SAMSON Technical Information

Technical Information
Terminology and Symbols

in Control Engineering
1
Part 1 Fundamentals
Part 1: Fundamentals
Part 2: Self-operated Regulators
Part 3: Control Valves
Part 4: Communication
Part 5: Building Automation
Part 6: Process Automation
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do not hesitate to contact us:
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Part 1 L101 EN
Terminology and Symbols in

Control Engineering
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Terminology in Control Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Open loop control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Closed loop control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Control loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Abbreviations of variables relating to closed loop control. . . . . . . . . 10
Symbols in Control Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Signal flow diagrams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Blocks and lines of action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
CONTENTS
Device-related representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Instrumentation and control tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Control Systems and Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Fixed set point control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Follow-up control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Cascade control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Ratio control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Appendix A1: Additional Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

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Fundamentals Terminology and Symbols in Control Engineering
Preface
The technical informations presented in this document are based on defini-

tions according to DIN, the German organization of standardization (Deut-
sches Institut fr Normung). Continuous efforts are being made to determine
international definitions in order to achieve an increasing similarity in the ter-
minology used. Nevertheless, differences in designations and representa-
tions do exist in international use. Literature presented at the end of this
document includes international standards and publications relating to DIN
standards, or being derived from them.
Representations and text sections referring to DIN are often cited in short
form, summarizing the contents. The precise facts must always be read - also
because of possible extensions or amendments - in the current edition of the
respective standard.
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Part 1 L101 EN
Introduction
Planning, design and start-up of process control systems require clear and
unambiguous communication between all parts involved. To ensure this, we
need a clear definition of the terms used and as far as the documentation is
concerned standardized graphical symbols. These symbols help us
represent control systems or measurement and control tasks as well as their
device-related solution in a simple and clear manner.
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Terminology in Control Engineering
To maintain a physical quantity, such as pressure, flow or temperature at a

desired level during a technical process, this quantity can be controlled either
by means of open loop control or closed loop control.
Open loop control
In an open loop control system, one or more input variables of a system act
on a process variable. The actual value of the process variable is not being
checked, with the result that possible deviations e.g. caused by disturban-
open action flow ces are not compensated for in the open loop control process. Thus, the cha-
racteristic feature of open loop control is an open action flow.
The task of the operator illustrated in Fig. 1 is to adjust the pressure (p2) in a
pipeline by means of a control valve. For this purpose, he utilizes an as-
signment specification that determines a certain control signal (y) issued by
the remote adjuster for each set point (w). Since this method of control does
disturbances are not consider possible fluctuations in the flow, it is recommended to use open
not recognized loop control only in systems where disturbances do not affect the controlled
variable in an undesired way.
Assignment:
wa => ya => p2a
wb => yb => p2b
y
etc.
p1 p2
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Fig. 1: Operator controls the process variable p2 via remote adjuster
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Part 1 L101 EN
p1 p2
Fig. 2: Operator controls the process variable p2 an a closed loop
Closed loop control
In a closed loop control system, the variable to be controlled (controlled

variable x) is continuously measured and then compared with a
predetermined value (reference variable w). If there is a difference between
these two variables (error e or system deviation xw), adjustments are being
made until the measured difference is eliminated and the controlled variable
equals the reference variable. Hence, the characteristic feature of closed closed action flow
loop control is a closed action flow.
The operator depicted in Fig. 2 monitors the pressure p2 in the pipeline to

which different consumers are connected. When the consumption increases,
the pressure in the pipeline decreases. The operator recognizes the pressure
drop and changes the control pressure of the pneumatic control valve until
the desired pressure p2 is indicated again. Through continuous monitoring of
the pressure indicator and immediate reaction, the operator ensures that the disturbances are
pressure is maintained at the desired level. The visual feedback of the pro- eliminated
cess variable p2 from the pressure indicator to the operator characterizes the
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closed action flow.
7
The German standard DIN 19226 defines closed loop control as follows:
definition of Closed loop control is a process whereby one variable, namely the variable
closed loop control: to be controlled (controlled variable) is continuously monitored, compared
DIN 19 226 with another variable, namely the reference variable and, depending on the
outcome of this comparison, influenced in such a manner as to bring about
adaptation to the reference variable. The characteristic feature of closed
loop control is the closed action flow in which the controlled variable continu-
ously influences itself in the action path of the control loop.
A control process can also be regarded as continuous if it is composed of a

sufficiently frequent repetition of identical individual processes. The cyclic
program sequence of digital sampling control would be such a process.
difficulties with the Note: In English literature we only find one term, that is control, being used
English term control for actually two different concepts known as steuern and regeln in the Ger-
man language. When translating into German, we therefore come across
the problem whether control means steuern or regeln. If both methods
are involved, control often is translated as automatisieren or leiten (con-
trol station). An exact distinction can be made if the German term Regelung
is made obvious by using the English term closed loop control.
Process
A process comprises the totality of actions effecting each other in a system in

which matter, energy, or information are converted, transported or stored.
Adequate setting of boundaries helps determine sub-processes or complex
processes.
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Part 1 L101 EN
Examples:
4 Generation of electricity in a power plant

4 Distribution of energy in a building
4 Production of pig iron in a blast furnace
4 Transportation of goods
Control loop
The components of a control loop each have different tasks and are distingu-
ished as follows:
Controlling system Controller and acuator components of the

control loop
+ Controlled Final control element, pump,
system pipeline, heating system etc.
+ Measuring Temperature sensor, pressure sensor,

equipment converter etc.
= Control loop
The components of the final control equipment are part of the controlling sy
stem as well as part of the controlled system.
Actuator (controlling system) Actuating drive

components of the
+ Final control element Closure member final control equipment
(controlled system)
= Final control equipment Control valve
The distinction made above results directly from the distribution of tasks. The
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actuator processes and amplifies the output signal of the controller, whereas
the final control element as part of the controlled system manipulates the
mass and energy flow.
9
Abbreviations of variables relating to closed loop control
DIN or IEC The abbreviation of variables allows the determination of standardized sym-
bols. The symbols used in German-speaking countries and specified in DIN
19221 correspond with the international reserve symbols approved by the
publication IEC 27-2A. Aside from that, IEC also determines so-called chief
symbols which considerably differ from those used in DIN in some important
cases.
controlled variable, x (IEC chief symbol: y)

actual value
In a control loop, the process variable to be controlled is represented by x. In
process engineering, usually a physical (e.g. temperature, pressure, flow) or
a chemical (e.g. pH value, hardness) quantity is controlled.
reference variable w (IEC chief symbol: w)
This variable determines the value that must be reached (set point) by the
process variable to be controlled. The physical value of the reference varia-
ble this may be a mechanical or electric quantity (force, pressure, current,
voltage, etc.) is compared with the controlled variable x in the closed con-
trol loop.
feedback variable r (IEC chief symbol: f)
This variable results from the measurement of the controlled variable and is
fed back to the comparator.
error e = w x (IEC chief symbol: e)
The input variable e of the controlling element is the difference between refe-
rence variable and controlled variable, calculated by the comparator. When
the influence of the measuring equipment is included, the equation e = w r
applies.
system deviation xw = x w
The equation above shows that the system deviation yields the same result as
error, however, with an inverse sign. When the influence of the measuring
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equipment is included, xw = r w applies.
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Part 1 L101 EN
y (IEC chief symbol: m) manipulated variable
The manipulated variable is the output variable of the controlling equipment

and the input variable of the controlled system. It is generated by the control-
ler, or in case an actuator is being used, by the actuator. This variable de-
pends on the setting of the control parameters as well as on the magnitude of
error.
yR controller output
variable
When dividing the controlling system into the controller and actuator, the va-
riable yR stands for the output variable of the controller or the input variable
of the actuator.
z (IEC chief symbol: v) disturbance variable
Disturbances act on the control loop and have an undesired effect on the
controlled variable. Closed loop control is used to eliminate disturbance va-
riables.
Yh range of the
manipulated variable
The manipulated variable y can be determined by the controller within Yh,
the range of the manipulated variable :
ymin y ymax
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Symbols in Control Engineering
Signal flow diagrams
A signal flow diagram is the symbolic representation of the functional inter-

actions in a system. The essential components of control systems are repre-
sented by means of block diagrams. If required, the task represented by a
block symbol can be further described by adding a written text.
However, block diagrams are not suitable for very detailed representations.
The symbols described below are better suited to represent functional details
clearly.
Blocks and lines of action
The functional relationship between an output signal and an input signal is

symbolized by a rectangle (block). Input and output signals are represented
by lines and their direction of action (input or output) is indicated by arrows.
Example: Root-extracting a quantity (Fig. 3)

(e.g. flow rate measurement via differential pressure sensors)
xe xa
xe = differential pressure xa = root-extracted differential pressure
Fig. 3: Root-extracting a differential pressure signal

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Part 1 L101 EN
Example: Representing dynamic behavior (Fig. 4)

(e.g. liquid level in a tank with constant supply)
xe xa
xe = inflow xa = liquid level
Fig. 4: Development of a liquid level over time
Example: Summing point (Fig. 5)
The output signal is the algebraic sum of the input signals. This is symbolized
by the summing point. Any number of inputs can be connected to one sum-
ming point which is represented by a circle. Depending on their sign, the in-
puts are added or subtracted.
xe1
xa = xe1 + xe2 xe3
+
xe2 + xa
xe3
Fig. 5: Summing point

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Example: Branch point (Fig. 6)
A branch point is represented by a point. Here, a line of action splits up into

two or more lines of action. The signal transmitted remains unchanged.
x2
x 1 = x2 = x3
x1
x3
Fig. 6: Branch point
Example: Signal flow diagram of open loop and closed loop control
The block diagram symbols described above help illustrate the difference
between open loop and closed loop control processes clearly.
signal flow diagram In the open action flow of open loop control (Fig. 7), the operator positions
of open loop control the remote adjuster only with regard to the reference variable w. Adjustment
is carried out according to an assignment specification (e.g. a table: set point
w1 = remote adjuster position v1; w2 = v2; etc.) determined earlier.
man
w remote control x
adjuster valve system
Fig. 7: Block diagram of manual open loop control

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Part 1 L101 EN
In the closed action flow of closed loop control (Fig. 8), the controlled varia- signal flow diagram
ble x is measured and fed back to the controller, in this case man. The con- of closed loop control
troller determines whether this variable assumes the desired value of the
reference variable w. When x and w differ from each other, the remote ad-
juster is being adjusted until both variables are equal.
man
w + remote control x
_ system
adjuster valve
Fig. 8: Block diagram of manual closed loop control
Device-related representation
Using the symbols and terminology defined above, Fig. 9 shows the typical elements and signals
action diagram of a closed loop control system (abbreviations see page 10). of a control loop
z
controller
w + e controlling yr y final x
actuator
element control
r element
system
measuring
equipment
Fig. 9: Block diagram of a control loop

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graphical symbols Whenever the technical solution of a process control system shall be pointed
for detailed, solution- out, it is recommended to use graphical symbols in the signal flow diagram
related representations (Fig. 10). As this representation method concentrates on the devices used to
perform certain tasks in a process control system, it is referred to as soluti-
on-related representation. Such graphical representations make up an ess-
ential part of the documentation when it comes to planning, assembling,
testing, start-up and maintenance.
5 6
4
1
3 2
Fig. 10: Graphical symbols for describing temperature control

of a heat exchanger system
1 Sensor (temp.) 2 Transmitter
3 Signal converter 4 Controller
5 Pneumatic linear valve 6 Heat exchanger
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Part 1 L101 EN
Each unit has its own graphical symbol that is usually standardized. Equip-
ment consisting of various units is often represented by several lined-up sym-
bols.
hand-operated diaphragm motor-driven

actuator actuator actuator
valve motor-driven valve with

butterfly valve diaphragm
actuator
controller controller
(former symbol)
PI
PI controller valve with

diaphragm actuator
and attached
positioner
functions performed by
software are marked
with a flag
root-extracting software counter
element, with limit switch
software-based
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Fig. 11: Graphical symbols for controllers, control valves and software-based
functions according to DIN 19227 Part 2
17
Graphical symbols used for process control are specified in DIN 19227, in-
cluding symbols for sensors, adapters, controllers, control valves, operating
equipment, generators, conduits and accessories (Figs. 11 and 12). Howe-
graphical symbols ver, there are a number of other DIN standards covering graphical symbols,
for process control such as DIN 1946, DIN 2429, DIN2481, DIN 19239 and DIN 30600 (main
standard containing approximately 3500 graphical symbols).
It is recommended to always use standardized graphical symbols. In case a

standardized symbol does not exist, you may use your own.
Pt 100 DIN
P T L
P L
pressure temperature level

sensor sensor sensor
analog indicator adjuster

F
flow sensor
I P
i/p converter, current transmitter pressure transmitter

electr. into pneum. with pneumatic with electric
standardized standardized output standardized output
signal signal signal
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Fig. 12: Graphical symbols for sensors, transmitters, adjusters and

indicators according to DIN 19227 Part 2
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Part 1 L101 EN
TI TI FRCA
106 106 302
Fig. 13: Instrumentation and control tags disignated according to

DIN 19227 Part 1
Instrumentation and control tags
Apart from the solution-related representation, process control systems can

also be represented by means of instrumentation and control tags (DIN
19227 Part 1) which describe the task to be done.
An instrumentation and control tag is represented by a circle. When the cir-

cle is divided by an additional line, editing and operating procedures are not instrumentation and
carried out on site, but in a centralized control station. In the bottom half of control tags
the circle, you will find the instrumentation and control tag number. The iden-
tifying letters in the top half specify the measuring or input variable as well as
the type of signal processing, organizational information and the signal flow
path. If additional space is needed, the circle is elongated to form an oval
(Fig. 13).
The typical use of identifying letters in an instrumentation and control tag is

shown below:
Example: P D I C
First letter (pressure)

Supplementary letter (differential)
1st succeeding letter (indication)
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2nd succeeding letter (control)
19
The meaning and the order of the identifying letters are listed in the following
table.
for further details, Group 1: Measuring or input variable Group 2: Processing

see DIN 19227 First letter Supplementary Succeeding letter
letter (order: I, R, C, ...any)
A Fault message, alarm
C Automatic control
D Density Differential
E Electric quantities Sensing function
F Flow rate, troughput Ratio
G Distance, length, position
H Hand (manually initiated) High limit

I Indication
K Time
L Level Low limit
O Visual signal,
yes/no indication
P Pressure
Q Material properties Integral, sum
R Radiation Record or print
S Speed, rotational speed, Circuit arrangement,
frequency sequence control
T Temperature Transmitter function
U Multivariable
V Viscosity Control valve function
W Velocity, mass
Y Calculating function
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Z Emergency interruption,
safety device
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Part 1 L101 EN
The two possible methods of graphical representation are compared with

each other in the Figs. 14 and 15. The device-related representation accor-
ding to DIN19227 Part 2 (Fig. 15) is in general easily understood. Whereas
instrumentation and control tags according to DIN19227 Part 1 (Fig. 14) are
more suitable for plotting complex systems.
instrumentation and
VL control tags
SOSA
1
TI KS
2 2
TI
3 GOS TIC
TI 6 8
4
5 TIC
7
RL
Fig. 14: Representation of a control loop according to DIN 19227 Part 1
device-related
symbols
VL
0 1
T
ZLT
T
ZLT
T
ZLT
% PI
tAU
RL
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Fig. 15: Representation of a control loop according to DIN 19227 Part 2
21
Control Systems and Structures
Depending on the job to be done, many different structures of control can be

used. The main criterion of difference is the way the reference variable w is
generated for a certain control loop. In setting the controller, it is also impor-
designed for good tant to know whether the reference variable is principally subject to changes
disturbance reaction or disturbance variables need to be compensated for.
or reference action
4 To attain good disturbance reaction, the controller must restore the origi-
nal equilibrium as soon as possible (Fig. 16).
4 To attain good reference action, the controlled variable must reach a

newly determined equilibrium fast and accurately (Fig. 17).
t
x
Fig. 16: Disturbance reaction
t
x
t
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Fig. 17: Reference action
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Part 1 L101 EN
Fig. 18: Temperature control by means of fixed set point control
Fixed set point control
In fixed set point control, the reference variable w is set to a fixed value. Fixed fixed
set point controllers are used to eliminate disturbances and are therefore de- reference variable
signed to show good disturbance reaction.
The temperature control system in Fig. 18 will serve as an example for fixed
set point control. The temperature of the medium flowing out of the tank is to
be kept at a constant level by controlling the heating circuit. This will provide
satisfactory results as long as high fluctuations in pressure caused by distur-
bances do not occur in the heating circuit.
Follow-up control
In contrast to fixed set point control, the reference variable in follow-up con-
trol systems does not remain constant but changes over time. Usually, the re-
ference variable is predetermined by the plant operator or by external
equipment. A reference variable that changes fast requires a control loop follow-up controllers
with good reference action. If, additionally, considerable disturbances need require good
to be eliminated, the disturbance reaction must also be taken into account reference action
when designing the controller.
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23
w1=wsoll x2
x1 w2
q
Fig. 19: Temperature control by means of cascade control
Cascade control
Cascade control systems require a minimum of two controllers, these are the
master or primary and the follower or secondary controller. The characteri-
stic feature of this control system is that the output variable of the master con-
troller is the reference variable for the follower controller.
master and Employing cascade control, the temperature control of the heat exchanger
follower controller for (Fig. 19) provides good results also when several consumers are connected
high-quality control to the heating circuit. The fluctuations in pressure and flow are compensated
for by the secondary flow controller (w2, x2) which acts as final control ele-
ment to be positioned by the primary temperature controller.
In our example the outer (primary) control loop (w1, x1) must be designed to
have good disturbance reaction, whereas the inner secondary control
loop requires good reference action.
Ratio control
Ratio control is a special type of follow-up control and is used to maintain a

fixed ratio between two quantities. This requires an arithmetic element (V). Its
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input variable is the measured value of the process variable 1 and its output
variable manipulates the process variable 2 in the control loop.
24
Part 1 L101 EN
x
q2 = V q 1
w
q2
q1
Fig. 20: Ratio control
Fig. 20 illustrates a mixer in which the flow rate q2 of one material is control-
led in proportion to the flow rate q1 of another material.
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Appendix A1:
Additional Literature
[1] Controllers and Control Systems
Technical Information L102EN; SAMSON AG
[2] DIN 19226: Control technology
[3] DIN 19227: Graphical symbols and identifying letters for process
control engineering
APPENDIX
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Part 1 L101 EN
Figures
Fig. 1: Operator controls the process variable p2 via remote adjuster . . 6
Fig. 2: Operator controls the process variable p2 an a closed loop . . . 7
Fig. 3: Root-extracting a differential pressure signal . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 4: Development of a liquid level over time . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 5: Summing point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 6: Branch point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 7: Block diagram of manual open loop control. . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 8: Block diagram of manual closed loop control . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 9: Block diagram of a control loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 10: Graphical symbols for describing temperature control . . . . . 16
Fig. 11: Graphical symbols according to DIN 19227 Part 2 . . . . . . 17
Fig. 12: Graphical symbols (2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fig. 13: Instrumentation and control tags disignated . . . . . . . . . . 19
Fig. 14: Representation of a control loop: DIN 19227 Part 1 . . . . . . 21
Fig. 15: Representation of a control loop: DIN 19227 Part 2 . . . . . . 21

FIGURES
Fig. 16: Disturbance reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Fig. 17: Reference action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Fig. 18: Temperature control by means of fixed set point control . . . . 23
Fig. 19: Temperature control by means of cascade control . . . . . . . 24
Fig. 20: Ratio control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

SAMSON AG 00/03
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2000/03 L101 EN
SAMSON AG MESS- UND REGELTECHNIK Weismllerstrae 3 D-60314 Frankfurt am Main

Phone (+49 69) 4 00 90 Telefax (+49 69) 4 00 95 07 Internet: http://www.samson.de
Controllers and Controlled Systems
1
Generator Add PID PT1 PT1PT2 Time
+
y-t
A A E A E A E A 1
_
2
3
PT1
A E
Y
Part 1 Fundamentals
t

SAMSON AG Phone (+49 69) 4 00 94 67
Part 1 L102EN
Controller and Controlled Systems
Controller and Controlled Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Controlled Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
P controlled system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
I controlled system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Controlled system with dead time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Controlled system with energy storing components . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Characterizing Controlled Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
System response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Proportional-action coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
CONTENTS
Nonlinear response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Operating point (OP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Controllability of systems with self-regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Controllers and Control Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Continuous and discontinuous controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Auxiliary energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Determining the dynamic behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Continuous Controllers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Proportional controller (P controller) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

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Proportional-action coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
System deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3
Fundamentals Controllers and Controlled Systems
Adjusting the operating point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Integral controller (I controller) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Derivative controller (D controller) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
PI controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
PID controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Discontinuous Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Two-position controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Two-position feedback controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Three-position controller and three-position stepping controller . . . . 48
Selecting a Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Adjusting the control parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

CONTENTS
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
4
Part 1 L102EN
Introduction
In everyday speech, the term control and its many variations is frequently control in
used. We can control a situation, such as a policeman controlling the traffic, language use
or a fireman bringing the fire under control. Or an argument may get out of
control, or something might happen to us because of circumstances beyond
our control. The term control obviously implies the restoration of a desirable
state which has been disturbed by external or internal influences.
Control processes exist in the most diverse areas. In nature, for instance, con-
trol processes serve to protect plants and animals against varying environ-
mental conditions. In economics, supply and demand control the price and
delivery time of a product. In any of these cases, disturbances may occur that
would change the originally established state. It is the function of the control
system to recognize the disturbed state and correct it by the appropriate me-
ans.
In a similar way as in nature and economics, many variables must be con-

trolled in technology so that equipment and systems serve their intended pur-
pose. With heating systems, for example, the room temperature must be kept
constant while external influences have a disturbing effect, such as fluctua-
ting outside temperatures or the habits of the residents as to ventilation, etc.
In technology, the term control is not only applied to the control process, but control in
also to the controlled system. People, too, can participate in a closed loop technology
control process. According to DIN 19226, closed loop control is defined as
follows:
Closed loop control is a process whereby one variable, namely the variable
to be controlled (controlled variable) is continuously moni-tored, compared
with another variable, namely the reference variable and influenced in such
a manner as to bring about adaptation to the reference variable. The se-
quence of action resulting in this way takes place in a closed loop in which
the controlled variable continuously influences itself.
SAMSON AG 99/10
5
continuous or Note: Continuous here also means a sufficiently frequent repetition of iden-
sampling control tical individual processes of which the cyclic program sequence in digital
sampling controls is an example.
Being a little in the abstract, this definition is illustrated below with practical
examples from control engineering applications. On the one hand, control-
led systems and controllers will therefore be discussed as independent trans-
fer elements and, on the other hand, their behavior in a closed control loop
will be shown and compared.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
6
Part 1 L102EN
Controlled Systems
In control engineering, a controlled system is primarily characterized by its

dynamic behavior which also determines the scope and quality required to
solve a control task. Frequently, the so-called step response of the controlled
system is used to reflect this dynamic behavior.
The step response reveals how the controlled variable reacts to a change in step response
the manipulated variable. This is determined by measuring the controlled va- indicates the
riable after a step change in the manipulated variable. Depending on the re- dynamic behavior
sulting dynamic behavior, the controlled systems can be classified as follows:
4 P controlled systems (proportional control action) classification of

controlled systems
4 I controlled systems (integral control action)
4 Controlled systems with dead time
4 Controlled systems with energy storing components
(first-, second- or higher-order)
This classification as well as the controllability of systems will be discussed in

the following chapters in more detail. It must be differentiated between con-
trolled systems in which a new equilibrium is established after a disturbance with or without
or change in the manipulated variable and systems with a continuously self-regulation
changing controlled variable:
4 Systems with self-regulation only change until a new stable output value is
reached.
4 Systems without self-regulation do not reach a new state of equilibrium.

Systems without self-regulation require closed loop control, because the ma-
nipulated variable must become zero as soon as the controlled variable rea-
ches the required equilibrium. Only by means of closed loop feedback
control can this be reached at the right point of time and to the proper extent.
Practical experience shows that systems with self-regulation are often much
SAMSON AG 99/10
easier to control than systems without self-regulation, because the latter have
a tendency to oscillate, i.e. they tend to be more unstable. Therefore, a pro-
7
perly adapted controller is more important in the case of systems without

self-regulation.
P controlled system
In controlled systems with proportional action, the controlled variable x

changes proportional to the manipulated variable y. The controlled variable
follows the manipulated variable without any lag.
Since any energy transfer requires a finite amount of time, P control action
P control action with- without any lag does not occur in practice. When the time lag between mani-
out any lag is possible pulated and controlled variable is so small, however, that it does not have
in theory only any effect on the system, this behavior is called proportional control action of
a system or a P controlled system.
4 Example: Flow control

If the valve travel changes in the pressure control system illustrated in Fig. 1,
a new flow rate q is reached (almost) instantaneously. Depending on the val-
ve flow coefficient, the controlled variable changes proportional to the mani-
pulated variable; the system has proportional control action.
new equilibrium Fig. 2 shows the block diagram symbol for proportional action and the dyna-
without lag mic behavior of a P controlled system after a step change in the input varia-
y
y
q = Ks * y
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 1: Proportional controlled system; reference variable: flow rate
8
Part 1 L102EN
y
ymax
block diagramm
t0 t
x y x
xmax
t0 t
Fig. 2: Dynamic behavior of a P controlled system

(y: control valve travel; x: flow rate in a pipeline)
ble. The characteristic curves clearly show that a proportional controlled

system is a system with self-regulation, since a new equilibrium is reached
immediately after the step change.
I controlled system
Integral controlled systems are systems without self-regulation: if the manipu-

lated variable does not equal zero, the integral controlled system responds systems without
with a continuous change continuous increase or decrease of the control- self-regulation
led variable. A new equilibrium is not reached.
4 Example: Liquid level in a tank (Fig. 3)

In a tank with an outlet and equally high supply and discharge flow rates, a
constant liquid level is reached. If the supply or discharge flow rate changes,
the liquid level will rise or fall. The level changes the quicker, the larger the
difference between supply and discharge flow.
This example shows that the use of integral control action is mostly limited in marginal conditions
practice. The controlled variable increases or decreases only until it reaches limit the I control action
SAMSON AG 99/10
a system-related limit value: the tank will overflow or be discharged, maxi-

mum or minimum system pressure is reached, etc.
9
Fig. 3: Integral controlled system; controlled variable: liquid level in a tank
Fig. 4 shows the dynamic behavior of an I controlled system after a step

change in the input variable as well as the derived block diagram symbol for
short integral-action integral control action. The integral-action time Tn serves as a measure for
time causes high the integral control action and represents the rise time of the controlled
rise time variable. For the associated mathematical context, refer to the chapter
Controllers and Control Elements .
y
ymax
block diagramm
t0 t
y x
x
xmax
Ti
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
t0 t
Fig. 4: Dynamic behavior of an I controlled system

(y: valve travel; x: liquid level in a tank)
10
Part 1 L102EN
Controlled system with dead time
In systems with dead time there is no dynamic response until a certain

amount of time has elapsed. The time constant TL serves as a measure for the
dead time or lag.
4 Example: Adjustment of conveying quantity for conveyor belt (Fig. 5)

If the bulk material quantity fed to the conveyor belt is increased via slide delayed response
gate, a change in the material quantity arriving at the discharge end of the through lag
belt (sensor location) is only noticed after a certain time.
Pressure control in long gas pipes exhibits similar behavior. Since the medi-
um is compressible, it takes some time until a change in pressure is noticeab-
le at the end of the pipeline.
Often, several final control elements are the cause of dead times in a control
loop. These are created, e.g. through the switching times of contactors or the
internal clearance in gears.
Dead times are some of the most difficult factors to control in process control
situations, since changes in the manipulated variable have a delaying effect
on the controlled variable. Due to this delay, controlled systems with dead ti-
mes often tend to oscillate. Oscillations always occur if controlled variable systems with dead
and manipulated variable periodically change toward each other, delayed times tend to oscillate
by the dead time.
In many cases, dead times can be avoided or minimized by skillful planning

(arrangement of the sensor and the control valve; if possible, by selecting
short pipelines; low heat capacities of the insulation media, etc. ).
SAMSON AG 99/10
Fig. 5: Controlled system with dead time
11
y
ymax
block diagram
t0 t
y x
x
xmax TL
t0 t
Fig. 6: Dynamic behavior of a controlled system with dead time

(y: slide gate position; x: conveying quantity)
Controlled system with energy storing components
Delays between changes in the manipulated and controlled variable are not
only created due to dead times. Any controlled system usually consists of se-
veral components that are characterized by the capacity to store energy (e.g.
heating system with heat storing pipes, jackets, insulation, etc.). Due to these
delays caused by components and their energetic state which changes only gradually, energy
storing components consumption or discharge occurs time delayed. This also applies to all condi-
tion changes of the controlled system, because these are originated in the
transfer or conversion of energy.
4 Example: Room temperature control

A heating system is a controlled system with several energy storing compo-
nents: boiler, water, radiator, room air, walls, etc.
When the energy supply to the boiler is changed or the radiator shut-off val-
ve is operated in the heated room, the room temperature changes only gra-
dually until the desired final value is reached.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
It is characteristic of controlled systems with energy storing components that

the final steady-state value is reached only after a finite time and that the
speed of response of process variable x changes during the transitional peri-
12
Part 1 L102EN
x
1
0,63 one energy storing

component
more than one energy

storing component
T1: time constant t
Fig. 7: Exponential curves describe controlled systems with energy storing

components
od (Fig. 7). In principle, the speed of response slows down as it approaches exponential curves
its final value, until it asymptotically reaches its final value. While the output characterize dynamic
variable may suddenly change in systems with dead times, systems with behavior
energy storing components can only change steadily.
The dynamic behavior of the system depends on those lags that produce the
decisive effect, thus, on the size of the existing storing components. Essential-
ly, large components determine this factor so that smaller components fre-
quently have no effect.
4 Example: Room temperature control

The dynamic behavior of a room temperature control system is significantly
influenced by the burner capacity and the size of boiler, room and radiator.
The dynamic behavior depends on the heating capacity of the heating pipes
only to a very small extent.
Controlled systems with energy storing components are classified according classification of
to the number of lags that produce an effect. For instance, a first-order sys- systems with lags
tem has one dynamic energy storing component, a second-order system has
two energy storing components, etc. A system without any lags is also refer-
red to as a zero-order system (see also P controlled system). A behavior re-
sembling that of a zero-order system may occur in a liquid-filled pressure
system without equalizing tanks.
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13
First-order system
A first-order system with only one dynamic energy storing component is illu-
strated in Fig. 8: the temperature of a liquid in a tank equipped with inlet,
temperature control outlet and agitator is adjusted via mixing valve. Due to the large tank volume,
via mixing valve the temperature changes only gradually after the valve has been adjusted
(step change).
The dynamic behavior of a first-order system is shown in Fig. 9. A measure

for the speed of response is the time constant T1. It represents the future time
KW T [C]
WW
Fig. 8: First-order controlled system; controlled variable: temperature
y
ymax
block diagram
t0 t
x y x
xmax
T1
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
t0 t
Fig. 9: Dynamic behavior of a first-order controlled system PT1 element

(y: valve position; x: temperature of liquid in tank)
14
Part 1 L102EN
necessary for the controlled variable x (response curve) to reach 63% of its
final value after a step input has been introduced. The course of the function
is derived as follows:
t

x (t ) = 1 e T1
Such delayed proportional behavior with a first-order lag is also referred to

as PT1 behavior. The higher the time constant T1, the slower the change in the time constant defines
controlled variable and the larger the energy storing component causing this the dynamic behavior
lag.
If the dynamic behavior of a system is only known as a response curve, T1

can be graphically determined with the help of the tangent shown in Fig. 9.
Second-order and higher-order systems
If there are two or more energy storing components between the

manipulated variable and the controlled variable, the controlled system is n th order systems
referred to as second- or higher-order system (also called PT2, PT3 system, exhibit PTn behavior
etc.). When two first-order systems are connected in series, the result is one
second-order system, as shown in Fig. 10.
H
KW
T [C]
WW
SAMSON AG 99/10
Fig. 10: Second-order controlled system; controlled variable: temperature
15
The dynamic behavior of such a system is reflected by the characteristic cur-

ves shown in Fig. 11. The step response of the controlled variable shows an
step response with inflection point which is characteristic of higher-order systems (Figs. 11 and
inflection point... 12): initially, the rate of change increases up to the inflection point and then
continuously decreases (compare to behavior of first-order systems: Fig. 8).
and time constants Mathematically, the characteristic of a higher-order system is described by

of the individual PT1 the time constants T1, T2, etc. of the individual systems. The characteristic
elements curve for the step response is then derived as follows:
y
ymax
block diagram
t0 t
x y x
xmax
t0 t
Fig. 11: Dynamic behavior of second- or higher-order controlled systems

(y: valve position; x: medium temperature in the second tank)
t
x
tangent
inflection
point
Tu Tg t
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 12: Step response of a higher-order controlled system with the charac-
teristic values Tu and Tg
16
Part 1 L102EN
t t
x (t ) = (1 e T1 ) (1 e T 2 )
For a simplified characterization of this behavior, the process lag Tu and the Tu and Tg simplify
process reaction rate Tg are defined with the help of the inflection point the evaluation
tangents (Fig. 12). Since process lag has the same effect as dead time, a
system is more difficult to control when Tu approaches the value of the
process reaction rate Tg. The higher the system order, the less favorable does
this relationship develop (Fig. 13).
The controllability improves, however, when the time constants T1, T2, etc.
are as small as possible compared to the time required by the control loop for
corrective action. Highly different time constants (factor 10 or higher) also time constants
simplify the controller adjustment since it can then be focused on the highest, characterize the
the time determining value. It is therefore on the part of the practitioner to control response
carefully consider these aspects already during the design phase of a
process control system.
x
1
first-order
fifth-order
fourth-order
third-order
second-order
Fig. 13: Dynamic behavior of higher-order controlled systems

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17
Characterizing
Controlled Systems
System response
A complex controlled system can be described through the combined action

systems consist of of several subsystems, each of which can be assigned with P, I, dead time or
several subsystems lag reaction. The system response is therefore a result of the combined action
of these individual elements (Fig. 14: Actuator with internal clearance in its
gears). In most cases, proportional or integral action occurs only after a cer-
tain lag and/or dead time has elapsed.
The system-specific lags and/or dead times can also be so small that they do
only time determining not have to be considered in the control process. In temperature controllers,
elements are important for instance, the short time of opening the control valve can usually be ne-
glected contrary to the much longer heating time.
Proportional-action coefficient
An important process variable in characterizing controlled systems with

self-regulation is the factor KPS. This factor indicates the ratio of change in the
controlled variable x to the corresponding change in the manipulated
y x
converter internal clear- position (travel)

ance in gears
y x
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 14: Dynamic behavior of an actuator with internal clearance in its gears
(lagging integral response with dead time)
18
Part 1 L102EN
variable y under balanced, steady-state conditions:
x x 2 x 1
K PS = =
y y 2 y 1
To calculate KPS, the system must reach a new equilibrium after a step change KPS: proportional-
in the manipulated variable y. Since this requirement is only met by systems action coefficient of the
with self-regulation, KPS is not defined for systems without self-regulation. system
The factor KPS is frequently referred to as system gain. This term is not quite
correct. If KPS is smaller than one, it does not have the effect of an
amplification factor. Therefore, the proper term must be proportional-action
coefficient. To ensure that the above relationship applies irrespective of the
nature of the variables, input and output signals are normalized by dividing
them by their maximum values (100 % value).
Nonlinear response
In many practical applications, KPS is not constant over the complete range of dynamic behavior
the controlled variable, but changes depending on the corresponding depends on the
operating point. Such a response is termed nonlinear which is often operating point
encountered in temperature control systems.
w
20...100C
x
SAMSON AG 99/10
Fig. 15: Steam-heated tank
19
4 Example: Heating a steam-heated tank (Fig. 15)

A steam-heated water bath is a controlled system with self-regulation. The
water bath and the tank material in which the pipeline is embedded are two
large heat storing components which can be considered a second-order
controlled system. Since a body being heated will convey more and more
heat dissipation heat into the environment as the heating temperature increases, the
changes with the coefficient KPS changes with the water bath temperature (Fig. 16). To
temperature difference increase the temperature at high temperatures, comparatively more energy
must be supplied than at low temperatures. Therefore, the following applies:
K PS (0 C ) > K PS (100 C )
Operating point (OP)
If the reaction of nonlinear systems is analyzed with the help of step

responses, a different dynamic behavior of the controlled variable can be
nonlinearity makes observed at each operating point. With the above illustration of water bath
control more difficult heating, entirely different values are obtained for KPS, Tu and Tg that depend
on the operating temperature. This behavior is a disadvantage for the
controlled system, because it leads to an operating point-dependent control
response of the system.
T[C]
OP2
T2
P1 = P2
1 > 2

T1 OP1 K pS (OP1 ) > K pS (OP2 )
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
P1 P2 P[kW]
Fig. 16: Operating point-dependent behavior of the steam-heated tank
20
Part 1 L102EN
4 Example: Nonlinearity of the steam-heated tank (Fig. 15 and 16)

The characteristic in Fig. 16 shows that the controlled system in the lower
temperature range has a higher proportional-action coefficient than in the
upper range. If the temperature controller of the bath is adjusted so that a fa-
vorable control action is obtained at low temperatures, there will be longer optimum control action
delays at high temperatures and vice versa: if the control action is favorable is obtained at only one
at high temperatures, oscillations might occur at low temperatures. operating point
The adjustment of the controller is easier if a nonlinear system is operated at

a fixed operating or working point. Since KPS changes only very little in the
immediate surrounding area of the operating point (see OP1 and OP2 in Fig.
16), the control action is consequently influenced very little as well.
If a nonlinear system is mostly or principally operated at one fixed operating tuning the controller to
point, the controller is tuned especially to this operating point. The system a fixed operating
parameters (e.g. Tu/Tg) must therefore be determined for this operating point point...
only and, if applicable, to its immediate surrounding area.
If a fixed operating point cannot be defined, such as with follow-up control or an entire
systems, the adjustment of the controller parameters remains a compromise. operating range
In that case, the controller is usually tuned to medium system gain.
Controllability of systems with self-regulation
For systems without integral-action component, the controllability can be

assessed by means of the process reaction lag Tu and process reaction rate
Tg (see also page 17). To do this, a simplified assumption is made, saying assessing the control-
that the system response is described sufficiently accurate by one dead time lability with Tg/Tu
and one lag.
Tu and Tg can best be determined graphically by using a series of

measurements. In open loop control, the system response is determined after
small step changes in the manipulated variable. In nonlinear systems, this
measurement must be made at different operating points. The relationship
between Tg and Tu, which is determined from the measuring curves, indicates
which control response must be expected.
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21
Ratio Tg/Tu System is ...

Tg
0< 3 difficult to control;
Tu
Tg
3< < 10 only just controllable;
Tu
Tg
10 easy to control.
Tu
magnitude of 4 Example: Tu and Tg for controlled systems in process engineering

Tu and Tg
Controlled Type of controlled Tu Tg

variable system
Temperature Autoclaves Extruder 30 to 40 s 10 to 20 min

1 to 6 min 5 to 60 min
Pressure Oil-fired boiler 0 min 2.5 min
Flow rate Pipeline with gas 0 to 5 s 0.2 s

Pipeline with liquid 0s 0s
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
22
Part 1 L102EN
Controllers and Control Elements
A controllers job is to influence the controlled system via control signal so

that the value of the controlled variable equals the value of the reference va-
lue. Controllers consist of a reference and a control element (Fig. 17). The re-
ference element calculates the error (e) from the difference between
reference (w) and feedback variable (r), while the control element generates
the manipulated variable (y) from the error:
controller
w + e control y
element

reference
x
element x=r
Fig. 17: Controller components
Classification
Control elements can be designed in many different ways. For instance, the
manipulated variable y can be generated
4 mechanically or electrically, functional principle
4 analog or digitally,
4 with or without auxiliary energy
from the error e. Although these differences significantly influence the con-
troller selection, they have (almost) no impact on the control response. First
and foremost, the control response depends on the response of the manipu-
lated variable. Therefore, controllers are classified according to their control
SAMSON AG 99/10
signal response. Depending on the type of controller, the control signal can control signal response
either be continuous or discontinuous. control response
23
controllers
continuos discontinuous
controllers controllers
P controller two-position
I controller three-position
PD controller multiposition
PI controller
PID controller
Fig. 18: Classification of controllers
Continuous and discontinuous controllers
continuous... In continuous controllers, the manipulated variable can assume any value
within the controller output range. The characteristic of continuous controllers
usually exhibits proportional (P), integral (I) or differential (D) action, or is a
sum of these individual elements (Fig. 18).
...or discrete range of In discontinuous controllers, the manipulated variable y changes between di-
the manipulated screte values. Depending on how many different states the manipulated va-
variable riable can assume, a distinction is made between two-position, three-
position and multiposition controllers. Compared to continuous controllers,
discontinuous controllers operate on very simple, switching final controlling
elements. If the system contains energy storing components, the controlled
variable responds continuously, despite the step changes in the manipulated
variable. If the corresponding time constants are large enough, good control
results at small errors can even be reached with discontinuous controllers
and simple control elements.
Auxiliary energy
Any controller and final controlling element requires energy to operate. Con-
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
externally supplied trollers externally supplied with pneumatic, electric or hydraulic energy are
energy or energy deri- classified as controllers with auxiliary energy. If no energy transfer medium
ved from the system is available at the point of installation, self-operated regulators should be
24
Part 1 L102EN
e y
PI
e y
Fig. 19: Step response of a controller
used. They derive the energy they require to change the manipulated varia-
ble from the controlled system. These cost-effective and rugged controllers
are often used for pressure, differential pressure, flow and temperature con-
trol. They can be used in applications where the point of measurement and
the point of change are not separated by great distances and where system
deviations caused by energy withdrawal are acceptable.
Determining the dynamic behavior
As with the controlled systems, the following chapters will illustrate the dyna-
mic behavior of individual controllers based on step responses (Fig. 19). The
resulting control response can be shown even more clearly in a closed con-
trol loop.
w e y x
PI PT2
w e y x
SAMSON AG 99/10
Fig. 20: Signal responses in a closed control loop
25
Fig. 21: Step response the third-order reference system
action flow in a closed In a closed control loop, a step change in the reference variable first results in
control loop a step increase in the error signal e (Fig. 20). Due to the control action and
the feedback, the error signal will decrease in time. Finally, the controlled va-
riable will reach a new steady state, provided that the control response is sta-
ble (Fig. 20: Controlled variable x).
comparison of control In order to be able to compare and analyze the response of different control-
responses based on lers, each controller will be discussed in regard to its interaction with the
a reference system same reference system. This is a third-order system with the following para-
meters:
Proportional-action coefficient: KP = 1
System parameters: T1 = 30 s; T2 = 15 s; T3 = 10 s .
The lag and the proportional-action of this system can be seen in Fig. 21. It
shows the step response, i.e. the response of the output variable (controlled
variable x) to a step change in the input variable (manipulated variable y).
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
26
Part 1 L102EN
Continuous Controllers
metal bellow
y
x
D
p1 p2
e
Kp set point spring
Fig. 22: Design of a P controller (self-operated regulator)
Proportional controller (P controller)
The manipulated variable y of a P controller is proportional to the measured

error e. From this can be deducted that a P controller
4 reacts to any deviation without lag and

4 only generates a manipulated variable in case of system deviation.
The proportional pressure controller illustrated in Fig. 22 compares the force manipulated variable
FS of the set point spring with the force FM created in the elastic metal bellows changes proportional
by the pressure p2. When the forces are off balance, the lever pivots about to error
point D. This changes the position of the valve plug and, hence, the
pressure p2 to be controlled until a new equilibrium of forces is restored.
Proportional-action coefficient
The dynamic behavior of the P controller after a step change in the error
variable is shown in Fig. 23. The amplitude of the manipulated variable y is
SAMSON AG 99/10
determined by the error e and the proportional-action coefficient KP:
27
e
emax
block diagram
t1 t
t2
e y
y
ymax
t1 t
t2
Fig. 23: Dynamic behavior of a P controller

(e: system devitation; y: manipulated variable)
y = K P e with: K P as proportional-action coefficient
The term describes a linear equation whose gradient is determined by KP.

high KP causes Fig. 24 clearly shows that a high KP represents a strongly rising gradient, so
strong control action that even small system deviations can cause strong control actions.
proportional-action Note: In place of the proportional-action coefficient KP, the old term
coefficient or proportional band is frequently used in literature which is represented by
proportional band the parameter XP[%]. The parameter is converted as follows:
100[%] 100[%]
XP = or KP =
KP XP
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
28
Part 1 L102EN
y y
Kp
y0 y0
e e
Fig. 24: Effect of KP and operating point adjustment
System deviation
Controllers compensate for the effect of disturbance variables by generating

a corresponding manipulated variable acting in the opposite direction. Since
P controllers only generate a manipulated variable in case of system deviati- characteristic feature
on (see definition by equation), a permanent change, termed steady-state of P controllers: steady-
error, cannot be completely balanced (Fig. 25). state error
Note: Stronger control action due to a high KP results in smaller system

deviations. However, if KP values are too high, they increase the tendency of
the control loop to oscillate.
t
x
x0 e
t
SAMSON AG 99/10
Fig. 25: Steady-state error in control loops with P controllers

x0: adjusted operating point of the controller
29
Adjusting the operating point
In the ideal control situation, i.e. with zero error, proportional-only

controllers do not generate control amplitudes (see above). This amplitude is
required, however, if the controlled variable is to be kept at any level of
selection of the equilibrium in a system with self-regulation. In order to achieve this anyhow,
control amplitude P controllers require an option for adjusting the operating point. This option
at steady state is provided by adding a variable offset y0 to the manipulated variable of the
y = K P e + y 0 y0 : manipulated variable at operating point
P controller:
This way, any control amplitude y0 can be generated, even with zero error.
In mathematical terms, this measure corresponds to a parallel displacement
of the operating characteristic over the entire operating range (see Fig. 24).
Note: Selecting an operating point y0 nonzero only makes sense for

systems with self-regulation. A system without self-regulation will only reach
steady state when the manipulated variable equals zero (example:
motor-driven actuator).
4 Example: Operating point and system deviation in pressure reducing val-

ves
In a pressure control system (Fig. 26), p2 lies within the range of 0 to 20 bar,
the operating point (pOP, qOp) is pOp = 8 bar.
If the proportional-action coefficient is set to KP = 10, the valve passes

through the entire travel range with a 10 percent error. If the spring is not
preloaded (y0 = 0), the pressure reducing valve is fully open at 0 bar (H100)
and fully closed at 2 bar (H0). The operating point (pOP, qOP) is not reached;
significant system deviation will occur.
operating point With the help of the operating point adjustment the spring can be preloaded
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
adjustment by in such a manner that the valve releases the cross-sectional area which is
preloading the spring exactly equivalent to the operating point at p2 = 8 bar => zero system
deviation.
30
Part 1 L102EN
For instance, this would allow the following assignment (Fig. 26):
9,0 bar: valve closed H0

8,0 bar: valve in mid-position (qOP) HOP
7,0 bar: valve fully open H100
There is a maximum system deviation of 0.5 bar over the entire valve travel
range. If this is not tolerable, KP must be increased: a KP of 50 reduces the high KP reduces system
system deviation to 0.2 bar (20 bar/50 = 0.4 bar). However, KP cannot be deviation and increa-
increased infinitely. If the response in the controller is too strong, the ses the tendency to
controlled variable will overshoot, so that the travel adjustment must be oscillate
subsequently reversed for counteraction: the system becomes instable.
p1 p2
20
10
8 KP = 50
Kp = 10
6
q0 qAP qmax
H0 HAP H100
Fig. 26: Functional principle and characteristics of a pressure reducing valve

SAMSON AG 99/10
31
Kp
VE
SW
VA
Fig. 27: Level control with a P controller (self-operated regulator)
Example: Proportional level control
The water in a tank (Fig. 27) is to be kept at a constant level, even if the output
flow rate of the water is varied via the drain valve (VA).
The illustrated controlling system is at steady state when the supplied as well
as the drained water flow rates are equally large the liquid level remains
constant.
level control: If the drain valve (VA) is opened a little further, the water level will start to fall.
principle of operation The float (SW) in the tank will descend together with the water level. This will
cause the rigid lever connected to the float to open the inlet valve (VE). The in-
creasing flow finally prevents the water level from dropping still lower so that
the system reaches a new equilibrium level.
By displacing the pivot of the lever upward or downward, a different statio-

nary water level can be adjusted. If the individual components are sized pro-
perly, this type of control process will prevent the tank from discharging or
overflowing.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
The above example shows the typical characteristics of proportional control

action:
32
Part 1 L102EN
4 In case of disturbances, steady-state error is always sustained: when the steady-state error
outlet flow rate permanently changes, it is urgently required for the liquid
level to deviate from the originally adjusted set point to permanently chan-
ge the position of the inlet valve (VE) as well.
4 The system deviation decreases at high gain (high proportional action co-
efficient), but also increases the risk of oscillation for the controlled varia-
ble. If the pivot of the lever is displaced towards the float, the controller
sensitivity increases. Due to this amplified controlling effect, the supply limit values in
flow changes more strongly when the level varies; too strong an amplifica- adjusting KP
tion might lead to sustained variations in the water level (oscillation).
Note: The illustrated level control system uses a self-operated regulator. The self-operated
control energy derived from the system is characteristic of this controller type: regulators for simple
the weight of the float and the positioning forces are compensated for by the control tasks
buoyancy of the float caused by its water displacement.
Control response (based on the example of the PT3 system)
Control of a PT3 system (KP = 1; T1 = 30 s; T2 = 15 s; T3 = 10 s) with a P

controller results in the control response shown in Fig. 28. As previously
mentioned, the systems tendency for oscillation increases with increasing KP,
while the steady-state error is simultaneously reduced.
SAMSON AG 99/10
Fig. 28: Control response of the P controller based on a PT3 system
33
P controllers exhibit the following advantages:
4 Fast response to changes in the control process due to immediate correcti-

ve action when an error occurs.
4 Very stable control process, provided that KP is properly selected.

