inurban
areas.

Diesel engines are a significant source of small soot or smoke

particles,as well as hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen.

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As a result of these developments, emission standardsfor
automobiles were introduced first in California, then nationwide in
theUnited States, and then in the entire world.
Substantial reductionsin emissions from spark-ignition and diesel
engines have been achieved. Both theuse of catalysts in spark-
ignition engine exhaust systems for emissions controland concern
over the toxicity of lead antiknock additives have resulted in
thereappearance of unleaded gasoline as a major part of the
automotive fuelsmarket. Also, the maximum lead content in leaded
gasoline has been substantiallyreduced.
The emission-control requirements and these fuel
developmentshave produced significant changes in the way
internal combustion engines aredesigned and operated.
NOISE:
Internal combustion engines are also an important source of noise.
Thereare several sources of engine noise: the exhaust system, the
intake system, the fanused for cooling, and the engine block
surface. The noise may be generated byaerodynamic effects, may
be due to forces that result from the combustionprocess, or may
result from mechanical excitation by rotating or
reciprocatingengine components.
Vehicle noise legislation to reduce emissions to theenvironment
was first introduced in the early 1970s.

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Pressures for substantial improvements in internalcombustion
engine efficiency (in all its many applications) have become very
substantialindeed.

Emission-control requirements have made improving enginefuel

consumption more difficult, and the removal and reduction of lead
in gasolinehas forced spark-ignition engine compression ratios to
be reduced.
Alternate Fuels: Muchwork is being done on the use of alternative
fuels to gasoline and diesel. Of thenon-petroleum-based fuels,
natural gas, and methanol and ethanol (methyl andethyl alcohols)
are receiving the greatest attention, while synthetic gasoline
anddiesel made from shale oil or coal, and hydrogen could be
longer-term possibilities.

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 ENGINE CLASSIFICATIONS
There are many different types of internal combustion engines.
They can be classifiedby:
1. Application. Automobile, truck, locomotive, light aircraft, marine,
portablepower system, power generation
2. Basic engine design. Reciprocating engines (in turn subdivided
by arrangementof cylinders: e.g., in-line, V, radial, opposed), rotary
engines (Wankeland other geometries)

a. Single Cylinder b. In line or straight

c. V Engine d. Opposed Cylinder
e. W Engine f. Opposed Piston g. Radial

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3. Working cycle. Four-stroke cycle: naturally aspirated (admitting
atmosphericair), supercharged (admitting precompressed fresh
mixture), and turbocharged(admitting fresh mixture compressed in
a compressor driven by anexhaust turbine), and the two-stroke
cycle
4. Valve or port design and location. Overhead (or I-head) valves,
under head (orL-head) valves, rotary valves, cross-scavenged
porting (inlet and exhaustports on opposite sides of cylinder at one
end), loop-scavenged porting (inletand exhaust ports on same side
of cylinder at one end), through- or uniflowscavenged(inlet and
exhaust ports or valves at different ends of cylinder)

(a) Valve in block, L head.Used in Older automobiles and some small engines.
(b) Valve in head, I head. Standard onmodern automobiles.
(c) One valve in head and one valve in block, F head. Older,less common
automobiles.
(d) Valves in block on opposite sides of cylinder, T head.

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5. Fuel. Gasoline (or petrol), fuel oil (or diesel fuel), natural gas,
liquid petroleumgas, alcohols (methanol, ethanol), hydrogen, dual
fuel
6. Method of mixture preparation. Carburetion, fuel injection into
the intakeports or intake manifold, fuel injection into the engine
cylinder
7. Method of ignition. Spark ignition (in conventional engines where
the mixtureis uniform and in stratified-charge engines where the
mixture is non-uniform),compression ignition (in conventional
diesels, as well as ignition in gasengines by pilot injection of fuel
oil)
8. Combustion chamber design. Open chamber (many designs:
e.g., disc, wedge,hemisphere, bowl-in-piston), divided chamber
(small and large auxiliarychambers; many designs: e.g., swirl
chambers, prechambers)
9. Method of load control. Throttling of fuel and air flow together so
mixturecomposition is essentially unchanged, control of fuel flow
alone, or a combinationof these.
10. Method of cooling. Water cooled, air cooled, uncooled (other
than by naturalconvection and radiation)