P controllers exhibit the following disadvantages:
4 Steady-state error when disturbances occur, since only system deviation

causes a change in the manipulated variable.
P controller applications:
P controllers: fast and P controllers are suited to noncritical control applications which can tolerate
stable with steady- steady-state error in the event of disturbances: e.g. pressure, flow rate, level
state error and temperature control. P control action provides rapid response, although
its dynamic properties can still be improved through additional control com-
ponents, as described on page 38 ff.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
34
Part 1 L102EN
Integral controller (I controller)
Integral control action is used to fully correct system deviations at any

operating point. As long as the error is nonzero, the integral action will
cause the value of the manipulated variable to change. Only when reference
variable and controlled variable are equally large at the latest, though, no error in
when the manipulated variable reaches its system specific limit value (Umax, steady state
pmax, etc.) is the control process balanced. Mathematics expresses integral
action as follows: the value of the manipulated variable is changed
proportional to the integral of the error e.
1
y = K i e dt with: K i =
Tn
How rapidly the manipulated variable increases/decreases depends on the

error and the integral time Tn (reciprocal of integral-action coefficient Ki). If
the controller has a short integral time, the control signal increases more
rapidly as for controllers with long integral time (small integral-action
coefficient).
Note: The higher the integral action coefficient Ki, the greater the integral high Tn slow
action of an I controller, or it is the lower, the higher the integral time value Tn. control action
metal
y x bellow
p1 p2
set point spring

SAMSON AG 99/10
Fig. 29: I pressure controller
35
e
emax
t1 t block diagram
t2
e y
y
ymax
t1 t2 t
Fig. 30: Dynamic behavior of an I controller

(e: system deviation; y: manipulated variable)
The pneumatic I controller illustrated in Fig. 29 operates with a piston

actuator. When the supply nozzle in front of the jet divider is in mid-position,
the piston remains where it is. In this position, error equals zero because the
forces of the set point spring FS and the pressure loaded metal bellows FM
cancel each other out completely.
functional principle A virtual control cycle helps us recognize the functional principle:
of integral pressure When, due to an additional consumer, the pressure p2 drops, the nozzle
controllers turns towards the upper piston chamber. The piston slides downward,
opening the valve until the equilibrium of forces is restored. The nozzle is
then again in mid-position, i.e. error equals zero and the valve plug remains
in the new, wider open position.
When comparing the dynamic behavior of a P and an I controller (Figs. 21

I control action is and 30), it shows that the manipulated variable y increases only slowly in I
comparatively slow controllers, while it immediately reaches its final control value with P control-
lers. Therefore, the response of integral-only controllers to disturbances and
step changes in the reference variable is only very sluggish. If the integral
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
time is adjusted to be so short that it causes a rapid increase in the manipula-

ted variable, oscillation will easily occur, making the control loop instable in
the end.
36
Part 1 L102EN
Fig. 31: Control response of the I controller with PT3 system

(double time scale)
Fig. 31 shows how the PT3 system (KP = 1; T1 = 30 s; T2 = 15 s; T3 = 10 s) is

controlled with an I controller. Contrary to Fig. 28 which shows
proportional-action control, the time scale was doubled in this illustration. It
clearly shows that the I controllers response is considerably slower, while the no steady-state error...
control dynamics decreases with increasing Tn. A positive feature is the
nonexistent error at steady state.
Note: Adjusting an operating point would not make any sense for I control-
lers, since the integral action component would correct any set-point deviati-
on. The change in the manipulated variable until error has been eliminated is
equivalent to an automated operating point adjustment: the manipulated by self-adaption to
variable of the I controller at steady state (e=0) remains at a value which the operating point
would have to be entered for P controllers via the operating point adjuster.
I controllers exhibit the following advantages:
4 No error at steady state

I controllers exhibit the following disadvantages:
SAMSON AG 99/10
4 Sluggish response at high Tn

4 At small Tn, the control loop tends to oscillate/may become instable
37
Derivative controller (D controller)
D controllers generate the manipulated variable from the rate of change of

the error and not as P controllers from their amplitude. Therefore, they re-
rapid response act much faster than P controllers: even if the error is small, derivative con-
to any change trollers generate by anticipation, so to speak large control amplitudes as
soon as a change in amplitude occurs. A steady-state error signal, however,
is not recognized by D controllers, because regardless of how big the error,
its rate of change is zero. Therefore, derivative-only controllers are rarely
used in practice. They are usually found in combination with other control
elements, mostly in combination with proportional control.
combined P and In PD controllers (Fig. 32) with proportional-plus-derivative control action,

D controllers the manipulated variable results from the addition of the individual P and D
control elements:
de
y = K P e + K D + y0 with: K D = K p T v
dt
The factor TV is the rate time, KD is the derivative-action coefficient. Both

variables are a measure for the influence of the D component: high values
mean strong control action.
As with the P controller, the summand y0 stands for the operating point
adjustment, i.e. the preselected value of the manipulated variable which is
issued by the controller in steady state when e = 0.
P
e y e y
PD =
D
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 32: Elements of a PD controller
38
Part 1 L102EN
e
emax
block diagram
t1 t
t2
y e y
ymax
t
t1 t2
Fig. 33: Dynamic behavior of a PD controller

The course of the manipulated variable which can be seen in the step respon-
se shows the influence of the D component (see Figs. 23 and 32): any change
in the error signal results in a short-term increase of the manipulated varia-
ble. Due to parasitical lags, this pulse has only a finite rate of change. An in- small lags influence
definitely short pulse, as required by the above equation, will not occur in the control pulse
practice.
Note: The influence of the D component increases proportional to the rate high TV great
time TV or the derivative-action coefficient KD. control action
The control response in Fig. 34 shows that steady-state error occurs in PD

controllers just as it occurs in P controllers. Due to the immediate control
action whenever there is a change in the error signal, the control dynamics is
higher than with P controllers. Despite the very rapid changes in the D component improves
controlled variable (set point reached after 23 s), the tendency of the control control dynamics
SAMSON AG 99/10
loop to oscillate decreases. Due to this stabilizing effect of the D component,

a higher KP value can be chosen than for proportional-only controllers which
reduces steady-state error.
39
Fig. 34: Control response of the PD controller with PT3 system
PD controllers are employed in all applications where P controllers are not

sufficient. This usually applies to controlled systems with greater lags, in
which stronger oscillation of the controlled variable caused by a high KP
value must be prevented.
PI controllers
suited to many PI controllers are often employed in practice. In this combination, one P and
control tasks one I controller are connected in parallel (Fig. 35). If properly designed, they
combine the advantages of both controller types (stability and rapidity; no
steady-state error), so that their disadvantages are compensated for at the
same time.
P
e y e y
PI =
I
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 35: Elements of a PI controller
40
Part 1 L102EN
e
emax
block diagram
t1 t
t2
e y
y
ymax
Tn
t1 t2 t
Fig. 36: Dynamic behavior of a PI controller

The manipulated variable of PI controllers is calculated as follows:
Kp
y = K p e + K i e dt with: K i =
Tn
The dynamic behavior is marked by the proportional-action coefficient KP

and the reset time Tn. Due to the proportional component, the manipulated division of tasks bet-
variable immediately reacts to any error signal e, while the integral ween P and I control-
component starts gaining influence only after some time. Tn represents the lers: fast and accurate
time that elapses until the I component generates the same control amplitude
that is generated by the P component (KP) from the start (Fig. 36). As with I
controllers, the reset time Tn must be reduced if the integral-action component
is to be amplified.

SAMSON AG 99/10
As expected, PI control of the PT3 system (Fig. 37) exhibits the positive
properties of P as well as of I controllers. After rapid corrective action, the
controlled variable does not show steady-state error. Depending on how
41
Fig. 37: Control response of the PI controller with PT3 system
variable controller high the KP and Tn values are, oscillation of the controlled variable can be
design reduced, however, at the expense of control dynamics.
PI controller applications:
Control loops allowing no steady-state error.
Examples: pressure, temperature, ratio control, etc.
PID controller
PI controller with If a D component is added to PI controllers, the result is an extremely versatile

improved control PID controller (Fig. 38). As with PD controllers, the added D component if
dynamics properly tuned causes the controlled variable to reach its set point more
quickly, thus reaching steady state more rapidly.
e y e y
PID = I
D
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 38: Elements of a PID controller
42
Part 1 L102EN
e
emax
t1 t block diagram
t2
e y
y
ymax
t1 t2 t
Fig. 39: Dynamic behavior of a PID controller

In addition to the manipulated variable generated by the PI component (Fig.

36), the D component increases the control action with any change in error three control modes
(Fig. 39). Thus, the manipulated variable y results from the addition of the provide high flexibility..
differently weighted P, I and D components and their associated coefficients:
de KP
y = K p e + K i e dt + K D with K i = ; K D = K P TV
dt Tn
The control response of PID controllers is favorable in systems with large

energy storing components (higher-order controlled systems) that require
control action as fast as possible and without steady-state error.
Compared to the previously discussed controllers, the PID controller therefore

exhibits the most sophisticated control response (Fig. 40) in the reference
SAMSON AG 99/10
system example. The controlled variable reaches its set point rapidly, accurate and highly
stabilizes within short, and oscillates only slightly about the set point. The dynamic control
three control parameters KP, Tn and TV provide an immense versatility in
43
Fig. 40: Control response of the PID controller with PT3 system
and require careful adjusting the control response with respect to amplitude and control
tuning adjustments dynamics. It is therefore especially important that the controller be designed
and tuned with care as well as be adapted to the system as good as possible
(see chapter: Selecting a Controller).
PID controller applications:

Control loops with second- or higher-order systems that require rapid stabili-
zation and do not allow steady-state error.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
44
Part 1 L102EN
Discontinuous Controllers
Discontinuous controllers are also frequently called switching controllers. The

manipulated variable in discontinuous controllers assumes only a few discre- only definite number
te values, so that energy or mass supply to the system can be changed only in of switching states
discrete steps.
Two-position controller
The simplest version of a discontinuous controller is the two-position

controller which, as the name indicates, has only two different output states,
for instance 0 and ymax according to Fig. 41.
A typical application is temperature control by means of a bimetallic strip example: temperature

(e.g. irons). The bimetal serves as both measuring and switching element. It control via bimetal
consists of two metal strips that are welded together, with each strip expan-
ding differently when heated (Fig. 42).
If contact is made bimetal and set point adjuster are touching a current
supplies the hot plate with electricity. If the bimetallic strip is installed near the
hot plate, it heats up as well. When heated up, the bottom material expands
more than the top material. This causes the strip to bend upward as the heat
increases, and it finally interrupts the energy supply to the heating coil. If the
temperature of the bimetal decreases, the electrical contact is made again, cyclic on/off switching
starting a new heating phase.
y y xxdg
ymax ymax
w x x
xxbotw xxtop
SAMSON AG 99/10
Fig. 41: Switching charakteristic of the two-position controller

(without and with differential gap xdg)
45
To increase the service life of the contacts, as shown in Fig. 42, a differential
gap xdg can be created by using an iron plate and a permanent magnet. The
differential gap conditions for on/off switching are not identical anymore (xbot and xtop
reduces switching according to Fig. 41), so that the switching frequency is reduced and spark
frequency generation is largely prevented.
.
_ Q thermal convection
~
N Fe
S magnet
Fig. 43: Temperature control via bimetallic switch
x
xmax Ts
x top
xdg
x bot
t
y
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 42: Control cycle of a two-position controller with differential gap and
first-order controlled system
46
Part 1 L102EN
x xtop
x
x xbot
y t
Fig. 44: Control cycle of a two-position controller with differential gap and
higher-order controlled system
The typical behavior of manipulated and controlled variable as a function of

time in a two-position controller can be seen in Fig. 43. The dotted characte-
ristic shows that at higher set points the temperature increase takes longer
than the cooling process. In this example we assume that the energy inflow
(here: heating capacity) is sufficient to reach double the value of the selected
set point. The capacity reserve of 100% chosen here has the effect that
on/off switching periods are identical.
The temperature curve shown in Fig. 43 identifies a first-order controlled

system. In higher-order controlled systems, the controlled variable would
follow the manipulated variable only sluggishly due to the lag. This causes additional system
the controlled variable to leave the tolerance band formed by the switching deviation due to lag
points xtop and xbot (Fig. 44). This effect must be taken into consideration
when tuning the controller by applying the measures described below.
SAMSON AG 99/10
Two-position feedback controller
Should the displacement of the controlled variable as shown in Fig. 44 not be

tolerable, the differential gap can be reduced. This causes the switching fre-
47
quency to increase, thus exposing the contacts to more wear. Therefore, a

two-position feedback controller is often better suited to controlling sluggish
higher-order systems.
feedback control In a two-position feedback temperature controller, an additional internal

improves the heating coil heats up the bimetallic strip when the controller is switched on,
control quality thus causing a premature interruption of energy supply. If properly adjusted,
this measure results in a less irregular amplitude of the controlled variable at
an acceptable switching frequency.
Three-position controller and three-position stepping controller
Three-position controllers can assume three different switching states. In a

temperature control system, these states are not only off and heating as in
a two-position controller, but also cooling. Therefore, a three-position con-
troller fulfills the function of two coupled two-position controllers that switch
at different states; this can also be seen in the characteristic of a three- positi-
on controller with differential gap (Fig. 45).
three-position control- In the field of control valve technology, three-position controllers are fre-
led actuator motors quently used in combination with electric actuators. The three states of coun-
terclockwise (e.g. opening), clockwise (e.g. closing) and off can be used
quasi-continuous to adjust any valve position via relay and actuator motor (Fig. 46). Using a
control discontinuous controller with integrated actuator (e.g. actuator motor) and
xxdg xxd xxdg

ymax
ymax
A B C
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 45: Characteristic of a three-position controller with differential gap xdg

and dead band xd
48
Part 1 L102EN
applying suitable control signals, the result is a quasi-continuous P, PI or PID

control response. Such three-position stepping controllers are frequently
used in applications where pneumatic or hydraulic auxiliary energy is not
available, but electric auxiliary energy.
When properly adapted to the system, the control response of a three-

position stepping controller can barely be differentiated from that of a
continuous controller. Its control response may even be more favorable, for
instance, when the noise of a controlled variable caused by disturbances is
within the dead band xd.
e yR y
yR
Fig. 46: Control signal of a quasi-continuous controller

(three-position controller with actuator motor)
SAMSON AG 99/10
49
Selecting a Controller
Selection criteria
To solve a control task it is required that
4 the controlled system be analyzed and

4 a suitable controller be selected and designed.
The most important properties of the widely used P, PD, I, PI and PID control
elements are listed in the following table:
Control Offset Operating point Speed of

element adjustment response
P yes recommended high

PD yes recommended very high
I no N/A low
PI no N/A high
PID no N/A very high
what to consider when Which controller to select depends on the following factors:
selecting a controller
4 Is the system based on integral or proportional control action (with or wit-
hout self-regulation)?
4 How great is the process lag (time constants and/or dead times)?
4 How fast must errors be corrected?
4 Is steady-state error acceptable?
According to the previous chapters (see also above table), controllers and
systems can be assigned to each other as follows:
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
P controllers P controllers are employed in easy-to-control systems where steady-state er-

ror is acceptable. A stable and dynamic control response is reached at mini-
mum effort.
50
Part 1 L102EN
It makes sense to employ PD controllers in systems with great lag where offset PD controllers
is tolerable. The D component increases the speed of response so that control
dynamics improve compared to P controllers.
I controllers are suitable for use in applications with low requirements as to I controllers
the control dynamics and where the system does not exhibit great lag. It is an
advantage that errors are completely eliminated.
PI controllers combine the advantages of both P and I controllers. This type of PI controllers
controller produces a dynamic control response without exhibiting stea-
dy-state error. Most control tasks can be solved with this type of controller.
However, if it is required that the speed of response be as high as possible re-
gardless of the great lag, a PID controller will be the proper choice.
PID controllers are suitable for systems with great lag that must be eliminated PID controllers
as quick as possible. Compared to the PI controller, the added D component
results in better control dynamics. Compared to the PD controller, the added I
component prevents error in steady state.
The selection of an appropriate controller significantly depends on the corre-

sponding system parameters. Therefore, the above mentioned applications
should only be considered a general guideline; the suitability of a certain
type of controller must be thoroughly investigated to accommodate the pro-
cess it controls.
Adjusting the control parameters
For a satisfactory control result, the selection of a suitable controller is an

important aspect. It is even more important that the control parameters KP, Tn
and TV be appropriately adjusted to the system response. Mostly, the
adjustment of the controller parameters remains a compromise between a
very stable, but also very slow control loop and a very dynamic, but irregular objectives in tuning
control response which may easily result in oscillation, making the control controllers
loop instable in the end.
For nonlinear systems that should always work in the same operating point, adaptation to operating
e.g. fixed set point control, the controller parameters must be adapted to the point or range
SAMSON AG 99/10
system response at this particular operating point. If a fixed operating point

cannot be defined, such as with follow-up control systems, the controller must
51
be adjusted to ensure a sufficiently rapid and stable control result within the
entire operating range.
In practice, controllers are usually tuned on the basis of values gained by ex-
perience. Should these not be available, however, the system response must
be analyzed in detail, followed by the application of several theoretical or
practical tuning approaches in order to determine the proper control para-
meters.
ultimate tuning method One approach is a method first proposed by Ziegler and Nichols, the
by Ziegler and Nichols so-called ultimate method. It provides simple tuning that can be applied in
many cases. This method, however, can only be applied to controlled sys-
tems that allow sustained oscillation of the controlled variable. For this me-
thod, proceed as follows:
4 At the controller, set KP and TV to the lowest value and Tn to the highest
value (smallest possible influence of the controller).
4 Adjust the controlled system manually to the desired operating point (start
up control loop).
4 Set the manipulated variable of the controller to the manually adjusted va-
lue and switch to automatic operating mode.
4 Continue to increase KP (decrease XP) until the controlled variable

encounters harmonic oscillation. If possible, small step changes in the set
point should be made during the KP adjustment to cause the control loop to
oscillate.
4 Take down the adjusted KP value as critical proportional-action coefficient

KP,crit.
KP Tn Tv
P 0,50 K p , crit . - -
PI 0, 45 K p , crit . 0,85 T crit . -

SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
PID 0,59 K P , crit . 0,50 T crit . 0,12 T crit .
Fig. 47: Adjustment values of control parameters acc. to Ziegler/Nichols: at

K P, crit., the controlled variable oscillates periodically with T crit.
52
Part 1 L102EN
4 Determine the time span for one full oscillation amplitude as Tcrit, if
necessary by taking the time of several oscillations and calculating their
average.
4 Multiply the values of KP,crit and Tcrit by the values according to the table in
Fig. 47 and enter the determined values for KP, Tn and TV at the controller.
4 If required, readjust KP and Tn until the control loop shows satisfactory

dynamic behavior.
SAMSON AG 99/10
53
Appendix A1:
[1] Terminology and Symbols in Control Engineering
[2] Anderson, Norman A.: Instrumentation for Process Measurement

and Control. Radnor, PA: Chilton Book Company
[3] Murrill, Paul W.: Fundamentals of Process Control Theory. Research

Triangle Park, N.C.: Instrument Society of America, 1981
[4] DIN 19226 Part 1 to 6 Leittechnik: Regelungstechnik und

Steuerungstechnik (Control Technology). Berlin: Beuth Verlag
[5] International Electrotechnical Vocabulary, Chapter 351:

Automatic control. IEC Publication 50.
APPENDIX
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
54
Part 1 L102EN
Figures
Fig. 1: Proportional controlled system; reference variable: flow rate . . 8
Fig. 2: Dynamic behavior of a P controlled system . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Fig. 3: Integral controlled system; controlled variable: liquid level . . . 10
Fig. 4: Dynamic behavior of an I controlled system . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fig. 5: Controlled system with dead time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Fig. 6: Dynamic behavior of a controlled system with dead time . . . 12
Fig. 7: Exponential curves describe controlled systems . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 8: First-order controlled system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 9: Dynamic behavior of a first-order controlled system . . . . . . 14
Fig. 10: Second-order controlled system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 11: Dynamic behavior of second- or higher-order controlled systems 16
Fig. 12: Step response of a higher-order controlled system . . . . . . . 16
Fig. 13: Dynamic behavior of higher-order controlled systems . . . . . 17
Fig. 14: Dynamic behavior of an actuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fig. 15: Steam-heated tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

FIGURES
Fig. 16: Operating point-dependent behavior of the steam-heated tank. 20
Fig. 17: Controller components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Fig. 18: Classification of controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Fig. 19: Step response of a controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Fig. 20: Signal responses in a closed control loop . . . . . . . . . . . 25

SAMSON AG 99/10
Fig. 21: Step response the third-order reference system . . . . . . . . 26
Fig. 22: Design of a P controller (self-operated regulator) . . . . . . . 27
55
Fig. 23: Dynamic behavior of a P controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Fig. 24: Effect of KP and operating point adjustment . . . . . . . . . . 29
Fig. 25: Steady-state error in control loops with P controllers . . . . . . 29
Fig. 26: Functional principle of a pressure reducing valve . . . . . . . 31
Fig. 27: Level control with a P controller (self-operated regulator) . . . . 32
Fig. 28: Control response of the P controller based on a PT3 system . . . 33
Fig. 29: I pressure controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Fig. 30: Dynamic behavior of an I controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Fig. 31: Control response of the I controller with PT3 system . . . . . . 37
Fig. 32: Elements of a PD controller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Fig. 33: Dynamic behavior of a PD controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Fig. 34: Control response of the PD controller with PT3 system . . . . . 40
Fig. 35: Elements of a PI controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Fig. 36: Dynamic behavior of a PI controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Fig. 37: Control response of the PI controller with PT3 system . . . . . . 42

FIGURES
Fig. 38: Elements of a PID controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Fig. 39: Dynamic behavior of a PID controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fig. 40: Control response of the PID controller with PT3 system . . . . . 44
Fig. 41: Switching charakteristic of the two-position controller . . . . . 45
Fig. 42: Control cycle of a two-position controller (first-order) . . . . . 46
Fig. 43: Temperature control via bimetallic switch . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Fig. 44: Control cycle of a two-position controller (higher-order) . . . . 47
Fig. 45: Characteristic of a three-position controller . . . . . . . . . . 48

SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 46: Control signal of a quasi-continuous controller . . . . . . . . 49
Fig. 47: Adjustment values of control parameters acc. to Ziegler/Nichols 52
56
SAMSON AG 99/10
Part 1 L102EN
57
NOTES
NOTES
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
58
SAMSON right on quality course
ISO 9001
Our quality assurance system,
approved by BVQi, guarantees a high
quality of products and services.

1999/10 L102EN

Digital Signals
1 bit
Part 1 Fundamentals
t

SAMSON AG Phone (+49 69) 4 00 94 67
Part 1 L150EN
Digital Signals
Range of values and discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Bits and bytes in hexadecimal notation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Digital encoding of information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Advantages of digital signal processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
High interference immunity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Short-time and permanent storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Flexible processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Various transmission options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Transmission of digital signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Bit-parallel transmission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
CONTENTS
Bit-serial transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

SAMSON AG 99/12
3
Fundamentals Digital Signals
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
4
Part 1 L150EN
Digital Signals
In electronic signal and information processing and transmission, digital

technology is increasingly being used because, in various applications, digi-
tal signal transmission has many advantages over analog signal transmis-
sion. Numerous and very successful applications of digital technology
include the continuously growing number of PCs, the communication net-
work ISDN as well as the increasing use of digital control stations (Direct Di-
gital Control: DDC).
Unlike analog technology which uses continuous signals, digital technology continuous or
encodes the information into discrete signal states (Fig. 1). When only two discrete signals
states are assigned per digital signal, these signals are termed binary si-
gnals. One single binary digit is termed a bit a contraction for binary digit.
Range of values and discretization
A binary signal representing only two states contains very little information digital data are compo-
compared to an analog signal. If a quantitiy to be represented digitally re- sed of several bits
quires a wider range of values, it must be described by several bits. As you (binary digits)
can see in the table in Fig. 2., the range of values increases rapidly with the
number of bits used.
continuous discrete
signal curve signal curve
Fig. 1: Analog and discrete signal curves

SAMSON AG 99/12
5
1 bit => 21 states = 2 values

2
2 bits => 2 = 4 values
4
12 bits=> 212 = 4096 values
16
16 bits=> 2 = 65536 values
20 bits=> 220 = 1048576 values
etc.
Fig. 2: Range of values of digital quantities
conversion of analog To be able to process analog quantities digitally, they have to be converted
signals into digital values first. Since an analog quantity can assume an infinite num-
ber of intermediate values and a digital quantity, on the other hand, can only
quantization error assume a limited number of values, quantization errors occur when analog
caused by A/D signals are converted into discretized, digital signals (Fig. 3). Increasing the
conversion number of bits used for digital representation and the sampling rate of the
analog signal reduces quantization errors.
signal analog signal
amplitude digital signal
1 bit
error
[Bit]

t
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 3: Quantization error caused by reduced discretization

and sampling rate
6
Part 1 L150EN
Analog measuring range: 0 to 30 cm
Range of values of an 8-bit unit: 256

Quantization error: (30/256) cm = 1.2 mm
Range of values of a 12-bit unit: 4096

Quantization error: (30/4096) cm = 0.073 mm
Fig. 4: Determining the quantization error for displacement measurement
An increasing number of bits also increases the complexity of data proces-

sing and transmission. To keep the loss of information during conversion as discretization versus
low as possible while choosing a binary representation that is not too increased complexity of
extensive, the range of values must be adapted to the particular task. processing
The example in Fig. 4 calculates the discretization of the measured displace- calculation example
ment data using 8- and 12-bit representation. A discretization of 1.2 mm
would be perfectly alright for sorting piece goods, whereas it is absolutely in-
sufficient for positioning a machine tool. To be able to work accurately in the
tenth millimeter range, a minimum range of values of 12 bits is necessary.
Bits and bytes in hexadecimal notation
Digital technology rarely operates with the smallest possible digital quantity,
but often groups 8 bits together to form a byte. So 8, 16 or 32 bit units are 8 bits = 1 byte
termed accordingly 1, 2 or 4 byte units.
The binary system with its 0s and 1s soon becomes unclear when it comes to
larger range of values, as you can see from this 2-byte variable: 01101001
00001101.
More clarity can be achieved when using the hexadecimal system. In this 16 characters for hexa-
numbering system, each character can assume 16 different values: 0 to 9 decimal notation
and A to F.
NOTE: In the decimal numbering system, a character can assume 10 diffe-

rent values, these are 0 to 9.
SAMSON AG 99/12
7
Binary Hex Binary Hex Binary Hex Binary Hex
0000 0 0100 4 1000 8 1100 C
0001 1 0101 5 1001 9 1101 D
0010 2 0110 6 1010 A 1110 E
0011 3 0111 7 1011 B 1111 F
Fig. 5: Binary and hexadecimal representation of a 4-bit unit
hexadecimal notation Fig. 5 shows that each hexadecimal number is assigned to a value of a 4-bit
improves clarity unit. Using this shorter and clearer type of representation, the 2-byte varia-
ble (4 * 4 bits) shown above is now the hexadecimal number 690D:
Binary notation: 0110 1001 0000 1101

Hexadecimal notation: 6 9 0 D
Digital encoding of information
code schemes for To be able to process data and messages digitally, they have to be encoded
information encoding into binary digits. Whether letters, texts, numbers or states (e.g. properties of
a body) are involved, each piece of information must be converted into a bi-
nary unit using an unambiguous code scheme. This process is also called
Letters, texts Signed integer Floating point Any state
Hallo -118 1.375 blue, yellow, red, ..
ASCII 2's IEEE-P 754 Fixed repre-

exp.
complement mantissa2 sentation
(16 bits) (32 bits) scheme
48 61 6C 6C 6F FF8A 3FB00000 01, 02, 03, ..

SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 6: Examples for binary encoding of information
8
Part 1 L150EN
data encoding. Effective data processing is only possible if cooperating com-

puters and programs all use the same codes.
In practice, there are many different, largely standardized types of codes for many codes have
letters, texts, numbers and states. Fig. 6 gives some of the most common code proven successful in
schemes. Such codes for characters and numbers exist, of course, also for practice
other smaller as well as wider ranges of values.
SAMSON AG 99/12
9
Advantages of digital signal processing
At first glance, digital representation and processing of (analog) information

seems extremely complex compared to analog representation. Each analog
quantity must be encoded according to a code scheme to be then described
by several binary signals. This disadvantage, however, is more than com-
pensated for by the numerous advantages digital technology offers for a
broad range of applications:
4 high interference immunity,

4 easy data storage,
4 flexible processing,
4 various transmission options.
High interference immunity
Analog information is highly liable to interference, i.e. errors are caused by

high interference even the smallest disturbance signals, whereas digitally encoded infor-
immunity mation will be distorted only when the disturbance signal is larger than the si-
gnal-to-noise ratio of the digital level used. The signal-to-noise ratio results
from the difference between the transmitting and the receiving level (Fig. 7). It
determines how strong capacitive or inductive interferences (system hum,
Signal level of a TTL-LS circuit
LOW level:
Guaranteed transmitter level: max. 0.5 volt

Guaranteed receiver level: max. 0.8 volt
Static signal-to-noise ratio: 0.3 volt
HIGH level:
Guaranteed transmitter level: min. 2.7 volt

Guaranteed receiver level: min. 2.0 volt
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Static signal-to-noise ratio: 0.7 volt
Fig. 7: Signal-to-noise ratio of a digital signal
10
Part 1 L150EN
noise, switching peaks) or voltage fluctuations can be without distorting the

digital signal. By selecting the binary information representation (see L153e)
the signal-to-noise ratio can be adjusted within broad limits to the environ-
mental conditions.
Short-time and permanent storage
Digital data can be stored very easily on a variety of often very cost-effective good storage properties
data carriers. There is the option of storing in volatile semiconductor memo-
ries (Random Access Memory: RAM), or permanently on magnetic and opti-
cal data carriers.
Flexible processing
Microprocessor-based and software-controlled data processing enables flexible

even complex algorithms to be computed in almost no time with a high de- processing
gree of flexibility.
Various transmission options
The two states of a binary signal can be encoded in many different ways, electrical, optical or
thus offering a broad spectrum of application. For data transmission over acoustical transmission
long distances, for example, optical fiber cables are used because of their
low energy consumption and high interference immunity. Binary signals can
be assigned directly to the ON/OFF states of a light signal, while analog si-
gnals can only be transmitted optically after expensive and time-consuming
linearization and intensity analysis which is liable to errors.
SAMSON AG 99/12
11
transmitter receiver
9 lines
1. 1.
2. 2.
8-bit- 3. 3. 8-bit
4. 4.
unit 5. 5.
unit
6. 6.
7. 7.
8. 8.
Fig. 8: Parallel data transmission
Transmission of digital signals
There are two ways to transmit digital data between one or several devices or
communication participants, either parallel or serial transmission.
Bit-parallel transmission
transmission via With parallel transmission, all bits of a piece of information are transmitted
several signal lines at the same time bit-parallel via an appropriate number of signal lines.
The installation costs are high and only acceptable for short distances. The
transmission of one byte alone requires a minimum of nine lines 8 bits and
a reference potential (Fig. 8). Therefore, this technique is presently almost
only used for device busses. This application over short distances requires
high transmission rates while doing without conversion methods that need a
large number of components.
Bit-serial transmission
transmission via one For long distances, serial transmission is a good solution. Here, only one si-
signal line gnal line transmits the bits one after the other. As a result, the transmission of
information takes more time, which is nevertheless acceptable because, on
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
the other hand, the installation effort and the costs are considerably reduced
(Fig. 9). Since all the information is mostly generated and processed in
bit-parallel mode, the transmitter must convert the data from parallel to seri-
al, and the receiver must reconvert it from serial to parallel. This function is
12
Part 1 L150EN
2 lines
1. 8.
2. 7.
3. 6.
4. 5.
8-bit unit
8-bit unit
5. 4.
6. 3.
7.
8,7,6,5,
2.
8. 4,3,2,1 1.
8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1.
Fig. 9: Serial data transmission
performed by specially operated shift registers which are already integrated

in communication modules available on the market.
SAMSON AG 99/12
13
Appendix A1:
[1] L153EN: Serial Data Transmission
Technical Information; SAMSON AG
[2] L155EN: Networked Communications

[3] L450EN: Communication in the Field

[4] L452EN: HART-Communication

[6] L453EN: PROFIBUS PA

[7] L454EN: FOUNDATION Fieldbus

APPENDIX
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
14
Part 1 L150EN
Figures
Fig. 1: Analog and discrete signal curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Fig. 2: Range of values of digital quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Fig. 3: Quantization error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Fig. 4: Determining the quantization error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Fig. 5: Binary and hexadecimal representation of a 4-bit unit . . . . . 8
Fig. 6: Examples for binary encoding of information. . . . . . . . . . 8
Fig. 7: Signal-to-noise ratio of a digital signal . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fig. 8: Parallel data transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 9: Serial data transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
FIGURES
SAMSON AG 99/12
15
1999/12 L150EN

Serial Data Transmission
1
RS 485 RS 485
device device
A/
B/+
buscable:
max. 500m device
RS 485 connection:
Part 1 Fundamentals
device max. 5 m

SAMSON AG Phone (+49 69) 4 00 94 67
Part 1 L153 EN
Serial Data Transmission
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Characteristics of a transmission system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Direction of data flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Point-to-point connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Communications networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Data transmission speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Transmission medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Electric lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Fiber optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Wireless data transmission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
CONTENTS
Binary coding of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
NRZ and RZ format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Manchester coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Amplitude and FSK coding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Transmission techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Synchronous transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Asynchronous transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Communications control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Characteristics of a typical two-wire communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Error detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
SAMSON AG 99/12
Transmission standards interface specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
RS 232 or V.24 interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3
Fundamentals Serial Data Transmission
RS 422 interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
RS 485 interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
IEC 61158-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Bell 202 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Networks for long-distance data transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Power supply network (Powerline). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Telephone network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
ISDN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Appendix A1: Additional Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

CONTENTS
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
4
Part 1 L153 EN
Introduction
Serial transmission technology is increasingly used for the transmission of di-

gital data. A large number of up-to-date communications networks apply se-
rial transmission. The numerous applications include computer networks for numerous applications
office communications, fieldbus systems in process, building and manufactu-
ring automation, Internet and, finally, ISDN.
Serial data transmission implies that one bit is sent after another (bit-serial)
on a single transmission line. Since the microprocessors in the devices pro- transmission over a
cess data in bit-parallel mode, the transmitter performs parallel-to-serial single line
conversion, while the receiver performs serial-to-parallel conversion (Fig. 1).
This is done by special transmitter and receiver modules which are commer-
cially available for different types of networks.
Extremely high data rates are possible today so that the increased time con-
sumption required by this technology is accepted in most cases. The reduc-
tions in costs and installation effort as well as user-friendliness, on the other high data rates at low
hand, are points not only for locally extended systems in favor of serial costs
data transmission.
2 lines
1. 8.
2. 7.
3. 6.
8-bit unit
8-bit unit
4. 5.
5. 4.
6. 3.
7.
8,7,6,5,
2.
8. 4,3,2,1 1.
simple two-wire line for
8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1.
bit-serial data
transmission
Fig. 1: Serial data transmission

SAMSON AG 99/12
5
Characteristics of a transmission system
Serial data transmission is suitable for communication between two partici-

direction, throughput, pants as well as between several participants. Characteristic features of a
data rate transmission system are the direction of the data flow and the data through-
put, or the maximum possible data rate.
Direction of data flow
Transmission systems differ as to the direction in which the data flow and
when messages can be transmitted. Basically, there are three different ways
of communication (Fig. 2).
e.g. radio relay system 4 simplex: data exchange in only one direction,
telex and field networks 4 half-duplex: the stations take turns to transmit data and
telephone network 4 full-duplex: data can be exchanged in both directions simultaneously
Point-to-point connection
In two-point or point-to-point connections, the receiver and transmitter lines

can be connected via two separate lines (Fig. 3: two anti-parallel simplex
data transmission in channels), the receiving line of one participant is the transmitting line for the
point-to-point systems other one. The communication in such two-point systems can be controlled
either by software or via control lines (see page 25).
unidirectional
transmission
simplex A B
one transmission
at a time
A, B: half-duplex A B
communication bidirectional
transmission
participants full-duplex A B
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 2: Different communication techniques
6
Part 1 L153 EN
transmitting transmitting
receiving receiving
participant A participant B
Fig. 3: Point-to-point connection between two participants
Communications networks
In communications networks with several participants, the transmission me-

dium often is a single line being used for transmitting and receiving data at networked communic-
the same time (Fig. 4). All devices are connected in the same manner, which ation via common
is often a stub line. The sequence of communication is coordinated by addi- transmission medium
tionally transmitted control data which are defined in the so-called transmis-
sion protocol. These control data help identify the user data as well as the
source and the destination address upon each message transmission.
Data transmission speed
An essential criterion for determining the capacity of communication lines is

the data rate, i.e. the speed at which the data can be transmitted. The data BPS, kbit/s
rate is characterized by the number of bits transmitted each second, measu- and Mbit/s
C transmitting and
A receiving over the
same line
D
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 4: Communications network with several participants
7
red in bps, bits per second. As data rates are extremly high nowadays, such
units as kilobit per second; kbit/s and megabit per second; Mbit/s are
not unusual.
When each bit is encoded and transmitted individually, the transmission line
must be able to transmit frequencies that correspond to half of the bit trans-
mission rate :
bit transmission rate: 100 kbit/s

transmission frequency: 50 kHz
When it is necessary to achieve a high data rate, even though the transmis-
encoding increases sion bandwidth is limited, several bits can be grouped and encoded to-
information density gether. Fig. 5 shows how four different states (voltage levels) can be used to
transmit two bits at a time. This method cuts the state changes in the signal
line by half and, therefore, reduces the transmission frequency.
To measure the switching speed, i.e. the number of voltage or frequency

definition of Baud rate changes per unit of time, the so-called Baud rate is used. When only one
bit is transmitted per transmission unit, the Baud rate [Baud] is identical to the
data rate bit per second [bps].
bits level [volt] U

00 0V
01 5V 15V
10 10 V
11 15 V 10V
5V
data: 00 10 01 11 01 11 10 00
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 5: More complex encoding reduces transmission frequency
8
Part 1 L153 EN
The capacity of a communication line cannot sufficiently be defined by the

data rate alone. The following parameters especially for networks with sev-
eral participants are important as well:
4 time period until the line is ready for transmission and

4 the number of data to be transmitted in addition to the proper message,
such as device address, control information, and so on (see also Lit./2/).
SAMSON AG 99/12
9
Transmission medium
Signal transmission
electric optical radio
current loop fiber infrared re- short or

(U,I,F, signal) optics mote transm. long waves
{
{
wired wireless
Fig. 6: Media for serial data transmission
For serial data transmission, quite different transmission media are avail-
able. The signals are transmitted either electrically, as light pulses or via ra-
dio waves. When selecting which medium is suitable, several factors should
be kept in mind:
selection criteria 4 costs and installation effort,

4 transmission safety susceptibility to tapping, interference susceptibility,
error probability, etc.
4 maximum data rate,

4 distances and topological position of the participants, etc.
No medium has all the optimum properties so that the signals are more or
good signal quality and less attenuated with increasing distance. To achieve high data rates, the
low interference suscep- transmission medium must fulfill specific requirements.
tibility are desired Another negative effect is the risk of data being corrupted by interference
signals.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
To compare the characteristics of the various transmission media, a differ-

ence should be made between wired and wireless transmission systems (Fig.
6). Some of the typical characteristics of wired media are listed in the Table
in Fig. 7.
10
Part 1 L153 EN
type two-wire line coaxial cable optical fiber
design
preparation, very simple simple complex

installation
installation very good good good, limited

properties bending radius
interference high, if not low almost

susceptibility shielded non-existent
Fig. 7: Properties of wired transmission media
Electric lines
A great advantage of electric lines is their simple and cost-effective prepara- convenient handling
tion (cutting to length and termination). However, there are some disadvan-
tages which include the attenuation of signals and interference susceptibility.
These drawbacks are not only influenced by the type of cable used
twisted-pair, coaxial, etc. but also by the interface specification (data for-
mat, level, etc., see page 31f.).
To be able to determine the electric properties of a cable, the line is described transmission behavior
as a sequence of sub-networks consisting of resistors, capacitors, and of electric lines
inductors (Fig. 8). While the resistors change the static signal level, capaci-
tors and inductors create low passes which have a negative effect on the
R L
Us G C UE
Us UE
SAMSON AG 99/12
t1 t2 t t1 t2 t
Fig. 8: Equivalent circuit diagram of a transmission cable
11
data rate [kbit/s] 9.6 187.5 500 1500 12 000
segment length[m] 1200 1000 400 200 100
Fig. 9: Line length dependent on the data rate (example: RS 485 standard)
edge steepness. The cable must therefore be selected to meet the following
criteria:
attenuation and signal 4 The line resistance must be low enough so that a sufficiently high signal
distortion cause amplitude can be guaranteed on the receiver side.
interferences
4 The cable capacitances and inductances must not distort the signal edges
to an extent that the original information is lost.
Both criteria are influenced by the electric line parameters and the influence
increases with the length of the line as well as with the number of participants
connected. As a result, each cable type is limited in its line length and maxi-
mum number of participants.
The higher the signal frequency, the stronger the effect the capacitances and
inductances have on the signal. An increasing transmission frequency has
therefore a limiting effect on the maximum line length. Fig. 9 illustrates this
relationship referring to the RS 485 interface specification (see also
page 35).
To limit the signal distortion occurring in long-distance lines and at high data
rates, such applications frequently use low-inductance and low-capacitance
cables, e.g. Ethernet with coaxial cable.
interference caused by Signals transmitted over electric lines are subject to yet another phenome-
line reflection non, which is important to be aware of when installing a line. The electric
properties of a line can be influenced by
4 changing the cable type,

4 branching the cable,
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
4 connecting devices or
4 a line that is not terminated at the beginning or at the end.
12
Part 1 L153 EN
This causes so-called line reflections. The term means that transient reactions
take place on the line, that are caused by the finite signal propagation speed.
Since transient reactions distort the signal levels, a signal can only be read
accurately, when
4 the transient reactions have largely died out or avoiding transient

reactions
4 the effects of the transient reactions are small.
These reactions need not be considered when the lines are very short or the
signal edges are not too high. This is the case when the duration of the signal
edge is longer than the time the signal needs to be transmitted and returned.
To enable the use of long lines even for high data rates, the formation of line terminating resistors
reflections must be prevented. This is achieved when the electric properties reduce line reflections
remain constant across the entire line. The line properties must be imitated as
precisely as possible at the beginning and at the end of the line by connect-
ing a terminating resistor.
The line properties are described by means of the so-called characteristic

wave impedance of the cable. Typical values for the characteristic wave im-
pedance and, hence, the terminating resistor are as follows:
4 twisted-pair line: 100 to 150 ohms
4 coaxial cable (RG 58): 50 ohms
a) twisted two-wire line

+5V
b) RS 485 standard
a) b) 390 c)
c) IEC 61158-2
100
UE 120 UE UE
220
1 F
390
SAMSON AG 99/12
GND
Fig. 10: Terminating resistors for different lines
13
Fig. shows different line terminating resistors. Line termination according to

the RS 485 specification (example b) includes two additional resistors defin-
ing the potential of the line when none of the participants are active.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
14
Part 1 L153 EN
Fiber optics
An optical fiber consists of a light-transmitting core fiber embedded in a

glass cladding and an external plastic cladding. When light hits the bound-
ary layer in a small angle of incidence, the different densities of the core and low-attenuation
the glass cladding cause total reflection (see also Fig. 12a). The light beam is transmission due to
reflected almost free of any loss and transmitted within the core fiber only. total reflection
The diameter of an optical fiber is approx. 0.1 mm. Depending on the ver-
sion, the diameter of the light-transmitting core lies between 9 m and 60 m
(Fig. 11). Usually, several up to a thousand of such fibers and a strain re-
lief are grouped into a cable.
The light signals are usually supplied to the fiber via a laser LED and ana-
lyzed by photo-sensitive semiconductors on the receiver side. Since signals
transmitted in optical fibers are resistant to electromagnetic interferences and large distances and
only slightly attenuated, this medium can be used to cover extremely long high interference
distances and achieve high data rates. The advantages of optical data trans- immunity
mission are summarized in the following:
4 suitable for extremely high data rates and very long distances, advantages of fiber
optics
4 resistant to electromagnetic interference,
4 no electromagnetic radiation,
4 suitable for hazardous environments and
4 electrical isolation between the transmitter and receiver stations
~ 60 m multimode
fiber
plastic cladding glass cladding core
~ 9 m monomode
fiber
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 11: Design of a multimode and monomode optical fiber
15
a) multimode r
step index fiber
a)
b) multimode n
graded-index fiber
r
c) monomode fiber
b)
n
r
c)
n
Fig. 12: Profiles and refractive indices of optical fibers
Like electric pulses, light pulses are increasingly attenuated when transmitted
over a long distance. This is caused by the following phenomena:
origins of pulse 4 The light covers varying distances within the cable (different propagation
distortion times see Fig. 12).
4 Light with different wave lengths (color) propagates at different rates in the
fiber dispersion.
For high data rates and large transmission distances, excellent repeat accu-
racy of the light pulses during transmission is mandatory. Therefore, the opti-
mum transmitter should be a light source with a spectral bandwidth (laser)
that is as small as possible and with extremely small core fibers. Two different
fiber types are available, multimode and monomode fibers (see Figs. 11 and
12).
monomode fiber meets Monomode fibers help achieve the best pulse repeat accuracy. The core di-
highest requirements ameter of these fibers is so small that only the paraxial light beam (mode 0)
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
can be formed. The small diameter, however, requires particularly high pre-
cision when the light beam is supplied to the fiber.
16
Part 1 L153 EN
If multimode fibers with a larger diameter are used, the number of possible multimode fiber with
propagation paths increases and, hence, the distortion of the pulses. How- step index or
ever, this effect can be reduced by using specially manufactured fibers. These grade index profile
special fibers do not have a step index profile, i.e. a constant refractive in-
dex, but a so-called grade index profile. In this case, the refractive index of
the core increases with the radius. The propagation rate which changes with
the refractive index largely compensates for the different propagation times
in the core, thus enabling higher pulse accuracy.
The handling of optical fibers, i.e. cutting to length and termination, as well high costs limit
as coupling and decoupling of optical signals is comparably complex and application
therefore expensive. These are the reasons why fiber optics are only used
when great distances must be covered at high data rates, or else when spe-
cial EMC measures must be taken.
SAMSON AG 99/12
17
Wireless data transmission
Wireless transmission in communications systems is well-suited to extremely

to freely communicate long distances (radio relay systems, satellite technology, etc.) and remote-
controlled and/or mobile applications.
... in sight When the participants communicate while in sight of each other and when
the distances to be covered are small and the data rates low, the comparably
simple optical transmission via infrared radiation can be used successfully.
over the globe Radio-based communication can be used for a lot more applications. In ev-
eryday life, mobile phones are a good example of the widespread use of ra-
dio-based communication. Radio communications extend not only to the
field of telecommunications. There are also other communications networks
such as field and automation networks which use this technology. In the
latter case, we speak of radio LAN or wireless LAN (WLAN).
telecommunication link Wireless communication is usually combined with wired communication.

to extend The connection of automation networks over large distances or remote con-
automation systems trol often includes telecommunications (see Fig. 13).
The great variety of radio communications makes it almost impossible to give

a general list of characteristic features. The transmission and interference be-
havior strongly depends on the frequency and capacity range used and also
on the modulation technique.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 13: Connection of networks via satellite telecommunication link
18
Part 1 L153 EN
appr
ox. 3
0m
2.4 GHz-ISM band

with up to two Mbit/s
Fig. 14: Simple WLAN for use in the domestic field and industry
The standard for wireless communication IEEE 802.11 determines a

2.4-GHz-ISM band for the radio-based network. The electromagnetic radia- applications of the ISM
tion of this frequency penetrates solid matter, such as walls, windows, etc., band: Industrial, Scien-
enabling the devices to be arranged in any position. tific, Medical
Presently, the standard specifies data rates only up to two Mbit/s. However,
improved modulation techniques or extended frequency bands are sup-
posed to help achieve and fix higher data rates ranging from 10 to 20
Mbit/s.
The transmission distances of a WLAN are influenced by a number of fac-

tors. Aligned directional antennas help cover several kilometers, while
non-directional radiation in the house reaches only approx. 30 meters (Fig.
14). Metal shields, interference sources, undesired reflections, etc. some-
times locally limited (areas not reached by the radio waves) can reduce the origins of radio
achievable data rate considerably. When the communications protocol de- transmission failures
tects transmission errors, data can be retransmitted so that undisturbed com- within a cell
munication is still possible in these cases on the user level , however, slower.
SAMSON AG 99/12
19
Binary coding of data
The transmission medium determines whether the data are transmitted elec-
trically, optically or via radio signals. However, it is not defined how the two
binary states (0 and 1) are distinguished.
Depending on how the 0s and 1s are assigned to the states low and
high, we speak of
positive or negative 4 positive logic: 0 low, 1 high or

logic
4 negative logic: 0 high, 1 low.
The transmission medium represents the states high and low in a certain
manner, which is the so-called format of the data. The following variables
can be analyzed:
coding technique 4 amplitude values

4 edges (level changes),
4 phase relationships or
4 frequencies.
specific characteristics Depending on the application, it is sometimes desired or even required that
are also possible the format provides certain characteristics:
4 With synchronous data transmission (see page 24), the clock pulse rate of
the transmitter must also be transmitted to the receiver. To save an addi-
tional line for transmitting the clock, a self-clocking format can be used.
with clock pulse With this format, the receiver can derive the clock pulse rate directly from
the data flow.
When electric lines are used for data transmission, additional conditions
must often be fulfilled:
4 A format without mean values can be superimposed onto another signal

and few without influencing its direct component. In this way, data can be transmit-
side effects ted over energy supply lines or lines with slowly changing analog signals
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
(e.g. 4 to 20 mA current loop). Another asset is that such codings enable

simple electrical isolation of network segments via transformers.
20
Part 1 L153 EN
data
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
(serial)
Non-Return-
to-Zero
Return-
to-Zero
Fig. 15: NRZ and RZ coding with positive logic
4 When good electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is required, the noise ra- good EMC behavior
diation of the electric transmission medium must be kept low. It is low when
the frequency of the data flow is low or when sine-wave pulses are used
for the coding instead of square-wave pulses.
NRZ and RZ format
A widespread format for data transmission is the NRZ-format (Fig. 15: Non-Return-to-Zero
Non-Return-to-Zero). Each bit is represented by a square-wave pulse whose
duration is predetermined by the Baud rate. Pulse indicates the high state,
while zero pulse represents the low state.
With the RZ-format (Fig.15: Return-to-Zero), the pulses last only for a half bit Return-to-Zero
period, thus enabling a switch back to the reference potential when still in
high state.
Both formats are neither self-clocking (no clock information in the low state)
nor without mean values (mean value changes dependent on the bit se-
quence).
Manchester coding
The characteristic feature of Manchester coding is that the bit information is phase coding
SAMSON AG 99/12
included in the phase angle of the signal. A rising edge occuring in the mid-
dle of the bit time indicates high state, while a trailing edge stands for low
state. Since the receiver can determine the clock pulse rate of the transmitter
21
data
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
(serial)
phase-
encoded
Fig. 16: Manchester coding
from the duration of the signal period, this coding is self-clocking (Fig. 16). If
a bipolar signal (e.g. +/- 5 volts) is used for the levels of the Manchester cod-
ing, the mean value of the data signal equals zero, i.e. this bit code has no
mean values.
Amplitude and FSK coding
encoding via sine-wave Instead of digital square-wave pulses, sine-wave signals can also be used for
signals encoding data signals by modulating their amplitude, frequency and phase.
amplitude modulation Amplitude modulation (Fig. 17 middle) is accomplished by assigning two

different amplitude values to the states low and high. As is the case for
square-wave pulses, large amplitude differences ensure better interference
immunity, however, power consumption increases proportionally. Ana-
lyzing amplitude-modulated signals could become difficult because espe-
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 data
(serial)
amplitude-
moduled
frequency-
modulated
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 17: Encoding by means of amplitude and frequency modulation
22
Part 1 L153 EN
cially over large distance the signal amplitude changes while being passed
on across the network.
The FSK method (Frequency Shift Keying) uses varying frequencies to distin- frequency modulation
guish the binary states (Fig. 17 bottom). As this method largely operates in- less susceptible to
dependent of the level, high interference immunity is guaranteed even when interferences
signals are attenuated and loads are changing.
Of course, the transmission medium must be able to transmit the frequencies
that are used for encoding the signals.
In amplitude or frequency modulation, sine-wave signals are used because advantages of

their signal spectrum does not include harmonic waves. So it is easier to com- sine-wave signals
ply with specifications concerning Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC).
Superimposition with other signals containing direct components is also pos-
sible because the mean value of time of sine-wave signals equals zero,
hence, the coding has no mean values.
SAMSON AG 99/12
23
Transmission techniques
During digital transmission, a message packet is sent as bit data flow over
the signal line. From the receivers point of view, such a bit data flow looks
like a sequence of pulses varying in length. To reconvert the pulse sequence
how does the into the original digital state, the receiver must know when the transmitted
receiver recognize signals are valid, i.e. when they represent a bit and when not. To accomplish
bits and bytes this, the transmitter and the receiver must be synchronized during transmis-
sion. The different data transmission methods solve this task either by
4 providing clock-synchronous data transmission or

4 performing asynchronous, time-controlled sampling.
Synchronous transmission
clock transmission sim- In synchronous transmission, the signals on the data lines are valid whenever
plifies data acquisition a clock signal, which is used by both stations, assumes a certain predefined
state (e.g. edge triggering as shown in Fig. 18). The clock signal must either
be transmitted separately on an additional line or can be derived from the
data signal, as explained in the chapter Binary coding of data.
clock
signal
value 0 1 1 0 0 1
Fig. 18: Synchronous signal sampling with positive edges

SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
24
Part 1 L153 EN
start bit
stop bit
parity
8 data bits
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
Fig. 19: Asynchronous transmission using the UART character

(universal asynchronous receiver transmitter)
Asynchronous transmission
In asynchronous transmission, no clock signal is transmitted. Even when the clock synchronism is
receiver and the transmitter use the same frequency, the slightest difference required
can stop them running synchronously.
This can be avoided when the receiver synchronizes with the transmitter fre-
quency in intervals that should be as short as possible. Synchronization takes
place at the beginning of each character that is marked with an additional UART: Universal Asyn-
start and stop bit. A so-called UART character, which is defined by the Ger- chronous Receiver and
man standard DIN 66022/66203, is used for this purpose (see Fig. 19). Transmitter
Beginning with the first signal edge of the start bit, the receiver synchronizes synchronization begins
its internal clock with that of the receiving data. The following bits are sam- with the start bit
pled in the middle of the bit time. After the seven or eight data bits, a parity
bit is appended for error detection and one or two stop bits to mark the end.
The message is only accepted when the parity bit as well as the polarity of the
stop bit comply with the format defaults.
Since the receiver resynchronizes constantly, the time consistency of the clock
frequency between the transmitter and the receiver need not be high.
Communications control
Synchronous or asynchronous transmission provide the basis for the receiver

to read the bits and bytes correctly. However, there is no check whether the ready for communica-
receiver is ready for data reception at all. tion
SAMSON AG 99/12
To coordinate the data transmission in this respect, an additional control is

necessary. This can be achieved by implementing software or installing ad- coordination with
ditional control or handshaking lines. In both cases, the receiver must signal- control data or signals
25
data transmission with transmitter receiver

data
handshaking
control line
RTS
data 1 2
RTS
Fig. 20: Hardware handshaking: RTS demands interruption of data

transmission between block 1 and 2
ize its readiness for data reception to the transmitter prior to data
transmission.
Software handshaking requires a bidirectional communication line to be in-

stalled between the transmitter and the receiver. To stop the data flow or for-
software handshaking ward it again, the receiver sends special command bytes to the transmitter.
using XON/XOFF Frequently, the reserved special characters XOFF and XON are used for this
purpose.
Using hardware handshaking, data transmission must be controlled via ad-

control lines for ditional control lines. Fig. 20 illustrates such a handshaking procedure with
hardware handshaking the control signal RTS Request To Send as an example:
4 The condition RTS = 1 signifies that the device is ready to receive data. If
the receiver becomes overloaded with too much data and the receiving
data buffer risks to overflow, the device will cancel the RTS signal. Then,
the transmitter stops sending data and resumes transmission only when
the RTS signal is released again.
Hardware handshaking is not restricted to point-to-point connections, as

SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
shown here. Special measures (wired-OR and wired-AND logic) can be taken
to coordinate communication between several participants as well.
26
Part 1 L153 EN
Characteristics of a typical two-wire communication
For applications in which devices communicate over great distances, simple

and cost-effective wiring is a decisive selection criterion. Therefore, a trans- minimizing the amount
mission technique will be chosen that omits additional clock and/or control of instruments
lines, as provided by the following:
4 asynchronous transmission in which the receiver synchronizes through the

start and stop bits
4 synchronous transmission in which the format transmits clock information

together with the data over the same line
Additionally,
4 the communication sequence (who sends when?) must be either predeter-

mined or
4 controlled through software via suitable commands (software handshak-

ing).
Most communications networks, whether WAN or LAN either in the field,

automation or control level operate according to these specifications
(Fig. 21).
Typical interface specification for communications networks
two-wire line
asynchronous transmission using UART characters
application-oriented format:
simple: NRZ
without mean values: Manchester
good EMC: FSK
protocol- or time-controlled communication sequence:

XON/XOFF
cyclic, time-controlled polling,
telegram-controlled, etc.
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 21: Example of an interface specification
27
Error detection
With any transmission technique, whether synchronous or asynchronous

transmission, with or without handshaking lines, incorrect transmission of in-
dividual bits could occur, i.e. the receiver reads 1 instead of 0 or 0 instead
of 1. Although, the probability of accurate data transmission can be in-
creased by technical means, it is nevertheless possible that errors may be
caused by electromagnetic interference, increase in potential and aging of
the components.
detecting errors and To ensure correct data transmission, several error-detection techniques are
reacting adequately available. How the system reacts to errors depends on the type of system and
can be solved in many different ways. One possible reaction is to correct the
error. Error correction, however, can only be accomplished when the coding
is sufficiently complex (lots of bits). In network communications, the errone-
ous message is simply requested once more (or acknowledged as invalid
data), with the hope that the message will be retransmitted accurately.
parity checking The different techniques used to detect transmission errors each perform
checking on a different level. On the character level, the parity-checking
method is frequently used (Fig. 22). The EVEN parity method requires the
number of 1s of a unit including the parity bit to be always even,
whereas the ODD parity technique checks for an odd number of bits. Since
two errors cancel each other out, this method is able to detect only one (bit)
error with certainty.
EVEN parity sum of all 1s must be even
data bits: parity bit 1s
0110 1100 0 4
0110 1101 1 6
ODD parity sum of all 1s must be odd
data bits: parity bit 1s
0110 1100 1 5
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0110 1101 0 5
Fig. 22: Error detection through additional parity bit
28
Part 1 L153 EN
A measure for the interference immunity of a transmission is the Hamming Hamming distance
distance (HD). It is calculated by determining the number of errors which can
still be detected:
Hamming distance = number of detectable errors plus 1

HD = e+1
Fig. 23: Calculation of the Hamming distance
With the parity checking method, the Hamming distance is therefore HD=2.
Parity checking is not only used on single characters, but also checks entire block checking with
blocks of characters. Apart from the parity checking of single characters, the longitudinal parity
so-called longitudinal parity is formed. After a block of, e.g. 7 characters, an
eigth character which is formed by the parity bits of the preceded bit columns
is transmitted (Fig. 24). The Hamming distance of this checking technique is
HD=4 while the probability of detecting extended or multiple errors is high.
Another widespread method for checking data, which is suitable for larger error detection
character strings, is the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). The message is in- through CRC
terpreted independent of its length as binary number, which is then divided
by a specific generator polynominal. Only the proper message and the re- transmission of data
mainder of the division are transmitted to the receiver. Transmission was ac- and remainder of divi-
curate when the received data can be divided by the same polynominal sion
data bits: character parity
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
longitudinal
SAMSON AG 99/12
parity: 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
Fig. 24: Block checking via longitudinal even parity
29
without leaving a remainder. The number of detectable errors depends on

the polynominal used. The polynominal value 345 (DIN 19244), for exam-
ple, helps achieve a Hamming distance of HD=4, signifying that up to three
errors can be detected with certainty.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
30
Part 1 L153 EN
Transmission standards interface specifications
The various coding techniques (NRZ, Manchester, etc.) define how the bi-
nary states are represented, i.e. how the signal states change during the
transmission of a serial bit flow. However, associated level and frequency
specifications, possible data rates, permissible line lengths, control lines and
so on, are not yet defined.
These specifications are frequently adopted by mostly internationally stan- precise specification of
dardized transmission standards. In the field of telecommunications, many an interface:
interface specifications have been defined by the ITU (International Telecom- version, principle of
munication Union) or adopted from other standards. Some of these stan- operation, parameters
dards which are frequently used for computer and control applications will
be introduced briefly. For further information, please refer to the relevant
specification sheets.
RS 232 or V.24 interface
Point-to-point connections between two devices usually apply the RS 232 in- RS 232 for two-point
terface. The complete specification for four-wire full-duplex transmission as connections
well as definitions for the handshaking lines are presented in the US standard
RS 232C, or in the almost identical international standard ITU-T V.24.
Data and control signals are transmitted differently by the RS 232 interface:
4 data in negative logic (0: high; 1: low) level definitions
4 control signals in positive logic (1: high; 0: low)

As a result, the voltage values for the data bits and the control signals are op-
posed to each other:
data control signal level voltage range
0 1 high +3 to +15 volts

1 0 low -3 to -15 volts
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 25: Level of RS 232 for data and control signals
31
level of data bits
data +15V +15V
line "0" "0"

+5V
+3V
UA
5V 3V
ground "1" "1"

15V 15V
transmitter signal receiver signal

assignment assignment
UA UA
Fig. 26: RS 232 transmitter and receiver level
Since the signal levels refer to ground (Fig. 26), this signal is termed
unbalanced unbalanced to ground. With this signal transmission technique, compen-
transmission technique sating currents risk being formed since ground loops are generated when
there is no electrical isolation. Therefore and also because the susceptibility
to errors is growing with increasing line lengths, maximum line lengths
should not exceed 15 meters (for low-capacitance cables 50 meters).
Data are transmitted asynchronously by the RS 232, and the UART character
is used (Fig. 19). The transmitter and the receiver must be configured to have
the same transmission parameters. Adjustments to be made are:
parameterization of the 4 Baud rate (between 50 and 19.2 kbit),

UART characters
4 parity (without, even or odd parity) and
4 number of stop bits (1, 1.5 or 2).
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
32
Part 1 L153 EN
Tx + Rx +
Tx Rx
device A device B
Rx + Tx +
Rx Tx
2 simplex channels
Fig. 27: 4-wire full-duplex connection with RS 422 wiring
RS 422 interface
The RS 422 interface is particularly suitable for fast serial data transmission fast, also over long
over long distances. Within a transmission facility, maximum ten RS 422 re- distances
ceivers may be connected in parallel to one transmitter.
For short lines, a maximum data rate up to 10 Mbit/s is allowed, whereas for
lines up to 1200 m, the data rate is limited to 100 kbit/s. The RS 422 can be
implemented as 2-wire simplex or as 4-wire full-duplex interface. Upon in- simplex or full-duplex
stallation, the transmitter outputs (Tx) must be connected while observing
the polarity to the receiver inputs (Rx) (see Fig. 27).
The RS 422 interface is balanced to ground because the logic states are re- balanced signal
presented by a differential voltage applied between the two associated lines transmission
A and B. The considerable advantage of balanced data transmission is that
externally coupled-in noise signals cause exactly the same interference am-
noise UA,UB UAB

signal
B
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 28: Noise-resistant balanced transmission technique
33
noise-resistant plitudes on both lines. The useful signal the differential voltage UAB is the-
transmission technique refore not affected (Fig. 28).
To prevent the formation of compensating currents between several partici-

electrical isolation pants and protect the receiver modules from increases in potential,
protects interface optocouplers should be used to provide electrical isolation.
The specification distinguishes between the transmitter and the receiver sig-
level definitions nal assignment (Fig. 29), while the transmitter levels must be guaranteed up
for load to a load of 54 ohms. This high load is produced when the lines are termi-
nated at both ends with their characteristic wave impedance. This is neces-
sary when data are transmitted at high speed over great distances (see
section: Transmission medium Electric lines).
level of data bits
data +12 V
line A
+5 V
UAB +1.5 V +0.2 V
1.5 V 0.2 V
data 5 V 7 V
line B
transmitter signal receiver signal

assignment assignment
UAB UAB
Fig. 29: Signal level of balanced RS 422 interface

SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
34
Part 1 L153 EN
RS 485 interface
The electrical specifications and the wiring regulations of RS 485 largely cor-
respond with the RS-422 standard (see page 33f). Additionally, RS 485
enables bidirectional bus communication between up to 32 participants. So RS 485 for networked
this interface is frequently used for multi-point connections in field networks. links
RS 485 can be designed as 2-wire bus or 4-wire full-duplex interface (see two variants
Figs. 30 and 31). The two-wire bus is only half-duplex capable as only one
participant is allowed to transmit at a time. If several transmitters use a single
line, a protocol must ensure that only one transmitter is active at a time. In the transmission protocol
meantime, the other transmitters must release the line by switching their out- coordinates
puts in high-resistance condition. transmission rights
The permissible line length decreases with increasing data rate. The table in
Fig. 9 lists the permissible line lengths for data rates from 9.6 to 12,000
kbit/s. High data rates require termination of the lines (see also page 13: line termination
Fig. 10b). Two additional resistors serving as voltage divider define the po- required
tential of the lines when none of the participants are active.
As is the case for RS 422, the 4-wire interface differentiates between the
transmitter outputs (Tx) and the receiver inputs. Only participants whose Tx 4-wire connection for
outputs and Rx inputs are mutually connected can establish communication master/slave
with each other. The participants in the bus system below (Fig. 31) can there- communication
RS 485 RS 485
device device
A/
B/+
bus cable: device

max. 500m RS 485
connection:
device
max. 5 m
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 30: Two-wire bus with terminations (RS 485 interface)
35
fore not communicate with one another, only the master is able to communi-
cate with its slaves and vice versa.
RS 485 bus cable:

master max. 500m
T+ T- R+ R-
T- T+ R- R+ T- T+ R- R+
RS 485 RS 485
slave slave
Fig. 31: 4-wire connection with RS 485 interface

(master/slave communication)
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
36
Part 1 L153 EN
IEC 61158-2
Efforts have been undertaken to define an international fieldbus specification

which led to the IEC 61158-2 specification for bus physics. This specification
determines the cable design, the data coding as well as the electric parame-
ters of transmission.
Here, fiber optic cables providing different data rates are approved as
transmission media. Wired transmission includes four variants: four wired variants
4 voltage mode using 31.25 kbit/s; 1.0 Mbit/s and 2.5 Mbit/s
4 current mode using 1.0 Mbit/s
Data transmission in voltage mode running at 31.25 kbit/s is preferably for bus supply and
used in process automation because it is suitable for intrinsically-safe com- intrinsic safety:
munications systems and bus supply (two-wire devices). The coding used for 31.25 kbit/s voltage
data transmission is the Manchester coding which is self-clocking and with- mode
out mean values. The power supply is modulated by an amplitude of 9 mA
(Fig. 32). Explosion-protection for such systems, however, must be explicitly
approved while observing yet further aspects (example: FISCO model; see
Technical Information L450 EN).
The bus cable, a twisted preferably shielded two-wire line, must be termi- shielded twisted-pair
nated at both ends. Depending on the cable version (shielded or unshielded) line up to 1900 m
and the capacity (cable capacity, attenuation, etc.), a total length of up to
1900 m is permissible.
bits:
Bits: 0 1 0 0 1
IB +lB9+9
mAmA
B10 mA
IB (l 10 mA)
t
IB -l 99
mAmA
B
11 bit
Bit
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 32: IEC 61158-2 with Manchester coding using 9 mA
37
Bell 202
standard from Bell 202 is a US standard for asynchronous data transmission via the tele-
telecommunications phone network established by AT&T (American Telephone and Telegraph).
The standard defines a 4-wire full-duplex line providing 1800 bit/s as well
as a 2-wire half-duplex line ensuring a data rate of 1200 bit/s.
The modulation technique used is the FSK coding, i.e. the binary states are
encoded by alternating currents. In half-duplex operation, the following fre-
quencies are used:
frequencies in logical 1": 1200 Hz

half-duplex logical 0": 2200 Hz
transmission
Coding is performed in the form of sine waves, hence, Bell 202 transmission
is without mean values and independent of the signal polarity (Fig. 33). As
the total harmonic content is low, the spectrum provides favorable EMC be-
havior.
+0.5 mA
-0.5 mA
1200 Hz 2200 Hz
"1" "0"
Fig. 33: FSK-coded data transmission based on Bell 202 (half-duplex)

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Part 1 L153 EN
Networks for long-distance data transmission
When data must be transmitted over long distances, it is often practical not to
install completely new transmission lines, but to make use of the already ex- using existing
isting network. Networks, such as the energy supply network, cable-TV net- communications
works, the telephone network, ISDN and the Internet are well-suited to serve networks
this purpose.
Power supply network (Powerline)
Data transmission over the power supply network is particularly interesting

because this network extends into every single house, and even into every
single room. In the future, this medium is intended to be used for voice as well networks even
as online communications. extending into rooms
Powerline operates on the low-voltage level (see Fig. 34). It is important to

note that only the participants connected to the same segment can
communicate directly. Further subdivision of the network is provided by the great number of sub-
three phases which are electrically isolated. This isolation can be eliminated networks
by installing a capacitive coupling unit.
What is also difficult to achieve is the required data rate because the
230-volts network sets limits to data transmission. High noise levels must be high noise levels
accepted and the strong line attenuation reduces the transmission radius. impede communication
Also, current laws restrict the usable transmission frequency range to 3 to
148.5 kHz and the maximum transmission power to 5 mW.
Powerline on
high-voltage medium-voltage low-voltage
level: 100 to 400 kV level: 10 to 30 kV level: up to 400 V
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 34: Powerline uses low-voltage power supply network
39
Despite these restrictions, the power supply network is an important medium

for data communications as it can use the already existing and widely
branched networks. Powerline is particularly well-suited to applications in
Powerline in the field of building automation. In existing buildings, communication sys-
building automation tems can be easily established without the need for additional cabling. LON
(Local Operating Netzwork), for example, provides:
limit values of 4 data rates up to 10 kbit/s (standard 5 kbit/s),

LON for example
4 maximum network extension 6.1 km.
For many applications in building automation, these values are absolutely
sufficient.
Telephone network
To transmit digital data over the analog medium telephone line, an appro-
modems modulate and priate conversion is needed. This task is performed by modems which are
demodulate connected between the communication participant and the telephone line.
analog signals The modem modulates the analog signal, adapting it to the data to be trans-
mitted, and demodulates the incoming signal at the receiver (Fig. 35).
Communication via modem can only be established when the transmitter

and the receiver are adjusted to the same transmission parameters. This in-
cludes:
telecom-
munications
modem
modem
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Fig. 35: Modems as coupler between telephone and digital network
40
Part 1 L153 EN
4 data rate (see page 7), matching transmission

parameters
4 modulation technique (see Binary coding of data) and
4 data format (see Transmission techniques).
As the transmission bandwidth of telephone lines is limited (approx. 3.1
kHz), the data rate of modem links was restricted to values ranging from 300
to 2 400 bit/s. Modern devices are now able to reach data rates of 56 kbit/s
thanks to complex modulation techniques providing multiple and/or super-
imposed amplitude, phase and frequency modulation. The modems also au-
tomatically provide training (a process by which two modems determine the high data rates
correct protocols and transmission speeds to use) in the initialization phase and automatic training
of the start-up procedure.
ISDN
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is a digital network designed for digital network for
the transmission of voice as well as data. The physical transmission medium voice and
used by ISDN is, among others, the telephone network. data transmission
Due to time-interleaved transmission, also termed time multiplexing, various

services seem to be available to the user at the same time. This includes: tele- ISDN services
phony, telefax, video text systems, video communication, data transmission,
teletex, data dialog and TC systems.
ISDN operates on two information channels (B) each running at 64 kbit/s as three channels for
well as a 16 kbit/s signalling channel (D) for control signals (see Fig. 36). different tasks
The proper information is transmitted over the information channels, while
the signalling channel transmits the data associated with the signal itself.
ISDN-S0 bus
B channel: 64 kbit/s
ISDN
B channel: 64 kbit/s
device
D channel: 16 kbit/s
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Fig. 36: Data channels of an ISDN connection
41
To interconnect single computers or autonomous communications networks

via ISDN, a special ISDN interface is required. Note that this is not a modem
as frequently but mistakenly termed. The ISDN interface supports data rates
of 64 kbit/s, or even 128 kbit/s when both information channels are com-
bined in a high-speed channel (sometimes known as inverse multiplexing).
Internet
famous network for An extremely powerful network fulfilling the specific demands of data trans-
long-distance data mission is the Internet. The term Internet stands for an internationally linked
transmission group of computer networks which in turn can comprise many subnetworks.
The Internet ensures high availability and is used for an increasing number of
applications. Access to the Internet is provided and charged for by service
providers (T-Online, AOL, Compuserve, and so on). They offer connections
via ISDN, mobile radio telephone or telephone/modem, which can be used
with leased lines as well as time-limited dial-in connections.
provider, the interface
to the Internet When the devices connected to the Internet communicate with each other,
they use quite different media (electric, optical, radio signals). Nevertheless,
the language they use is always identical, the protocol family with the acro-
TCP/IP: Transmission nym TCP/IP. The TCP/IP and the multiple options offered by the Internet will
Control Protocol/ not be covered in this paper because practical exercises and applications
Internet Protocol are more helpful in understanding this complex medium.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 1 L153 EN
Appendix A1:
[1] Digital Signals
[2] Networked Communications

[3] Communication in the Field

[4] HART-Communication
[5] PROFIBUS PA
[6] FOUNDATION Fieldbus

APPENDIX
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43
Figures
Fig. 1: Serial data transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Fig. 2: Different communication techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Fig. 3: Point-to-point connection between two participants . . . . . . . 7
Fig. 4: Communications network with several participants . . . . . . . 7
Fig. 5: More complex encoding reduces transmission frequency . . . . 8
Fig. 6: Media for serial data transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fig. 7: Properties of wired transmission media . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Fig. 8: Equivalent circuit diagram of a transmission cable. . . . . . . 11
Fig. 9: Line length dependent on the data rate . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 10: Terminating resistors for different lines . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 11: Design of a multimode and monomode optical fiber . . . . . . 15
Fig. 12: Profiles and refractive indices of optical fibers . . . . . . . . . 16
Fig. 13: Connection of networks via satellite telecommunication link . . 18

FIGURES
Fig. 14: Simple WLAN for use in the domestic field and industry . . . . 19
Fig. 15: NRZ and RZ coding with positive logic . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Fig. 16: Manchester coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Fig. 17: Encoding by means of amplitude and frequency modulation . . 22
Fig. 18: Synchronous signal sampling with positive edges . . . . . . . 24
Fig. 19: Asynchronous transmission using the UART character . . . . . 25
Fig. 20: Hardware handshaking: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

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Fig. 21: Example of an interface specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Fig. 22: Error detection through additional parity bit . . . . . . . . . 28
44
Part 1 L153 EN
Fig. 23: Block checking via longitudinal even parity . . . . . . . . 29
Fig. 24: Calculation of the Hamming distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Fig. 25: Level of RS 232 for data and control signals . . . . . . . . . . 31
Fig. 26: RS 232 transmitter and receiver level . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Fig. 27: 4-wire full-duplex connection with RS 422 wiring . . . . . . . 33
Fig. 28: Noise-resistant balanced transmission technique . . . . . . . 33
Fig. 29: Signal level of balanced RS 422 interface . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Fig. 30: Two-wire bus with terminations (RS 485 interface). . . . . . . 35
Fig. 31: 4-wire connection with RS 485 interface . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Fig. 32: IEC 61158-2 with Manchester coding using 9 mA . . . . . . 37
Fig. 33: FSK-coded data transmission based on Bell 202. . . . . . . . 38
Fig. 34: Powerline uses low-voltage power supply network. . . . . . . 39
Fig. 35: Modems as coupler between telephone and digital network . . 40
Fig. 36: Data channels of an ISDN connection . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
FIGURES
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NOTES
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Part 1 L153 EN
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NOTES
1999/12 L153 EN

Communication Networks
1
LOGICAL TOKEN
t0 t1 t2 t3
network
Part 1 Fundamentals

SAMSON AG Phone (+49 69) 4 00 94 67
Part 1 L155 EN
Classification of communication networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Network topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Media access control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Real-time capability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Random bus access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Controlled bus access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Protocols and telegrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Addressing and communication services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Communication of open systems: ISO/OSI layer model . . . . . . . . 20
Selection criteria for communication systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
CONTENTS
Terminology of communications technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Appendix A1: Additional Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

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Fundamentals Communication Networks
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Part 1 L155 EN
Co m m u n ication networks based on serial data transmission are the plat-

form of up-to-date automation systems. Whether this is office automation or
automation of manufacturing or process plants, the task remains always the
same, exchanging data between different devices or participants within a sy-
stem. Communication networks provide a number of advantages over sy-
stems in which a point-to-point line enables only two participants to
communicate with each other.
Classification of communication networks
Depending on the application, i.e. manufacturing, process, office or building

automation, the communication tasks to be performed vary in complexity
and are sometimes even contradictory. The use of only one communication optimum performance
network would therefore not yield optimum results. So the market offers very features enable
different networks and bus systems that are more or less tailored to a specific optimum solutions
application.
A quite general classification criterion is the distance over which communi-

cation takes place. There are local networks, LANs (Local Area Networks), as LANs and WANs differ
well as widely distributed networks, WANs (Wide Area Networks) (Fig. 1). in their radius of action
With LAN, emphasis is put on fast and powerful data exchange within a
locally restricted area, whereas WAN must be able to transmit data on very
different data media and over several thousand kilometers.
LAN WAN
field networks Internet

networks in building automation ISDN
shuttle busses mobile radio network
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10 m 100 m 1 km 10 km 100 km
Fig. 1: Radius of action of communication networks
5
The Internet is an example for a wide area network. This network is a world
wide group of greatly varying communication networks which in turn can
access to LAN data over comprise many subnetworks. Due to the increasing connection of LANs to the
the Internet Internet, data which was only locally available is now available at any place
in the world. Latest developments enable plants using field bus
communication to be remotely monitored and operated via commercially
available Internet browsers.
Demands on communication networks differ not only in the varying distance

to be covered. Depending on the application, they also vary as to
4 the required data rate,

4 the number of data bytes per communication cycle,
4 the renewal rate of the data,
4 the required real-time capability, and others.
communication on To obtain a practice-oriented classification, the communication networks are
different assigned to different hierarchical or application levels (Fig. 2) which form a
hierarchical levels communication pyramid with three, sometimes four, levels.
At the bottom level, the number of participants, the required real-time

capability as well as the message renewal rate is high. The higher the
hierarchical level, the lower the number of participants. Requirements
concerning real time and sampling rate are also lower. However, the com-
plexity and the length of the message telegrams are increasing.
requirements on the The factory level supervises the higher-level management. What is important
factory level in this case is not the response time, but the safe transmission of even very
long messages (file transmission). As these networks also control the lower
levels, they are considered the backbone of the system and are thus
frequently called backbone networks. Typical protocols used in this field are
for example:
4 MMS (Management Message Specification),

4 PROFIBUS-FMS and
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4 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)
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Part 1 L155 EN
factory level requirements
MIN
min MBYTE
Mbyte
automation level
sec
SEK kbyte
KBYTE
0,1 Ss
0.1 BYTE
byte
field level
ms
MS BIT
bit
sampling data
plant equipment time quantity
Fig. 2: Hierarchical levels in communication systems
On the factory and the automation level, messages just have an average requirements on the
length (10 to 500 bytes), while response times of 5 to 20 ms must be automation level
reached. These requirements are fulfilled by the so-called automation
networks which include the following:
4 Bitbus,
4 FF (FOUNDATION Fieldbus),
4 FIP (Factory Information Protocol),
4 LON (Local Operating Network),
4 Modbus,
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4 and, depending on the application, PROFIBUS-FMS and -DP.
7
requirements on On the field level, i.e. the level of sensors and actuators, short messages
the field level (several bytes) must be transmitted at high speed (10 to 100 s). This area is
covered by the large group of field networks. Due to the very special and
varied requirements, a great number of networks are used:
4 ASI (Actuator-Sensor Interface),

4 CAN (Controller Area Network),
4 FF (FOUNDATION Fieldbus),
4 InterBus-S,
4 PROFIBUS-DP and -PA
4 and others.
The structures as well as the software and hardware components of the
different communication systems are similar in many respects. This can be
many differences but explained by the fact that the essential task is always the same, i.e. trouble-
yet more similarities free communication between all connected participants. Also, all communi-
cation systems must equally comply with the standards relevant in their field
of application. The following descriptions therefore apply largely to more
than one or partly even to all communication systems listed in this paper.
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Network topologies
The network topology describes the physical arrangement of the participants types of networks
in relation to each other within a network. The term also describes the logical
arrangement of the participants in relation to each other during communica-
tion, which is not necessarily the same as the physical arrangement. For the
B
A C E
A C
B D
F D
a) b)
A
A B C
F B
D
E E C
F
D
c) d)
C
B D
a) mesh topology
A b) bus topology
c) tree topology
G E d) ring topology
F
e) star topology
e)
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Fig. 3: Network topologies
9
connection of more than two participants, very different networking

structures are possible:
mesh topology The most complex method is to create a mesh connecting all the participants
with each other via separate communication lines (Fig. 3a). When it comes
to network extensions, the flexibility is very low and the amount of hardware
required is so high that this topology is rarely used in practice.
line or bus A much clearer and simpler structure is the line or bus topology. In this case,
all participants communicate over the same line (Fig. 3b) and are connected
via short stub lines so that each participant requires only one interface to the
bus. Since a transmitted message can be seen by all participants, broad-
casting or multicasting of messages can be easily done. The common trans-
mission medium is controlled by a special bus access control unit which is
usually able to maintain the functions of the bus-operated system even if one
station happens to fail.
tree topology The tree topology is in most respects similar to the bus topology, except that
the tree structure enables several bus branches to be connected in so-called
nodes (Fig. 3c). This topology makes it easier to network larger areas. As is
the case for the bus structure, the maximum line lengths and the number of
participants connected without line amplifiers (repeaters) are limited.
ring topology When several two-point connections are used to create a physical ring, we
speak of a ring topology (Fig. 3d). A transmitted message is forwarded from
one participant to the next. As the signal can be amplified whenever it is
forwarded, very long distances can be covered. Unfortunately, the
transmission speed depends on the number and the processing speed of the
participants. This means that the failure of a single participant can lead to
network failure when no extra ring is provided.
star topology In the star topology, all participants are connected to a center station via two-
point lines (Fig. 3e). The center station may either be active, acting as a
master for the network control, or passive and assume the task of a so-called
star coupler which establishes the connection between the currently active
transmitter and recipient. In both cases, failure of the center station causes
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the entire network communication to fail.
10
Part 1 L155 EN
control station
server 1 server 2 server 3
Fig. 4: Complex network consisting of several subnetworks
The topologies described above form the basis of almost every serial commu-
nication network. However, a lot of network specifications allow the use of
free topologies or mixed structures so that line and tree topologies or tree free topologies enable
and star topologies can be combined. To ensure compliance with the electri- flexible network
cal specifications of the transmission medium, a coupler, amplifier or distri- structures
butor (repeater, hub, etc.), as required, must be provided at the connection
node.
Complex network structures often consist of several, partly autonomous, autonomous subnet-
subnetworks. Each subnetwork can be based on a different topology and a works are part of
different communications protocol (Fig. 4). In any case, each participant complex networks
must be able to clearly identify any of his communication partners and
address him directly. In addition to this, any of the communication
participants must be able to access the transmission medium. The way in
which the transmission lines are assigned to the various participants is deter-
mined by the protocol specification which defines the access method.
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Media access control
active and passive Active participants are able to initiate information exchange while passive
participants connected participants only take part in communication on request of an active
to one transmission line participant. When several active participants are connected to a network, it
is necessary to coordinate their actions in order to avoid data collisions. This
task is performed by the media access control.
Real-time capability
Many automation tasks require that a message or an operating action be

transmitted within a fixed time span, or even processed within a fixed
equidistant time frame. If a communication system meets the time require-
ments of such an application, this system is referred to as being real-time
capable.
real-time capability A prerequisite for real-time capability is that a communication participant is

through deterministic able to start his data transmission within a prescribed maximum time. This
media access methods can only be guaranteed when access rights are granted in a definite order
(Fig. 5). Communication systems operating on controlled media access are
called deterministic (e.g. Master/Slave, Token Passing).
Apart from the controlled network assignment inherent in deterministic me-

random access thods, there are also stochastic methods granting access to the network at
with stochastic methods random. As the time needed to transmit a message depends considerably on
media access methods
controlled / deterministic random / stochastic
central access control distributed access CSMA CSMA/CD

(Master/Slave) control (token bus) CSMA/CA
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Fig. 5: Classification of media access methods
12
Part 1 L155 EN
the number of participants, such methods are not suitable, or only under cer-
tain conditions, for real-time applications.
Random bus access
Random, i.e. stochastic media access means that the transmitter stations are CSMA method:
waiting with their own transmission until the transmission medium is free. If Carrier Sense Multiple
two transmitter stations happen to begin with transmission at the same time, Access
the data is superimposed and destroyed. The transmitter stations recognize a
data collision, because the recipients do not return an acknowledgement for
reception. They repeat transmission after a short, varying period of time. The
random access method provides the advantages of flexibility and fast
response times when the network load is low, however, high network load
causes repeated blocking of the lines. Evidently, the response behavior is not
deterministic since it is not possible to determine when a message will finally
reach the recipient. This kind of access is termed CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access) and illustrated in Fig. 6.
An improved variant of this access method makes use of the widespread collision detection with
Ethernet. Here, the transmitters recognize a data collision by monitoring the CSMA/CD
level of the line during transmission. When a collision occurs, the transmitters
immediately abort the transmission and attempt to repeat the transmission
after a waiting time chosen at random. This extended CSMA access method
is called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Detection).
Even better results can be achieved when collisions are avoided (CSMA/CA collision avoidance
Collision Avoidance). The level, e.g. the low level, of one transmitter is gi- through CSMA/CA
participants B and C
MASTER MASTER
A B wait until communica-
tion between A and D
network is finished
MASTER MASTER
C D
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Fig. 6: Random access with the CSMA method
13
MASTER
A
network
1 2 3 S LAVES 11
Fig. 7: Controlled media access with the Master/Slave method
ven priority over the level of the other transmitter, and the data of the lower-
priority transmitter is simply overwritten. When two participants start trans-
mission at the same time, the transmitter with the higher priority will be able
to send its data. While sending its address, the dominant transmitter overwri-
tes the non-dominant address bits of the other participant. The transmitter
with the lower priority immediately stops transmission and repeats the proce-
dure after a short, varying period of time. This kind of access method is also
used, among others, by the CAN protocol (Controller Area Network).
Controlled bus access
The controlled, deterministic media access methods are subdivided

depending on the type of participants. When only one participant is active,
we speak of a central access assignment, whereas a distributed access right
is assigned when several active participants are present.
master/slave control When using the central access assignment, only one device, the master, has
the right to initiate a communication cycle. This ensures that two devices can
never access the network at the same time. All other devices, the slaves,
transmit only when requested by the master (Fig. 7). Usually, the master
polling the slaves employs the polling method, servicing the slaves one after the other in a
cyclic manner. Messages with high priority are polled repeatedly within a
cycle.
Slave devices are frequently low-maintenance field devices, such as sensors,

SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
control valves and transducers. Normally, the slaves cannot communicate

directly with each other. The data is read by the master and forwarded as
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Part 1 L155 EN
LOGICAL TOKEN
t0 t1 t2 t3
MASTER MASTER MASTER
A B C
network
Fig. 8: Controlled media access using the token passing method
required. However, it is possible to address a transmitter and a recipient

slave at the same time, thereby initiating direct data exchange.
The master/slave control is a simple and cost-effective method as only one simple and
station must assume the complex task of controlling the network. As far as the cost-effective
slave participants are concerned, only part of the protocol needs to be implementation
implemented. However, a defective master causes the entire network to fail.
This can be avoided when a slave is configured to assume the functions of the
master.
The distributed access assignment according to the token passing method token passing
(Fig. 8) does not require a single participant to be so reliable and available. method
All the network participants are able to assume the functions of a master.
The master functions are assigned to the communication participants in a token marks the
prescribed order. This is done by passing a special message, the token, from currently active master
one active participant to the next within a logical ring. The participant which
presently has the token is the network master having sole control over the net-
work. When a time span defined by the token rotation cycle is over, the token
must be passed on to the next active participant. When the token passing
method is used with mesh topology, forming a physical ring, we speak of a
token ring; analogous to that, we speak of a token bus when a bus topology
is used.
The combination of the master/slave method and the token passing method
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is called hybrid access method (e.g. PROFIBUS). It is used when active (mas- hybrid access method
ter functions) as well as passive participants (no network control functions)
are connected to one network.
15
LOGICAL TOKEN
t0 t1 t2 t3
MASTER MASTER MASTER
A B C
network
1 2 3 4 5
SLAVES
Fig. 9: Controlled media access with the hybrid access method:

token passing and master-slave
The master selected by the token can communicate with the passive
subordinate master/ participants through the master/slave functions, while communication with
slave communication the active participants is performed using the token passing method (Fig. 9).
To enable the token carrier to distinguish whether its communication partners
are active or passive, this information must be provided to all active
participants in advance upon configuration of the network.
Calculation of the maximum transmission time of a message is possible for all

deterministic media types of controlled media access. Real-time automation tasks require calcu-
access lable, i.e. deterministic media access, since the cycle time and the frequency
of the data transmission must be guaranteed for a lot of control functions.
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Protocols and telegrams
Communications protocols are required to exchange the data between two protocols define the
or more devices/participants reliably. When we send a letter, we need to data exchange
indicate the senders address as well as the destination address. This is also
true when sending digital letters. Protocols help distinguish between the
control data and the proper message. This is achieved by defining a certain
format for the data telegram, which specifies the beginning and the end of messages are packed
the telegram as well as the control data and the proper messages. Usually, into telegrams
telegrams consist of the basic components as illustrated in Fig. 10.
The data field containing the proper message is preceded by the header
information. In multi-point connections (networks), the header generally
contains the source and destination address of the message or indicates its
contents. Additionally, the message control data, such as message length
(e.g. number of bits), is included here.
The data field is succeeded by the data security section. This component access to telegram
provides the error checking information generated by the transmitter, fields
helping the recipient to check whether the message is correct (see section:
Error detection).
The header, data field and data security section can be delimited by
4 inserting special control characters or

4 counting the received characters (applies only to fixed lengths).
In bit-oriented data transmission, too, the message is framed by control data. bit-oriented
Fig. 11 shows a typical telegram for bit-serial data transmission within a net- data transmission
work. Each data telegram uses a transmission frame which is divided into
several fields.
header
data security
address(es) data field
section
control data
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Fig. 10: Basic structure of a transmission telegram
17
011010 addresses control code ...0100101... block 010110

data length protection
flag data flag
Fig. 11: Telegram in bit-serial transmission
header and trailer The beginning and the end of the telegram are marked by a bit sequence.
are the frame of the The header can also be used for synchronization in the case of asynchronous
telegram transmission. Analogous to the start bit of the UART character, the recipient
synchronizes with the frequency of the transmitter.
fixed bit sequence and Every single field of the telegram contains a prescribed number of bits. This
number ensures clarity allows the recipient to distinguish message data from control data simply by
counting the bits in the individual fields. If the transmission protocol specifies
also telegrams with variable message lengths, the transmitter enters the
number of data bits in a special control field (e.g. the field data length). The
recipient then analyzes this information before reading the variable data
field.
When digital data is transmitted, the transmission speed of a message

user data rate allows cannot be determined by the bit rate alone. To be able to estimate the user
for additionally data rate, the ratio between the control and the user data must be taken into
required protocol data account while at the same time considering the type of transmission protocol
used. With character-controlled, asynchronous transmission, the single bytes
are sent as UART characters (11 bits for one data byte) which reduces the
user data rate to 73 per cent.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 1 L155 EN
Addressing and communication services
When a communication system comprises more than two participants and a direct addressing for
message must be passed to a particular participant, direct addressing of this message transmission
participant must be made possible. For this purpose, a bit sequence (a
character or a character string) is used to serve as the participants address
(see structures of a telegram in Figs. 10 and 11).
The simplest way is to assign an address statically to each device. Static address assignment via
address assignment can be implemented on the hardware level via Dip hardware or software
switches or on the software level. Another possiblity is to assign the ad-
dresses dynamically. This can be done during the first parameterization and
start-up phase of the system, or by the master during operation in special ini-
tialization phases.
To enable the participants to perform their communication tasks, various communication

services are available. The number of services provided is a criterion for as- service ...
sessing communication systems.
There are two different types of communication services. Connection-

oriented services transmit data over a communication channel which links .. connection-oriented
the transmitter and the recipient directly by using their addresses.
Whereas connectionless communication services do not provide a direct or connectionless

connection between the transmitter and the recipient. Typical examples for
connectionless services are the following:
4 multicasting: message directed to a group of participants multicast and broadcast

messages
4 broadcasting: message directed to all participants.
Such message types are used to identify and parameterize all the partici-
pants upon system initialization, or when procedures or actions must be
executed with several participants at the same time.
Addresses can be organized hierarchically so that all participants of one

group, e.g. with the same address beginning, can be addressed
simultaneously.
SAMSON AG 99/12
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Communication of open systems: ISO/OSI layer model
communication via Effective and unambiguous communication between different participants

standardized interfaces and through the various hierarchical network stages requires generally
applicable rules. Whenever devices and systems of different manufacturers
and system operators are supposed to communicate with each other,
standardized interfaces are needed.
The International Standardization Organization (ISO) developed a

ISO/OSI definition for such a standardized interface, specifying the tasks for
layer model ... computer communication, and proposed this definition in the ISO standard
7498 under the title Basic Reference Model for Open Systems
Interconnection OSI. This definition describes the communication of an
open system in which any number of components and subsystems can be
integrated, provided that the defaults of the reference model are maintained.
The so-called ISO/OSI model specifies all elements, structures and tasks
divided into seven required for communication and assigns them to seven layers, each forming
layers ... the basis of the next (Fig. 12). The different layers perform precisely defined
tasks or services within a communication procedure, each layer providing its
services to the next higher level via defined interfaces, the Service Access
Points (SAPs).
for data transmission The four bottom layers provided in the hierarchical structure are responsible
and application for data transmission between the devices (transmission layers), while the
layers 5 to 7 coordinate interaction with the application program or the
operating system (application layer).
physical layer Layer 1 defines how the data is transmitted physically, i.e. electrically and
mechanically. This includes, for example the type of coding (e.g. NRZ) and
the transmission standard used (e.g. RS 485).
connection or The task of layer 2 is to provide error-free information. It must detect errors
security layer that probably occured in layer 1 and eliminate them by utilizing appropriate
error routines. Layer 2 also controls the data flow when the transmitter and
the recipient process the data at different speeds, and is responsible for the
media access control (MAC: Media Access Control) in local networks.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 1 L155 EN
Layer 3 establishes and cancels connections in the network and performs network layer
routing, i.e. defining the way the data has to take within the network. Also,
the number of data packets on their way in the network is supervised to avoid
possible congestions.
Layer 4 assumes total control of a data transmission requested by layer 5. A transport layer
permanent connection is established between the participants, lasting as
long as the transmission. The transmission is supervised with respect to
possible transport errors, the data packets of the next higher level are di-
vided into transportable units and the proper order of the exchanged data
units is restored on the recipient side.
Application process
Application Layer services for the programs of

7
the end user
Presentation Layer coding of data
6
Session Layer controls establishment/

5
OSI layer model
clearance of sessions
Transport Layer provides error-free, logical
4
channels for data transport
Network Layer defines the routes of the
3
data in the network
Data Link Layer controls data telegram and
2 bus access
Physical Layer specifies line and level
1 definitions
Fig. 12: Definition of the OSI model layers

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session layer Layer 5 controls the establishment and clearance of temporary connections
(sessions), in which one or several tasks can access the transport system.
Tasks communicating with each other can be synchronized as needed. Layer
5 also manages and assigns the logical names to the physical addresses.
representation layer Layer 6 encodes the data (representation), preparing them for analysis and
interpretation by the higher layers.
application layer Layer 7 is the interface to the application program and contains all the
functions the user, generally a PC program, needs to access the
communication functions.
data transmission To transmit a message from one application to another, the message is
between the OSI layers passed on the transmitter side from layer 7 down to layer 1, each layer
appending its layer-specific control data as well as a protocol header (see
Fig. 13). This data is used for communication with the corresponding layer
on the recipient side. Apart from the original message, an accordingly large
amount of control data is transmitted over the physical medium to the
recipient. On the recipient side, the message is passed from layer 1 up to
layer 7, each layer removing its specific control data and providing the
requested services so that the message is finally available to the application
process in its original state.
OSI layer user data
application
7 H S E
5 H S E
4 H S E
H: header S: control data E: final recognition

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Fig. 13: Encapsulation of the message within the OSI layers
22
Part 1 L155 EN
transmitter recipient
Application Layer Application Layer
application-
oriented
Presentation Layer Presentation Layer
Session Layer Session Layer
layers
Transport Layer Transport Layer
transport-
Network Layer Network Layer
oriented
Data Link Layer Data Link Layer
Physical Layer Physical Layer
Physical transmission medium
Fig. 14: Layer-specific communication with the OSI model
This working principle allows only equal layers of the participants to

communicate with each other (see Fig. 14). The physical layer of station A ...communication
only communicates directly with the physical layer of station B. Of course, all
other layers of station A exchange data with their corresponding layers of ...over corresponding
station B as well. Since each layer communicates only with its corresponding layers
layer, it is not aware of the other layers.
Communication between two participants is only possible when both partici-

pating parties service the same layers and apply the same definition. If
particular services within a communication system are not required, the indi- only required layers are
vidual layers can be empty, consequently, the message telegram does not in- defined
clude the information associated with these empty layers.
Since the OSI layer model was developed for communication in open
systems, the communication process is described only on an abstract level.
No details are given on how to implement the individual layers. The OSI implementation of OSI
model only defines the services needed for communication and their layers not defined
integration in the communication sequence. Whereas it does not detail
SAMSON AG 99/12
which physical lines and signal levels, which data format, error detection
method and addressing of the participants to use and how to establish and
clear the connections as well as provide the data to the application process.
23
SAP: interface to the The individual layers can therefore be implemented in varying ways.
service of a layer Nevertheless, the uniformness of the services and service access points
(SAPs) ensure exchangeability. Thus, a communication protocol imitating the
OSI structure can be transferred layer by layer to another OSI-compatible
protocol without restricting the functionality or the performance. This is made
possible by gateways. They couple different communication systems which
vary in all layers.
OSI as standard The OSI model has established itself as quasi-standard as regards the
representation implementation of communication services, though, many systems imple-
ment only part of the model definitions. Naturally, only those services and
functions are implemented that are required for the respective application.
Simple applications, such as field networks, do not need comprehensive
services for organizational tasks as they are required for complex network
field networks usually topologies. This is why specifications for field networks usually define only
use only layers 1, 2 the layers 1 and 2 completely, whereas all remaining services are performed
and 7 by the application process itself or the layer 7.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 1 L155 EN
Selection criteria for communication systems
The communication ability of a device says nothing about its performance

and versatility. It is only an indicator for the exchange of information be-
tween of two devices minimum. To exactly describe the performance and es-
timate the usability of a communication system, many more aspects must be
taken into consideration.
Technical and functional aspects alone are still not sufficient to select an
appropriate communication system. Availability and exchangeability of the
components as well as economic aspects need to be considered.
The following criteria are essential when selecting a communication system:
4 physical properties (e.g. transmission speed), selecting a

communication system
4 functional aspects (e.g. noise immunity, exchangeability),
4 application range (e.g. hazardous environments),
4 popularity on the market (e.g. price, acceptance) and
4 state of standardization (e.g. exchangeability).
Depending on the respective application, each selection criterion must be
analyzed and evaluated individually. The examples in the following list show
how single requirements determine the necessary properties of the
communication system:
4 Depending on the application, bidirectional (in both directions) or uni-

directional (in one direction) data exchange could be necessary. uni- or bidirectional
4 Processes with high dynamics require sufficiently high data rates.

4 To implement real-time capable process control units, appropriately short guaranteed response
response times must be guaranteed (deterministic system). times
4 Optimum use of the network can only be achieved when the size of the short or long data
data telegrams matches the actual length of the message. packets
4 The processing of messages of varying importance can be simplified by priorities required

using prioritized data transmission.
SAMSON AG 99/12
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is error detection 4 Control units providing interference resistance and/or transmission error
important? correction make optimum use of the interface. If one or several devices
fail, the remaining devices should still be able to communicate and a
failure of the transmission medium should be detected reliably.
Finally, user- and development-specific characteristics must be considered

from an economic point of view:
optimum adaptation 4 a protocol tailored to the application, e.g. having a specially adapted
to devices application layer and predefined device descriptions, can reduce
engineering costs and start-up times considerably,
independent, long-term 4 component interchangeability and interoperability of devices from dif-

device selection ferent manufacturers expand the application range and, hence, the ac-
ceptance.
Additional conditions, such as
long distances 4 data transmission over long distances and

for hazardous areas 4 application in hazardous environments,
can influence the technical design of a communication system.
The multitude of applications and the sometimes contradictory requirement

profiles, and company policy as well, are responsible for the fact that to date
no uniform standard there is still no internationally approved and uniform communications stan-
due to numerous dard. Therefore, each case must be analyzed individually to find out which
requirements communication system suits the application best. SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 1 L155 EN
Terminology of communications technology
For a better understanding of the numerous technical and abstract terms

used in the field of digital communication, the terms are compared to those
used in everyday language. Even when the comparison cannot stand up to a
detailed analysis, the assignment of terms will help understand the tasks and
services.
In general language usage, the term communication means talk and terminological compari-
describes information exchange between individuals. Digital communica- son of everyday and
tion pursues the same goal, information exchange between, this time, de- technical language
vices.
In both cases, information is exchanged over a suitable medium and via

appropriate interfaces.
air (acoustic medium) channels (electric lines)
ears, mouth hardware interface,

e.g. transmission standard
(RS 485)
General rules are the basis for mutual understanding.
letter, word bit, byte, data formats
grammar, language transmission protocols

OSI/ISO model
Whoever participates in communication must fulfill specific tasks.
host master
other participants slave
orators, talkers transmitter (talker)
auditors recipient (listener)

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It is important to define who may speak when and how long,
dialog control network assignment

assignment of talker function
because all participants talking (transmitting) at the same time would disturb
the communication.
all talking at the same time data collision
Equal participants can speak one after the other in a predetermined

order
list of orators token procedure
or try to get heard during breaks.
unsolicited participation in the dialog CSMA method
Others have to wait until they are requested by the host.
teacher/student dialog master/slave control
This coordination of communication is performed by an individual
host single-master system
or a group of equal hosts.
group of hosts multi-master system
Information is provided by a participant (orator/talker) and addressed to
all participants all listeners

SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
(broadcasting)
addressed participants previously addressed participants
28
Part 1 L155 EN
Communication takes place as
tte--tte conversation point-to-point connection
within the group network connection of several partici-

pants
The physical local arrangement of the participants
seating plan network topology
can, but need not have an effect on the communication sequence because it
is not only possible to address visible participants, but all other participants
as well via the
names participants addresses
The numerous corresponding terms in this list of comparison, which is cer-

tainly not complete, demonstrate that Digital communication, despite its
many new terms, is a comprehensible and transparent field. When taking a
closer look, you will see that here a commonly known method is utilized with
similar means and for new technical applications.
However, the classification provided in this paper is not sufficient for an

exact selection since even within the hierarchical stages the requirement pro-
files vary depending on the application. Especially on the field level, where
the communication system communicates directly with the field devices and,
hence, is immediately integrated in the process environment, a multitude of
requirements exists.
SAMSON AG 99/12
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Appendix A1:
[1] Digital Signals
[2] Serial Data Transmission


[4] HART-Communication
[5] PROFIBUS PA

APPENDIX
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Part 1 L155 EN
Figures
Fig. 1: Radius of action of communication networks . . . . . . . . . 5
Fig. 2: Hierarchical levels in communication systems . . . . . . . . 7
Fig. 3: Network topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Fig. 4: Complex network consisting of several subnetworks . . . . . 11
Fig. 5: Classification of media access methods . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 6: Random access with the CSMA method . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 7: Controlled media access with the Master/Slave method . . . 14
Fig. 8: Controlled media access using the token passing method . . . 15
Fig. 9: Controlled media access with the hybrid access method . . . 16
Fig. 10: Basic structure of a transmission telegram . . . . . . . . . . 17
Fig. 11: Telegram in bit-serial transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fig. 12: Definition of the OSI model layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Fig. 13: Encapsulation of the message within the OSI layers. . . . . . 22
Fig. 14: Layer-specific communication with the OSI model . . . . . . 23

FIGURES
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1999/12 L155 EN

Introduction to
Self-operated Regulators
2
Part 2 Self-operated Regulators

SAMSON AG Phone (+49 69) 4 00 94 67
Part 2 L202 EN
Introduction to Self-operated
Regulators
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Fields of Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Functional Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Adjusting the operating point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Pressure balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Control Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
CONTENTS
SAMSON AG 00/07
3
Self-operated Regulators Introduction to Self-operated Regulators
SAMSON AG V74/ HRB
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Part 2 L202 EN
Introduction
The control of a process variable requires three basic functional units the
measuring equipment, the controller, and the final controlling equipment
as well as the knowledge of how to make proper use of the individual belon-
ging elements. Usually, these control loop components are separate devices
that must be supplied with auxiliary energy (Fig. 1; see also lit. [1] and [2]). control with...
For simple pressure, flow, differential pressure, or temperature control tasks,

such instrumentation is often too complex and, from an economic point of
view, too expensive. For these applications, self-operated regulators can be
used.
Self-operated regulators take over all the tasks required in a control loop. ...or without auxiliary
They integrate measuring sensor, controller as well as control element all in energy
one system (Fig. 2). The combination of these components results in very rug-
ged and reasonably priced devices.
final controlling
equipment
measuring
equipment
controller
x
w
SAMSON AG 00/07
Fig. 1: Control loop with conventional instrumentation
5
Fig. 2: Control loop with self-operated regulator
Since self-operated regulators as the name indicates do not require auxi-

liary energy from external supply sources, the cost of installation is signifi-
cantly lower than for conventional instrumentation.
SAMSON AG V74/ HRB
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Part 2 L202 EN
Fields of Application
Self-operated regulators are available for temperature, pressure, flow, and

differential pressure control. They are suitable for all those applications whe- constant set point
re deviations of the controlled variable from the adjusted set point are ac- fixed set point control
ceptable and the set point remains constant over a long time often during
the entire useful life.
Self-operated regulators are especially suitable for applications that would

otherwise require high investment due to the auxiliary energy supply system
additionally required by other equipment. Therefore, self-operated regula- easy to install
tors are frequently used in the wide-ranging networks of gas, water and heat
suppliers.
Since self-operated regulators are very reliable in fulfilling their switching

and control functions, even or especially when the energy supply fails, they
are ideally suited as safety equipment. Typetested devices designed accor- also suitable as safety
ding to the applicable regulations can be used in many fields of application equipment
and, at the same time, they have a good price/performance ratio compared
to other solutions.
SAMSON AG 00/07
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Functional Principle
energy
supply
external process medium
hydraulic medium pressure

pneumatic
medium temperature
electrical (analog, digital)
volume change
electropneumatic
adsorption principle
etc.
vapor pressure principle
medium flow
with auxiliary energy
medium density
without auxiliary energy
Fig. 3: Energy supply of control equipment
the medium The performance of work requires energy. Self-operated regulators with-
supplies the energy draw this energy from the medium to be controlled.
Using the medium pressure or the thermal properties of the medium (see
Fig. 3), the sensor unit of the self-operated regulator builds up a pressure
which creates the required positioning forces on an actuator diaphragm or a
so-called operating element.
Example: pressure reducing valve

SAMSON AG V74/ HRB
In the pressure regulator, the medium pressure p2 acts directly or, if required,
via equalizing tank on the rolling diaphragm of the actuator.
8
Part 2 L202 EN
Proportional to the diaphragm area AM, a force FM is created which is oppo-

sed by the force of a spring FF as well as the flow-related plug force FK (Fig.
4):
F M = p 2 A M = FK + FF
FK is created due to the pressure difference p = p1 p2 between the upstre-

am and downstream pressure acting on the surface of the plug:
FK = p AS AS : seat area
The spring creates reset forces in proportion to the spring range x and enab-
les the adjustment of the set point or operating point through preloading:
FF = c F x c F : spring rate
p1 A S: seat area
p2 final balance of forces F K: force acting on
AS
the plug
FF: spring force
p 1 AS
FM : force acting on
FK
the diaphragm
FM = p 2 A M
p 2 AS
FF
AM
SAMSON AG 00/07
Fig. 4: Balance of forces in a pressure reducing valve
9
Assuming an initial state of equilibrium, as illustrated in Fig. 4, any change

of pressure results in a changed balance of forces, thus causing adjustments
of travel.
This can be clearly seen in the control cycle described in Fig. 5 (next page).
control cycle 4 If the operating point is in a state of equilibrium, the spring force FF and the
force FK acting on the plug are compensated for by the diaphragm force
FM (phase 1).
4 If the consumption increases, the pressure drop across the valve increases
so that the downstream pressure p2 decreases (phase 2).
4 The spring opens the valve against the decreasing diaphragm pressure
until a balance of forces is reached again with a wider open valve (phase
3).
4 In the new valve position (phase 4), the spring force as well as the pressure
p2 to be controlled are reduced. A steady-state error (offset) remains with
a value that depends on the proportional-action coefficient of the regula-
tor.
SAMSON AG V74/ HRB
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Part 2 L202 EN
1. Balance of forces in the operating point 4 Downstream pressure p2

is constant
FK = (p 1 p 2 ) A K 4 Valve remains at steady state

FM = p 2 A M
FF = c F x
2. Consumption increases (disturbance variable) 4 Downstream pressure p2 is falling

4 Diaphragm force FM is decreasing
FK FS = F and FK increasing
4 Result: positioning force FS

FF FM
4 Valve opens
3. Valve opens 4 Spring is relieved: spring force FF

is decreasing
FS = F 4 p2 rises: FM is increasing while
FK
FK is decreasing
FF FM
4 Result: FS is decreasing
4 Approximation of a new state of
equilibrium
4. Equilibrium with changed valve position Changes compared to phase 1:
4 Higher flow rate: valve is open

FK wider
FM 4 Spring is further relieved p2 is

FF lower than at the operating point
4 Result: stead-state errror signal

(offset)
SAMSON AG 00/07
Fig. 5 Control cycle in self-operated pressure reducing valves
11
Adjusting the operating point of a pressure reducing valve
The operating point of the regulator is adjusted via spring preloading. Fig. 6
shows the spring forces in travel positions Tclosed, Tx and Topen, including the
parallel displacement resultant spring characteristic. Preloading the spring causes a parallel dis-
of spring characteristic placement of the spring characteristic so that at travel position Topen, preloa-
ding FPL = Fopen is already effective.
Tclosed
Topen
Fclosed Fx Fopen
F [N]
Fclosed
Fopen
[mm]
Tclosed Tx Topen
Fig. 6: Spring forces and characteristic
p2 [bar]
spring preload
px
.
SAMSON AG V74/ HRB
. .
Vclosed Vx V[m/h]
Fig. 7: Ideal characteristic of a pressure reducing valve
12
Part 2 L202 EN
While the operating point is adjusted, the spring preloading is increased un- adjusting the operating
til the process variable to be controlled reaches the required set point value. point
The spring force adjusted in this manner results from the balance of forces as
illustrated in Fig. 4:
FF = F M FK = c F x = p 2 A M p AS
With a small AS seat area and low differential pressures, only small FK plug
forces are created. Under these conditions, the spring range x which is equi-
valent to the valve travel changes in proportion to the pressure p2. The resul- valve travel changes
tant manipulated reaction therefore directly depends on the spring in proportion to the
characteristic (see also Fig. 7): pressure
cF c c c
p2 = x = F (travel + x open ) = F travel + F x open
AM AM AM AM Xopen: preload
The equation as well as the control characteristic exhibit the pro-

portional-action component of this self-operated regulator:
4 The factor cF/AM represents the gradient of the characteristic or the pro-
portional-action coefficient of the regulator.
4 The second summand of the equation (cF xopen/AM) describes the parallel displacement of the
displacement of the characteristic. If high set points are to be adjusted, this characteristic into the
term must increase. For this, either a version with a stiff spring (high cF) operating point
and a small actuator area AM must be chosen, or the spring must be of
great length so that it can be sufficiently compressed (xopen will increase
accordingly).
As previously mentioned, these correlations are only applicable in cases

SAMSON AG 00/07
where the plug force FK can be neglected. If the seat diameter is large and/or
the differential pressures are high, this method is only permissible when the
valves are equipped with a so-called pressure balancing system. With
13
self-operated regulators, such balancing systems are already suited alone

due to the improved control behavior.
Pressure balance
differential pressure The plug force FK depends on the differential pressure and, therefore, acts as
acts as disturbance a disturbance variable in the control loop. A high upstream pressure and lar-
variable ge seat diameters create considerable plug forces which the actuator must
overcome, as indicated in the following example:
p = 10 bar ; seat = 125 mm FK = 12 722 N
By applying special structural measures, this disturbance variable can be al-

most entirely compensated for.
plug balanced Fig. 8 shows the version of a valve with a plug balanced by a bellows. The
by a bellows upstream and downstream pressures additionally act on the plug stem via
AS: seat area

AB: bellows area p1 stationary balance:
FF: spring forces forces compensated for at
(incl. bellows) p2 plug and bellows
FM: force acting on
p 1 AS p 1 AB
the diaphragm
AS
AB
p 2 AS p 2 AB
FF FM
SAMSON AG V74/ HRB
Fig. 8: Balance of forces in a pressure reducing valve with plug balanced

by a bellows
14
Part 2 L202 EN
the bellows area AB, thus creating forces that oppose FK. If the effective area
sizes of AS and AB are identical, and if the cross-sectional area of the plug
stem is neglected, FK is compensated for by the forces acting on the bellows.
Pressure balanced valves require clearly smaller actuator forces than unba-
lanced valves (compare Figs. 4 and 8). When calculating the spring reset spring reset force
force FF that must be overcome, the elasticity of the bellows must be additio-
nally accounted for:
FF = FM = (c F + c bellows ) travel + Fopen Fopen: spring preloading
Valves with balanced plugs are used for applications requiring that the con-
trol process be as accurate as possible. Balancing systems are always requi-
red when high differential pressures are created across the valve, especially
with large nominal sizes, which then also necessitates high positioning for-
ces. These cannot be issued by the actuator anymore without much bigger di-
aphragms.
SAMSON AG 00/07
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Control Properties
Self-operated regulators are usually designed as proportional controllers.

The control behavior of a P controller is essentially determined by the propor-
tional-action coefficient (former term: proportional band) as well as by the
adjusted operating point.
example of pressure To describe the correlations as application oriented and clear as possible,
reducing valve the following explanation is based on the example of the pressure reducing
valve, as in the chapters above. With respect to control engineering, these
statements are applicable to any other self-operated regulator with propor-
tional control action.
proportional-action The fundamentals of control engineering (see lit. [2], for instance) teach us
coefficient that if steady-state errors are to be kept as small as possible, a proportio-
nal-action coefficient as high as possible (or a small proportional band) is re-
quired. In the vicinity of an operating point, KP is calculated from the
manipulated variable y and the error e:
y K v
KP = ; for pressure reducing valves: K P =
e p 2
In pressure reducing valves, it must therefore be achieved that small pressure

changes create great travel adjustments which in turn create great Kv value
changes:
4 Large travel adjustments are created if the spring stiffness cF is as small as

possible and the actuator diaphragm area AM is large.
4 The change of the KV value is related to the contour of the plug and the KVS
value. At the same travel, if the gradient of the control characteristic is high
and/or the KVS value is high, the KV value changes are bigger than with a
SAMSON AG V74/ HRB
flat characteristic and/or small KVS value.
If the valve is sized for a high proportional-action coefficient, i.e. small sys-
tem deviation, the following equipment is required:
16
Part 2 L202 EN
4 soft spring, large actuator area, and high KVS value, i.e. oversized in this requirements for small
case, or combinations of these. Proportional-action coefficients that are system deviation
too high, especially in combination with an oversized KVS value, increase
the control loops tendency to oscillate.
With respect to spring and actuator these requirements are best met by a
self-operated regulator with the lowest set point range.
Example: For a set point of 1.0 bar, therefore, a set point range of 0.2 to
1.2 bar must be selected, and not the version ranging from 0.8 to 2.5 bar.
Note: As described on page 13, the following equipment is required to reach

high set point values:
4 stiff spring or small actuator area or long spring ranges and combinations requirements for high
of these. set point values
If the required device shall exhibit high set point values/positioning forces
while system deviations are to remain small, contradictory requirements must
be fulfilled in the sizing of spring and actuator area. There are only these so-
lutions to this problem:
4 Realization of small system deviations via high KVS values. small system deviation
and high set point
4 Compensation for high positioning forces via soft, though sufficiently long
values
springs.
4 Using large actuator areas.

All possibilities are restricted in their application. While extremely long
springs result in complex and expensive units with large dimensions, the use
of an oversized KVS value is restricted due to physical limitations: during po-
sitioning, the actuator must overcome the static and the sliding friction which
is created along the guide and seal of the plug and actuator stem. If these
frictional forces as well as the additional forces required to close the valve
are taken into consideration, the result is the actual manipulated reaction as
illustrated in Fig. 9, and not the ideal characteristic shown in Fig. 7.
SAMSON AG 00/07
17
Xw: system deviation

p2 [%]
pmax
Xp: proportional band
Xs
Xh: hysteresis closed
Xp Xw
XS: closing pressure
open
p2: downstream Xh
pressure
.
.
V[m/h]
V : flow rate
Fig. 9: Characteristic of a pressure reducing valve
hysteresis limits The hysteresis Xh created by the static friction limits the control accuracy that
the control accuracy can be reached. This error cannot be compensated for by using a higher KVS
value to increase KP. Although this would reduce the stationary system devia-
tion Xw, the hysteresis in the control characteristic will remain (Fig. 10).
Therefore, an oversized KVS value involves the risk that the system begins to
oscillate: on the one hand, the accurate adjustment of the Kv value will beco-
Xw1: system deviation

with KP1 p2 [%]
Xw2: system deviation pmax
with KP2
Xw2
Xw1
K P1 < K P 2
.
SAMSON AG V74/ HRB
V[m/h]
Fig. 10: System deviation with different proportional-action coefficients
18
Part 2 L202 EN
me more difficult due to the hysteresis; on the other hand, already small sys-
tem deviations will then result in extremely big KV value changes.
Due to the described correlations and when control demands are high, it will reduction of
always be desirable to reduce the effects of varying p values at the plug as positioning forces
much as possible, especially in the case of large nominal sizes, by using
pressure balancing systems and, at the same time, selecting the version with
the smallest set point range.
By following these sizing principles balancing bellows, soft springs, large

actuator diaphragm and, if required, high KVS values the system deviation
in self-operated regulators can be kept to a minimum. However, proportio-
nal-action coefficients that are too high, especially when realized in combi-
nation with oversized KVS values, involve the risk that the control loop starts to
oscillate. The damping of the measured pressure signal through restrictions
in the control lines to the diaphragm actuator also has its limits.
The described correlations clearly show that the system deviation in

self-operated regulators strongly depends on the respective design. The sys-
tem deviation in self-operated regulators can therefore be significantly redu-
ced by the appropriate measures.
SAMSON AG 00/07
19
Appendix A1:
Technical Information L101 EN; SAMSON AG
[2] Controllers and Controlled Systems

[3] Temperature Regulators

[4] Regelungstechnik in der Versorgungstechnik

Verlag C.F. Mller GmbH, Karlsruhe
APPENDIX
SAMSON AG V74/ HRB
20
Part 2 L202 EN
Figures
Fig. 1: Control loop with conventional instrumentation . . . . . . . . . 5
Fig. 2: Control loop with self-operated regulator . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Fig. 3: Energy supply of control equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Fig. 4: Balance of forces in a pressure reducing valve . . . . . . . . . 9
Fig. 5 Control cycle in self-operated pressure reducing valves . . . . 11
Fig. 6: Spring forces and characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 7: Ideal characteristic of a pressure reducing valve . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 8: Balance of forces in a pressure reducing valve with plug balanced

by a bellows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 9: Characteristic of a pressure reducing valve . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fig. 10: System deviation with different proportional-action coefficients. 18
FIGURES
SAMSON AG 00/07
21
NOTES
SAMSON AG V74/ HRB
22

2000/07 L202 EN

Temperature Regulators
2
Part 2 Self-operated Regulators

SAMSON AG Phone (+49 69) 4 00 94 67
Part 2 L205 EN
Temperature Regulators
Temperature regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Liquid expansion principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Sensor volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Filling medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Adsorption principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Vapor pressure principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
How the sensor design influences the dynamic behavior . . . . . . . . 12
Types of bulb sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Set point adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
CONTENTS
Excess temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Mounting position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Dynamic behavior of sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Valves and their applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Force-balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Mixing and diverting valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Globe valves in cooling service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Appendix A1: Additional literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

SAMSON AG 99/12
3
Self-operated Regulators Temperature Regulators
SAMSON AG V74/ HS
4
Part 2 L205 EN
Temperature regulators
The characteristic feature of self-operated temperature regulators is their

compact design, including a sensor, a valve and a capillary tube. Their sim-
ple operating principle is based on fundamental mechanical, physical and
thermodynamic laws.
A temperature control loop with a heat exchanger is shown in Fig.1. When temperature
the water has left the heat exchanger and circulates in the domestic hot water control loop
loop, its temperature must be kept constant. In the heating loop, a heat trans-
fer medium, e.g. hot water, circulates through the heat exchanger and trans-
fers part of its heat to the domestic hot water loop. If we assume that the
temperature of the hot water remains constant, the transferred heat quantity
depends on the flow rate. The flow of hot water is adjusted by the
self-operated regulator.
The sensor measures the temperature of the variable to be controlled and

converts the measured value into a travel signal which is used as output vari-
able. The sensor output signal is transmitted via the capillary tube to the valve
where the signal changes the position of the plug as required. Temperature
regulators obtain their actuating power from the medium to be controlled, so
they do not need supply lines or auxiliary devices. This is the most important
benefit of self-operated regulators. They keep costs low, while exhibiting
high operational reliability.
temperature
self-operated
sensor
regulator
heating loop domestic hot

water loop
heat exchanger
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 1: Temperature control loop with heat exchanger
5
Sensors
Sensors are used to measure the temperature of the medium to be controlled.

measurement is based A good sensor must fulfill two important requirements. It must respond
on three methods quickly to temperature changes and provide accurate values of variables
that change over time. The self-operated regulator measures variables ac-
cording to the three following principles:
4 liquid expansion
4 adsorption
4 vapor pressure
These principles utilize the change in volume, in structure or the conversion of
a matters state of aggregation.
Liquid expansion principle
When measuring the expansion of a liquid, the quality of the results depends
to a great extent on two factors: the sensor volume and the specific heat ca-
pacity of the filling medium.
h2,0
V2,0
V 2.0
h 2.0
1: sensor 2
h
2: operating element
h2
V2
3: cylinder
1 V1=V2 h 1 < h2
D2
V1.0=V2.0 h1.0 < h2.0
h1,0
h 1.0
3
VV
1.0
1,0
h1
V1
D1
SAMSON AG V74/ HS
Fig. 2: Expansion of a liquid in a cylinder
6
Part 2 L205 EN
Sensor volume
Solids, gases and almost all liquids expand when the temperature increases.
This physical principle of expansion is utilized by thermometers. An increase
in temperature causes the liquid level in a capillary to rise and the height of
the liquid column indicates the measured temperature.
A sensor operating on the liquid expansion principle is shown in Fig. 2. The expansion in the
liquid expands in the cylinder when the temperature rises. As the wall of the cylinder
cylinder prevents lateral expansion, the liquid expands only in the axial di-
rection, pushing the piston and the connected pin upward.
The increase in volume can be calculated as follows:
V = V0 T
The expansion of the filling medium is determined by two factors - the spe-
cific coefficient of expansion which depends on the type of fluid used and
the change in temperature T.
The height of the pin protruding from the cylinder is a measure for the expan- expansion as a function
sion and represents a function of the temperature (h=f(T)). To achieve a par- of temperature
ticular travel of the pin h, the shape of the operating element must be
considered and adapted as required. Generally, small sensor volumes yield
larger travels than large volumes (Fig. 2). In instrumentation, small sensor
volumes are preferred since the measuring span is better represented when
the pin travel is large. In this way, more accurate measurement results are
obtained. However, a disadvantage of small-volume sensors is the low
power transmission. When sizing a sensor, a compromise must be found be-
tween the change in travel and temperature as well as the increase in force.
SAMSON AG 99/12
7
Filling medium
To quickly obtain accurate measurements, the quantity of heat a sensor must

small heat capacity for absorb and release should be as low as possible. This can be achieved either
fast-responding sensors by keeping the volume or the mass low, or by choosing a filling fluid with a
low specific heat capacity. The quantity of heat stored in the fluid calculates
as follows:
W = cp m T
cp is the specific heat capacity, m the mass and T the change in temperature
in C. Note that the specific heat capacity is not constant, but changes with
the temperature.
water not suitable as Due to its high specific heat capacity, water is not suitable as filling medium.
filling medium It has yet another disadvantage. With the exception of water, all liquids ex-
pand continuously with increasing temperatures and condense when the
temperatures fall. Water, however, reaches its highest density at 4 C and
expands at higher as well as lower temperatures. Therefore, the temperature
measured in these ranges would not be clear.
SAMSON temperature sensors use low-viscous, synthetic oil as filling me-

dium. This liquid is harmless, i.e. it endangers neither health nor environ-
ment. It can be discharged with the waste water if leakage occurs (water
danger class 0). Formerly used silicone oils were not accepted by the auto-
motive industry since silicone oils cause wetting problems with water-based
lacquer.
Apart from liquids, resins and elastomers can also be used as filling fluid. Ex-
pansion resins are particularly favorable when a great change in volume is
to be achieved within a narrow temperature range.
SAMSON AG V74/ HS
8
Part 2 L205 EN
CO2 CO2
T1,p1 T1 > T 2
activated carbon
p1 > p 2
Fig. 3: CO2 molecules depositing on activated carbon
Adsorption principle
The adsorption principle is based on a physical method. The temperature

sensor contains activated carbon and carbon dioxide. When the sensor is
heated by the medium to be measured, the activated carbon releases single activated carbon
CO2 molecules. The pressure inside the sensor (Fig. 3) increases, represent- releases CO2 molecules
ing a significant value for each temperature value. When the internal pres-
sure is transmitted via a control line to the operating bellows, the valve
position is changed with respect to the temperature.
The most important benefit of the adsorption principle is its good adaptation flexible application...
to the respective application. The measuring span of an adsorption sensor
can be set in two ways:
4 different types of activated carbon and gases yield different pres-

sure-temperature curves;
4 varied filling conditions yield different operating ranges. Four overlap-

ping set point ranges are available, covering the range from 0 to 150 C.
The disadvantage of adsorption sensors is that their thrust is much smaller ... but small thrust
than that developed by vapor-pressure or liquid-expansion sensors.
SAMSON AG 99/12
9
Vapor pressure principle
The vapor pressure principle is based on a thermodynamic method. When a

liquid is subjected to heat, it begins to boil at a certain temperature and
steam is generated. The boiling temperature, however, depends on the pre-
vailing pressure. The lower the pressure, the lower the temperature at which
the liquid starts to boil.
Example: In an open vessel, water boils at 100 C. The boiling temperature

in a pressure cooker, however, is considerably higher because the pressure
created in the airtight cooker is much higher.
sensor system utilizes The steam pressure curves of hydrocarbons are plotted in Fig. 4. When the
steam pressure curve temperature of the medium to be measured increases, the boiling pressure in
the closed sensor system increases as well, following the rising steam curve.
Depending on the measured temperature, a significant pressure is created in
the sensor. The internal sensor pressure acts on a bellows in the thermostat,
generating a thrust. The filling medium in sensors for self-operated regula-
tors often is a mixture of hydrocarbon compounds (HC-compounds).
propane n-butane
100
n-pentane
10 n-heptane
pv [bar]
0,1
0.1
-50 0 50 100 150 200
T [C]
SAMSON AG V74/ HS
Fig. 4: Steam pressure curves of hydrocarbons
10
Part 2 L205 EN
The maximum ambient temperature must be minimum 15 K lower than the

set point to prevent the filling medium from vaporizing in the control line.
The basic properties of the different measurement methods are compared in

the following table.
Sensor liquid solids vapor adsorption

expansion expansion pressure
thrust strong strong medium weak
expansion linear almost linear not linear linear

behavior
excess temp. low low medium high

safety
mount. position any any defined any
time constant medium large small small
Table 1: Properties of different sensor systems

SAMSON AG 99/12
11
How the sensor design influences

the dynamic behavior
Types of bulb sensors
Bulb sensors are in direct contact with the medium. The resulting heat ex-
change is characterized by the heat transfer coefficient.
sensors require large The heat transfer coefficients of liquids are remarkably higher than those of
heat transfer surfaces gases. Temperature changes of a liquid act therefore faster on the sensor
case, the filling medium and finally the valve position. When sizing the tem-
perature sensor, the surface provided for heat transfer must be as large as
possible. While the cylindrical surface of a bulb sensor is sufficient for mea-
suring water and other liquids, gases require a specially manufactured
four-bulb sensor. In this sensor, the ratio between the sensor surface and the
volume of the filling medium is larger than that of the bulb sensor.
Y
water
1
0.6 air
bulb sensor
0.2
t [s]
200 400 600 800
Y
1 water
0.6 air four-bulb

sensor
0.2
t [s]
200 400 600 800
SAMSON AG V74/ HS
Fig. 5: Unit step response of a bulb sensor and a four-bulb sensor
12
Part 2 L205 EN
measuring span for KP1 measuring span for KP2
H100 H100
KP2 > KP1
H0 H0
TA TE TA TE
Fig. 1: Effect of KP on measuring span
Fig. 5 compares the unit step response of a bulb sensor with that of a
four-bulb sensor after they have been immersed into warm circulating water
and into an air duct. The temperature difference is so big that the pin passes
through its entire travel. Particularly in the air duct, the larger sensor volume
proves favorable. The pin of the four-bulb sensor almost reaches its final tra-
vel after twelve minutes, while the bulb sensor takes 40 minutes, which is too
slow for fast control loops.
Set point adjustment
Self-operated regulators usually exhibit proportional control action (P regu- control action of
lators). In the case of self-operated temperature regulators, the P action self-operated regulators
causes the valve travel to change proportionally with the measured tempera-
ture T. The proportional-action coefficient is KP (formerly: proportional band
xP; xP = 100%/KP). The following equation describes the control action of
temperature regulators.
h = KP * T
SAMSON AG 99/12
13
large travel As described in the Control Engineering Fundamentals (see also Lit [2]), P re-
at small T gulators have a steady-state error. When the steady-state error is to be kept
small, a large proportional-action coefficient is required (small proportional
band). This means for the temperature regulator that a large travel must be
achieved at a small T. The measuring span of the sensor becomes accord-
ingly smaller (Fig. 6).
universal However, narrow measuring spans are an obstacle to the universal applica-
application requires tion of sensors. Therefore, the temperature regulator in Fig. 7 is equipped
set point adjuster with a set point adjuster. In the sensor, an externally adjustable piston can be
moved to change the volume of the system. When the piston is pushed into
the right cylinder, the pin in the operating element is lifted, providing the re-
quired volume. As a result of the changed pin position, the travel position of
the valve is changed, too.
Excess temperature
When the temperature reaches the upper limit of the set point range, the pin
is fully extended. The valve is in its end position and the liquid fills the sensor
completely. When the temperature rises above this value, the liquid in the
sensor protected sensor cannot expand further. If no equalizing volume is provided, the rising
against excess
temperature
pin
operating
piston
element
SAMSON AG V74/ HS
Fig. 7: Set point adjustment at temperature sensor
14
Part 2 L205 EN
set point
adjuster
connection to excess
operating element temperature
spring
gasket
piston
Fig. 8: Pressure relief fitting at sensor
internal pressure will damage the sensor. To prevent this, a pressure relief fit-
ting is installed (Fig. 8).
When excess temperatures occur, the rising filling pressure acts on the piston
bottom and pushes the piston out of the sensor against the force of the excess
temperature spring. This increases the sensor volume. The excess tempera-
ture spring has no effect on the set point adjustment.
Mounting position
A prerequisite for the proper functioning of temperature control systems is wrong position affects
the optimum location of the sensor. It should be totally immersed in the me- measurement results
dium to be measured. Fig. 9 illustrates various mounting positions. If the sen-
sor is mounted perpendicular to the flow direction (Fig.9 d), the sensor
surface is in contact with the medium only shortly. In this case, the absorbed dead times must be
heat quantity can be too small to yield accurate measurement results. avoided
Another important requirement is that the sensor measure nearly without

dead time. Dead times occur, for example, in a heating system when the sen-
sor is not located directly at the heat source, e.g. the heat exchanger, but far
SAMSON AG 99/12
15
away in the heating pipe. In this case, temperature changes are measured
with delay.
a) correct b) still possible
c) less suitable d) wrong
Fig. 9: Sensor locations