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 ENGINE OPERATING CYCLES
Most IC Engines are of the reciprocating type, where the, piston moves
backand forth in a cylinder and transmits power through a connecting
rod and crankmechanism to the drive shaft as shown in Figure below

Top Dead Centre or TC

Stroke

Bottom Dead Centre or BC

The steady rotation of thecrank produces a cyclical piston motion. The

piston comes to rest at the topdead center (TC) crank position when the
Volume is minimumand at the bottom dead center (BC) crank position
when the cylinder volume is maximum.
The minimum cylindervolume is called the clearance volume Vc.
The volume swept out by thepiston, which is the difference between the
maximum and minimum volume is the total volume and is called the
displaced or swept volume Vd. The ratio of maximumvolume to minimum
volume is called the compression ratio r, . Typical values of r,are8 to 12
for SI engines and 12 to 24 for CI engines.

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COMPONENTS OF A CRANKSHAFT , CYLINDER
AND PISTON WITH LINKAGES.

TC

BC

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Four Stroke Cycle:
The majority of reciprocating engines operate on what is known as the
four-stroke cycle. Each cylinder requires four strokes of its piston with
two revolutionsof the crankshaft-to complete the sequence of events
which produces onepower stroke. Both SI and CI engines use this cycle
which comprises of
1. An intake stroke, which starts with the piston at TC and ends with the
pistonat BC, and which draws fresh mixture into the cylinder. To
increase the massinducted, the inlet valve opens shortly before the
stroke starts and closes afterit ends.

2. A compression stroke, when both valves are closed and the mixture
inside thecylinder is compressed to a small fraction of its initial volume.
Toward the endof the compression stroke, combustion is initiated and
the cylinder pressurerises more rapidly.

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3. A power stroke, or expansion stroke, which starts with the piston at
TC andends at BC as the high-temperature, high-pressure, gases push
the piston downand force the crank to rotate. About five times as much
work is done on thepiston during the power stroke as the piston had to
do duringcompression. As the piston approaches BC the exhaust valve
opens to initiate the exhaustprocess and drop the cylinder pressure to
close to the exhaust pressure.

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Exhaust stroke, where the remaining burned gases exit the cylinder:
first,because the cylinder pressure may be substantially higher than the
exhaustpressure: then as they are swept out by the piston as it moves
toward TC. Asthe piston approaches TC the inlet valve opens, and the
cycle starts again.

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 Two Stroke Engines
The fundamental difference between the four stroke engine and the two
strokeengine is the way in which the induction and exhaust process
takes place.
In the four stroke engine there are separate strokes for the induction and
exhaust processes. In the two stroke engine however, both the induction
andexhaust processes take place with the same stroke. The process
that involvesboth induction and exhaust is called scavenging, or simply a
gas exchangeprocess.

The two stroke engine can be either made into a spark ignition or
compression ignition engine.

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The smallest engines used in two stroke engines arecompression
ignition engines. The engines are usually used in models andtheir power
output does not exceed 100 W. The other type of two strokeengine with
power output of up to 100 kW is spark ignition engine. Someof these
engines output high power relative to their weight and bulk.
Someapplications of these engines are in motorcycles, chain saws and
small generators
A two stroke engine is seen in Figure below.

Some of the important parts ofthis engine are the exhaust, inlet, and
crankcase port, and spark plug.
Thedeflector is also an important design of the engine.
The inlet port is wherethe charge is drawn from.
The charge is a mixture of mainly air and fuel butmay contain some
exhaust.
The exhaust port is where the exhaust leavesthe piston, and the
crankcase port provides the mixture.

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The combustionprocess for the two stroke engine goes through various
processes.

a. Power or expansion stroke. High cylinder pressure pushes piston

down from TC towards BC with all ports closed. Air in crankcase is
compressed as piston moves down.
b. Exhaust blow down when exhaust port opens near end of power
stroke.
c. Cylinder scavenging when intake port opens and fuel + air is forced
under pressure . Intake mixture pushes some of the exhaust out of the
Exhaust port. Scavenging lasts until piston passes BC and closes all
ports
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d. Compression stroke. Piston moves from BC to TC with all ports
closed. Intake air fills the crankcase . Spark ignition takes place near
end of stroke.
e. Combustion at constant volume at TC.