SAMSON AG V74/ HS
16
Part 2 L205 EN
Dynamic behavior of sensors
The dynamic behavior of a self-operated regulator depends on the dynamic

behavior of its sensor. The dynamic behavior is characterized by the time
constant . The constant describes the time the pin needs to reach approxi-
mately 63 percent of the new operating point when forced by a step change
in temperature.
When looking at the sensor from the viewpoint of control engineering, the sensor and thermowell
sensor can be regarded as energy store. Its dynamic behavior can be de- both exhibit PT1 action
scribed by means of an exponential function using the time constant T1=
(first-order delay). When mounting a thermowell, another energy store is
added to the system. Hence, a second-order system is created. To describe
sensors:
Y
A: vapor pressure
A
1 B: adsorption
0.8 B C: liquid expansion

sensors
Y0.63 C
0.2
A B 20 40 60 80 100
C
t[s]
Y
1
B
0.6 A sensors with

thermowell
C
0.2
20 40 60 80 100 t[s]
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 10: Unit step responses of sensors
17
such a system, the time constant Tu and the build-up time Tg can be used. For
further details, please refer to the Technical Information L102 EN.
As can be seen in Fig. 10, small time constants are typical to fast-responding
sensors.
thermowells prolong Table 2 lists the time constants of the different SAMSON sensors. Measure-
the response time ments have been made in water. You can see from the table below that a
thermowell used with an adsorption and a vapor pressure sensor causes
long delays. So the fast response times inherent to those sensors are practi-
cally eliminated and they are almost as slow as liquid-expansion sensors.
Principle type without thermowell with thermowell
liquid expansion 2213 70 120
2231 70 120
2232 65 110
2233 25
2234 15
2235 10
adsorption 2430 15 30 40 80
2212 40
2430-L 8
2439 40
vapor pressure 2430-3 3 3 55
2403 40
sensor diameters d= 9.5 16 div. 9.5 16 div.
Table 2: Effect of thermowell on time constant

SAMSON AG V74/ HS
18
Part 2 L205 EN
Standard materials for sensors and thermowells are usually copper or bron- sensor material:
ze because of their excellent conductivity. For aggressive media, stainless bronze and copper
steel versions are used which, however, increase the time constants of the
sensors by approximately ten percent. With thermowells, stainless steel does
not affect the time constant.
Thermowells are not suited to be used with sensors for air. Due to the special
sensor shape, a narrow air gap is formed between the thermowell and the
sensor, which has an insulating effect. The time constant of an air sensor with
thermowell would be much higher than that of a standard sensor with
thermowell.
NOTE: You may find technical literature where variables, such as T0.5
(half-value period) or T0.9 (90% value) are used to describe the dynamic be-
havior of sensors. These values can be calculated for first-order systems us-
ing the equation below and the time constant :

y = (1 e T )
T0.5 = 0.7
T0.9 = 2.3
SAMSON AG 99/12
19
Valves and their applications
Force-balancing
The signal pressure of self-operated regulators is generated by the expan-

sion of the filling medium in the operating element. To make the interaction of
the different forces understandable, a valve balanced by a bellows is de-
spring and actuating scribed in the following example (see also Lit [3]).
force are balanced in a
The upstream pressure p1 and the downstram pressure p2 acting on the valve
state of equilibrium
plug are balanced by the bellows. As a result, the actuating force FA is op-
posed only by the pre-loaded spring FF (Fig. 11). Both forces are balanced in
a state of equilibrium.
FA1 FF1
T1 = const.
FA2 FF2
T2 = T1 + T
SAMSON AG V74/ HS
Fig. 11: Force balance after increase in temperature
20
Part 2 L205 EN
The self-operated regulator is used to reduce or increase the flow rate when
the temperature at the measuring point rises or falls.
The temperature is regulated as follows:
4 When the medium is heated, the filling liquid in the operating element ex-
pands and exerts the actuating force F A on the valve.
4 The valve closes against the spring force FF, reducing the flow of the heat-
ing medium.
4 When the flow is reduced, the temperature falls until a new equilibrium of
forces and, hence, a new valve position is reached.
NOTE: When sizing a system including a heat exchanger, the upstream tem-
perature must be minimum 10 K above the set point temperature to ensure
safe closing of the valve.
SAMSON AG 99/12
21
A AB
Fig. 12: Three-way mixing valve
Mixing and diverting valves
Heating and cooling control systems require different valve styles. Globe val-
ves control one flow to adjust the desired temperature. Three-way valves, on
the other hand, mix or divert two heat flows.
A AB
SAMSON AG V74/ HS
Fig. 13: Three-way diverting valve
22
Part 2 L205 EN
Three-way valves have three ports (A, B, AB), while globe valves have two.
When no actuating force is exerted on the valve, a return spring ensures that
the double plug is firmly placed on one of the two seats. In mixing valves
medium flow through
(Fig.12), the heating medium enters at port B via the seat/plug assembly and
mixing valves
leaves through port AB. Port A is closed. When an actuating force acts on the
control task: constant temperature in the consumer loop
flow control mixing diverting
three-way three-way
globe valve mixing valve diverting valve
when temperature increases
A opens A closes
valve closes
B closes B opens
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 14: Example of a heating system
23
plug stem, the valve moves towards its other end position, reducing the flow
through the inlet port B and opening the inlet port A.
medium flow through The flow through diverting valves (Fig. 13) is quite different. Here, the cool-
diverting valves ing medium enters at port AB. The streams are diverted according to the
valve position and finally leave through the ports A and B.
control task: constant temperature in the consumer loop
flow control mixing diverting
three-way three-way
globe valve diverting valve
mixing valve
when temperature increases
A opens A closes
valve opens B closes B opens
SAMSON AG V74/ HS
Fig. 15: Example of a cooling system
24
Part 2 L205 EN
The operating principle of the valves and their application in a heating and a
cooling system are illustrated in Figs. 13 and 14.
The Figs. 13 and 14 show typical installation examples where the valves can installing valves in
be installed either in the flow pipe or in the return pipe. In heating systems heating or cooling
with high temperatures and low pressures, cavitation can cause problems, systems
therefore the valve should be installed in the cooler return pipe.
When engineering the heating or cooling installation, make sure that the
process medium flows in the opening direction of the plug of the mixing or di-
verting valve so that "vibrations" near the closing position are prevented.
Otherwise the small surface, the high velocity and the low pressure would
cause the plug to be seized in the seat and released again when the flow is
interrupted.
SAMSON AG 99/12
25
Globe valves in cooling service
The globe valves described above close when the temperature at the sensor
rises, hence, they are suitable for heating service. In cooling installations,
reversing device however, a valve is required that opens with increasing temperature. This
changes can be achieved either by changing the seat/plug position or by installing a
operating direction reversing device (Fig. 16) between the sensor and the bellows housing of a
normal globe valve. In the latter case, the valve is closed by the spring force
and opens when the temperature rises.
plug stem
connection to
operating
element
reversing device
Fig. 16: Reversing device

SAMSON AG V74/ HS
26
Part 2 L205 EN
Appendix A1:
Additional literature
[2] Controllers and Controlled Systems

[3] Self-operated Regulators

APPENDIX
SAMSON AG 99/12
27
Figures
Fig. 1: Temperature control loop with heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . 5
Fig. 2: Expansion of a liquid in a cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Fig. 3: CO2 molecules depositing on activated carbon . . . . . . . . . 9
Fig. 4: Steam pressure curves of hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fig. 5: Unit step response of a bulb sensor and a four-bulb sensor . . . 12
Fig. 6: Effect of KP on measuring span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 7: Set point adjustment at temperature sensor . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 8: Pressure relief fitting at sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 9: Sensor locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Fig. 10: Unit step responses of sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Fig. 11: Force balance after increase in temperature. . . . . . . . . . 20
Fig. 12: Three-way mixing valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Fig. 13: Three-way diverting valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

FIGURES
Fig. 14: Example of a heating system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Fig. 15: Example of a cooling system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Fig. 16: Reversing device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

SAMSON AG V74/ HS
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SAMSON AG 99/12
Part 2 L205 EN
29
NOTES
NOTES
SAMSON AG V74/ HS
30
ISO 9001

1999/12 L205 EN

Cavitation in Control Valves
3
Part 3 Control Valves
Should you have any questions or comments, please contact:
SAMSON AG Phone: +49 69 4009-1467

V74 / Training Fax: +49 69 4009-1716
Weismllerstrae 3 E-mail: schulung@samson.de
60314 Frankfurt Internet: http://www.samson.de
Part 3 L351 EN
Cavitation in Control Valves
Symbols and units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Incipient cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Bubble implosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Cavitation intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Cavitation resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Avoiding cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Operation with cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
CONTENTS
Influence on the hydraulic characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Changes in fluid properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Cavitation noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Cavitation luminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Appendix A1:
List of references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
SAMSON AG 03/11
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Control Valves Cavitation in Control Valves
Symbols and units

A free cross-sectional area at the restriction [mm2]
C bubble volume per volume unit [-]
cF sound velocity in the fluid [m/s]
CT torque coefficient [-]
dh hydraulic diameter [mm]
E modulus of elasticity [N/mm]
E(f) spectral energy [W]
f frequency [s1]
FF critical pressure ratio factor [-]
FL pressure recovery factor [-]
G constant [Nm]
H pressure height [bar]
HV Vickers hardness [-]
i index of throttling step [-]
k exponent for the ratio of erosion velocity [-]
K compressibility [m2/N]
KC pressure ratio at incipient cavitation influence

on flow rate [-]
KR cavitation resistance [h/mm3]
Kv flow coefficient [m3/h]
LWi unweighted sound power (inside) [dB]

SAMSON AG V74/ Dob/Zin
MT torque [Nm]
n number of stages, times or events [-]
N amount of substance [mol]
4
Part 3 L351 EN
p pressure [N/m2]
pC critical thermodynamic pressure [bar]
pC pressure in the bubble [N/m2]
pG partial pressure of the gas [N/m2]
pmin minimum pressure in the control valve [bar]
pN standard pressure [N/m2]
pV vapor pressure [N/m2],

[bar]
p1 upstream pressure [bar]
p2 downstream pressure [bar]
Q flow rate [m3/h]
r distance between sound source and observer [m]
R nucleus or bubble radius [m]
RE final radius of cavitation bubble [m]
RG gas constant [N/mm2]
Rk critical nucleus radius [m]
Rmax maximum radius of cavitation bubble [mm]
Rm tensile strength [N/mm2]
Rp 0.2 yield point at 0.2 % expansion [N/mm2]
R0 initial radius of cavitation bubble [m]
s distance between the center of the bubble

to the boundary [mm]
t time [s]
Ti temperature in the bubble [K]

SAMSON AG 03/11
T ambient temperature [K]
U circumference of the restriction [mm]
5
UR centripetal velocity [m/s]
UR ultimative resilience [N/mm]
V(t) rate of change in bubble volume [m/s]
v kinematic velocity [m/s]
W reference deformation [N/mm2]
xF pressure ratio [-]
xFZ valve-specific cavitation coefficient [-]
y load of the control valve in percent [%]
capillary constant [N/m]
expansion [mm]
B rupture expansion when yield point is equal

to tensile stress [mm]
F acoustical efficiency factor [-]
B rupture strength [N/mm2]
opening angle of the butterfly disc []
kinematic viscosity [mm2/s]
F fluid density [kg/m3]

6
Part 3 L351 EN
Introduction
Cavitation has been a familiar phenomenon for a long time particularly in

shipping. In 1917, the British physicist Lord Rayleigh was asked to investi-
gate what caused fast-rotating ship propellers to erode so quickly. He discov-
ered that the effect of cavitation, already proved in experiments by Reynolds
in 1894, was the source of the problem. Despite numerous investigations into
the subject of cavitation in the years that followed, many of the accompany-
ing effects have still not yet been completely explained. This is no wonder
considering the complexity of the process involving the areas of acoustics,
hydrodynamics, thermodynamics, optics, plasma physics and chemistry.
Cavitation can be caused in a fluid by energy input. For example, a laser

beam creates a plasma in liquids which causes the liquid to evaporate creat-
ing a cavity. Ultrasonic waves can be used to induce complex high-fre-
quency alternating compression and rarefaction phases in liquids which
cause cavitation. In this way, cavitation effects can be applied usefully for
cleaning surfaces, for non-invasive operations in the field of medicine and
for breaking down agglomerates in the textile finishing industry. In sewage
treatment plants, cavitation is used to break down molecules and bacteria
cell walls, break up pollutants and dissolve out minerals from organic mate-
rial.
Furthermore, cavitation can arise in hydrodynamic flows when the pressure

drops. This effect is, however, regarded to be a destructive phenomenon for
the most part. In addition to pump rotors, control valves are particularly ex-
posed to this problem since the static pressure at the vena contracta even at
moderate operating conditions can reach levels sufficient for cavitation to
start occurring in liquids.
SAMSON AG 03/11
7
The consequences for a control valve as well as for the entire control process
vary and are often destructive:
4 Loud noise
4 Strong vibrations in the affected sections of the plant
4 Choked flow caused by vapor formation
4 Change of fluid properties
4 Erosion of valve components
4 Destruction of the control valve
4 Plant shutdown
8
Part 3 L351 EN
Cavitation
Cavitation shall be generally understood as the dynamic process of the for-

mation and implosion of cavities in fluids.Cavitation occurs, for instance,
when high flow velocities cause the local hydrostatic pressure to drop to a
critical value which roughly corresponds to the vapor pressure of the fluid.
This causes small bubbles filled with steam and gases to form. These bubbles
finally collapse when they reach the high-pressure areas as they are carried
along by the liquid flow. In the final phase of bubble implosion, high pres-
sure peaks are generated inside the bubbles and in their immediate sur-
roundings. These pressure peaks lead to mechanical vibrations, noise and
material erosion of surfaces in walled areas. If cavitation is severe, the hy-
draulic valve coefficients as well as the fluid properties change.
SAMSON AG 03/11
9
Incipient cavitation
The term cavitation is derived from the Latin verb cavitare meaning to hol-
low out, thus referring to the formation of cavities.
To create cavities in fluids, the fluid must first be expanded and then rup-
tured. Theoretically, fluids can absorb high tensile strengths or negative
pressures. Ackeret [1] estimates the negative pressure required to cause cav-
itation in pure water at 20 C, based on the minimum of the van der Waals
curve, and receives a theoretically possible tensile strength of 104 bar which
corresponds approximately to the reciprocal compressibility of water.
The tensile strength of Inhomogeneities (disturbances) in the quasi-crystalline structure of water,

the medium is reduced however, reduce the possible tensile strengths by minimum one order of
by the disturbance magnitude. In all probability, submicroscopic accumulations of steam or gas
molecules are created at these disturbances with the molecules being in an
unstable equilibrium with the fluid. In the case of external tensile strengths
(negative pressure), these nuclei can exceed a critical diameter and then
grow spontaneously as steam is formed.
p [bar]
1500
1200
Tensile strength
900
600
300
T
0
o
0 20 40 60 80 100 [ C]
Fig. 1: Theoretical tensile strength values for perfect water
10
Part 3 L351 EN
By means of statistical examination, Becker and Dring [2] determined the

probability for a critical nucleus to occur in dependence of the temperature,
resulting in the theoretical tensile strength values for perfect water shown in
Fig. 1.
If these values were actually reached for industrial fluids, cavitation in con-
nection with hydraulic systems would not be a matter for discussion. The
highest values known until now were derived by measuring centrifugal force
as a function of the temperature with extremely pure water. As shown in
Fig. 2, the highest value to be achieved was only at 280 bars [3].
Fig. 2 also shows one of the many anomalies of water, i.e. the strong reduc-
tion of tensile strength near the freezing point which is caused by the forma-
tion of water crystals.
p [bar]
280
240
200
160
120
80
40
T
0
0 200 400 [oC]
Fig. 2: Tensile strength values derived from measurements for pure water
SAMSON AG 03/11
11
The discrepancy between the theoretically and experimentally (under ideal

conditions) determined strength values shows that the microscopic bubbles
Cavitation nuclei are filled with gas and steam (cavitation nuclei), which exist in the fluid and
decisive for the occur- whose existence in water can be explained according to the model by
rence of cavitation Harvey [4], are a decisive factor in the occurrence of cavitation.
Spherical cavitation nuclei are stable when the fluid pressure p acting on the
bubble surface and the partial pressure 2/ R resulting from the surface ten-
sion are in equilibrium with the sum of the partial pressures inside the bub-
ble, i.e. the vapor pressure pV and the pressure of the enclosed gas volume
pG:
2
pG + pV = +p (1)
R
In this equation, R is the radius of the bubble and is the capillary constant. If
you consider the volume change of the bubble to be isothermal, the following
can be derived from the general gas law for spherical nuclei:
N RG T G
pG = = 3 (2)
4 R
R3
3
and with (1)
G 2
p pV = (3)
R3 R
with G being proportional to the gas volume contained in the nucleus.
12
Part 3 L351 EN
Rk [mm]
10
1
Unstable
area G=10-7 Nm
0.1 G=10-8 Nm
G=10-9 Nm
G=10-10 Nm
0.01
G=10-11 Nm
G=10-12 Nm p p
V
0.001
-0.1 0 0.1 [bar]
Fig. 3: Critical nucleus radius with varying gas concentrations
The representation p pV = f(R) with G as a parameter exemplifies incipient

cavitation: (Fig. 3)
When parameters are fixed, at first the radius of the nucleus will increase
only slowly as the static pressure decreases. A small change in pressure only
results in unlimited bubble growth, i.e. incipient cavitation, after a critical
pressure difference has been reached which is mathematically defined by
d(p pV)/dR = 0 and which is derived from:
4 2
(p p V )krit = (4)
3 3 G
SAMSON AG 03/11
13
Large nuclei, i.e. bubbles with a large G value, start to cavitate first. Their
sudden growth accelerates the ambient fluid and reduces the pressure lo-
cally. This pressure reduction causes the next smaller bubbles to collapse,
which in turn build up a pressure field that causes even smaller bubbles to
collapse, and so forth.
As a result, the critical pressure at which cavitation stops is higher than the
critical pressure at incipient cavitation. Lehmann and Young [5] examined
the phenomenon of cavitation hysteresis in depth and found that the end of
Incipient cavitation cavitation can be more easily reproduced than incipient cavitation. In partic-
starts just below ular cases, it therefore depends on the state of the liquid, especially the tem-
vapor pressure perature, spectrum of nuclei, the content of dissolved gases and the surface
tension, at which static pressure cavitation begins. Generally, this is just be-
low the vapor pressure. In practice, it is impossible to determine a liquids
spectrum of nuclei in advance for most applications. Therefore, it is common
practice in control valve sizing to describe the critical state of the cavitation
nuclei at incipient cavitation by means of the vapor pressure of the liquid.
The cavitation coefficient xFZ
In the case of less viscous liquid flows around streamlined bodies, the internal
friction compared to the pressure may be frequently neglected. The velocity
distribution of these types of flow can be calculated on the basis of the poten-
tial theory if the flow conditions are known. The pressure distribution along
the body contour is derived from Bernoullis equation so that a relationship
between the minimum pressure pmin and the critical pressure can be stated
according to equation (4).
Stalling flows occur in In case of stalling flows as they occur in control valves, the potential theory
control valves cannot be used to determine the minimum pressure. Instead, the cavitation
coefficient xFZ [6] has proven useful.
14
Part 3 L351 EN
p1 p2
p1
p2
pmin
pV
Fig. 4: Distribution of pressure in the valve
It is based on the assumption that, in a control valve, the ratio of the external
pressure difference (p1 p2) to the internal pressure difference (p1 pmin) for
all cavitation-free operating states equals a valve-specific value xFZ (Fig. 4):
p1 p 2
x FZ = (5)
p 1 p min
Since the minimum pressure occurs in one of the unsteady vortex cores Minimum pressure
downstream of the restriction, it cannot be determined by direct measure- occurs downstream of
ment. the restriction
SAMSON AG 03/11
15
LWi [dB]
xFZ xF
[-]
Fig. 5: Determining the cavitation coefficient xFZ
It is therefore assumed that the minimum pressure pmin equals the vapor pres-
The cavitation coeffi- sure pV of the fluid when cavitation noise begins, thus determining the pres-
cient xFZ is determined sure ratio xFZ as a function of the valve load y by means of noise
by noise measurements measurements [7] (Fig. 5).
xF = 0.4 xF = 0.6
xFZ = 0.3
Fig. 6: Formation of cavitation zones with various xF values
16
Part 3 L351 EN
If a valves xFZ values are known over the entire travel range, it can be determin-
ed in advance for all operating pressure ratios
p
xF = (6)
p1 pV
whether cavitation effects are to be expected. In case of an operating pressure The operating case
ratio xF < xFZ, there is no danger of cavitation occurring; when xF xFZ, a statio- xF = xFZ indicates
nary cavitation zone builds up whose expansion is roughly proportional to the incipient cavitation
difference (xF xFZ), (Fig. 6).
However, since the difference pV pcrit according to equation (4) is not cov-
ered by the operating pressure ratio xF, these relationships can strictly speak-
ing only be applied to media which conform to the test medium water
regarding their nuclei spectrum, surface tension and viscosity. Oldenziel [8]
clearly showed this by measuring the pressure ratio xF at incipient cavitation
as a function of the gas content of water (Fig. 7).
The experimental xFZ values should therefore be rounded to full five hun-
dredths to account for the accuracy limits of the process.
ml
l
28
Content of dissolved gases
24
20
16
12
4
xF
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 []
SAMSON AG 03/11
Fig. 7: Relation between the pressure ratio xF and the gas content
17
Bubble implosion
Pressure recovery leads Due to the pressure recovery inevitable in control valves, the bubbles that are
to bubble implosion filled with steam and gases reach zones of higher pressure where they im-
plode at high bubble wall velocities. Calculations on the kinetics of the bub-
ble collapse were made as early as 1917 by Rayleigh [9]. While neglecting
the surface tension and viscosity, Rayleighs calculations provide the implo-
sion pressure for a spherical evacuated single bubble
2 R03
p i = c F F UR = c F p 3 1 (7)
3 0 F RE
where cF and F are the sound velocity and the fluid density, UR is the centrip-
etal velocity, p0 the pressure at indefinite distance, R0 the initial radius and RE
the final radius of the bubble.
Gth [10] additionally accounts for the gas content of the cavitation bubbles

and, assuming an adiabatic compression (p V = const.), receives the fol-
lowing equation for the maximum implosion pressure.
1

Maximum implosion 1
p 1
p i max = p N ( 1) G (8)
pressure of a single pN
bubble
18
Part 3 L351 EN
Neglecting the thermal conduction which, however, should be very low due
to the short implosion time, for the occurring temperature
p 1 Maximum occurring
Ti max = T ( 1) G (9)
pN temperature
An evaluation of the equations as a function of the ratio partial pressure of the

gas inside the bubble pG to standard pressure pN, which is a measure for the
gas content of the bubble, supplies the following maximum values for T = 293 K
and = 1.4:
pG N
[-] p i max 2 T i max [K]
pN mm
0.1 1.3 610
0.05 7.2 990
0.01 405 3140
0.005 2290 5160
Table 1: Maximum values (pressure, temperature) with various gas content

SAMSON AG 03/11
19
Asymmetric bubble Due to the pressure gradients in the ambient fluid or the influence of rigid boun-
implosion leads to the daries, the cavitation bubbles generally deviate from the spherically symmetric
formation of a microjet shape. They implode forming a microjet, as high-speed films show and as indi-
cated according to [11] in Fig. 8 for three typical cases. Plesset and Chapman
[12] have analyzed the implosion process and found the proportionality
p pV
v jet (10)
F
for the jet velocity
Lauterborn [13] used a rotating mirror camera with a frame rate of

The jet velocity of the 900,000 pictures per second to show the formation of a microjet and determin-
microjet reaches ed maximum jet velocities between 50 and 100 m/s, which confirmed the valu-
up to 100 m/s es that have been theoretically determined by several authors.
Bubble moving into a

region of higher pressure
Bubble collapsing near the

wall of a rigid boundary
Hemispherical bubble
clinging to the wall of a
rigid boundary
Fig. 8: Diagram illustrating the collapse of a bubble
20
Part 3 L351 EN
The pressure created by a fluid jet impact on the wall of a rigid boundary can be
easily estimated if the fluid jet is assumed to be a elastic deformable solid.
The application of the principle of conservation momentum results in
F c F
p surge = F c F v jet +1
W c W
and because w c w >> F c F
p surge F c F v jet (11)
For water (F 1000 kg/m3, cF 1500 m/s), pressure surges with amplitudes
between 750 and 1500 N/mm are reached with the jet velocities mentioned
above. Depending on the size of the bubble (radius R), the surge
2R
t surge = (12)
cF
lasts between several microseconds and several milliseconds. The effect of one
single surge is limited to an area of only a few micrometers in diameter.
The damage to the surface is caused to a considerable extent by the impact of

the striking fluid jet and by the shock wave of the imploding bubble. Most prob-
ably, the high temperature in the imploding bubble itself is also a key factor.
SAMSON AG 03/11
21
In his publication [14], Lauterborn showed that the collapsing bubble,

which acquires a toroidal shape, becomes unstable and collapses at se-
veral locations.
These centers of collapse are the starting point for shock waves
which lead to the characteristic toroidal pattern of damage. The ex-
tent of damage depends mainly on the dimensionless parameter for
distance = s/Rmax , where s stands for the distance between the cen-
ter point of the bubble and the boundary at the maximum bubble radi-
us Rmax. A correlation between liquid jet and pattern of damage arises
only when < 0.7, if the bubble is already located at the solid bounda-
ry before it collapses. In this case, the jet reaches unobstructed the sur-
face and leaves an impression on the surface [14].
Knapp [15] showed for a stationary cavitation zone according to Fig. 9

that only one out of 30,000 bubbles implodes near the wall, thus ha-
ving a damaging effect. The number of high-energy surges per cm
reaches its maximum at the end of the cavitation zone (Fig. 9).
[Surges/cm2]
80
60
40 0 I0
20
I
I0
0
0 1 2 3 []
Fig. 9: Number of high-energy surges in a stationary cavitation zone
22
Part 3 L351 EN
Cavitation intensity
While the effect of a collapsing bubble can be very well described by theoret-
ical models, the cavitation intensity of a cavitation zone can currently only be
described in terms of quality. The following parameters are significant:
4 xFZ value of the control valve

4 operating pressure ratio xF
4 pressure difference p2 pV
4 geometry of the control valve downstream of the restriction
4 gas contents of the fluid
4 fluid viscosity
4 surface tension of the fluid
4 fluid density
The difference between the pressure in the bubble and the pressure at the site
of implosion acts as the driving force when the bubble collapses, see equa-
tions (10) and (11). Since the pressure in the bubble is almost equal to the va-
por pressure, and the ambient pressure at the site of implosion corresponds
approximately to the downstream pressure, the damaging effect of the bub-
ble increases as the difference p2 pV increases. If the difference between
downstream pressure and vapor pressure is less than 2 bars, as often is the
case in heat supply systems, there is no significant material erosion when
non-corrosive media are used. The cavitation zone extends and the number
of cavitation bubbles grows as the difference between the pressure ratio xF
and the valve-specific coefficient xFZ for incipient cavitation increase. On the
one hand, this leads to an increase in the damaging effect at first. On the ot- The gas diffusion
her hand, as the difference between xF and xFZ increases, the duration of the increases as the differ-
bubble growth phase increases as well. Consequently a larger amount of ga- ence between xF and
SAMSON AG 03/11
ses dissolved in the fluid diffuses into the bubble. xFZ increases
23
Diffused gas increases The diffused gas is transported with the bubble into the cavitation zone and is
the compressibility of released when the bubble collapses. As a result, the compressibility K of the
the fluid fluid increases in the area of the collapse, while the density F decreases. The
sound velocity drops as a consequence
1
cF = (13)
K F
The eroding effect The result according to equation (11) is a reduction in pressure surge ampli-
decreases as the com- tudes causing the eroding effect of the collapsing bubbles to decrease. The
pressibiliy increases cavitation wear under otherwise identical conditions is smaller with supersa-
turated liquids than with undersaturated liquids due to the same reasons. Be-
sides, an extreme undersaturation causes a drop in the critical pressure at
which incipient cavitation occurs to values far below the vapor pressure. This
means the incipient cavitation first occurs when the pressure ratio is greater
than xFZ and is less intense due to the lack of cavitation nuclei. The bubbles
implode all the more energetically, the larger the pressure gradient downst-
ream of the restriction is. At the given operating conditions, the pressure gra-
dient is determined by the geometry of the control valve. The gradient is
particularly large when the free jet hits the valve body wall close the restricti-
Turbulent mixing causes on. The energy dissipation is low as turbulent mixing has just started in this
the pressure to drop case, and the pressures close to the wall can reach values similar to the up-
stream pressure p1. The driving force for the bubble implosion is then appro-
ximately proportional (p1 pV) and not as described above (p2 pV).
A reduction in viscosity causes, when all other conditions remain the same, an
increase in the number and size of the bubbles. Additionally, the kinematic im-
pulse of the microjet at low liquid viscosity is greater than at high viscosity. If
laminar flow conditions are assumed due to the small size for the microjet, then
the jet velocity is inversely proportional to the viscosity.
24
Part 3 L351 EN
Then the much quoted exponential correlation between the material erosion m
and jet velocity v follows
k
m1 v 1
= k = 1 ... 8 (14)
m 2 v 2
for the distinct influence of operating viscosity on the material erosion
k
m1 2
= (15)
m 2 1
The pressures occurring when the bubble implodes are proportional accord- The erosion rate becomes
ing to equation (7) to the root of the density. This is why the erosion rate is more rapid as medium
particularly high when cavitation occurs in mercury or liquefied metals. density increases
The surface tension or capillarity makes the pressure in the bubble increase
according to equation (1). Therefore, liquids with smaller surface tension
than water cavitate at pressure ratios lower than xFZ. When the conditions
are otherwise the same, the size and number of cavitation bubbles increases
as the surface tension lessens, while the driving force during bubble implo-
sion is reduced. Technical literature and other sources supplies deviating de-
tails about the effect of surface tension on material erosion. It may, however,
be assumed that the surface tension influences incipient cavitation consider-
ably, but its effect on material erosion is small when the cavitation is pro-
nounced.
A certain judgement, that experienced engineers are most likely to have, is

needed to assess cavitation erosion as the effects of the above described pa-
rameters affect and overlap each other.
SAMSON AG 03/11
25
Cavitation erosion
The material surface, depending on its structure, is deformed, loosened and

Cavitation erosion is eventually eroded in particles in various ways due to the frequent strain from
subdivided into three the pressure waves created by the microjet occurring when the bubble col-
areas lapses. Fig. 10 shows how cavitation erosion is generally subdivided into
three areas.
4 In area I, termed the incubation period, a loss in weight is not yet measura-
ble.
4 Area II is characterized by an almost constant erosion rate. Areas and

depths of the material erosion increase with time.
4 In area III, the surface that is already strongly fractured reduces the proba-
bility for an implosion close to the surface as it acts as a kind of protective
cushion; the material erodes at a much slower rate.
III
Loss in weight
II
Time
Fig. 10: The course of development of cavitation erosion

26
Part 3 L351 EN
During the incubation period, the surface of ductile metals first only under-
goes elastic deformation and then plastic deformation. Dents and bulges
arise. Their number increases as time passes. After the deformability of the
material is exceeded at the end of the incubation period, fractures occur and
individual particles break off.
The deformation phase does not take place to a great extent with brittle met-
als due to the high density of dislocation obstacles. As a consequence, inter-
nal tensions form that exceed the material strength at the end of the
incubation phase. Fractures and ruptures occur that cause a monotonously
increasing weight loss. In cast iron, the graphite phase is eroded when the
cavitation strain starts, meaning an incubation period can only be mentioned
in conjunction with pearlite or ferrite erosion.
After the graphite nodules have been eliminated from spheroidal cast iron,
the soft ferrite phase flows into the emptied troughs. The pearlite acts as a
supporting frame and slows down surface deformation. The end of the incu-
bation period is reached when the ferrite breaks off at the trough edges after
strong deformation and the pearlite material areas break away due to mate-
rial fatigue.
In cast iron with lamellar graphite, the ferrite is eroded after the incubation
time elapses without much plastic deformation because after the graphite has
been removed, the contact between the ferrite blocks remains restricted to a
few metal bridges which cannot withstand the constant strain.
In ceramic material, microfractures start to appear right from the beginning

of the strain without undergoing any noticeable plastic deformation before-
hand. As the strain continues, the density of fractures continuously grows. Af-
ter the incubation time has elapsed, the fractures have spread and joined
each other and breakages occur. The incubation in plastics is similar to duc-
tile metals where plastic deformation, formation of cracks and spread of
cracks occurs. In crystalline plastics, these structure faults are formed by dis-
location, in amorphous plastics by the breaking up of atomic bonds.
SAMSON AG 03/11
27
In all materials, surface roughness in the area where the bubbles implode
leads to a noticeable increase in material erosion since the machining
notches help the bubbles to implode energetically and the ridges of the
roughly machined surfaces resist the imploding bubbles less than even sur-
faces would. The influence of the surface roughness must though be observed
in conjunction with the microhardness achieved by machining. According to
[16], an austenitic steel (EN material no. 1.4919, corresponding to
AISI 316 H) with a milled surface has a microhardness HV0.05 of 430,
whereas it has just 246 with an electrolytically polished surface.
28
Part 3 L351 EN
Cavitation corrosion
Apart from mechanical strain, corrosive and stress corrosive influences de-
termine the erosion rate of the material. The combination of cavitation erosi-
on and corrosion where the aggressive components can intensify each other
is termed cavitation corrosion. The effect of impacting liquid jets intensifies
the corrosive attack as the forming top and passivation layers are immedi-
ately worn away, causing the high initial corrosion rate typical of bright me-
tal surfaces to be kept as long as the strain lasts.
A beneficial factor for the corrosion process is also the free oxygen which the
cavitation bubbles absorb by diffusion, also from undersaturated liquids,
while they are growing and which they then release in the cavitation area
when they implode.
Additionally, the ions of a corrosive medium are likely to interact with the
crystallographic slip steps and fractures of areas that have undergone plastic
deformation due to liquid pressure waves. This leads to an accelerated mate-
rial destruction due to intensified fracture formation or due to fracture
spreading.
SAMSON AG 03/11
29
Cavitation resistance
Sample
Fig. 11: Cavitation chamber
Magnetostrictive transducers (Fig. 12) as well as cavitation chambers

(Fig. 11), electromagnetic, piezoelectric and ultrasonic vibrating instruments
are mostly used in laboratories to investigate cavitation resistance of materi-
als. In the magnetostrictive transducer, nickel laminations are excited to vi-
brate by high-frequency alternating currents.
Field coil
Heating/cooling Sonotrode
Sample
Fig. 12: Magnetostrictive transducer
30
Part 3 L351 EN
These vibrations are transferred to a coupled sonotrode, which is designed to

vibrate in response at the predetermined frequency. The material samples
are attached either to the free end of the rod and/or face it at a defined dis-
tance.
The liquid surrounding the free end of the rod cannot follow the high-fre-
quency rod oscillations due to its mass inertia, causing liquid cavities in the
form of small bubbles to be formed which erode the material when they im-
plode. The test set ups allow cavitation resistance of various materials to be
investigated under controlled conditions, making it possible to specify a cor-
relation between the mechanical material characteristics and the erosion
rate.
According to the investigations of R. Garcia and F.G. Hammitt [17], the cavi- Cavitation resistance KR
tation resistance KR is proportional to the deformation energy (introduced by
Hobbs) up to the point of fracture UR (ultimative resilience Fig. 13).
K R UR (16)
[N/mm2]
B
1. .
UR= B B
2
1 2
= . B
2
[mm]
B
SAMSON AG 03/11
Fig. 13: Material property UR
31
UR is a combined material property that describes to some extent the energy

which could be stored elastically in a material per unit of volume if the yield
point could be raised to the level of tensile stress.
Berger [16] describes the cavitation resistance with the relation
R m 1071
.
W 0 .125 HV 1971 .
KR (17)
E 0 .562 R p 0 .2 0 .618
In the equation, E stands for elasticity module, HV for Vickers hardness, Rm

for tensile strength and Rp 0.2 for the top yield point or the strength at 0.2%
elasticity. The good match of the values calculated according to the equa-
tion (17) with values determined in a cavitation chamber (nozzle sample)
can be seen in Fig. 14.
KRCK 45
AI Zn Mg
AI Cu Mg 1
KR
14 measured
calculated
12
10
GGG 40 (austenitic)
GGG 40
C10
42 Mn Cr 4 tempered
8
34 Cr Ni Mo 6
X 5 Cr Ni 18 9
X 90 Cr Mo V 18
Special brass
X 22 Cr Ni 17
6
C45 tempered
16 Mn Cr 5
Cu AI 10 Ni
St 50-2
90 Mn V8
42 Mn Cr 4
4
Ck 45
0
material
Fig. 14: Cavitation resistance

32
Part 3 L351 EN
The equations (16) and (17) are only suitable for assessing metals with suffi-
cient elasticity which allow the yield point and deformation energy to be de-
termined in a tensile test.
The applicability of the equations (16) and (17), that were derived from tests
with clear water and hydraulic fluid, is still restricted to cases using less cor-
rosive fluids. If cavitation corrosion as described in the section on cavitation
corrosion is expected, it is recommendable upon selecting the material to
pay attention primarily to the good corrosion resistance and then to take the
cavitation resistance into consideration.
SAMSON AG 03/11
33
Avoiding cavitation
As already explained on page 14, cavitation is avoided when the pressure

ratio xF at the control valve is smaller than the corresponding xFZ value for all
operating cases. If the operating pressure ratio xF is kept small by a clever
plant layout, the selection of the control valve decides whether the ratio
xF < xFZ is fulfilled and a cavitation-free flow can be guaranteed.
The xFZ value, which can theoretically be 1 (no pressure recovery) is deter-
mined considerably by the Carnot impact loss which is a function of the ope-
ning ratios (nominal size cross-section to restriction cross-section). The
The xFZ value increases impact loss and the xFZ value with it, increases as the opening ratio increases,
as the opening ratio whereas the Kv value drops as the opening ratio increases, which can also be
increases expressed by Kv Control valve/Kvs Ball valve.
The xFZ value range of various types of control valves is shown in Fig. 15 as a
function of the Kv value of the valve related to the Kvs value of a completely
open ball valve in the same nominal size.
The bandwidth of the xFZ value range is expressed to a great extent by the hy-
draulic diameter
A
dh = 4 (18)
U
the shape of the valve plug and seat and the number of pressure reduction
stages.
For the free cross-section A = DN2 /4 of a non-reduced ball valve, the cir-
cumference U = DN and thus the hydraulic diameter is equal to the nomi-

nal size DN.
Another expression for the hydraulic diameter is the valve style modifier Fd
used in the IEC 60534-2-1 standard [25].
34
Part 3 L351 EN
xFZ [-]
1 Linear valves
Rotary valve/ Butterfly valve
Ball Valves
dh < DN
dh = DN
Kv Control valve
Kvs Ball valve
0
0 1 [-]
Fig. 15: Control valve operating range without cavitation
In a linear valve with a parabolic plug, the free cross-section is ring-shaped

at small loads and the hydraulic radius is just a fraction of the nominal diam-
eter DN. This results in a large surface area of the free jet downstream of the
restriction which leads to an intensive impulse exchange with the surround-
ing medium and causes high pressure losses.
As can be seen in Fig. 15, ball valves only allow the medium to be controlled Linear valves allow
without cavitation at small pressure ratios. Butterfly valves and rotary plug control without any
valves are slightly better, whereas linear valves allow control without any cavitation even at
cavitation even at high pressure ratios when the plug is designed accord- high pressure ratios
ingly.
Control valves which can be fitted with anti-cavitation trims (Fig. 16) for re-
ducing cavitation and multi-stage axial plugs (Fig. 17) should be given a
special mention here.
SAMSON AG 03/11
35
Fig. 16: AC trim system (SAMSON)
The system illustrated in Fig. 16 is a seat and plug trim specially develo-
ped for cases where cavitation occurs and designed to be fitted in existing
valves. The trim has been optimized in a series of flow simulations and in-
tensive tests. The plug is double guided in the body to prevent mechanical
vibrations, and the plug contours have been designed for better flow cha-
racteristics. The seat diameter has not been reduced to keep the hydraulic
diameter as small as possible. In combination with the special shape of
the plug and seat, this is particularly effective. Additionally, a maximum
of four attenuation plates can be integrated into the seat to additionally
increase the xFZ value at high valve loads [18].
Fig. 17: Multi-stage axial plug (SAMSON Type 3255 Valve)
36
Part 3 L351 EN
For an initial rough assessment, it is possible to assume that the xFZi values of
each individual stage are the same in a valve with a multi-stage plug. Then,
the xFZ value is obtained for an n-stage control valve according to
x FZ = 1 (1 x FZi )
n
(19)
and for the Kv value ratio of each stage
K vi
= 1 x FZi (20)
K vi +1
The Kv value of an n-stage control valve arises from the Kvi values of each
individual stage according to
1
Kv = (21)
1 1 1
2
+ 2 +...+ 2
K v1 K v 2 K vn
The number of stages n required to manage an operating pressure ratio xF

free of cavitation is obtained when the xFZi value is known from
lg(1 x F )
n= (22)
lg(1 x FZi )
SAMSON AG 03/11
37
The relationships are easier to understand when looking at Fig. 18. It can be
seen that a five-stage valve whose individual stages each have an xFZi value
of 0.3 reaches an xFZ value of > 0.8, its Kv value is however just 30% of the
Kvn value of the last stage. The Kvn value corresponds approximately to the
Kvs value possible in a one-stage valve of the same nominal size. Besides the
axial stage plug, the radial stage plugs have proven themselves well in prac-
tice (Fig. 19, left).
The xFZ value of the perforated plug (Fig. 19, center) is determined by the
opening ratio and the hydraulic radius of the largest hole. The division of
holes should be kept to at least three hole diameters to avoid the free jets from
joining together before the impulse exchange with the surrounding medium
has finished. Just relatively small Kvs values (or large opening ratios) are pos-
sible especially with equal percentage characteristics. But they lead to high
xFZ values as shown in Fig. 15. Valves with perforated cages (Fig. 19, right)
function similarly to valves with perforated plugs.
Kv/Kvn xFZi = 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
1.0 n=1
0.8 n=2
0.6 n=3
n=4
0.4 n=5
0.2
0.1
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 xFZ
Fig. 18: xFZ values of multi-stage valves

38
Part 3 L351 EN
A special design (deviations, restriction cascades) of the ducts allows the

countermeasures which increase the xFZ value, for example, high opening
ratio, small hydraulic radius and multi-stage throttling, to be combined in
one valve. High xFZ values (i.e. low pressure recovery), on the one hand, re-
quire large opening ratios, and thus relatively small Kv values. Large Kv val-
ues related to the nominal size, on the other hand, always lead to relatively
small xFZ values. The xFZ values are listed in the data sheets of control valve
manufacturers. Specifications that are outside of the value range shown in
Fig. 15 should be viewed critically though.
Fig. 19: Plug designs

SAMSON AG 03/11
39
Operation with cavitation
Since xFZ values necessary for cavitation-free operation cannot always be

achieved, or the control valves are too susceptible to dirt or too expensi-
ve, making their use uneconomical, valves are often operated in condi-
tions where cavitation occurs. A troublefree operation with a satisfactory
service life can be guaranteed though if the effects of cavitation are taken
into consideration on sizing and selecting the valve. To ensure that the
valve body walls are outside the area at risk of erosion, a larger valve
should be selected than required by the valve sizing simply based on the
seat diameter. To achieve this, the nominal diameter should be selected to
ensure that a certain outlet velocity is not exceeded. It can then be assu-
med that the cavitation zones will not reach up to the valve walls, and that
the bubbles implode without any harm and with little effect (apart from
noise).
The following table helps to show whether erosion damage due to cavita-
tion is to be expected. This is the case when xF > xFcrit,cav as well as when
p1-p2 > pcrit,cav [18]. Additionally, a nominal valve size should be selec-
ted to ensure that the outlet velocity does not exceed 4 m/s.
xFcrit,cav pcrit,cav
Valve design [bar]
[-]
Single-stage linear valves 0,7 15

Single-stage linear valves with
0,7 25
stellited or hardened trim
3-stage linear valves 1,0 100
5-stage linear valves 1,0 200
Rotary plug valves 0,4 10
Butterfly and ball valves 0,25 5
Table 2: Limit values for preventing cavitation erosion
40
Part 3 L351 EN
Fig. 20: Areas of a parabolic plug at risk from erosion
The sealing slope and plug surface of parabolic plugs are particularly at The sealing slope and
risk from erosion (Fig. 20).The area around the sealing edge should be plug surface of parabo-
given a Stellite facing. A hard facing of the whole surface is recommen- lic plugs are particulary
ded when the cavitation intensity increases. at risk from erosion
V-port plugs are exposed less to cavitation attacks than parabolic plugs The diverted jet pre-
under the same operating conditions. Due to the diverted jet (Fig. 21), the vents the V-port plug
cavitation zones do not stick to the plug surface, meaning the cavitation from being eroded
bubbles implode almost without any effect.
SAMSON AG 03/11
Fig. 21: Diverted jet occurring with a V-port plug
41
The valve seat is not exposed to the cavitation attack when the medium
A medium flowing in flows against the closing direction. However, if the medium flows in the
the reverse direction reverse direction to protect the valve body walls and plug facing (risk of
increases the risk of pressure surge waves), the seat and plug surface are then particularly at
erosion risk from erosion. A satisfactory service life can only be achieved in this
case by using highly resistant materials.
The perforated plug (Fig. 22) is better suited for medium flow in the reverse di-
rection. A steep pressure gradient that makes the cavitation bubbles implode
forms in the center of the plug, i.e. in sufficient distance away from the surface
due to the collision of the partial flows. However, the cavitation zone moves out
A rising differential of the plug when the differential pressure rises, causing the body floor to
pressure can cause the erode. The above mentioned pressure ratios and differential pressures should
body floor to erode only be used as a reference for identifying the cavitation intensity. The limits
can be considerably reduced as a result of cavitation corrosion, especially
when corrosive fluids are used.
Fig. 22: Cavitation zone with a perforated plug

42
Part 3 L351 EN
Influence on the hydraulic

characteristics
The continuity of the fluid phase is interrupted when cavitation occurs and the Cavitation changes the
dynamic interaction between flow and its restriction is affected. Additionally, density and compressi-
cavitation makes the compressibility of the fluid increase locally and in this bility of a medium
way reduces the sound velocity (equation 13). The density of the fluid, too, is
drastically reduced by the bubble volume in the area of the restriction as the
pressure ratio rises.
These effects limit the flow rate in control valves (choked flow) if a certain dif-
ferential pressure (pmax) is exceeded as shown in Fig. 23.
Q FL
KC
xFZ
pmax
Fig. 23: The valve-specific factor FL

SAMSON AG 03/11
43
p1
pDK pmax
p2
pV
pDK
Fig. 24: The critical pressure pDK
The critical pressure is The critical pressure pDK is reached at the vena contracta at the differential
below vapor pressure pressure pmax, which is below the vapor pressure according to measure-
ments by Stiles [19] (Fig. 24).
Stiles found the relationship shown in Fig. 25 for the ratio between critical
pressure at the vena contracta and the vapor pressure
p DK
FF = (23)
pV
from measurements using Frigen 12, which can also be approached using
the following equation:
pV
FF = 0.96 0.28 (24)
pC
44
Part 3 L351 EN
Baumann [20] introduced the valve-specific factor FL for the ratio bet- FL: the factor for
ween the smallest differential pressure across the valve at which the cho- pressure recovery
ked flow starts, pmax and the critical differential pressure at the vena
contracta, pDK.
p max
FL 2 = (25)
p DK
FL value is the pressure recovery factor. It is determined from a flow rate measu-
rement as in Fig. 23. In this measurement, the upstream pressure is kept cons-
tant and the downstream pressure is reduced until choked flow starts. A detailed
description of the procedure is specified in IEC 60534, Part 3.
FF
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6 pV
pC
0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Fig. 25: FF factor used to determine the critical pressure ratio

SAMSON AG 03/11
45
The maximum value for differential pressure at which the flow rate is
achieved due to cavitation is obtained with the FL value and equation (23).
p max = FL 2 ( p 1 FF p V ) (26)
The first deviation in flow rate from the general measurement equation

Q = K v p (27)
0
is indicated by the pressure ratio.
p
KC = (28)
p1 pV
The Kc value is often referred to as the incipient cavitation index. Yet, inci-
pient cavitation already occurs, as shown in Fig. 23, at the much smaller
pressure ratio xFZ. If both coefficients are confused with another, it causes se-
rious mistakes in the assessment of the pressure recovery, the cavitation in-
tensity and noise emission.
The distribution of pressure on the surface of the closure member is also

changed by the change in flow pattern due to cavitation.
46
Part 3 L351 EN
Therefore, the hydraulic torque in butterfly valves, which is calculated with

cavitation-free flow according to
Hydraulic torque with

MT = C T D 3 H (29)
cavitation-free flow
and works in the closing direction, struggles against a limit value as the pres-
sure ratio grows. In equation (29), D is the disc diameter, CT the torque coef-
ficient dependent on the opening angle , and H the static differential
pressure p1 p2 across the butterfly valve, increased by the impact pressure
of the flow velocity v:
F 2
H=p+ (30)
2
In Fig. 26, the torque for an opening angle of 60 is shown as a function of

the pressure ratio xF at constant upstream pressure.
MT [Nm]
600
FL
xF
100
0 0.5 1.0 [-]
SAMSON AG 03/11
Fig. 26: Course of torque in a butterfly valve
47
Torque reaches its The torque reaches its maximum at approximately the same differential pres-
maximum at sure at which also the choked flow occurs (equation 26). As the pressure ra-
choked flow tio (or p) further increases, the torque drops slightly at first and then reaches
a limit value irrespective of the differential pressure.
When the limit value is reached, the cavitation zone stretches over the whole
downstream pressure side, causing the pressure distribution on the inlet side
to be approximately constant with the vapor pressure pV irrelevant of how
the pressure ratio increases.
The flow forces around the plug change due to cavitation even in linear
valves. However, this change in force is insignificant, except in self-operated
regulators where the plug forces must be carefully balanced out by means of
pressure balancing.
48
Part 3 L351 EN
Changes in fluid properties
Not just the surface of the hydraulic components, but even the fluid itself, is
exposed to extreme loads when gas-filled cavitation bubbles implode.
For example, when bubbles implode in hydraulic fluids, temperatures can

occur that are sufficient under certain circumstances to ignite bubbles con- The microdiesel effect
taining air and oil vapor. This process, which is called the microdiesel effect, leads to an accelerated
leads to an accelerated ageing of hydraulic fluids. Cavitation increases the aging of hydraulic
free gas content in the fluid: parts of the gas dissolved in the fluid diffuse into fluids
the cavitation bubbles during the growth phase.
The gas parts are released when the bubbles implode and locally increase
the compressibility of the fluid. This is accompanied by a reduction in sound
velocity, meaning pressure surge and sound propagation calculations in
pipelines where cavitation occurs is made more difficult. Fig. 27 shows the
sound velocity in water as a function of the bubble concentration according
to [21].
cF [m/s]
104
1500m/s
3 1080m/s
10
p
=
10
340m/s
ba
r
p
=
108m/s
102
1
ba
p
r
=
0.
1
ba
r
101
0.0001 0.1 100 [%]

SAMSON AG 03/11
Fig. 27: Sound velocity as a function of the bubble concentration
49
If oxygen is also released by the cavitation process, the oxidizing effect of the
fluid increases. The contamination of the medium caused by cavitation-in-
duced material erosion should not be underestimated in closed circuits.
50
Part 3 L351 EN
Cavitation noise
The pressure peaks induced by the bubble implosions cause material erosion
as well as a loud typical noise. The theoretical approaches to explain how
noise develops are based on individual bubbles which implode concentri- Cavitation bubbles act
cally in an infinitely expanded fluid and without affecting each other. The as an isotropic radiator
cavitation bubble can then be regarded as an isotropic radiator of zero or- of zero order
der (monopole source) which creates in the far field the sound pressure
F d 2 r
p (r , t ) = 2 V (t ) t (31)
4r dt cF
In the equation, V(t) is the rate of change in bubble volume which can be de-
termined approximately using the Rayleigh-Plesset differential equation, and
r is the distance between the sound source and the point of observation. The
spectral distribution of the energy E(f) of the noise created by a bubble is ob-
tained from the squared Fourier transform of the pressure over time in the far
field
2
+
E (f ) = p (t ) e 2 ift dt (32)

r
while neglecting the retarded time t
cf
( )
2

E (f ) =
+ 2
f
4
V (t ) e 2 ift dt (33)
r
SAMSON AG 03/11
51
The spectral energy rises at first with the frequency f raised to the power of
four and reaches a maximum at a frequency whose the inverse ratio is ap-
proximately the same as the collapsing time of the cavitation bubble. As a
consequence of the collapsing time being directly proportional to the bubble
radius, the maximum noise is shifted to lower frequencies as the bubble ra-
dius increases. At frequencies above the maximum, the spectral energy de-
creases at f 2/5.
If the bubble collapses are observed as random events not connected with
one another, whose frequency follows a Poisson distribution, it is possible to
derive the total spectral sound energy Etotal(f) from the spectral energy of indi-
vidual events E(f) and a mean number of bubble collapses per unit of time n.
Etotal (f ) = n E (f ) (34)
Observations of individ- These theoretical considerations made for individual bubbles apply approxi-
ual bubbles only apply mately when cavitation just starts. As the cavitation progresses, distinctive
to incipient cavitation cavitation zones form in which the effects of each individual bubble overlap
each other, and the contribution of each bubble to the entire noise depends
on the history of the neighboring bubble.
More extensive investigations therefore observe the cavitating fluid as a

quasi-continuum of density
F
= (35)
(1 + C )
In the equation, C is the total volume of all bubbles per volume unit. Lyamshev
[22] discovered on this basis that the sound intensity of a cavitation zone
equals the flow velocity raised to the power of four, or is proportional to the
square of the differential pressure.
52
Part 3 L351 EN
The theoretical approaches were extended and refined by various authors.

Despite this, no one has yet successfully described the exceptionally complex
correlations in the cavitation zone downstream of a control valve for various
media and pressure ratios.
Therefore, the currently valid equations as per the German directive

VDMA 24422 to predict noise emission of cavitating flows of control valves The equations accor-
are not based on hydrodynamic and thermodynamic models, but instead de- ding to VDMA are ba-
scribe the course of internal sound power level on the basis of measurements sed on empirical data
related to xF, z, F and p.
In this case, neither the influence of surface tension nor viscosity nor the influ-
ence of the gas contents are taken into account. The influence of the density
and the differential pressure important for the course of the bubble implosion
1 xF
p 2 pV = p (36)
xF
are also only reproduced inexactly in the empirical VDMA equations which are
based mainly on measurements with cold water (pV 0 bar, F 1000 kg/m3).
The VDMA calculation methods [23] introduced in 1979 and improved in
1989 are, however, well proven and recognized worldwide.
Note: The IEC 60534-8-4 international standard is currently being revised.

The main features of the new standard are shown in [25].
SAMSON AG 03/11
53
When cavitation (xF >> xFZ) occurs, the acoustic power emitted in the octave
band range of 0.5 to 8 kHz in the pipeline is obtained according to
W p F
LWi = 134.4 + 10 lg
F FL 2
x FZ 0 .0625 (1 x F )
0.8
1001
. xF
Lwi 120 lg + LF
x F x FZ 1 x FZ
with p FL 2 (p 1 FF p V ) (37)
The first row of the equation (37) represents the sound power level which is
caused by the turbulent flow noise. The second row serves to calculate the
sound power component which arises when the flow noise caused by the tur-
bulence overlaps the cavitation noise resulting from the temporal static bub-
ble collapse. Fig. 28 shows the course of the standardized sound power for
standard valves with parabolic plugs (LF = 0) in relation to the operating
pressure ratio with xFZ as a parameter. When xF > xFZ applies, the noise
emission rises steeply, reaches a maximum and drops back to the sound po-
wer level caused by the turbulence when xF = 1.
The drop in sound power level at high pressure ratios is based, on the one
hand, on the compressibility of the fluid that increases with xF (see section on
avoiding cavitation) and on the reduction of the driving force p2 pV when
the bubble implodes (equation 10). Cavitation behavior deviating from the
calculation can be taken into consideration by the valve manufacturer by
specifying a valve-specific correction coefficient LF = f (xF, y).
The spectral distribution of the internal sound power level depends on the de-
sign, pressure ratios, load and xFZ value of the valve. According to
VDMA 24422, the spectral distribution can be reproduced for practical
application in the octave band range 0.5 to 8 kHz irrelevant of the operating
condition using a noise spectrum that drops 3 dB per octave.
54
Part 3 L351 EN
134.4
F.W.p 20
.FL2
15
F
LWi10 lg
10
5
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.7
zy =
zy =
zy =
zy =
xF
0
0 0.5 1
Fig. 28: Sound power for standard valves with parabolic plug (LF = 0)
Several measurements performed by SAMSON resulted, however, in a sound

power spectrum as shown in Fig. 29. At incipient cavitation (xF = xFZ), the sound The low frequencies
power level radiated in the individual octave bands is approximately the same; dominate as the
the low frequencies dominate as the pressure ratio rises. pressure ratio rises
LWi LWi(fm)
40
dB
8 kHz
8 kHz
20
4 kHz
4 kHz
2 kHz
2 kHz
1 kHz 1 kHz
0.5 kHz 0.5 kHz xF
0
0 0.5 1
Fig. 29: Measured sound power spectrum (see also [25])

SAMSON AG 03/11
55
Cavitation luminescence
To conclude with, another cavitation phenomenon should be introduced

which is insignificant in conjunction with control valves, but is very suitable to
demonstrate again the extreme, mostly uninvestigated conditions that exist
when bubbles implode: cavitation luminescence. In the cavitation zone, small
flashes of light can be seen under certain conditions that have a spectral dis-
tribution from near infrared right up to the ultraviolet range. Several authors
trace the light emission back to the photochemical recombination of gas mol-
ecules that have thermally dissociated when the bubbles imploded. Others
believe that the flashes of light occur when the free ions recombine which
arise on bubble implosion due to the mechanical load of the molecules. A
further theory postulates aspherical bubbles which are surrounded by a
layer of dipoles. The light appearances arise when the dipoles discharge on
bubble implosion. Finally, there is the theory termed hot spots that assumes
the gas compression linked with the bubble implosion leads to such ex-
tremely high temperatures that the gas starts to glow.
56
Part 3 L351 EN
Appendix A1:
List of references
[1] Ackeret, J.: Experimentelle und theoretische Untersuchungen ber

Hohlraumbildung im Wasser, Techn. Mechanik und
Thermodynamik, Band 1, Nr. 1, Berlin, Januar 1930
[2] Becker, R.; Dring, W.: Kinetische Behandlung in bersttigten

Dmpfen, in Volmer, M.: Kinetik der Phasenbildung, Verlag
Steinkopf, Leipzig 1939, pages 156165
[3] Briggs, L. J.: The Limiting Negative Pressure of Water, Journal of

Applied Physics, Vol. 21, July 1950, pages 721722
[4] Harvey, E. N.; McElroy, W. D.; Whitely, A.H.: On Cavity Forma-

tion in Water, Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 18, Feb. 1947,
pages 162172
APPENDIX
[5] Lehmann, A. F.; Young J.O.: Experimental Investigations of Incipi-
ent and Desinent Cavitation, Journal of Basic Engineering, June
1964, pages 275284
[6] Jeschke, N. und Gruner, K.: Geruschverhalten von Stellventilen,

Regelungstechnische Praxis, Mai 1975
[7] DIN 45635: Geruschmessungen an Maschinen, Blatt 50:

Luftschallemission, Hllflchenverfahren, Armaturen, August 1987
[8] Oldenziel, D. M.: Bubble Cavitation in Relation to Liquid Qual-

ity, Delft Hydraulics Laboratory, Publication No. 21, May 1979,
pages 224240
SAMSON AG 03/11
[9] Rayleigh, L.: On the Pressure Developed in a Liquid During the Collapse
of a Spherical Cavity, Phil. Marg., Vol. 34, 1917, pages 9498
57
[10] Gth, W.: Zur Entstehung der Stowellen bei der Kavitation,
Acustica, Vol. 6, 1956, pages 526531
[11] Knapp, R.T.; Daily, J.; Hammit F.: Cavitation, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1970, pages 343347
[12] Plesset, M. S.; Chapman R. S.: Collapse of an Initially Spherical

Vapour Cavity in the Neighbourhood of a Solid Boundary, Jour-
nal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 47, Part 2, pages 283290
[13] Lauterborn, W.: Kavitation durch Laserlicht, Acustica, Vol. 31,

1974, pages 5178
[14] Lauterborn, W.: Jetbildung und Erosion, VDI Technologiezentrum

Physikalische Technologien, Technologiefrherkennung Band 32,
Von der Kavitation zur Sonotechnologie, 2000, pages 3536
[15] Knapp, R.T.: Recent Investigations of Cavitation and Cavitation

Damage, Trans. ASME, 77, 1955, pages 10451054
APPENDIX
[16] Berger, J.: Kavitationserosion und Manahmen zu ihrer Vermei-

dung in Hydraulikanlagen fr HFA-Flssigkeiten, Dissertation,
TH Aachen, 1983
[17] Garcia, R.; Hammitt, F.G.: Cavitation Damage and Correlations

with Material and Fluid Properties, Journal of Basic Engineering,
December 1967, pages 753763
[18] Kiesbauer, J: Stellventile bei kritischen Prozessbedingungen in

Raffinerien (Control valves for critical applications in refineries),
Sonderdruck Industriearmaturen, 2001, SAMSON AG, pages
45
[19] Stiles, G. F.: Sizing Control Valves for Choked Conditions Due to
Cavitation or Flashing, ISA Handbook of Control Valves, Instrument
Society of America, 1976
58
Part 3 L351 EN
[20] Baumann, H. D.: The Introduction of a Critical Flow Factor for Valve
Sizing, Paper presented at ISA Annual Conference, October 1962
[21] Wijngaarden, L.: Sound and Shock Waves in Bubbly Liquids, in

Lauterborn, W.: Cavitation and Inhomogenities in Underwater
Acoustics, Springer Series in Electrophysics 4, Springer Verlag,
Berlin Heidelberg, 1980, pages 127140
[22] Lyamshev, L. M.: On the Theory of Hydrodynamic Cavitation Noise;

Soviet Physics-Acoustics, Vol. 14, No. 4, April-June 1970
[23] VDMA-Einheitsblatt 24422, Richtlinien fr die Geruschberechnung

bei Regel- und Absperrarmaturen, Beuth Verlag, Berlin, Januar 1989
[24] Vnucec, D., Kiesbauer, J.: bersicht ber die Genauigkeit von
Schallberechnungsnormen b. Stellgerten (Evaluating the calcula-
tion accuracy provided by the relevant noise prediction standards
for control valves), Oldenbourg Verlag, Mnchen, Germany,
Heft 7, 2003
APPENDIX
[25] Kiesbauer, J., Baumann, H.D.: News in the prediction of hydro-
dynamic noise of control valves, Industriearmaturen , Vulkanver-
lag, Essen, Germany, Heft 3,2002
SAMSON AG 03/11
59
Figures
Fig. 1: Theoretical tensile strength values for perfect water . . . . . . . 10
Fig. 2: Tensile strength values derived from measurements for pure water 11
Fig. 3: Critical nucleus radius with varying gas concentrations . . . . . 13
Fig. 4: Distribution of pressure in the valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 5: Determining the cavitation coefficient xFZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Fig. 6: Formation of cavitation zones with various xF values. . . . . . . . . . 16
Fig. 7: Relation between the pressure ratio xF and the gas content . . . . 17
Fig. 8: Diagram illustrating the collapse of a bubble . . . . . . . . . . 20
Fig. 9: Number of high-energy surges in a stationary cavitation zone . . 22
Fig. 10: The course of development of cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . 26
Fig. 11: Cavitation chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Fig. 12: Magnetostrictive transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Fig. 13: Material property UR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

FIGURES
Fig. 14: Cavitation resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Fig. 15: Control valve operating range without cavitation. . . . . . . . 35
Fig. 16: AC trim system (SAMSON) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Fig. 17: Multi-stage axial plug (SAMSON Type 3255 Valve) . . . . . . 36
Fig. 18: xFZ values of multi-stage valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Fig. 19: Plug designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Fig. 20: Areas of a parabolic plug at risk from erosion . . . . . . . . . 40

Fig. 21: Diverted jet occurring with a V-port plug. . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Fig. 22: Cavitation zone with a perforated plug . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Fig. 23: The valve-specific factor FL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
60
Part 3 L351 EN
Fig. 24: The critical pressure pDK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Fig. 25: FF factor used to determine the critical pressure ratio . . . . . . 45
Fig. 26: Course of torque in a butterfly valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Fig. 27: Sound velocity as a function of the bubble concentration . . . . 49
Fig. 28: Sound power for standard valves with parabolic plug (LF = 0) . 55
Fig. 29: Measured sound power spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Table 1: Maximum values with various gas content . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Table 2: Limit values for preventing cavitation erosion . . . . . . . . . 40
FIGURES
SAMSON AG 03/11
61
NOTES
62
approved by BVQI, guarantees
high-quality products and services

2003/11 L351 EN
SAMSON AG MESS- UND REGELTECHNIK Weismllerstrae 3 60314 Frankfurt am Main

Telefon 069 4009-0 Telefax 069 4 009-1507 E-Mail:samson@samson.de Internet: http://www.samson.de
Communication in the Field
4 SPS/DCS
D
A
SPS/DCS
bus
SPS/DCS
bus
SPS/DCS
bus
bus
D
Ex (i) version
Ex(i) Ex(i)
distributor distributor bus
D
Part 4 Communication
Ex(i)
bus
field field field field
device device device device

SAMSON AG Phone (+49 69) 4 00 94 67
Part 4 L450 EN
Communication in the Field
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Requirements of Process Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Standardization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Application in hazardous areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Two-wire technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Ensuring the information flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Device exchange during operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Communication Systems for Process Automation. . . . . . . . . . . . 12
HART protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
CONTENTS
Fieldbus systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Rackbus and Remote I/O systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

SAMSON AG 99/12
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Communication Communication in the Field
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L450 EN
Introduction
The automation of production and manufacturing processes is continuously

increasing. Process and device data must be made available to the various,
often widely distributed automation and visualization stations. Hence, safe
and reliable communication is mandatory.
Fieldbus systems have performed the task of connecting the field devices with manufacturing enginee-
the control station in manufacturing and drive engineering for many years ring uses fieldbus com-
now. Today, more than one million networked field and automation devices munication
are successfully implemented.
On the other hand, the conventional 4 to 20 mA wiring technique is still be- process engineering
ing used in process engineering applications (see Fig. 1). This type of data mainly uses analog
signal processing
P P P
D D control level
A A
uni- bi-
direc- direc-
wiring
tional tional
A A
D D
field level
P P P P
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 1 Comparison of communication techniques: 4 to 20 mA technique vs.

bus wiring with bidirectional communication
5
transmission has proven successful for a long time. Nevertheless, this tech-
nique has two considerable disadvantages:
4 to 20 mA technique 4 wiring is very complex one pair of wires per device and
4 communication takes place in only one direction unidirectional.
bidirectional communi- However, for many applications unidirectional data transmission is no lon-
cation for powerful ger up-to-date. State-of-the-art process monitoring and control systems re-
services quire bidirectional communication.
Smart field devices can store information that is relevant for the process as
well as for the devices and send messages to higher-level control units. Pow-
erful devices can additionally perform diagnostic routines so that clear main-
tenance messages can be generated for the plant operator. Another option is
to store calibration values in the field device itself, enabling retrieval on de-
mand, e.g. if the device is exchanged.
Since modern control stations and field devices are based on microproces-
sors, D/A or A/D signal conversion, which would otherwise be required, is
no longer necessary (see Fig. 1). Additionally, many devices can be con-
nected in parallel to a single line. This is made possible because the digital
signal transmission does not permanently occupy the line. The destination
device stores the transmitted data packet and subsequently carries out the re-
quested action. As a result, the transmission line is immediately available for
other data and devices.
communication replaces The bus connection of the field devices illustrated in Fig. 1 considerably re-
4 to 20 mA technique duces wiring and with it the number of required components. However, this
instrumentation method requires not only communication for the start-up and
parameterization, but also digital transmission of all values - also set point
and actual values. Also it must be ensured that each field device is requested
for data or receives new set point values within precisely defined time inter-
vals.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L450 EN
A: one processor
digital communication line
B: two processors for
communication and
Interface Interface application
RAM
RAM DPR
P P P
A B
field device field device

application process application process
Fig. 2: Microprocessor technology in field devices
In fieldbus capable field devices, the application processor often additionally microprocessor
controls communication. For high-capacity utilization or complex communi- performs application
cation services, two separate processors are used, one for communication and communication
and one for application. Data exchange between the processors can then be tasks
carried out, e.g. using common memory space Dual-Port-RAM (Fig. 2).
As a result of the increasing functions and the higher scale of integration of
the electronic components, this solution can also be implemented very
cost-effectively especially for large-scale manufacturing.
SAMSON AG 99/12
7
Requirements of Process
Engineering
Prerequisite for any communication in the field is a reliable data transmission
which functions properly even under rough industrial conditions. It is also im-
portant that all components are always readily available.
Standardization
To enable the user to network or interchange field devices of different manu-

facturers (interoperability or interchangeability), an open specification, pref-
open specifications erably defined in a standard, must be available. Open bus systems or
protocols are not managed and put on the market by an individual manufac-
turer, but by a user organization (e.g. HCF HART Communication Founda-
tion, PNO PROFIBUS Nutzerorganisation, FF Fieldbus FOUNDATION).
In process engineering, additional requirements must be met so that the field

networks (PROFIBUS-DP, Interbus-S, CAN, etc.) used in manufacturing engi-
neering are often not applicable.
Characteristics of a flexible and versatile communication system
4 open protocol specification

4 application in hazardous areas
4 low installation costs
variable connection of all components (network topology)
two-wire technique
4 sufficiently high baud rate

4 connection and disconnection of devices during operation
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 3: Communication in process automation
8
Part 4 L450 EN
Application in hazardous areas
Process engineering tasks often require that field devices be used in hazard-
ous locations. Therefore, the transmission medium as well as the devices must
meet special explosion protection requirements.
For fieldbus systems, the German Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt PTB Fieldbus Intrinsically
(federal physicotechnical institute) created the FISCO model in cooperation Safe Concept
with renowned manufacturers. This model describes one way of realizing infor intrinsically safe
trinsically safe communication systems. According to this model, the most im- communication
portant conditions for intrinsically safe operation are the following:
4 compliance with the European standard: EN 50020

(intrinsic safety i)
4 only one power supply unit per line segment

4 all communication participants act as passive current sink
(min. power consumption: IA 10 mA)
4 the participants inductances and capacitances acting externally are neg-

ligible concerning intrinsic safety
(inductance 10 mH, capacitance 5 nF),
4 limitation of the current and voltage at the power supply unit

(e.g. EEx-i ia IIC: Umax15 V, Imax110 mA).
The intrinsic safety of a component is certified according to EN 50020 by as-

signing the type of protection i, intrinsic safety. This type of protection im- type of protection: EEx i
power
supply
10 mA
10 mA 10 mA 10 mA
PCS and segment
engineering coupler
tool
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 4: Fieldbus system according to the FISCO model
9
plies that the energy produced by arcs and sparks and the temperature on
the surface are restricted so that an explosive atmosphere cannot be ignited.
In an instrinsically safe field network, the voltage and current must therefore
be restricted by means of appropriate power supply units and safety barri-
ers. Also for safety reasons, devices must be connectable and disconnectable
during operation without causing interaction. Only field networks which
meet these requirements may be used in hazardous areas, such as tanks or
chemical production plants.
Topology
adaptable network The wiring of the communication network must be adapted to the topological
topology conditions of the plant. An optimum solution would be a network topology
allowing the devices to be networked as required.
A good approach is the tree structure. However, for many plants wiring in
line structure where the devices are connected via short stub lines is abso-
lutely sufficient.
In any case, the maximum possible line length must satisfy the demands of
the plant. So it is often permissible to extend the network by using repeaters
(power amplifiers).
Two-wire technique
To save costs, wiring must be minimized, and in hazardous areas, the num-
ber of safety barriers must be kept as low as possible. Minimization of wiring
and safety barriers is achieved, as for the 4 to 20 mA instrumentation, using
the two-wire technique (Fig. 5). In this case, the field devices take the re-
quired power from the signal line. With fieldbus systems, this technique is
bus-powered two-wire also called bus supply. To be able to combine signal transmission and en-
devices reduce ergy supply on the same line, the data signals as well as the supply currents
installation costs and voltages must not affect each other.
NOTE: The conventional method with separate signal and supply lines is ter-
med four-wire technique.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L450 EN
SG: supply unit

supply via the supply via
field network separate lines FG: field device
field network
SG FG FG SG FG FG
supply lines
Fig. 5: Two-wire technique compared to four-wire technique
Ensuring the information flow
To be able to analyze sensor outputs and activate actuators, the response

time of the communication system must be adapted to the process sequence.
Data security can only be guaranteed when the request cycle of the commu-
nication system is shorter than the renewal rate of the data to be collected.
In manufacturing plants, the process sequences demand communication cy-

cles of a few milliseconds, whereas in process engineering applications, the
cycle times are often longer. Here, analog process variables can be suffi- moderate cycle
ciently controlled with sampling rates of 0.1 to 2 seconds. With these time times
periods, the reduced baud rate in hazardous areas (IEC 61158-2 specifies
31.25 kbits/sec) does not cause problems in controlling.
Device exchange during operation
The complex processes in the chemical, petrochemical and mining industry

cannot be interrupted for the maintenance or the exchange of a field device. connection and discon-
An important criterion for the application of a field network is therefore that nection even in hazar-
field devices can be connected and disconnected during operation. dous areas
SAMSON AG 99/12
11
Communication Systems for

Process Automation
Communication systems for use in process engineering applications must ful-
fill the technical requirements already mentioned and, at the same time, pro-
vide flexibility, extensibility and an open structure. The acceptance in the
solutions for diverse market largely depends on economical aspects. So different factors are
applications taken into consideration when the economic feasibility of an application is to
be analyzed.
The following cases must be differentiated:
4 only a small number of smart devices must be installed

4 an existing plant must be extended for communication purposes
4 a complex plant with different communication levels must be planned
4 fast real-time applications must be integrated in the data exchange
The available systems such as the HART protocol, sensor buses, fieldbus
systems, Remote I/O each provide completely different advantages. It de-
pends on the individual application which communication system yields the
best results.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L450 EN
HART protocol
HART communication uses the conventional 4 to 20 mA current loop for data HART uses the existing
transmission. The communication systems requires (almost) no additional current loops
wiring. The HART protocol is therefore also a good solution when smart field
devices are to be integrated in an already existing plant.
The acronym HART Highway Addressable Remote Transducer shows

that the protocol originally was defined for measuring transducers. The pro-
tocol specification available today, however, supports data exchange with
sensors as well as with actuators.
HART provides a very simple point-to-point connection between an operat- flexible application
ing device and a field device. With the appropriate instrumentation, how-
ever, HART is also suitable as communication system for extended plants.
The only prerequisite is that the field devices are connected according to the
conventional 4 to 20 mA technique (see Fig. 6 and L452EN).
PC operating device
FSK modem
field HART
4 to 20 mA
device field device
Handheld terminal
Fig. 6: Connection of HART field and operating devices

SAMSON AG 99/12
13
Fieldbus systems
Fieldbusses are wired in a completely different manner. Communication can

take place on several hierarchical levels the control level, the automation
level and the field level. What makes fieldbus systems so interesting is the
very simple and cost-effective wiring.
A fieldbus system replaces the analog 4 to 20 mA current loops with a simple

devices communicate two-wire line running from the control station to the field. This bus cable con-
over a single bus line nects all devices in parallel. The entire information is transmitted exclusively
digitally. This includes the data necessary for control and process monitoring
as well as the commands and parameters required for start-up, device cali-
bration and diagnosis.
conventional method field network

process-near component process-near components
I/O modules supply and coupling with
the network Ex [i]
marshalling rack
EX [i] U/I
supply
marshalling rack
distribution box control room
field field field field field field

device device device device device device

field
Fig. 7: Comparison of conventional transmission method and field network

wiring in hazardous areas
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
14
Part 4 L450 EN
% costs
100% cost
100 reduction
22%
57%
27%
50 12% planning
22% installation
51%
0 23% hardware
Fig. 8: Cost reductions with fieldbus system

(Dr. Rathje, Bayer AG: calculation example for PROFIBUS-PA)
Reducing and simplifying wiring has in many ways a positive effect on the reduced wiring in the
plant and operating costs. In a study carried out by NAMUR (standardiza- field
tion committee of the instrumentation and control industry, AK 3.5), the costs
of a pilot plant equipped with the conventional transmission technique have
been compared with those of a plant with PROFIBUS-PA instrumentation.
The calculation example yielded cost reductions of more than 40 % thanks to cost reduction with
cost savings in planning, cabling, start-up and maintenance (Fig. 8). fieldbus systems
An additional asset of fieldbus technology is the considerable gain in func-

tionality and safety. Apart from the easy start-up and self-diagnosis, which is
also true for smart HART devices, the fast fieldbus communication is also suit- comprehensive status
able for real-time capable control systems. Comprehensive status and error and error messages
messages can be analyzed simultaneously.
The advantages provided by todays field networks become obvious when

we take a closer look at them:
4 wiring is reduced from several hundred or thousand lines to only a few li- advantages of field
nes, networks
4 even long distances of several kilometers are no problem,

4 savings in material, required space and weight,
SAMSON AG 99/12
4 unlike conventional cabling, high flexibility is achieved when it comes to

modifications,
15
4 computers and programmable controls can be easily integrated in the

process,
4 transparent process monitoring with high functionality can be implemen-

ted,
4 uniform interfaces reduce maintenance, start-up, development and docu-

mentation costs,
4 division into small units enables modular system programming and

start-up,
4 networked field devices enable numerous improvements concerning pro-

cess and system monitoring thanks to data preprocessing, data security
and self-diagnosis
4 and since the measuring and control signals are transmitted digitally, the
entire system is less liable to errors
The above list of advantages shows that the use of field networks changes the
distribution of tasks between the automation devices and the field devices. As
a consequence, the field devices operate more autonomously and are there-
fore equipped with microelectronic components. This trend is reasonable
also from the economical point of view, because of
field devices using 4 improved operating and service friendliness,

microprocessor
4 increased flexibility (smaller product range) and
technology
4 shorter development and implementation periods.
These advantages alone even without considering the cost-effective field
network wiring are often sufficient to compensate for the extra costs of the
communication interface.
functional safety must The advantages mentioned above can only develop their positive effects
be guaranteed when reliable functioning of the plant can be guaranteed upon implementa-
tion. Therefore, it is important to define what will happen when the individual
components or the field network fail. Which error will be detected and which
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
one can be immediately remedied or, at least, limited as to its effects. Field
communication systems vary considerably (regarding protocol, function, to-
pology) so that these questions can only be answered for each implementa-
tion individually.
16
Part 4 L450 EN
More than 100 different fieldbus systems are commercially available, but
only a few of them were able to become established as standard within their
area of application. As can be concluded from the statements on page 8 ff,
very special requirements must be met in the process engineering industry.
The most important prerequisites are the high safety demands, the need to
function in hazardous areas as well as openness and extensibility of the sys-
tem.
Repeatedly, efforts have been undertaken to establish an internationally rec- standardization for a
ognized, manufacturer-independent specification that defines the fieldbus uniform solution
for process automation. Such an open standard would ensure a large choice
of manufacturer-independent products for the user and, on the other hand, a
broad sales market for the manufacturer.
Today, there are two competing fieldbus systems that fulfill the requirements PROFIBUS-PA and
mentioned above. This is the PROFIBUS-PA originated in Europe and the FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION Fieldbus focused on America and Asia. Both fieldbus sys- Fieldbus
tems operate on the same intrinsically safe physical bus structure (IEC
61158-2). However, the provided communication services and, hence, the
protocol definitions differ greatly from one another (see L453 EN and L454
EN).
Both bus systems were primarily designed for use in hazardous areas. The
two-wire technique, however, is also a good basis for other applications. The
cost-efficient, bus-powered compact devices help simplify production sys-
tems for many process engineering applications without the need to elimi-
nate common device standards and connection techniques.
The flexible fieldbus systems enable the connection of completely different

field devices. It is possible to control discontinously as well as continuously
operating actuators and sensors. However, such a wide spectrum of applica-
tions is not always required.
When only switching states need to be transmitted (simple sensors, solenoid

valves, etc.), the relevant system components can be networked via an ade-
quately simplified bus system. For applications in hazardous areas, the open
bus system AS-I (Actuator/Sensor Interface) is a good solution. If required, AS-I: bus system for
SAMSON AG 99/12
the AS-I network can be integrated via a special connection in more powerful discontinuous-action
fieldbus systems (e.g. PROFIBUS). field devices
17
Rackbus and Remote I/O systems
Apart from the common 4 to 20 mA technique and the fieldbus wiring, there
are two other technical solutions which adopt a middle course.
field multiplexer In both cases, the field devices are wired according to the conventional 4 to
connect 4 to 20 mA 20 mA technique. However, the lines are not run up to the control station be-
with bus systems cause the signals are digitized and finally supplied to a bus system. This task
is accomplished by the field multiplexer.
Rackbus or When the D/A conversion takes place in the control room, the system is
Remote I/O system called Rackbus, whereas conversion in the field is performed by a Remote
I/O system (see Fig. 9).
4 to 20 mA fieldbus
Rackbus Remote I/O
technique system
PLC/DCS PLC/DCS PLC/DCS PLC/DCS

D
A
bus bus bus
bus
D
Ex (i) version
Ex(i) Ex(i)
distributor distributor bus
D
A
Ex(i)
bus
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 9: Rackbus and Remote I/O systems compared to

conventional and fieldbus wiring
18
Part 4 L450 EN
The most important advantage achieved by this method is the reduction of

investment costs, resulting from the fact that fewer lines are required and
parts of the marshalling rack can be omitted. As is the case for fieldbus sys-
tems, substantial cost savings can be achieved in planning, installation and
maintenance.
Remote I/O components can also be installed in hazardous areas. The de- measures in
vice components and the terminals towards the bus must then be designed to hazardous areas
meet the appropriate type of protection e.g. Ex (d), Ex (e). Rackbus compo-
nents are always installed in non-hazardous areas so there is no need for
them to be subjected to special measures. For field devices installed in haz-
ardous areas, the type of protection is often Ex (i) intrinsic safety.
Neither Rackbus nor Remote I/O support bidirectional communication with

field devices. Only measuring and control signals are transmitted between
the control system and the field devices. Bidirectional data exchange with the
control system, providing information on line breakage, short-circuit, etc., is
only performed by the field multiplexer.
Some manufacturers offer field multiplexers that are supported by the HART HART communication
protocol. In these systems, multiplexers are used to decouple the Hart proto- also possible with field
col from the current loops and transmit it via a bus system to the engineering multiplexers
terminal. However, this type of field device communication requires compa-
rably complex technical measures since the HART protocol and the fieldbus
technique are used simultaneously.
NOTE: For further information on the HART protocol, PROFIBUS-PA and

FOUNDATION Fieldbus, please refer to the relevant Technical Information
(Lit. 4, 5 and 6).
SAMSON AG 99/12
19
Appendix A1:
[1] L150EN: Digital Signals
[2] L153EN: Serial Data Transmission

[3] L155EN: Networked Communications

[4] L452EN: HART-Communication

[5] L453EN: PROFIBUS PA

[6] L454EN: FOUNDATION Fieldbus

APPENDIX
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L450 EN
Figures
Fig. 1 Comparison of communication techniques . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Fig. 2: Microprocessor technology in field devices . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Fig. 3: Communication in process automation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Fig. 4: Fieldbus system according to the FISCO model . . . . . . . . . 9
Fig. 5: Two-wire technique compared to four-wire technique . . . . . 11
Fig. 6: Connection of HART field and operating devices . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 7: Comparison of conventional transmission method

and field network wiring in hazardous areas . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 8: Cost reductions with fieldbus system . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 9: Rackbus and Remote I/O systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
FIGURES
SAMSON AG 99/12
21
NOTES
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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SAMSON AG 99/12
Part 4 L450 EN
23
NOTES
1999/12 L450 EN

HART Communications
4
Part 4 Communications

SAMSON AG Phone (+49 69) 4 00 94 67
Part 4 L452 EN
HART Communications
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
HCF user organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Connecting HART devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Number of participants and addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4Point-to-point connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4Multiplexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4Multidrop mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4Bus for split-range operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4FSK bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4Higher-level communication systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
CONTENTS
Two-wire technique and load impedance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Application in hazardous areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Field device interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
HART communication layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Physical layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4Coding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4Wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4Plug connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4HART-compatible features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Services of layer 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
SAMSON AG 99/12
4Access control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4Communication services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3
Communications HART Communications
4Telegram structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4Noise immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4Transmission time and user data rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Application layer: HART commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
DDL device description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Requirements to be met by the configuration devices . . . . . . . . . . 32
Example: IBIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
HART handheld master device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Appendix A1: Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

CONTENTS
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L452 EN
Introduction
F
ield networks are not the only solution when plant operators want to
use the advantages of smart field devices. The HART protocol provides
many possibilities even for installations that are equipped with the
conventional 4 to 20 mA technique.
HART devices communicate their data over the transmission lines of the 4 to HART protocol utilizes
20 mA system. This enables the field devices to be parameterized and 4 to 20 mA lines
started up in a flexible manner or to read measured and stored data (re-
cords). All these tasks require field devices based on microprocessor technol-
ogy. These devices are frequently called smart devices.
Introduced in 1989, this protocol has proven successful in many industrial proven successful for
applications and enables bidirectional communication even in hazardous smart devices
environments. HART allows the use of up to two masters: the engineering
console in the control room and a second device for operation on site, e.g. a
PC laptop or a handheld terminal.
The most important performance features of the HART protocol include:
4 proven in practice, simple design, easy to maintain and operate typical

performance features
4 compatible with conventional analog instrumentation
4 simultaneous analog and digital communication
4 option of point-to-point or multidrop operation
4 flexible data access via up to two master devices
4 supports multivariable field devices
4 sufficient response time of approx. 500 ms
4 open de-facto standard freely available to any manufacturer or user
SAMSON AG 99/12
5
HCF user organization
The HART protocol is an open communication protocol which interfaces the

master device with the field device and can be implemented by any manu-
support for facturer and freely employed by the user. The required technical support is
implementation and provided by the HART Communication Foundation (HCF). This manufac-
operation turer-independent, not-for-profit organization encourages widespread use
of the HART technology. HCF assumes the responsibility of coordinating and
supporting the open protocol standard and manages within this framework
the device descriptions of all registered devices (see also page 29).
Fig. 1: HART and HCF logo

SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L452 EN
Connecting HART devices
Devices which support the HART protocol are grouped into master (host) and host and field
slave (field) devices. Master devices include handheld terminals as well as devices
PC-based work places, e.g. in the control room. HART slave devices, on the
other hand, include sensors, transmitters and various actuators. The variety
ranges from two-wire and four-wire devices to intrinsically safe versions for
use in hazardous environments.
The HART data is superimposed on the 4 to 20 mA signal via a FSK modem. communication over
This enables the devices to communicate digitally using the HART protocol, analog signal line
while analog signal transmission takes place at the same time (see Coding
on page 16ff and Lit./2/).
Field devices and compact handheld terminals have an integrated FSK mo- FSK modem: link to
dem, whereas PC stations have a serial interface to connect the modem ex- analog signal
ternally. Fig. 2 shows a typical connection scheme of a HART host device and
a HART field device. HART communication is often used for such simple
point-to-point connections. Nevertheless, many more connection variants
are possible.
PC control station
FSK modem
HART
field device 4 to 20 mA field device
handheld terminal
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 2: Connection of HART master devices
7
In extended systems, the number of accessible devices can be increased by

HART networks using a multiplexer. In addition to that, HART enables the networking of de-
vices to suit special applications. Network variants include multidrop, FSK
bus and networks for split-range operation.
Number of participants and addressing
Point-to-point connection
point-to-point The HART communication shown in Fig. 2 is referred to as point-to-point

communication connection, i.e. the HART master device is connected to exactly one HART
field device. This connection variant requires that the device address of the
device address zero field device be always set to zero since the operating program uses this ad-
dress to establish communication.
Multiplexer
Fig. 3 shows the use of a multiplexer system, which enables a large number
of HART devices to be connected in a network. The user selects a particular
PC host
multiplexer
HART field devices
controller
address 0
address 0
HART signals
4 to 20mA
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
address 0
Fig. 3: HART communication via multiplexer
8
Part 4 L452 EN
current loop for communication via the operating program. As long as the
communication takes place, the multiplexer connects the current loop to the multiplexer selects
host. Due to the cascaded multiplexer structure, the host can communicate current loops at shifted
with many (> 1000) devices, all with the address zero. time intervals
Multidrop mode
The HART protocol was originally designed for transmitters. The multidrop multidrop mode
mode was also developed for them. In multidrop operation, the devices ex- for transmitters
change their data and measured values only via the HART protocol. The ana-
log current signal serves just to energize the two-wire devices, providing a
direct current of 4 mA.
In multidrop mode, up to 15 field devices are connected in parallel to a single address range:
wire pair (Fig. 4). The host distinguishes the field devices by their preset ad- 1 to 15
dresses which range from 1 to 15.
Control valves cannot be used in conjunction with multidrop mode. As dem-

onstrated by the calculations on page 25, the digital HART communication is
too slow to preselect set points. The control signals for valves are therefore al-
ways transmitted as 4 to 20 mA standardized current signals.
PC host HART transmitter

address 1 to 15
#
F
address 1
FSK modem
# PH
4 mA incl.
RB HART address 2
signals
#
power T
supply address 3
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 4: Multitrop mode with HART transmitters
9
Bus for split-range operation
There are special applications which require that several usually two ac-
tuators receive the same control signal. A typical example is the split-range
splitting the operation of control valves. One valve operates in the nominal current range
set point range from 4 to 12 mA, while the other one uses the range from 12 to 20 mA.
In split-range operation, the control valves are connected in series in the cur-
rent loop. When both valves have a HART interface, the HART host device
must be able to distinguish with which valve it must communicate. To achieve
this, the HART protocol revision 6 (anticipated for autumn 1999) and later
will be extended by one more network variant.
HART address 1 to 15 As is the case for multidrop mode, each device is assigned to an address
from 1 to 15. The analog 4 to 20 mA signal preserves its device-specific
analog reference function, which is, for control valves, the selection of the required travel. To
variable be able to use HART communications also for such applications as the
split-range operation, the HART positioner from SAMSON always takes the
analog current signal as a reference variable, independent of the device ad-
dress (Fig. 5).
handheld terminal
4 to 20mA 3780 1
addr.
controller FSK isolating

modem amplifier
host
PC
3780 2
addr.
isolating
amplifier
Fig. 5: Split-range operation with two HART positioners

SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L452 EN
FSK bus
The HART protocol can be extended by company-specific functions.