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 COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINES
Compression ignition engines differ from spark ignition engines in a
varietyof ways but the most obvious one being the way in which the air
and fuelmixture is ignited.
As stated above a spark plug is used to create a spark inthe combustion
chamber which ignites the mixture.
In a compression ignitionengine there is no spark to create the same but
rather high temperatures andpressures in the combustion chamber
cause a flame to initiate at different sitesof the combustion chamber.
Combustion increases with increasing pressureand temperature.
Compression ignition engines are divided into direct andindirect ignition
engines.
Diesel engines require fuel injection systems toinject fuel into the
combustion chamber.
Fuel injection systems are eitherlinear or rotary.
Rotary fuel injectors are used in indirect ignition enginesbecause of low
pressures.
Direct injection engines use pressures of up to 1000 bars to inject fuel
intothe combustion chamber. High pressure is needed because the heat
additionprocess takes place at a compressed state, so in order for the
fuel to injectwell the pressure has to be greater than the one that has
been accumulatedthrough compression.
There are several engineered direct injection combustion chambers.
This goes to show that the actual design of compressionignition engines
is not as critical as the design considered for spark ignitionengines.

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 Intake stroke Compression Stroke
Fuel Injector
Air Inlet
Compressed air and
fuel

Power stroke Exhaust stroke

Exhaust Outlet
Ignited
Fuel
Burnt Exhaust
Gases

Swirl is the most important air motion in the Diesel engine.

Theimportance of swirl is that it mixes the air and fuel so that combustion
canincrease. The direction of swirl is at a downward angle so that proper
mixingcan take place. The compression ratio for direct ignition engines is
usuallybetween 12 : 1 and 16 : 1.
With all Diesel engines there is some type of aid to help combustion.
Electrical components aid in the initiation of the combustion process by
usingan electrical source, such as a car battery, to heat themselves and
transfer theenergy to the mixture for combustion.
Cold starting a Diesel engine is very difficult without the use of these
tabs that conduct an electric current. Whenelectrical elements heat up
and the air to fuel mixture comes in close contactwith the tab then a
combustion occurs.
The Diesel engine has high thermal efficiencies, and therefore low fuel
consumption. The disadvantage of Dieselengines is their low power
output, relative to their weight, as compared withspark ignition engines.

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Direct injection
Direct injection diesel engines have injectors mounted at the top of
the combustion chamber. The injectors are activated using one of
two methods - hydraulic pressure from the fuel pump, or an
electronic signal from an engine controller.
Electronic control of the fuel injection transformed the direct
injection engine by allowing much greater control over the
combustion.

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INDIRECT IGNITION
Indirect ignition engines have a pre-combustion chamber where the air
to fuel mixture is first stored. The purpose of the separate chamber is to
speed up the combustion process in order to increase the engine output
byincreasing the engine speed.
The two basic combustion systems are the swirland pre-combustion
chambers.
Pre-combustion chambers depend on turbulence to increase the
combustion speed and swirl chambers depend on the fluid motion to
raise combustion speed.

In divided chambers the pressurerequired is not as high as the pressure

required for direct ignition engines.The pressure required for both type of
divided chambers is only about 300bars.

In compression-ignition engines, air alone is inducted into the cylinder.

The fuel(in most applications a light fuel oil, though heated residual fuel
is used in marineand power-generation applications) is injected directly
into the engine cylinderjust before the combustion process is required to
start.

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Load control is achievedby varying the amount of fuel injected each
cycle; the air flow at a given enginespeed is essentially unchanged.

There are a great variety of CI engine designs inuse in a wide range of

applications-automobile, truck, locomotive, marine,power generation.
Naturally aspirated engines where atmospheric air is inducted.
Turbocharged engines where the inlet air is compressed by an
exhaustdriven turbine-compressor combination,
and supercharged engines where the air is compressedby a
mechanically driven pump or blower are common.

Turbochargingand supercharging increase engine output by increasing

the air mass flow per unitdisplaced volume, thereby allowing an increase
in fuel flow. These methods areused, usually in larger engines, to reduce
engine size and weight for a given poweroutput. Except in smaller
engine sizes, the two-stroke cycle is competitive withthe four-stroke
cycle, in large part because, with the diesel cycle, only air is lost in the
cylinder scavenging process.

In the two-stroke CI engine cycle, compression, fuel injection,

combustion,and expansion processes are similar to the equivalent four-
stroke cycle processes;it is the intake and exhaust pressure which are
different.

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