Hartmann & Braun, for example, developed the FSK bus. Similar to a device FSK bus for networked
bus, it can connect approximately 100 HART devices and address them. This communication
requires special assembly-type isolating amplifiers (e.g. TET 128). The only
reason for the limited number of participants is that each additional partici- up to 100 devices
pant increases the signal noise. The signal quality is therefore no longer suffi-
cient to properly evaluate the telegram.
The HART devices are connected to their analog current signal and the com-
mon FSK bus line via the isolating amplifier (Fig. 6). From the FSK bus view-
point, the isolating amplifiers act as impedance converters. This enables also
devices with high load to be integrated in the communication network.
host safe hazardous area

PC area
37801
controller FSK isolating

amplifier (Ex-i)
37801
FSK bus
37801
up to max.
100 control loops
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 6: Components and connection of the FSK bus
11
address format To address the devices, a special, long form of addressing is used (see also
for many participants Fig. 15, page 23). During the configuration phase, the bus address and the
tag number of each device are set via the point-to-point line. During
operation, the devices operate with the long addresses. When using the
HART command 11, the host can also address the device via its tag. In this
way, the system configuration can be read and checked during the start-up
phase.
Higher-level communication systems
To be able to connect a HART communication system with other communica-

gateways to couple tion systems, gateways are used. They convert the respective protocols of the
networks networks to be coupled.
HART protocol Fieldbus protocol
In most cases, when complex communication tasks must be solved, fieldbus

systems would be the preferred choice anyway.
Even without complex protocol conversions, HART enables communication

over long distances. HART signals can be transmitted over telephone lines
HART signals via using HART/CCITT converters. Field devices directly connected to dedicated
phone lines lines owned by the company can thus communicate with the centralized host
located many miles away.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L452 EN
Two-wire technique and load impedance
HART signals are imposed on the conventional analog current signal.

Whether the devices are designed in four-wire technique including an addi- HART for two-wire and
tional power supply or in two-wire technique, HART communication can be four-wire devices
used for both cases. However, it is important to note that the maximum per-
missible load of a HART device is fixed.
The load of a HART device is limited by the HART specification (see page 17: Observe the load!
max. 1100 ohms for the entire load in the circuit). Another limitation is
caused especially in older installations by the process controller. The out-
put of the process controller must be able to provide the power for the con-
nected two-wire device.
The higher the power consumption of a two-wire device, the higher its load.
The additional functions of a HART-communicating device increase its power
consumption and hence the load compared to non-HART devices.
When retrofitting HART devices into an already existing installation, the

process controller must be checked for its ability to provide the power re- power output of
quired by the HART device. The process controller must be able to provide at controller is limited
handheld terminal
4 to 20 mA 3780
-controller FSK
modem safe
-control
area
station
PC PC
FSK hazardous
area
modem
37801
-controller IS isolating
-control amplifier
station
handheld terminal
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 7: Point-to-point connection: with or without IS isolating amplifier
13
least the load impedance of the HART device at 20 mA. The required load
impedance UB and the consumed power PW are calculated as follows:
load impedance and

U B = 20 mA load
power consumption
PW = U B I = I 2 load
NOTE: The value of the device load is always defined for a current of 20 mA.
If the process controller cannot provide the load including the cable resi-
stances, etc. , a HART-compatible IS (Intrinsic Safety) isolating amplifier can
be installed.
Application in hazardous areas
intrinsically safe The technical details defined in the HART specification enable HART devices
communication in with the operating mode Intrinsic Safety (Ex-i) to be used if they are ap-
hazardous areas proved also in hazardous areas.
HART-compatible Upon installation in the hazardous area, make sure that the IS isolating am-
IS isolating amplifier plifier, which acts as an amplifier and as an IS barrier, is HART compatible
(for more details, see page 19).
Field device interface
HART-communicating field devices require an appropriate communication

integrated FSK modem interface. As already mentioned, field devices have an integrated FSK mo-
dem. Fig. 8 shows the components of the SAMSON Type 3780 HART
Positioner in a block diagram. For signal evaluation, the following compo-
nents are important:
separate processors for 4 The analog current signal (8) is transmitted via an A/D converter to the mi-
application and croprocessor (2) which is responsible for the application, e.g. for position
communication control.
4 The FSK modem feeds the received HART signals (8) to the microprocessor
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
(5) which computes the communication data.
4 The FSK modem superimposes the HART signals to be sent on the analog
current signal of the 4 to 20 mA line.
14
Part 4 L452 EN
G 1 displacement sensor
C
2 2 microcontroller
8
3 on/off valve for
G
FSK
C
5 1 supply air
4 on/off valve for
exhaust air
5 microcontroller
e
7 p 6 pressure regulator
3 7 air supply
8 HART and analog
e
p current signal
4
Fig. 8: HART interface of SAMSON positioner
4 Both processors, one for communication (5) and the other for application
(2), exchange the received data and the data to be sent.
The other function blocks show the components (3, 4, 6 and 7) which measu- on/off valves adjust the
re the position of the valve (1) and adjust the pneumatic pressure in the ac- actuator pressure
tuator as requested by the controller.
SAMSON AG 99/12
15
HART communication layers
OSI layers HART layers
application HART commands
presentation
session
transport
network
data link HART protocol rules
physical layer Bell 202
Fig. 9: HART protocol implementing the OSI model
HART protocol The HART protocol utilizes the OSI reference model. As is the case for most of
implements the OSI- the communication systems on the field level, the HART protocol implements
layers 1, 2 and 7 only the layers 1, 2 and 7 of the OSI model. The layers 3 to 6 remain empty
since their services are either not required or provided by the application
layer 7 (see Fig. 9).
Physical layer
Coding
Data transmission between the masters and the field devices is physically re-
alized by superimposing an encoded digital signal on the 4 to 20 mA current
loop. Since the coding has no mean values, an analog signal transmission
HART protocol uses
taking place at the same time is not affected. This enables the HART protocol
the existing field wiring
to include the existing simplex channel transmitting the current signal (ana-
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
log control device field device) and an additional half-duplex channel for
communication in both directions.
16
Part 4 L452 EN
mA
data bits: 1 0 1
20
laIa+0,5 mA
+ 0.5 mA
laIa
laIa0,5 mA
0.5 mA
analog
current signal
4
Fig. 10: Hart signal superimposed on the analog current signal
The bit transmission layer defines an asynchronous half-duplex interface

which operates on the analog current signal line. To encode the bits, the FSK
method (Frequency Shift Keying) based on the Bell 202 communication stan-
dard is used. The two digital values 0 and 1 are assigned to the following
frequencies (see Fig. 10):
logical 0: 2200Hz frequency-modulated

logical 1: 1200Hz HART signals
Each individual byte of the layer-2 telegram is transmitted as eleven-bit

UART character at a data rate of 1200 bits/s. data rate: 1200 bit/s
The HART specification defines that master devices send voltage signals,
while the field devices (slaves) convey their messages using load-inde-
pendent currents. The current signals are converted to voltage signals at the
internal resistance of the receiver (at its load).
To ensure a reliable signal reception, the HART protocol specifies the total
load of the current loop including the cable resistance to be between min- load ensures
imum 230 ohms and maximum 1100 ohms. Usually, the upper limit is not reception level
defined by this specification, but results from the limited power output of the
SAMSON AG 99/12
power supply unit (see also page 13f).
17
The HART masters are simply connected in parallel to the field devices (e.g.
Fig. 7), so the devices can be connected and disconnected during operation
because the current loop need not be interrupted.
Wiring
HART wiring in the field usually consists of twisted pair cables. If very thin
quality of and/or long cables are used, the cable resistance increases and, hence, the
transmission lines total load. As a result, the signal attenuation and distortion increases while
the critical frequency of the transmission network decreases.
NOTE: For trouble-free transmission, the cables must have a sufficient cross
section and an appropriate length.
demands on If interference signals are a problem, long lines must be shielded. The signal
transmission lines loop and the cable shield should be grounded at one common point only.
According to the specification, the following configurations work reliably:
4 For short distances, simple unshielded 0.2 mm2 two-wire lines are
sufficient.
4 For distances of up to 1,500 m, individually twisted 0.2 mm wire pairs

with a common shield over the cable should be used.
4 For distances of up to 3,000 m, individually twisted 0.5 mm2 two-wire

lines shielded in pairs are required.
Most of the wiring in the field meets these requirements and can therefore be
used for digital communication.
Plug connectors
An essential benefit is that HART integrates the existing wires. So the HART
specification does not prescribe the use of a specific type of plug connector.
Since the polarity has no influence on the frequency evaluation, HART sig-
nals are usually connected via simple clamp terminals.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L452 EN
HART-compatible features
HART communication between two or more devices can function properly

only when all communication participants are able to interpret the HART
sinewave signals correctly. To ensure this, not only the transmission lines
must fulfill certain requirements (see above), also the devices in the current check all devices
loop which are not part of the HART communication can impede or even pre-
vent the transmission of the data.
The reason is that the inputs and outputs of these devices are specified only
for the 4 to 20 mA technology. Since the input and output resistances change FSK frequencies must
with the signal frequency, such devices are likely to short-circuit the higher- not be suppressed
frequency HART signals (1200 to 2200 Hz).
NOTE: Inputs and outputs with an internal resistance that falls below the FSK
frequency range short-circuit the HART signals!
To prevent this, the internal resistance must be increased using an additional

circuit. The RC low pass (250 , 1 F) illustrated in Fig. 11 performs this
function.
handheld
IB modulated
controller terminal
3780
HART
master device
RC low pass
(increases load by 250 )
HART box
(increases load by approx. 50 )
Fig. 11: Controller output must not short-circuit the HART signals
SAMSON AG 99/12
19
However, a disadvantage is that the serial resistance must additionally be

powered by the controller.
Load to be powered by the controller:
additional circuits RC low pass: 250 + line resistance + load of field device
increase load HART box: 50 + line resistance + load of field device
When using the specially designed HART box, the additional load can be re-
duced by one fifth to 50 . If this value is still too high, either a signal ampli-
fier or a controller with higher power output must be installed.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L452 EN
master command with data, if req.
immediate
response
master
slave
slave acknowledgement with data
Fig. 12: HART transaction: data exchange between master and slave
Services of layer 2
Access control
The HART protocol operates according to the master-slave method. Any master controls
communication activity is initiated by the master, which is either a control sta- slave device
tion or an operating device. HART accepts two masters, the primary master
usually the control system and the secondary master a PC laptop or
handheld terminal used in the field.
HART field devices the slaves never send without being requested to do
so. They respond only when they have received a command message from
the master (Fig. 12). Once a transaction, i.e. a data exchange between the
control station and the field device, is complete, the master will pause for a time-controlled access
fixed time period before sending another command, allowing the other mas- authorization
ter to break in. The two masters observe a fixed time frame when taking turns
communicating with the slave devices.
Communication services
The HART protocol provides standard and broadcast commands:
HART communication modes
standard command: master/slave data exchange
broadcast command: HART command received by all devices

SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 13: HART communication modes
21
The simplest form of a transaction is a master telegram which is directly fol-

lowed by a response or acknowledgement telegram from the slave (Fig. 12).
This communication mode is used for the normal data exchange. When con-
nection is established, the HART command 11 can be used to send a
broadcast message broadcast message to all devices to check the system configuration.
burst mode for Some HART devices support the optional burst communication mode. A sin-
fast transmission of gle field device cyclically sends message telegrams with short 75-ms breaks,
measured values which can alternately be read by the primary as well as the secondary mas-
ter. While usually only two transactions per second are possible, the field de-
vice can send up to four telegrams using this method.
Telegram structure
The structure of a HART telegram is shown in Fig. 14. Each individual byte is
send as 11-bit UART character equipped with a start, a parity and a stop bit.
In the revision 5 and later, the HART protocol provides two telegram formats
two address formats which use different forms of addressing. In addition to the short frame slave
possible address format containing four bits, a long frame address format has been
introduced as an alternative. This allows more participants to be integrated,
while achieving more safety in case of incorrect addressing during transmis-
sion failures.
HART telegram structure
preamble SD AD CD BC status data parity
2 status bytes
byte count
HART command byte
address
start byte
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig 14: Structure and elements of a HART telegram
22
Part 4 L452 EN
The elements of the HART telegram perform the following tasks: elements of the
HART telegram
4 The preamble consisting of three or more hexadecimal FF characters syn-
chronizes the signals of the participants.
4 The start byte indicates which participant is sending (master, slave, slave
in burst mode) and whether the short frame or the long frame format is
used.
4 The address field of the short frame format contains one byte (Fig. 15) with
one bit serving to distinguish the two masters and one bit to indicate
burst-mode telegrams. For the addressing of the field devices, 4 bits are
used (addresses 0 to 15).
4 The address field of the long frame format contains five bytes, hence, the
field device is identified using 38 bits.
4 The command byte encodes the master commands of the three categories, HART commands
Universal, Common-practice and Device-specific commands. The signifi- control all actions
cance of these commands depends on the definitions in the application
layer 7.
4 The byte count character indicates the message length, which is necessary
since the number of data bytes per telegram can vary from 0 to 25. This is variable amount of
the only way to enable the recipient to clearly identify the telegram and the data bytes
checksum. The number of bytes depends on the sum of the status and the
data bytes.
4 The two status bytes are included only in reply messages from slaves and
contain bit-coded information. They indicate whether the received mes-
HART address formats
short frame master burst 0 0 bit 3 bit 2,..,0

(1 byte):
long frame
master burst 0 0 bit 3 bit 35,34,33,...,1,0
(5 bytes):
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 15: Short frame and long frame HART address formats
23
sage was correct and the operational state of the field device. When the
field device operates properly, both status bytes are set to logical zero.
4 The data can be transmitted as unsigned integers, floating-point numbers

or ASCII-coded character strings. The data format to be used is deter-
mined by the command byte, however, not all commands or responses
contain data.
HD equals four 4 The checksum byte contains the longitudinal parity of all the bytes of a tele-
gram. According to Lit.[2], the Hamming distance of the HART transmis-
sion equals four.
Noise immunity
noise-resistant During operation the communication participants can be added or removed

communication without endangering the components of the other devices or disrupting their
communication.
For interferences that can be coupled into the transmission lines, the HART
specification demands class 3 noise immunity according to IEC 801-3 and
-4. So general noise immunity requirements are met. Further protection
mechanisms to detect errors in the communication are implemented in the
different communication layers.
error detection on the On the lower levels, the UART and the longitudinal parity check reliably de-
different levels tect up to three corrupted bits in the transmitted telegram (Hamming distance
HD=4). Errors occurring on higher levels, such as HART commands that can-
not be interpreted and device failures, are indicated by the slave upon each
transaction using the status bytes reserved for this purpose. Polling at regular
intervals enables the master device to know the state of all connected commu-
nication participants and to react as requested by the user or the operating
program.
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Part 4 L452 EN
Transmission time and user data rate
The time required to transmit a telegram results from the bit data rate
(1200Hz) and the number of bits per telegram. The length of the telegram
varies depending on the message length 0 to 25 characters and the mes-
sage format. When a short frame format is used and the message contains
25 characters, a total of 35 characters must be transmitted. Since each byte
is transmitted as UART character (see [Lit. 2]), we obtain the following data:
performance data of
HART transaction:
HART transmission
byte per telegram: 25 message characters + 10 control characters
telegram size: 35 characters* 11 bits = 385 bits
user data rate: 25 * 8 bits / 385 bits = 52 %
time per bit 1 / 1200 bits/s = 0.83 ms
transaction time: 385 * 0.83 ms = 0.32 s
time per user data byte 0.32 s / 25 bytes = 13 ms
Fig. 16: Transmission time of a HART telegram
In shorter messages, the ratio between user data and control data becomes
increasingly unfavorable so that it can take up to 128 ms to transmit one user up to two transactions
data byte. An average of 500 ms is accounted for per transaction i.e. for per second
both a master and a slave telegram, including additional maintenance and
synchronization times. As a result, approximately two HART transactions
can be carried out per second.
These values show that the HART communication is not suitable for transmit- not suitable for
ting time-critical data. HART can be used to determine the reference variable time-critical control
of a final control element in test and start-up phases, but it is obviously not tasks
suited to solve control tasks.
SAMSON AG 99/12
25
Application layer: HART commands
The communication routines of HART master devices and operating pro-

grams are based on HART commands which are defined in the application
layer of the HART protocol.
HART command from Pre-defined commands enable the master device to give instructions to a field
the master... device or send messages/data. So set points, actual values and parameters
can be transmitted and various services for start-up and diagnostics per-
formed.
and response from The field devices immediately respond by sending an acknowledgement tele-
the slave gram which can contain requested status reports and/or the data of the field
device.
The example in Fig. 17 shows what the transmitted bytes mean in a transac-
tion initiated using the command 33. This HART command enables the mas-
ter to read four transmitter variables of the field device and the
corresponding units of measurement with only one command.
classification of To enable a universal communication, the HART commands are classified

HART commands according to their function into commands for master devices and for field
devices (Fig. 18).
HART command 33: Read up to 4 transmitter variables
Master device - data in command (4 bytes):

byte 1 variable code for slot 0
Field device - data in reply (24 bytes):

byte 1 slot 0: transmitter variable code
byte 2 units code
byte 3-6 measured value
byte 7-12 slot 1: same as for slot 0
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 17: Example of a HART transaction
26
Part 4 L452 EN
Classes of commands Conformance classes for

for field devices master devices
1 read measured variable

universal
commands 1a read universal information
common-pract. 2 write common-practice parameters
commands
device-specific 3 read device-specific information
commands
4 write selected parameters
data flow 5 read and write entire data base
Fig. 18: Classification of HART commands in classes of commands and

conformance classes
4 master devices: six conformance classes

4 field devices: three classes of commands
Depending on the tasks to be executed, the HART master device uses a com- conformance classes for
mand that can be assigned to one of the six different conformance classes. master devices
Each conformance class contains a subset of HART commands which cover a
special administrative or control-related range of tasks.
Field devices interpret and process only those HART commands that are di- classes of commands
rected to them or to all participants. Each command belongs to one of three for field devices
classes of commands. These classes distinguish how specific or universal a
command is:
4 Universal commands are understood and used by all field devices operat- understood by all
ing with the HART protocol (device designation, firmware no., etc.). devices
4 Common-practice commands are usually supported by many, but not nec- more specific
essarily all, HART field devices. (Read variable, set parameter, etc.). Most commands for more
of the HART field devices are able to interpret and respond to com- complex devices
SAMSON AG 99/12
mon-practice commands.
27
special commands for 4 Device-specific commands support functions that are unique to each de-
special functions vice. These commands provide access to data about the type and con-
struction of a device as well as information on the maintenance state and
start-up (see also DDL device description, page 29).
Most of the field devices support commands of all three classes: they under-
stand all universal commands, the common-practice commands tailored to
them and special, device- and manufacturer-specific commands.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L452 EN
DDL device description
The HART commands are based on the services of the lower layers and en-
able an open communication between the master and the field devices. This
openness and the interchangeability of the devices independent of the manu- interchangeability of
facturer are available only as long as the field devices operate exclusively field devices
with the universal and common-practice commands and the user does not
need more than the simple HART standard notation for the status and fault
messages.
When the user wants the message to contain further device-related informa-
tion or that special properties of a field device are also used, the com-
mon-practice and universal commands are not sufficient. Using and
interpreting the data requires that the user know their meaning. However,
this knowledge is not available in further extending systems which can inte-
grate new components with additional options. To eliminate the adaptation DDL describes device-
of the master devices software whenever an additional status message is in- specific functions
cluded or a new component is installed, the device description language
(DDL) was developed.
The DDL is not limited to the use for HART applications. It was developed and DDL also for
specified for fieldbusses, independent of the HART protocol, by the Human field network
Interface workshop of the International Fieldbus Group (IFG). applications
The developers of the device description language DDL aimed at achieving

versatile usability. The DDL finds also use in field networks. The required flex-
ibility is ensured in so far as the DDL does not itself determine the number and
functions of the device interfaces and their representation in the control sta-
tions. The DDL rather is a language similar to a programming language
which enables the device manufacturers to describe all communication op-
tions in an exact and complete manner (Fig. 19).
SAMSON AG 99/12
29
VARIABLE low_flow_cutoff
{
LABEL [low_flow_cutoff];
TYPE FLOAT;
{
DISPLAY_FORMAT 6.4f,
}
}
MENU configure_io
{
LABEL [configure_io]
ITEMS
{
FLOW_UNITS, /* VARIABLE */
rerange /* edit-display */
operate_mode, /* variable */
flow_config /* menu */
}
}
Fig. 19: Extract from a DDL device description
The DDL allows the manufacturer to describe:
improved operation 4 attributes and additional information on communication data elements,

and monitoring
4 all operating states of the device,
4 all device commands and parameters,
4 the menu structure, thus providing a clear representation of all operating
and functional features of the device.
Having the device description of a field device and being able to interpret it,
a master device is equipped with all necessary information to make use of the
complete performance features of the field device.
DDL supports all So device- and manufacturer-specific commands can also be executed and
extensions the user is provided with a universally applicable and uniform user interface,
enabling him to clearly represent and perform all device functions. Thanks to
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
this additional information, clear, exact and, hence, safer operation and
monitoring of a process is made possible (Fig. 20).
30
Part 4 L452 EN
zero: 40.0 C
designation parameter value unit
Additional DD information:
data type: fixed-point format
range of values: 0 to 99.9
type of access: readable and changeable
input mode: via numeric keyboard
representation format: ##.#
Fig. 20: Additional DD information
The master device does not read the device description as readable text in
DDL syntax, but as short, binary-coded DD data record specially generated DD data record is
by the DDL encoder. For devices with sufficient storage capacity, this short generated by the
form opens up the possibility to store the device description already in the encoder
firmware of the field device. During the parameterization phase it can be
read by the corresponding master device.
SAMSON AG 99/12
31
Requirements to be met by
configurators
Universally applicable configurators (PC or handheld terminal), also from
user interfaces different manufacturers, should have a uniform operation structure. To en-
according to sure this, the VDI guideline 2187 was defined. It specifies the essential per-
VDI guideline formance features of such a user interface as well as its structure.
Another important requirement is that any HART device must be supported.

As explained above, only an open, i.e. flexible and manufac-
turer-independent, master device with the following features can meet this
requirement:
4 All commands defined in the HART protocol must be implemented and

selectable as required.
4 To extend the operating functions, any device description can be imple-

mented.
4 The user interface provides the user with all extended communication, in-
formation and control options.
When special, device-specific options are omitted, the basic functions of all
HART devices can be performed using the universal and the common-practi-
ce commands. However, the master devices should be able to read the DDL
device descriptions data records of field devices, e.g. via disks. The HCF (see page 6) maintains
stored by HCF a library in which all device descriptions of all registered HART devices are
stored.
Most of the commercially available operating programs based on PC do not

(yet) support this way of configuration. Therefore, HART device manufactur-
ers often supply their own programs especially adapted to the devices with
fixed implemented device-specific extensions. This, however, eliminates the
flexible and open character of the system.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L452 EN
Fig. 21: IBIS user interface for the Type 3780 HART Positioner
Example: IBIS
Hartmann & Braun developed the IBIS program (Intelligentes Bedien- und
Informationssystem/intelligent operating and information system) and user interface according
based it on the specifications laid down in the VDI guideline 2187. This pro- to VDI 2187
gram provides a clear, window-type user interface.
HART-DDs, however, cannot be read. Access to the complete command set

of a HART device is possible only with a customized IBIS version adapted by device-specific version
the device manufacturer. Fig. 21 shows a window of the IBIS user interface required
for the Type 3780 HART Positioner from SAMSON AG.
HART handheld master device
Handheld master devices support simple, on-site operation and diagnostics on-site application also
for HART devices. These devices are also available in intrinsically safe ver- in hazardous areas
sion for use in hazardous areas.
SAMSON AG 99/12
33
4 universal device for

on-site operation
4 application also in
hazardous areas (Ex-i)
4 8 Mbyte storage
capacity for loading
device descriptions
(DDL)
Fig. 22: HART handheld communicator
programmable The handheld master device of the Rosemount company shown in Fig. 22
handheld terminal can be adapted via a special programming hardware so that all required
for any DDL device descriptions can be stored and deleted again when they are no longer
needed. This allows the user to operate with a flexible and versatile service
device, enabling him to freely access all HART field devices in his installation.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L452 EN
Appendix A1:
Troubleshooting
Should you encounter difficulties during the installation of a HART device
and the start-up of the communication, check the device as described in the
following:
4 Did you set the proper device and bus address for your application?
4 Did you connect the FSK modem at the PC control station to the interface
configured in the program COM1 or COM2?
4 Are all devices in the current loop including those that cannot communi-
cate suitable for HART data transmission?
4 Do the length and the cross section of the transmission lines meet the re-
quirements of HART communications?
4 Can the current source (usually the controller) power the load of the HART
device?
APPENDIX
SAMSON AG 99/12
35
Appendix A2:
[1] Digital Signals

[3] Communication Networks


[5] PROFIBUS PA

APPENDIX
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
36
Part 4 L452 EN
Figures
Fig. 1: HART and HCF logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Fig. 2: Connection of HART master devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Fig. 3: HART communication via multiplexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Fig. 4: Multitrop mode with HART transmitters. . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Fig. 5: Split-range operation with two HART positioners . . . . . . . 10
Fig. 6: Components and connection of the FSK bus . . . . . . . . . . 11
Fig. 7: Point-to-point connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 8: HART interface of SAMSON positioner . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 9: HART protocol implementing the OSI model . . . . . . . . . 16
Fig. 10: Hart signal superimposed on the analog current signal . . . . 17
Fig. 11: Controller output must not short-circuit the HART signals . . . . 19
Fig. 12: HART transaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Fig. 13: HART communication modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Fig. 14: Structure and elements of a HART telegram . . . . . . . . . . 22
Fig. 15: Short frame and long frame HART address formats . . . . . . 23
FIGURES
Fig. 16: Transmission time of a HART telegram . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Fig. 17: Example of a HART transaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fig. 18: Classification of HART commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Fig. 19: Extract from a DDL device description . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Fig. 20: Additional DD information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 21: IBIS user interface for the Type 3780 HART Positioner . . . . . 33
Fig. 22: HART handheld communicator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
37
NOTES
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
38
SAMSON AG 99/12
Part 4 L452 EN
39
NOTES
1999/12 L452 EN

PROFIBUS-PA
4
Part 4 Communications

SAMSON AG Phone (+49 69) 4 00 94 67
Part 4 L453EN
PROFIBUS-PA
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
ISP specifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Device certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Terminology: master and slave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
OSI layer model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Physical layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4Segment coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4Intrinsic safety and power supply over the bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4IEC 61158-2 transmission technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
CONTENTS
4Device connection and bus termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4Network topologies of a PROFIBUS system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Security layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4Bus access and addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4Telegram structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4Performance data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4Layer-2 communication services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
User interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
DDLM and user interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Device Database Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

SAMSON AG 99/12
Device profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4Classification of parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3
Communications PROFIBUS-PA
4Function block model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4PROFILE A and B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Device description and Field Device Tool specification . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Communication sequence and error protection mechanisms . . . . . . 39

CONTENTS
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L453EN
Introduction
PROFIBUS-PA is one of three PROFIBUS variants that are compatible with three PROFIBUS
each other. PROFIBUS is a vendor-independent, open bus system which was variants
standardized in the German DIN 19 245. In March 1996, this standard was
embedded into the European standard EN 50170 Volume 2 without modifi-
cations.
PROFIBUS-PA specifications used to be laid down in DIN E 19245 Part 4 (E =

draft). Now, the CENELEC TC 65 CX standardization committee has inte-
grated new specifications in EN 50170 as an appendix.
The following variants have been specified for different applications (Fig. 1):
4 PROFIBUS-FMS (Fieldbus Message Specification),

4 PROFIBUS-DP (Decentralized Periphery), and
4 PROFIBUS-PA (Process Automation).
EN 50170 Vol.2 and DIN 19245 E Part 4
manufacturing process
branch profiles
automation for
device profiles
general purposes automation automation

PROFIBUS-FMS PROFIBUS-DP PROFIBUS-PA
universal fast application-

oriented
wide range of efficient intrinsic safety

applications cost effective bus powered
Fig. 1: PROFIBUS variants

SAMSON AG 99/12
5
PROFIBUS-FMS with a The FMS variant provides the user with a wide selection of functions which,
wide range of however, makes it more complex to implement compared to the other vari-
functions ants. The powerful FMS services (Fieldbus Message Specification) can be
used to solve even extensive and complex communication tasks. This
PROFIBUS variant supports communication between automation systems
(e.g. programmable logic controllers and automation stations) as well as
data exchange with field devices. FMS can therefore be used for a wide
range of applications, operating at average transmission speeds.
PROFIBUS-DP for The DP variant (decentralized periphery) is the high-speed solution of

high speed PROFIBUS. It has been designed and optimized especially for communica-
tion between automation systems and decentralized field devices. Therefore,
PROFIBUS-DP requires less than 2 ms for the transmission of 1 Kbyte of input
and output data. In this way even extremely time-critical communication
tasks can be solved.
cyclic data exchange PROFIBUS-DP communicates via cyclic data traffic exclusively. Each field de-
for control systems vice exchanges its input and output data with the automation device, the
class-1 master, within a given cycle time.
In process engineering as well as in building and process automation,

operation and operation and monitoring tasks require a visualization device in addition to
monitoring with the automation device. This class-2 master is responsible for the various
classs-2 master start-up, parameterization and monitoring functions of up-to-date field de-
vices. They require that device data be read or written during operation in-
dependent of the control cycle.
Since the original DP specifications did not provide any special services for
these tasks, appropriate function extensions were defined in 1997. These
acyclic services for extensions can be implemented optionally and are compatible with the exist-
start-up, parameteriza- ing DP protocol and all earlier versions. The extended DP variant is referred
tion and monitoring to as PROFIBUS-DPV1. In addition to the cyclic DP communication services, it
also offers acyclic services for alarm messages, diagnostics,
parameterization and control of the field devices.
PROFIBUS-PA for The third PROFIBUS variant, PROFIBUS-PA, meets the special requirements
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
process automation of process automation. The PA communication is based on the services pro-
vided by DPV1, and is implemented as a partial system embedded in a
higher-level DP communication system. Unlike the automated applications in
manufacturing engineering which require short cycle times of few millisec-
6
Part 4 L453EN
onds, other factors are of importance in process automation, such as the fol-
lowing:
4 intrinsically safe transmission techniques, important characteris-

tics of PROFIBUS-PA
4 field devices are powered over the bus cable,
4 reliable data transmission, and
4 interoperability (standardization of device functions).
The aspects intrinsic safety and bus supply were neglected at first when
PROFIBUS was standardized. Only when the international standard IEC
1158-2 was published in October 1994, was a suitable transmission tech-
nique internationally specified for this area of application and implemented
in the European standard EN 61158-2. The PROFIBUS-PA specifications standardized
published in March 1995 included this transmission technique for intrinsi- bus access protocol
cally safe installations and field devices powered over bus cables.
All three PROFIBUS variants operate on one standardized bus access

method. They are also able to use the same transmission technique (RS 485)
and operate simultaneously on the same bus line. The transmission media
used include either twisted pair shielded cables for FMS or DP, even fiber
optics or radio waves.
SAMSON AG 99/12
7
ISP specifications
The PROFIBUS-PA fieldbus is essentially based on the ISP 3.0 specifications

which were worked out by the ISP consortium (Interoperable Systems Pro-
ject). This group of companies with members from all over the world was
formed with the intention to create an international and uniform fieldbus
standard. This work was not completed since the participating companies
re-oriented themselves for technical and environmental reasons. Due to a co-
operation agreement with ISP, the PROFIBUS User Organization (PNO) was
able to take over the development results of the ISP project, to finish the job
they had begun and to integrate the resulting solution in the PROFIBUS prod-
uct family (Fig. 2).
In the future as well, the PNO and the Fieldbus Foundation (FF, see Lit./6/)
transition to a uniform aim at further cooperation agreements to ensure the creation of user inter-
fieldbus standard face solutions, i.e. function blocks, device profiles, device descriptions, that
is to remain possible are internationally standardized as far as possible. The goal is to ensure the
compatibility with an internationally standardized IEC fieldbus in the future.
The transition from PROFIBUS to a possible IEC fieldbus standard is not to
have any negative consequences for the user.
This way of proceeding has already shown positive results. Many important
vendors (Endress + Hauser, Hartmann & Braun, Krohne, Pepperl + Fuchs,
SAMSON, Siemens, etc.) sell PROFIBUS-PA products, and several installa-
PROFIBUS ISP IEC
1990
FMS
1992
DP
1994 ISP 3.0 IEC 1158-2
PA
1996
PA plus DPV1
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 2: Historical development
8
Part 4 L453EN
tions (e.g. Bitburger brewery, Cerestar, DEA, Wacker Chemie) have already
been started up successfully.
Device certification
A standardized, open bus standard functions only when the devices used do test labs check for
meet the requirements as per applicable standard. To guarantee that the de- conformity and
vices comply with the respective standard, manufacturers can have their de- interoperability
vices certified. Certification is performed by manufacturer-independent test
labs that are officially authorized by the PROFIBUS User Organization
(PNO). The test comprises hardware measurement tests, function tests and,
finally, interoperability tests. Interoperability means that PROFIBUS compati-
ble devices of different manufacturers can work together properly within a
system.
SAMSON AG 99/12
9
Applications
In the area of process automation, PROFIBUS-PA connects process control

stations and automated systems with field devices, thus replacing the analog
field communication 4 to 20 mA transmission technique. In addition to the simple start-up and
replaces the self-diagnostic functions, the fast fieldbus communication provides users with
analog signal the option of realizing real-time capable state control systems as well as
monitoring status and error messages parallel to the process.
A study conducted by NAMUR (standardization committee of the instrumen-

tation and control industry, AK 3.5) showed that compared to conventional
cost savings systems, PROFIBUS-PA achieves cost savings of more than 40 % in planning,
as well as more wiring, start-up and maintenance. At the same time, users gain a variety of
functions functions as well as a considerable amount of safety. The essential difference
compared to conventional wiring and the potential savings can be seen sche-
matically in Figs. 3 and 4.
bus powered compact PROFIBUS-PA was mainly designed for applications in explosion hazardous
field devices offer a areas. Thanks to the possibility of supplying power over the bus, however, it
variety of applications can also be used for other production facilities. Bus technology combined
with the two-wire technology simplifies the construction of plants in many ar-
eas without having to give up known device standards and connection tech-
niques.
% costs
100% cost
100 savings
22%
57%
27%
50 12% planning
22% installation
51%
0 23% hardware
Fig. 3: Cost savings thanks to the use of fieldbus systems

(Dr. Rathje, Bayer AG: exemplary calculation for PROFIBUS-PA)
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L453EN
conventional field networks

process control system process control system
I/O modules supply and link
to Ex [i] network
marshalling rack
EX [i] U/I
supply
marshalling rack
terminal block control room
field field field field field field

device device device device device device

field
Fig. 4: Comparison of transmission techniques: conventional and

field network wiring in explosion hazardous areas
Terminology: master and slave
The comparison in Fig. 4 shows the differences in the wiring of a bus system
schematically. Connected with this are extended device functions as well as
new terminology.
With PROFIBUS-PA as with DP three device types can be differentiated as class-1master, class-2
follows: master and slaves
4 The class-1 master (DPM1) is the central control unit of a system, e.g. a
PLC, which exchanges data with the field devices within a specified messa-
ge cycle. All measured values and set point values required to control the
system as well as the device status data are transmitted. When compared
with conventional techniques, the cyclic communication of the class-1 mainly cyclic data
SAMSON AG 99/12
master assumes tasks of the analog 4 to 20 mA standardized signals and exchange

additionally enables the bidirectional exchange of data.
Note: The DPV1 services also enable the class-1 master to have cyclic ac-
11
cess to field device data. However, masters available on the market as well
as the current GSD specifications do not yet support this function (see also
page 29: Device Database Files).
acyclic communication 4 Class-2 masters (DPM2) are used for operation and monitoring purposes
only as well as during start-up. The associated exchange of data takes place if
required. Therefore, class-2 masters require acyclic communication servi-
ces exclusively.
responds to requests 4 A slave is a peripheral or field device which communicates only when re-
issued by masters quested by a master.
Actuators receive input information from the master and actively
influence the process.
Sensors collect state and process data and provide the master
with this information.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L453EN
OSI layer model
All PROFIBUS variants are based on the ISO/OSI reference model for com-
munication networks (refer to ISO 7498 standard and Lit./3/). Due to the re-
quirements in the field, only layers 1 and 2, and for the FMS version, layer 7 OSI layers 1 and 2
(Fig. 5) are implemented for reasons of efficiency.
With the three PROFIBUS variants, the two lower layers are largely identical. special application
The differences in the upper layers are much bigger, i.e. the interface to the interfaces
application program (see Page 27).
application programs
FMS DP DPV1 PA
profile FMS DP PA
user inter- DPV1 function

extensions
face and
DDLM DPG basic functions
(7) Fieldbus Message
Specification (FMS)
OSI layers
(3-6)
(2) Fieldbus Data Link (FDL)

IEC interface
(1)
radio waves, light, RS 485 IEC 61158-2
Fig. 5: Layer structure of PROFIBUS communication

SAMSON AG 99/12
13
PROFIBUS-PA
transmission technique RS 485 IEC 61158-2
transmission rate 9.6 to 1200 kbit/s 31.25 kbit/s
intrinsic safety optional
bus supply optional
Fig. 6: Physical PROFIBUS-PA layer
Physical layer
There are different ways to realize the transmission technique for

PROFIBUS-PA (see Fig. 6 and Lit./2/):
RS 485 or 4 either RS 485 standard, or

IEC 61158-2
4 in compliance with IEC 61158-2 which was specified especially for explo-
sion-hazardous areas and power supply over the bus. There are four
IEC 61158-2 variants, but only PROFIBUS-PA utilizes the 31.25 kbit/s
voltage mode.
When using the RS 485 interface, PROFIBUS- FMS, -DP and -PA can be op-
erated together on a common bus line. The intrinsically safe transmission in
BUS DP
PROFI-
PROFIBUS-PA
segment
engineering coupler
tool and PLS
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 7: PROFIBUS-PA segment coupled to a DP bus system
14
Part 4 L453EN
explosion-hazardous areas, however, requires the installation to be in ac-

cordance with IEC 61158-2.
The masters of a PA system the control and operating stations always op-
erate on a PROFIBUS-DP bus line in a safe area. For the resulting wiring of a
PROFIBUS-PA network, refer to Fig. 7.
Segment coupler
A so-called bus or segment coupler is installed between the PROFIBUS-DP

and the PA segment. It adapts the different transmission techniques and pow-
ers the devices of the PA segment. It additionally powers the IS barrier.
Fig. 8 shows the block diagram of a segment coupler. It assumes the follow-
ing tasks:
4 electrical isolation between the safe and the intrinsically safe bus segment, segment coupler
tasks
4 powering of the PA bus segment,
4 adaptation of transmission technique from RS 485 to IEC 61158-2,
4 baud rate adaptation (e.g.: 93.75 kBaud 31.25 kBaud) and
RS 485 IEC 61158-2

40
RxD/TxD-P
41
RxD/TxD-N 18
55 17
DGND
16
56 Shield/FE
CNTR-P
42
Shield/FE
U
FE +
Um= 60V
58 59 60
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 8: Block diagram of a segment coupler (Pepperl+Fuchs)
15
4 conversion between asynchronous UART telegrams and synchronous

8-bit/character telegrams (see telegram structure on page 24).
Regarding the assignment of addresses, segment couplers operate fully

transparent, i.e. PA and DP devices must not be adjusted to identical device
addresses. In addition, it should be considered that segment couplers of dif-
ferent manufacturers operate at different data transmission rates on the
PROFIBUS-DP side (e.g. Pepperl+Fuchs: 93.75 kbit/s; Siemens:
45.45 kbit/s).
DP/PA coupling via fast NOTE: Additionally, there are network components for DP/PA coupling
network components which support DP data transmission rates of up to 1200 kbit/s, e.g. the
PA-Link by Siemens.
This PA-Link is treated as a slave on the DP bus, receives its own device ad-
dress and supplies up to five PA segments over its own couplers. On the PA
side, the PA-Link works as a master and addresses a maximum of 30 field
devices.
Note, however, that such devices must be parameterized using a suitable

configuration tool before operation starts.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L453EN
Intrinsic safety and power supply over the bus
PROFIBUS-PA applies the specifications of the FISCO model for intrinsically

safe operation (see Lit./4/). Each device has a current consumption of mini-
mum 10 mA. Since the electrical power in the segments is limited in explo- limited power in hazar-
sion hazardous areas due to intrinsic safety requirements, the number of dous areas
connectable field devices is limited as well:
EEx ia IIC EEx ia/ib IIB
max. power 1.8 W 4.2 W
max. current 110 mA 250 mA
max. device number*) 10 22

*) depends on the current consumption of the devices
Fig. 9: Maximum power and number of devices per PA segment in

hazardous areas
The total input current of all devices taken together must always be smaller
than the supply current of the segment coupler. In addition, the current modu-
lation of the Manchester coding (see page 18) as well the fault current of the
Fault Disconnection Electronic (FDE) must be considered. The FDE in field
devices ensures that the communication of the bus segment does not fail,
even in case of a short circuit in a device.
Provided that maximum one FDE responds, the following condition must be
fulfilled:
supply current sum of individual currents (per device 10 mA)

+ Manchester current signal (9 mA)
+ FDE fault current (0 to 9 mA)
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 10: Calculation of the total current of a PA segment
17
IEC 61158-2 transmission technique
With the IEC 61158-2 transmission technique, the PA segments are sub-
jected to the following physical specifications:
IEC transmission 4 digital, bitsynchronous data transmission,

specifications
4 data transmission rate: 31.25 kbit/s,
4 Manchester coding without mean values, with a current/amplitude mo-
dulation of 9 mA (Fig. 11),
4 remote DC voltage power supply: up to max. 32 volts

(with EEx ia IIC: 14 to 20 V),
4 signal transmission and remote power supply over twisted two-wire line
(see Fig. 12 for specifications),
4 126 addressable devices,

4 line or tree topology possible,
4 up to 1900 m total line length (with EEx ia IIC: 1000 m),
4 stub lines to the devices: up to 120 m; in hazardous areas maximum
30 m (see Fig. 13),
4 up to 32 devices per line segment (in hazardous areas depending on

the supply current: see Fig. 9 and equation Fig. 10) and
4 the network is expandable by max. 4 repeaters (line amplifiers).
Bits: 0 1 0 0 1
IB +lB9
+9mA
mA
IB (lB10
10 mA)
mA
t
IB - 9 mA
lB9 mA
1 Bit
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 11: Manchester coding with 9 mA
18
Part 4 L453EN
Type A Type B Type C Type D
cable twisted individual or several several

design wire pair, several twisted twisted not twisted
shielded wire pairs, wire pairs, lines,
totally shielded not not
shielded shielded
wire 0.8 mm2 0.32 mm2 0.13 mm2 1.25 mm2

diameter (AWG 18) (AWG 22) (AWG 26) (AWG 16)
cable length 1900 m 1200 m 400 m 200 m

incl. stub
lines
Fig. 12: Cables for IEC 61158-2 transmission
The properties of a fieldbus are also determined by the electrical specifica-

tions of the transmission cable. Although IEC 61158-2 does not specify a
particular cable, the use of a reference cable is recommended (Type A as per
Fig. 12). Only this type of cable enables data transmission over distances of
up to 1900 meters.
For an optimum electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), the bus lines must be shielded cables
shielded. This shield as well as the metal cases of the field devices must be enhance EMC
grounded. How to proceed is described in more detail in the technical guide-
line PROFIBUS-PA User and Installation Guideline (order no. 2.091).
number of stub line max. length of stub max. length of stub

cables line cables (hazard. areas) line cables (safe area)
1-12 30 m 120 m
13-14 30 m 90 m
15-18 30 m 60 m
19-24 30 m 30 m
Fig. 13: Maximum values for the length of stub lines

SAMSON AG 99/12
19
Device connection and bus termination
For intrinsically safe IEC bus lines, a uniform plug connector is not yet avail-
able, however, a work group is already in the process of solving this task.
bus termination for The bus line must be equipped with a passive line termination at both ends.
IEC 61158-2... This termination consists of a capacitor and a resistor connected in series as
shown in Fig. 14c:
C = 1 F and R = 100 .
and RS 485 NOTE: With the RS-485 wiring, the bus line is equipped with a 220- termi-
nating resistor as well as a pull-up and a pull-down resistor (Fig. 14b). These
determine the bus line potential and can be connected to the supply voltage
by means of a 9-pin Sub-D plug (pin 5 and 6).
RS-485 IEC 61158-2

VP (6) +5 V
a) b) c)
390
DGND (3) 100

RxD/
TxD-N
RxD/ 220
TxD-P
VP (6) (8) 1F
PIN (1)
9 pin Sub-D 390
DGND (5)
Fig. 14: Plug connector and bus termination

SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
20
Part 4 L453EN
Network topologies of a PROFIBUS system
The intrinsically safe PROFIBUS-PA is usually part of a hierarchically struc-

tured network topology (Fig. 15). It is connected to a DP bus system on which PROFIBUS-PA on
also not intrinsically safe slaves and PA bus masters operate via segment the DP segment
coupler.
With PROFIBUS-PA, the network topology can either be a tree structure, a line and
line structure, or a combination of both (Fig. 16). This combination allows the tree structure
bus length to be optimized and adapted to the given system structure.
The fieldbus cable can be routed through the individual field devices. The de-
vices can be connected/disconnected better if they are connected to a short branch terminals with
stub line via branch terminal (length of stub lines: see Fig. 12). stub lines
At the tree nodes, all field devices connected to the fieldbus segment are con-
nected in parallel in so-called field distributors.
A: Control level
B: Automation level
C: Field level
A MMS, TCP / IP Backbone
PROFIBUS-FMS-DP
B PROFIBUS-PA
PROFIBUS-DP PROFIBUS-PA
C
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 15: Hierarchical PROFIBUS system
21
PNK: process-near
component safe 3 4 5 hazardous
EXI: barrier area
(intrinsically safe)) area
T
SG: power supply 1 n
R+JB
unit E
DP
JB: distributor PNK as X T
DP master PA I
R: repeater
T: bus termination E 2 R 7
SG X T T
1... 7: field devices
I T
6
segment coupler
EXI
SG
Fig. 16: Components of a PROFIBUS-PA system
Depending on the stub line length, this distributor also contains a bus termi-
nation network.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L453EN
Security layer
The efficiency of the communication system is determined considerably by

the functions and services of layer 2, because they specify significant tasks,
such as the bus access control, the structure of data telegrams, basic commu-
nication services, etc.
These layer-2 tasks are performed by the Fieldbus Data Link (FDL) and the
Fieldbus Management (FMA):
4 FDL manages the following tasks: Fieldbus Data Link

bus access control (Medium Access Control MAC), and Fieldbus
telegram structure, Management
data security,
availability of data transmission services
SDN (Send Data with No acknowledge) and
SRD (Send and Request Data with reply).
4 FMA provides several management functions, for example:

setting of operating parameters,
report of events as well as the
activation of service access points (see page 26: SAP).
Bus access and addressing
In PROFIBUS communication, multimaster systems are possible. The hybrid hybrid bus
bus access control system operates on the token passing method and uses the access method
master/slave principle to communicate with the passive participants (see
Lit./3/). Each master receives the token within a precisely defined time frame
which allows him to have sole control over the communication network within
that time frame.
A 7-bit device address serves to identify the bus participants in the network.
The addresses range from 0 to 127, and the following are reserved:
4 Address 126: default for automatic address assignment

via the master;
SAMSON AG 99/12
4 Address 127: sending broadcast telegrams.
If the address 0 is used for the class-1 master, the addresses 1 to 125 are
available for addressing the field devices and the class-2 masters. The ad-
23
dresses are usually assigned via seven DIP switches on the device or via soft-
ware.
Telegram structure
The PROFIBUS-PA data telegrams of the IEC-61158-2 transmission are to a

large extent identical with the FDL telegrams of the asynchronous RS-485
transmission.
PROFIBUS telegrams Fieldbus Data Link (FDL) defines the following telegrams:
4 telegrams without data field (6 control bytes),

4 telegrams with one data field of fixed length
(8 data and 6 control bytes),
4 telegrams with a variable data field

(0 to 244 data bytes and 9 to 11 control bytes),
4 brief acknowledgement (1 byte) and

4 token telegram for bus access control (3 bytes).
With all data transmissions, the parity and block checking of the telegrams is
Hamming distance = 4 used to reach a Hamming distance of HD=4, so that up to three errors can be
detected with certainty.
In Fig. 17, the top part illustrates the structure of a FDL telegram with a vari-
able data field length. While the bytes of the FDL telegram are transmitted
asynchronously in the form of UART characters over the RS 485 line, the
transmission on the IEC segments is bitsynchronous. Here, the FDL telegram
is additionally supplied with the preamble and the start and end delimiters
(see Fig. 17 below).
Performance data
The size of the telegram as shown in Fig. 17 depends on the length of the
data field. Together with the length, the user data rate changes within the lim-
high user data rate its of eight and 96 per cent (one or 244 data bytes and eleven control bytes
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
each).
24
Part 4 L453EN
SD LE LEr SD DA SA FC Data-unit FCS ED
SN: start delimiter

LE - LEr: length byte - double for reasons of safety
(length-length repeat)
DA: destination address
SA: source address
FC: frame control (type of telegram)
Data-unit: data field
FCS: frame check sequence
ED: end delimiter
preamble start delimiter FDL telegram end delimiter
1 to 8 bytes 1 byte 1 to 256 bytes 1 byte
Fig. 17: Bitsynchronous transmission of IEC telegram (bottom)

and structure of the embedded FDL telegram
A transmission rate of 31.25 kbit/s results in transmission times of 0.4 to 8.2

ms per telegram so that per user data byte an average of 0.4 ms and 34 ms
is required.
This data transmission rate is sufficient, for example, to serve 10 control in 210 ms up to 10
loops including 10 sensors and 10 actuators respectively within a control control loops can be
cycle time of approx. 210 milliseconds. processed
During the evaluation, it was assumed that only one cyclic value (5 bytes user
data) must be transmitted per device. With each additional value, the mini-
mum cycle time increases by (5 x 8 bits)/(31.25 kbit/s) = 1.3 ms .
For a first estimate, the following formula can be used:
cycle time 10 ms x number of devices

+ 10 ms (for acyclic class-2 master services)
SAMSON AG 99/12
+ 1.3 ms (for each additional cyclic value)
25
Layer-2 communication services
Layer 2 provides the application layer with the SRD and SDN communication
services:
communication with... 4 With the SRD service (Send and Request Data with reply), the master issu-
es a command or sends data to the slave and receives a reply from the sla-
ve within a defined time span. This reply either consists of an
acknowledgement (brief acknowledgement) or of the requested data
(Fig. 18).
and without 4 The SDN service (Send Data with No acknowledge ) sends data to a whole
acknowledgement group of slaves. This permits an event-controlled synchronization where
all slaves set their outputs simultaneously (Sync mode) or update their in-
put data simultaneously (Freeze mode). A master-controlled bus as-
signment for slave replies is not possible in this case so that SDN telegrams
remain unacknowledged.
The access of the application to these basic forms of communication as well

SAP: interface to com- as the various layer-2 services based on them is granted via so-called Service
munication services Access Points (SAP). These SAPs are used by the higher layers to perform all
communication tasks of the respective application program.
SRD communication
master command, data if needed

response
master
slave
direct
slave acknowledgement with data
Fig. 18: SRD data exchange between master and slave

SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L453EN
User interface
The illustrations in Figs. 5 (page 13) and 19 show that the OSI layers 3 to 7
are not used with PROFIBUS-DP and PA and that both systems utilize a uni-
form user interface. DP and PA can therefore also be considered standard-
ized applications of layer 2.
DDLM and user interface
The user interface plus the Direct Data Link Mapper (DDLM) form the inter-
face between the application program and layer 2. With the introduction of
DPV1, the DDLM provides several asynchronous service functions, e.g.:
4 DDLM_Initiate; DDLM_Read; DDLM_Write; DDLM_Abort; powerful services for

DDLM_Alarm_Ack; acyclic data exchange
These DDLM functions are used by the user interface as a basis for communi-
cation services, such as start-up, maintenance, diagnostics as well as alarm
messages.
application program
with device profiles
USER cyclic acyclic services:

interface exchange: - controls - alarm functions
data and - diagnostics - upload
status messages - parameterization - download
DDLM cyclic and acyclic

communication services
OSI Fieldbus Data Link (FDL)

layer 2 Fieldbus Management (FMA)
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 19: User interface, DDLM and layer 2
27
control with cyclic The system is actually controlled by the class-1 master, utilizing cyclic data
data exchange exchange (see also page 11).
besides standardized The multiple functions of the user interface form a powerful interface for a
communication ... state-of-the-art communication system. Apart from that, an up-to-date, open
system for process automation applications requires that components from
various manufacturers can be exchanged the key terms are
interchangeability and interoperability. This requires an accurate definition
of all device interfaces.
uniform device For the definition of the interfaces, PROFIBUS-PA utilizes several elements or
interfaces are descriptions. They include the following:
required
4 Device Database Files (GSD),
4 device profiles,
4 Electronic Device Description (EDD) or, as an
alternative, the Field Device Tool specification (FDT).
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L453EN
Device Database Files
The cyclic data exchange between the class-1 master and a field device can
function only, if the master knows the device-specific parameters and data description of cyclic
formats. This information is supplied by the device manufacturer in the form parameters and data
of the device database file (GSD; see Fig. 20). The file contains the following formats
details:
4 device manufacturer and device identification number,

4 transmission rate and bus parameters,
4 number and format of the data for cyclic communication
for instance, cyclic positioner data:
reference variable, controlled variable, final position feedback and status
messages (fail-safe position, control loop fault, on-site operation, etc.).
When planning a PROFIBUS-PA or -DP system, the GSD must be loaded into
the class-1 master via a configuration tool. It describes the device specific pa- for the class-1 master
rameters in an exactly defined format. The GSD format also supports more
complex types of representation, e.g.:
#Profibus_DP
; MaxTsdr_93.75 = 1000
GSD_Revision = 1 ;
Vendor_Name = "SAMSON AG" Redundancy = 0
Model_Name = "Positioner 3785" Repeater_Ctrl_Sig = 0
Revision = "V1.0" ;
Freeze_Mode_supp = 0
Ident_Number = 0x3785 Sync_Mode_supp = 0
Protocol_Ident = 0 Auto_Baud_supp = 0
Station_Type = 0 Set_Slave_Add_supp = 0
FMS_supp = 0 Min_Slave_Intervall = 100 ;
Slave_Family = 12 User_Prm_Data_Len = 0
; Max_Diag_Data_Len = 32
Hardware_Release = "E 1.00 M 2.00" ;
Software_Release = "K 1.33 R 1.23" Bitmap_Device = "SR3785_N"
; ;
31.25_supp = 1 ;----- Meaning of the device related diagnostic bits:
45.45_supp = 1 Unit_Diag_Bit(00) = "Hardware failure electronics"
93.75_supp = 1 Unit_Diag_Bit(01) = "Hardware failure mechanics"
MaxTsdr_31.25 = 100 Unit_Diag_Bit(04) = "Memory error"
MaxTsdr_45.45 = 200 ; etc.
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 20: Excerpt from the GSD of the Type 3785 PROFIBUS Positioner
29
4 listings: for instance, to indicate several transmission rates of a device;

4 clear texts: for diagnostic and error messages to convey more meaning;
4 bitmap files: for symbolic device representations.
The entire information is grouped into paragraphs which are separated from
each other by key words. This standardized structure of the GSD files makes
it possible for the class-1 master to load and interpret the data independent
of the device manufacturer.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L453EN
Device profiles
A system can only be operated and monitored independent of devices and

manufacturers if all device functions and parameters as well as the access to
this data are standardized. PROFIBUS-PA achieves this standardization by
using so-called device profiles.
These profiles determine how to implement communication objects, variables standardization of

and parameters for the different types of field devices. For instance, master device and operating
devices can have standardized access to the field device functions. functions
The determination of the device profiles has the effect that the properties and
functions of the field devices are predefined within wide limits. For example,
the variables measured value, alarm limits, alarm type, scaling factor, status
flags, etc. serve to accurately describe the ability of a transmitter to be
parameterized.
Classification of parameters
The field device parameters and data which can be accessed through com-
munication can be divided in three groups as detailed below. Fig. 21 shows
the listing and classification of parameters for control valves.
4 dynamic process values: all measuring, signal and status values which are dynamic process values
required to control the system. The cyclic access to this data is possible for and status data
the class-1 master due to the GSD description (page 29: device database
files). The class-2 master can read/write these data acyclically.
4 operating and standard parameters: these parameters are exclusively operating and standard
read/written acyclically. The data describes different parameters and parameters
functions depending on the device type sensor, actuator, analog or digi-
tal input/output, etc. With each device, the objects marked obligatory in
the device profile must be completely implemented. It is up to the device
manufacturer, however, which of the optional possibilities are made
available.
4 manufacturer-specific parameters: if a manufacturer implements device manufacturer-specific

functions and setting variants that go beyond the profile definition, these parameters
SAMSON AG 99/12
functionalities can be described with manufacturer-specific parameters.

The extensions are only available to the user, if the class-2 master knows
31

reference variable
process
controlled variable
parameters
device status
operating direction
operating mode

PROFILE
PROFIL operating
a safety action
class B parameters
safety value

loop/tag number

{
{
DDL manufacturer extensions f. parame-
or specific terization, diagnostics
FDT parameters and maintenance
Fig. 21: Classification of device parameters profile class B for actuators
how to access the parameters and perform the additional functions (see
section device description and field device tool).
Function block model
With device profiles, PROFIBUS-PA operates on the basis of a function block

model. This model groups the different device parameters in several function
blocks which ensure a uniform and systematic access to all parameters.
Due to its object-oriented assignment of device parameters and device func-

function block model tions, the function block model simplifies planning and operation of distrib-
provides uniform uted automation systems. Additionally, this model ensures compatibility with
application interfaces the international fieldbus standard so that a conversion to an international
fieldbus protocol would not require modifications of the application soft-
ware.
various blocks and The function block model assigns the dynamic process values and the operat-
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
functions are required, ing and standard parameters of a field device to different blocks (Fig. 22).
depending on the
4 the function block describes the device function during the operation (cy-
operating mode
clic data exchange of analog input/output, alarm limit values, etc.).
32
Part 4 L453EN
internal
I/O hardware device hardware
transducer physical
block block
function
block
PROFIBUS interface
Fig. 22: Function block model of device profiles
4 the physical block encompasses all parameters and functions required to

identify the hardware and software (revision numbers, limit values, etc.).
4 the transducer block contains the parameters which describe the coupling
of the signals to the process and are required to preprocess the data in the
field device (process temperature and pressure, characteristic curves, sen-
sor type, etc.).
The operating mode start-up, operation, maintenance or diagnosis deter-

mines which parameters and blocks must be used. For instance, during oper- function block for ope-
ation, function block parameters are used almost exclusively, while during ration; physical block
maintenance and start-up, transducer and physical block parameters are for start-up and
used primarily. For diagnosis, information is required from all three blocks. maintenance
During operation, a transducer block can be firmly assigned to each function

block. The process and system data saved in the transducer blocks can be
used by the field device to preprocess its own data and, thus, to provide the
master with extended process information. The more extensive the trans- transducer blocks ex-
ducer blocks defined by the device profile, the more varied is the process in- tend a devices range of
formation provided by the respective field device. functions
EXAMPLE: A differential pressure transmitter does not only provide the mea-
SAMSON AG 99/12
sured pressure difference (function block), but uses material and process pa-
rameters (transducer block) to calculate and pass on the resulting flow rate as
well.
33
Some field devices have extended functions and are responsible for several
tasks, eg. analog inputs and outputs. These so-called multi-channel devices
are equipped with several independent function blocks and, if required, the
associated transducer blocks.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L453EN
PROFILE A and B
PROFIBUS-PA differentiates the device profile classes A and B. At first, only

class A profiles that were defined for the most important transmitters (temper-
ature, pressure, level, flow rate) and control valves were used.
4 The class A profiles contain those characteristics that describe the basic device profile A:
device functions. Device profile A is limited to the absolutely necessary ba- only data from function
sic parameters that are required for process operation in process enginee- and physical block
ring. This includes only parameters from the function and the physical
block, e.g. the process variable, the status of the measured value, the phy-
sical unit as well as the tag number.
4 Class B profiles extend the available scope of functions of the devices. The device profile B:
device profile B comprises all three blocks of the function block model and data from function
differentiates objects whose implementation is mandatory and those the block, physical block
manufacturer can provide optionally. and transducer block
When looking at the example of the profile definition for control valves (Fig.
23), you can see how the function blocks are assigned to the profiles A and
B. It becomes clear that the device profile A is a subset of profile B. Profile A is
used if there is no special device profile B for a certain field device type. Pro-
file-B compliant field devices, for instance the SAMSON Type 3785
profile class A profile class B
physical block m m
analog output function block m m

transducer block: m
electropneumatic transducer block s
electric transducer block s
electrohydraulic transducer block s
additional function blocks o
additional transducer blocks o

SAMSON AG 99/12
mandatory (m) selected (s) optional (o)
Fig. 23: Function block model for control valves
35
PROFIBUS Positioner, always meet the functions and parameters of device

profile A as subset.
Profile B defines three mandatory blocks, the physical, function and trans-
multi-channel devices ducer block. Depending on the device version, the function block can be as-
have more than one signed to a different transducer block (selected). For multi-channel devices
function block with extended functions, additional function blocks are available as an op-
tion.
In the meantime, class B profiles have been defined for most devices e.g.
discrete input and output, analog input and output, transmitters, actuators,
multivariable device and are already used in practice. The currently (Au-
gust 1999) valid version is profile B version 2.0, however, a more powerful
version 3.0 is already in progress.
profile B version 3.0 A special feature of this version 3.0 is that it supports generally valid device
supports predefined database files defined by the profile. With these profile GSDs, there is no
profile GSDs need for an individual manufacturer-specific GSD anymore. If the field de-
vice supports the profile B version 3.0, the profile GSD of the corresponding
device type can be used during project planning.
increased functionality Thanks to the optional device functions, PROFIBUS-PA devices differ in their
due to optional profile functions while the profile remains the same. Additionally, manufacturers
functions... have the possibility to equip their devices with device functions and perfor-
mance characteristics that go beyond the profiles requirements.
and manufacturer- The free definition of manufacturer-specific functions is important so that

specific extensions progress is enhanced and competition made possible. At the same time,
however, difficulties are caused by the fact that these performance features
can only be utilized if the operating program of the class-2 master knows the
associated communication objects.
The prerequisite for using manufacturer-specific performance characteristics

of devices with an open and, therefore, manufacturer-independent commu-
nication system, is a standardized extension function or interface. To fulfill
this task, PROFIBUS utilizes an interface description based on the Field De-
vice Tools or the EDD: Electronic Device Description.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
36
Part 4 L453EN
Device description and Field Device Tool specification
To be able to provide the class-2 master of PROFIBUS-PA with manufacturer-

specific device features and operating functions, the PNO is currently work-
ing on two different specifications:
4 the device description (Electronic Device Description: EDD) and EDD and FDT enable
more variants and
4 the Field Device Tool specification (FDT).
functions
Both options ensure that the diversity of field device variants and functions re-
mains as extensive as possible.
With PROFIBUS, the definition of the device description language is based

on the specifications of the ISP consortium from which the PNO acquired the
user rights. However, the manufacturer defines all device-specific parame-
ters, functions and operating structures of his device with the help of a lan-
guage similiar to a programming language.
The syntax of Profibus DDL clearly defines how to describe extensions. In this device description
way, the generated device descriptions (EDDs) can be interpreted correctly language defines how
by the class-2 master independent of the manufacturer. to describe device
functions
Apart from the device description, there is yet another possibility to make de-
vice- and manufacturer-specific properties available via PROFIBUS-PA: the
Field Device Tool specification.
Contrary to the device description, the FDT specification does not determine FDT describes the inter-
the objects type of description, but specifies the interface over which the op- face field device-
erating program accesses the field device data and the associated display operating program
parameters.
FDT is based on the DCOM feature of the Windows operating system.

DCOM stands for Distributed Component Object Model and denotes a
mechanism which enables users to run an application distributed over sev-
eral computers in one network.
In this case, the distributed application is the operating and monitoring pro- distributed application
gram including the partial components and processes, such as communica- based on the DCOM
SAMSON AG 99/12
tion servers, databases for historical and diagnostic data as well as service
additional display and engineering tools.
37
class-2
master
class-1 GSD DD and/or
master and FDT FDT
}
PROFIBUS DPV1
slave
field devices
Fig. 24: Loading the device database files as well as manufacturer-specific

device and interface descriptions
The interface description based on FDT and the device description EDD both
aim at - in quite different ways - enabling the class-2 master to represent and
loading EDD and FDT operate the full scope of functions of all field devices. The highest flexibility is
data reached when the user of these device or interface descriptions can load and
update when still in the project planning phase (see Fig. 24).
NOTE: Many of todays available operating programs neither offer FDT

functions nor the possibility of loading and evaluating device descriptions as
desired. In such cases, the user must turn to manufacturer- or device-specific
software and make sure himself that the used programs are capable of con-
trolling all field devices within their full scope of functions.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
38
Part 4 L453EN
Communication sequence and error protection mechanisms
PROFIBUS-PA and -DP are equipped with a variety of safety mechanisms to system check during
ensure troublefree communication. For instance, already during the initial- the initialization
ization of the system, several possible sources of error are checked. phase
After the system is powered up, slaves are ready for data exchange only if
the master has first sent a parameterization and then a configuration tele-
gram. Only when these telegrams match its own functional properties does
the slave accept the commands from the master. For instance, the number of
output lines configured by the master must match those actually existing in
the device.
With the help of the Get-Cfg commands, the device configuration of all
slaves can be loaded. Thus, parameterization errors in the network can be
avoided if the master compares the planned device arrangement to the actu-
ally existing configuration. The information required for this device type,
number of inputs and outputs, formatting and length data is received via
the device database files and descriptions. Fig. 25 shows a typical initializa-
tion cycle during the start-up of a system.
4 Besides the controlled error check of the data telegrams during operation, error check mechanisms
the communication process is also monitored by safety mechanisms con- controlled by time
trolled by time and protocol. and protocol
initialization sequence
task: command:
load configuration master checks the Get_Cfg

of slaves: network configuration
write parameters communication services Set_Prm

of the slaves: network parameters
configure inputs / outputs Set_Cfg

slaves:
load configuration master checks the Get_Cfg

of the slaves: settings
SAMSON AG 99/12
Fig. 25: Initialization start of a PROFIBUS-PA system
39
4 Each master controls the communication with his slaves by means of speci-
al timers which are used to check the time sequence of the useful data traf-
fic.
4 With the slaves, a pickup monitoring function switches the outputs in a

predefined safe state if no data transfer takes place with the master within
a fixed time interval.
4 The outputs of the slaves are additionally secured by access protection.

This ensures with multi-master systems that the write-access is only permit-
ted by the authorized master while reading of inputs and outputs can also
be performed without access rights.
The safety of the system is even higher because each class-1 master cyclically
reports its own system status to all its assigned slaves within a configurable
time interval using a multicast command. The master can be parameterized
in such a manner that it can switch all slaves to a safe status and end the data
transfer operation in case of a system error, i.e. when a slave fails.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L453EN
Appendix A1:
[1] Digital Signals
Technical Information L 150 EN; SAMSON AG



[5] HART Communication


APPENDIX
SAMSON AG 99/12
41
Figures
Fig. 1: PROFIBUS variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Fig. 2: Historical development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Fig. 3: Cost savings thanks to the use of fieldbus systems . . . . . . . 10
Fig. 4: Comparison of transmission techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Fig. 5: Layer structure of PROFIBUS communication . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 6: Physical PROFIBUS-PA layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 7: PROFIBUS-PA segment coupled to a DP bus system . . . . . . 14
Fig. 8: Block diagram of a segment coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 9: Maximum power and number of devices per PA segment . . . 17
Fig. 10: Calculation of the total current of a PA segment . . . . . . . . 17
Fig. 11: Manchester coding with 9 mA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fig. 12: Cables for IEC 61158-2 transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Fig. 13: Maximum values for the length of stub lines . . . . . . . . . . 19

FIGURES
Fig. 14: Plug connector and bus termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Fig. 15: Hierarchical PROFIBUS system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Fig. 16: Components of a PROFIBUS-PA system . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Fig. 17: Bitsynchronous transmission of the IEC and FDL telegram . . . 25
Fig. 18: SRD data exchange between master and slave . . . . . . . . 26
Fig. 19: User interface, DDLM and layer 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Fig. 20: Excerpt from the GSD of the Type 3785 PROFIBUS Positioner . 29
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 21: Classification of device parameters for actuators . . . . . . . 32
Fig. 22: Function block model of device profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
42
Part 4 L453EN
Fig. 23: Function block model for control valves . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Fig. 24: Loading the device database files and interface descriptions . . 38
Fig. 25: Initialization start of a PROFIBUS-PA system . . . . . . . . . 39
FIGURES
SAMSON AG 99/12
43
1999/12 L453EN

FOUNDATION Fieldbus
4
Part 4 Communication
PID 110
AI 110
AO 110
Should you have any further questions or suggestions, please do

not hesitate to contact us:
SAMSON AG Phone (+49 69) 4 00 94 67

Part 4 L454EN
Foundation Fieldbus
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Historical development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
User organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Approval of devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Performance features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Layered communications model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Physical layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
H1 bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
EEx-i instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
CONTENTS
High Speed Ethernet (HSE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Bridge to H1-HSE-Kopplung. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Communication stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Link Active Scheduler LAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Communication control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Scheduled data transmission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Unscheduled data transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Communication schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Application layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fieldbus Access Sublayer (FAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fieldbus Message Specification (FMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

SAMSON AG 00/05
User application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Block model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3
Communication FOUNDATION Fieldbus
Device descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
System management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
System configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Appendix A1:
Additional literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
CONTENTS
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L454EN
Introduction
The FOUNDATION fieldbus can be flexibly used in process automation appli-

cations. The specification supports bus-powered field devices as well as al- fieldbus for process
lows application in hazardous areas. The Fieldbus FOUNDATIONs slogan automation applications
... dedicated to a single international fieldbus expresses the organizations
claim to establishing an international, interoperable fieldbus standard.
Fieldbus technology replaces the expensive, conventional 4 to 20 mA wiring

in the field and enables bidirectional data transmission. The entire communi-
cation between the devices and the automation system as well as the process
control station takes place over the bus system, and all operating and device
data are exclusively transmitted over the fieldbus (see also Lit./4/).
The communication between control station, operating terminals and field

devices simplifies the start-up and parameterization of all components. The
communication functions allow diagnostic data, which are provided by
up-to-date field devices, to be evaluated.
The essential objectives in fieldbus technology are to reduce installation

costs, save time and costs due to simplified planning as well as improve the fieldbus technology
operating reliability of the system due to additional performance features. saves time and reduces
Fieldbus systems are usually implemented in new plants or existing plants costs
that must be extended. To convert an existing plant to fieldbus technology,
the conventional wiring can either be modified into a bus line, or it must be
replaced with a shielded bus cable, if required.
Note: To ensure troublefree operation, the communication system must be

designed and configured by experts. For this purpose, a variety of assistance
as well as comprehensive documentation can be obtained. This Technical In-
formation does not claim to replace this type of support, but aims at explain-
ing the basic principle of operation of the FOUNDATION fieldbus as well as
its special characteristics to users, who have an interest in this technology.
It must also be noted that the FF specification is not yet completed at this stage
SAMSON AG 00/05
November 1999 so that the facts presented here can be subject to future
changes.
5
Historical development
In 1992 an international group, the ISP Interoperable Systems Project,

was founded with the intention to create an internationally uniform fieldbus
standard for use in hazardous environments. At the same time, the manufac-
turers and users of the French FIP (Flux Information Processus; previously:
Factory Instrumentation Protocol) established the international user organi-
zation WorldFIP. Together with the FIP North America, they were a strong
counterweight to the ISP consortium.
Fieldbus FOUNDATION In 1994, for technical, economic and political reasons, the ISP and the
emerged from ISP WorldFIP merged to form the Fieldbus FOUNDATION. The aim of the
and WorldFIP Fieldbus FOUNDATION was and is to create a single, international fieldbus
standard for hazardous environments which will find widespread use as IEC
standardized fieldbus. The same goal is pursued by the PROFIBUS user or-
ganization with its PROFIBUS PA fieldbus. While the PROFIBUS PA has its
roots and its largest user community in Europe, the FOUNDATION fieldbus
manufacturers and users are concentrated in America and Asia.
The Fieldbus FOUNDATION utilized some elements from the FIP for the
same bus design specification of their FOUNDATION fieldbus (FF) as well as similar to
as PROFIBUS-PA PROFIBUS PA details from the ISP specification. This is why the physical bus
design of both fieldbus systems is the same. Also, the device interface for ap-
plication, which is based on function blocks, exhibits many common fea-
tures. This is due to the fact that both systems have similar ambitions.
However, when taking a closer look and comparing the system functions, it
can be seen that there are also great differences (see also Lit. /6/).
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L454EN
User organization
The Fieldbus FOUNDATION is an independent not-for-profit organization independent not-for-

which aims at developing and maintaining an internationally uniform and profit organization
successful fieldbus for automation tasks, the FOUNDATION fieldbus. Mem-
bers include users and manufacturers of field devices and automation sys-
tems. The Fieldbus FOUNDATION incorporates various workshops which
are responsible, among others, for technical support, marketing and support
of the members.
Approval of devices
The Fieldbus is an open bus standard which enables devices of different approval confirms
manufacturers to be integrated in one system and, if required, interchanged compliance with the
(interoperability). This is only feasible when all the devices exactly meet the specifications
specification. Devices approved by the Fieldbus FOUNDATION are a guar-
antee for the user and the manufacturer that they comply with the specifica-
tion.
Fig. 1: Logo of Fieldbus FOUNDATION members

SAMSON AG 00/05
7
Performance features
important The FOUNDATION fieldbus provides a broad spectrum of services and func-
characteristics tions compared to other fieldbus systems:
4 intrinsic safety for use in hazardous environments

4 bus-powered field devices
4 line or tree topology
4 multi-master capable communication
4 deterministic (predictable) dynamic behavior
4 distributed data transfer (DDT)
4 standardized block model for uniform device interfaces (interoperability,
interchangeability)
4 flexible extension options based on device descriptions

The characteristic feature of distributed data transfer enables single field de-
vices to execute automation tasks so that they are no longer just sensors or
actuators, but contain additional functions.
predefined For the description of a devices function(s) and for the definition of a uniform
function blocks access to the data, the FOUNDATION fieldbus contains predefined function
blocks (see User application on page 29). The function blocks implemented
in a device provide information about the tasks the device can perform. Typi-
cal functions provided by sensors include the following:
sensors Analog Input or

Discrete Input (digital input).
Control valves usually contain the following function blocks:
control valves Analog Output or

SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Discrete Output (digital output).
8
Part 4 L454EN
The following blocks exist for process control tasks:
Proportional/Derivative (PD controller) or control processes

Proportional/Integral/Derivative (PID controller).
If a device contains such a function block, it can control a process variable in-
dependently.
The shift of automation tasks from the automation level down to the field flexible, decentralized
results in the flexible, distributed processing of control tasks. This reduces the process control
load on the central process control station which can even be replaced en-
tirely in small-scale installations. Therefore, an entire control loop can be im-
plemented as the smallest unit, consisting only of one sensor and one control
valve with integrated process controller which communicate over the
FOUNDATION fieldbus (see Fig. 2).
The enhanced functionality of the devices leads to higher requirements to be

met by the device hardware and comparably complex software implementa-
tion and device interfaces.
HSE
H1 bus
AI 101 PID 101

AO 101
Fig. 2: Complete control loop based on the FOUNDATION fieldbus

SAMSON AG 00/05
9
Layered communications model
The FOUNDATION specification is based on the layered communications

model and consists of three major functional elements (Fig. 3a):
4 Physical Layer
4 Communication Stack
4 User Application
The User Application is made up of function blocks and the device descrip-
tion. It is directly based on the Communication Stack. Depending on which
blocks are implemented in a device, users can access a variety of services.
system management System management utilizes the services and functions of the User Applica-
tion and the application layer to execute its tasks (Figs. 3b and 3c). It ensures
the proper cooperation between the individual bus components as well as
a) b) c) system
user user function device m
block descrip- a
application application model tion n
a
g
e
fieldbus message
m
7 application layer e
specification (FMS) n
6 presentation layer t
fieldbus access
communication 5 session layer sublayer (FAS)
stack 4 transport layer
3 network layer
2 data link layer data link layer
physical layer 1 physical layer physical layer
FOUNDATION Fieldbus FOUNDATION Fieldbus

SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 3: Structure and description of the FF communication layers
10
Part 4 L454EN
synchronizes the measurement and control tasks of all field devices with re-
gard to time (see page 35).
The FOUNDATION fieldbus layered communications model is based on the

ISO/OSI reference model. As is the case for most fieldbus systems, and in fieldbus specification
accordance with an IEC specification, layers three to six are not used. The based on ISO/OSI com-
comparison in Fig. 3 shows that the Communication Stack covers the tasks of munication model
layers two and seven and that layer seven consists of the Fieldbus Access
Sublayer (FAS) and the Fieldbus Message Specification (FMS) (see page 26
and Lit. /3/).
SAMSON AG 00/05
11
Physical layer
The specification of the FOUNDATION Fieldbus is not yet completed at this

stage. However, it is certain that the topology of a FF system complies with
the IEC Fieldbus model in many aspects.
IEC fieldbus The IEC fieldbus solves pending communication tasks by using two bus sys-
tems, the slow, intrinsically safe H1 bus and the fast, higher-level H2 bus with
1 to 2.5 MBit/s (see IEC fieldbus model /Lit. 4/).
FOUNDATION fieldbus The physical design of the H1 bus of the FOUNDATION fieldbus complies
exactly with the specifications of the IEC fieldbus model. The specification of
the H2 bus is not yet completed and the publication of the preliminary speci-
fication (PS) has been announced. However, it is certain that the High Speed
Ethernet (HSE) will be used (Fig. 4).
user 2
user n
user 1
switch High Speed Ethernet (HSE)

(100 MBit/s, LWL)
bridge
intrinsically
safe area H1bus (31.25 kBit/s, IEC 61158-2)
R R
user 1 1
Teilnehmer user 2 user m
Fig. 4: Structure of the FOUNDATION fieldbus

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Part 4 L454EN
H1 bus
The following summary gives a brief overview of the basic values and fea-
tures of the H1 bus. For more details, refer to the various Application
Guides of the Fieldbus FOUNDATION (e.g., AG 140, AG 163).
The H1 bus specification is based on the IEC 61158-2 (see Lit./2/): H1 specification
based on IEC 61158-2
4 Manchester coding is used for data transfer. The data transfer rate is
31.25 kBit/s.
4 Proper communication requires that the field devices have enough volta-
ge. Each device should have minimum 9 volts. To make sure that this re-
quirement is met, software tools are available which calculate the resulting
currents and terminal voltages based on the network topology, the line re-
sistance and the supply voltage.
4 The H1 bus allows the field devices to be powered over the bus. The power bus powered
supply unit is connected to the bus line in the same way (parallel) as a field field devices
device. Field devices powered by supply sources other than the bus, must
be additionally connected to their own supply sources.
4 With the H1 bus it must be ensured that the maximum power consumption
of current consuming devices is lower than the electric power supplied by
the power supply unit.
1..7: field devices

JB: junction box
HSE
H1 network
JB
4
1 3
2
5 7
6
SAMSON AG 00/05
Fig. 5: Mixed topology for an H1 network
13
No. of 1 device 2 devices 3 devices 4 devices

devices per spur per spur per spur per spur
25-32 1m 1m 1m 1m
19-24 30 m 1m 1m 1m
15-18 60 m 30 m 1m 1m
13-14 90 m 60 m 30 m 1m
1-12 120 m 90 m 60 m 30 m
Fig. 5: Length of spurs
4 Network topologies used are usually line topology or, when equipped
spurs via T-connector with junction boxes, also star, tree or a combination of topologies (Fig. 5).
The devices are best connected via short spurs using tee connectors to en-
able connection/disconnection of the devices without interrupting commu-
nication.
4 The maximum length of a spur is limited to 120 meters and depends on the
number of spurs used as well as the number of devices per spur (Fig. 6).
4 Without repeaters, the maximum length of an H1 segment can be as long

as 1900 meters. By using up to four repeaters, a maximum of 5*1900 m =
9500 m can be jumpered. The short spurs from the field device to the bus
are included in this total length calculation.
Type A Type B Type C Type D
Cable shielded single or multi-twisted multi-core,

description twisted multi-twisted pair without without twisted
pair pair with an shield pairs, without
overall shield shield
Size 0.8 mm2 0.32 mm2 0.13 mm2 1.25 mm2

(AWG 18) (AWG 22) (AWG 26) (AWG 16)
Max. length 1900 m 1200 m 400 m 200 m

incl. spurs
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 6: Fieldbus cable types and maximum bus lengths
14
Part 4 L454EN
4 The number of bus users per bus segment is limited to 32 in intrinsically limited electrical power
safe areas. In explosion-hazardous areas, this number is reduced to only in ex areas
a few devices due to power supply limitations (see EEx-i instrumentation
below).
4 Various types of cables are useable for fieldbus (Fig. 7). Type A is recom-
mended as preferred fieldbus cable, and only this type is specified for the
maximum bus length of 1900 m.
4 Principally, there need to be two terminators per bus segment, one at or two terminators per
near each end of a transmission line. bus segment
4 It is not imperative that bus cables be shielded, however, it is recommen-

ded to prevent possible interferences and for best performance of the
system.
EEx-i instrumentation
The H1 bus can be designed intrinsically safe (Ex-i) to suit applications in

hazardous areas. This requires that proper barriers be installed between the only one power
safe and the explosion hazardous area (Fig. 8). In addition, only one device, supply unit
the power supply unit, must supply the fieldbus with power. All other devices
must always, i.e. also when transmitting and receiving data, function as cur-
rent sinks.
Since the capacity of electrical lines is limited in intrinsically safe areas de-
pending on the explosion group IIB or IIC (see Fig. 9), the number of de-
T: terminator
I.S.
T interface T I.S. intrinsically safe
barrier
SG: power supply
SG A 1 2 3
unit
A: field device in
safe area ex area safe area
1...3: intrinsically
SAMSON AG 00/05
safe field devices

Fig. 7: Elements for the intrinsically safe H1 bus
15
[mA] permitted current

low permitted group IIC
300 inductance permitted current
group IIB
200
power limitation
operating area begrenzung
100
low permitted
capacitance
0
0 10 20 30 [V]
Fig. 8: Limited operating area for Ex-i IIB and IIC installations
(including a safety factor of 1.5)
vices that can be connected to one segment depends on the effective power
consumption of the used devices.
Since the FOUNDATION fieldbus specification is not based on the FISCO

intrinsic safety require- model (see Lit./4/), the plant operator himself must ensure that intrinsic
ments must be met safety requirements are met when planning and installing the communica-
during planning and tions network. For instance, the capacitance and inductance of all line seg-
installation ments and devices must be calculated to ensure that the permissible limit
values are observed (Fig. 10).
Group Co (Ca) Lo (La)
IIC 165 nF 0.35 mH
IIB 1.14 F 1.04 mH
Fig. 9: Capacitance and inductance limit values for installation of

Ex-i instrumentation
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Part 4 L454EN
High Speed Ethernet (HSE)
The HSE is based on standard Ethernet technology. The required components standard available
are therefore widely used and are available at low costs. The HSE runs at Ethernet technology
100 Mbit/s and cannot only be equipped with electrical lines, but with opti-
cal fiber cables as well.
The Ethernet operates by using random (not deterministic) CSMA bus access.
This method can only be applied to a limited number of automation applica-
tions because it requires real-time capability. The extremely high transmis-
sion rate enables the bus to respond sufficiently fast when the bus load is low
and devices are only few. With respect to process engineering requirements, real-time requirements
real-time requirements are met in any case. can be met
If the bus load must be reduced due to the many connected devices, or if sev-
eral HSE partial networks are to be combined to create a larger network,
Ethernet Switches must be used (see Fig. 4). A switch reads the target address
of the data packets that must be forwarded and then passes the packets on to
the associated partial network. This way, the bus load and the resulting bus
access time can be controlled to best adapt it to the respective requirements.
Bridge to H1-HSE coupling
A communications network that consists of an H1 bus and an HSE network

results in a topology as illustrated in Fig. 4. To connect the comparatively
slow H1 segments to the HSE network, coupling components, so-called coupling components
Bridges, are required. Similar to HSE, the specification of this bus component required
has not been completed up to now.
A Bridge is used to connect the individual H1 buses to the fast High Speed
Ethernet. The various data transfer rates and data telegrams must be adaptation of various
adapted and converted, considering the direction of transmission. This way, data rates and
powerful and widely branched networks can be installed in larger plants. telegrams
SAMSON AG 00/05
17
Communication stack
The field devices used with the FOUNDATION fieldbus are capable of assum-
ing process control functions. This option is based on distributed communica-
tion which ensures that
distributed 4 each controlling field device can exchange data with other devices (e.g.
communication reading measuring values, forwarding correction values),
4 all field devices are served in time (in time meaning that the processing of
the different control loops is not negatively influenced),
4 two or more devices never access the bus simultaneously.

central To meet these requirements, the H1 bus of the FOUNDATION fieldbus uses a
communication central communication control system.
control
Link Active Scheduler LAS
The Link Active Scheduler (LAS) controls and schedules the communication
on the bus (see page 19: Communication control). It controls the bus activities
using different commands which it broadcasts to the devices. Since the LAS
also continuously polls unassigned device addresses, it is possible to connect
devices during operation and to integrate them in the bus communication.
Devices that are capable of becoming the LAS, are called Link Master. Ba-
sic devices do not have the capability to become LAS.
fail-operational design In a redundant system containing multiple Link Masters, one of the Link Mas-
ters will become the LAS if the active LAS fails (fail-operational design).
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L454EN
Communication control
The communication services of the FF specification utilize scheduled and un-

scheduled data transmission. Time-critical tasks, such as the control of pro- scheduled or
cess variables, are exclusively performed by scheduled services, whereas unscheduled data
parameterization and diagnostic functions are carried out using unsched- transmission
uled communication services.
Scheduled data transmission
To solve communication tasks in time and without access conflicts, all time-critical tasks
time-critical tasks are based on a strict transmission schedule. This schedule with a strict trans-
is created by the system operator during the configuration of the FF system. mission schedule
The LAS periodically broadcasts a synchronization signal (TD: Time Distribu-

tion) on the fieldbus so that all devices have exactly the same data link time.
In scheduled transmission, the point of time and the sequence are exactly de-
fined. This is why it is called a deterministic system.
Fig. 11 presents the schedule for a system with two sensors and two control
valves. The schedule determines when the devices process their function
blocks (AI, A0, PID) and when it is time to transmit data.
Each activity to be executed has been scheduled for a certain time. This time
is defined by an offset value which reflects the delay referred to the start of
the schedule.
Based on this schedule, a transmission list is generated which defines when a transmission list for
specific field device is prompted to send its data. Upon receipt of the mes- publisher and
subscriber method
Device Type Action Offset
1 Sensor Execution AI (1) 0

Transmission AI (1) of data 20
2 Sensor Execution AI (2) 0

Transmission AI (2) of data 30
3 Control valve Execution PID (3) 40

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Execution AO (3) 62
Fig. 10: Schedule for processing function blocks
19
sage, the respective device (publisher) broadcasts the data in the buffer to
all devices on the fieldbus which are configured to receive the data (sub-
scriber). This type of data transmission is therefore called the pub-
lisher-subscriber method.
The LAS cyclically transmits the data according to the list for all data buffers
in all devices. Each cyclical data transmission is explicitly activated by the
LAS (Fig. 12):
cyclical 4 If a device (e.g. device 1: Sensor) is prompted to publish its measured

data transmission data, the LAS issues the Compel Data (CD) command to the device.
4 Upon receipt of the CD, the device publishes the data in the buffer.
4 The subscribers of this message (e.g. device 3: Control valve) can read
and evaluate this data accordingly.
separate schedule for Each field device receives a separate schedule. This enables system manage-
system management ment to know exactly what task is to be executed when and when data must
be received or sent.
Example: For the above mentioned schedule, the following time sequence of
actions results as shown in Fig. 13.
LAS = Link Active Scheduler

transmission list CD = Compel Data message
a
b fieldbus
LAS c
value 1
CD (a)
value 1 value 1 value 1

a b c
publisher subscriber 1 subscriber 2
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 11: Scheduled data transmission according to the transmission list
20
Part 4 L454EN
4 at zero time, sensors (1) and (2) start their measurements; schedule
4 at time 20, the LAS prompts the sensor (1) to send its measuring data so
that it can be read by the PID controller of the associated control valve (3);
4 at time 30, the LAS prompts the sensor (2) to send its measuring data so
that it can be read by the PID controller of the associated control valve (4);
4 at time 40, both control valves are processing their PID function blocks;
4 at time 57, control valve 4 starts its travel process;
4 at time 62, control valve 3 starts its travel process;
4 at 140 time increments, the same actions are repeated.
cyclical sequence
macro
cycles:
AI(1) AI(1)
device 1:
device 2:
AI(2) AI(2)
scheduled transmission of the AE(1) and AE(2)

LAS:
PID(3) AO(3) PID(3) AO(3)

device 3:
device 4:
PD(4) AO(4) PD(4) AO(4)
unscheduled communication in the breaks of scheduled c.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
scheduled cycle n scheduled cycle n+1
Fig. 12: Scheduled transmission and unscheduled communication

SAMSON AG 00/05
21
number of data Each control loop accesses the bus only once for a short time. Therefore, the
transmissions bus could be used for many more control loops as well as for other activities.
considerably reduced This shows that the distributed control strategy reduces the number of data
transmissions over the bus to a minimum.
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Part 4 L454EN
Unscheduled transmission
Device parameters and diagnostic data must be transmitted when needed, data transmission
i.e. on request. The transmission of this data is not time-critical. For such on request
communication tasks, the FOUNDATION fieldbus is equipped with the option
of unscheduled data transmission.
Unscheduled data transmission is exclusively restricted to the breaks

inbetween scheduled transmission. The LAS grants permission to a device to
use the fieldbus for unscheduled communication tasks if no scheduled data
transmission is active (see Fig. 14 below).
Permission for a certain device to use the bus is granted by the LAS when it is- token passing
sues a pass token (PT command) to the device. The pass token is sent around over the Live List
to all devices entered in the Live List (Fig. 14) which is administrated by the
LAS. Each device may use the bus as long as required until it either returns
the token, or until the maximum granted time to use the token has elapsed.
The Live List is continuously updated by the LAS. The LAS sends a special
command, the Probe Node (PN), to the addresses not in the Live List, search-
ing for newly added devices. If a device returns a Probe Response (PR) mes-
sage, the LAS adds the device to the Live List where it receives the pass token
for unscheduled communication according to the order submitted for trans-
LAS = Link Active Scheduler

live list PT = Pass Token message
x
y fieldbus
LAS z
data
PT (y)
data
data
x y z
receives token
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and sends
Fig. 13: Unscheduled data transmission with token
23
mission in the Live List. Devices which do not respond to the PT command or
return the token after three successive tries are removed from the Live List.
copy of Live List Whenever a device is added or removed from the Live List, the LAS broad-
to all Link Masters casts these changes to all devices. This allows all Link Masters to maintain a
current copy of the Live List so that they can become the LAS without the loss
of information.
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Part 4 L454EN
Communication schedule
The LAS follows a strict schedule (Fig. 15) to ensure that unscheduled com-
munication using the token as well as the TD or PN commands do not inter-
fere with the scheduled data transmission.
Before each operation, the LAS refers to the transmission list to check for any
scheduled data transmissions. If this is the case, it waits (idle mode) for pre-
cisely the scheduled time and then sends a Compel Data (CD) message to ac-
tivate the operation.
In case there are no scheduled transmissions and sufficient time is available

for additional operations, the LAS sends one of the other commands. With
PN it searches for new devices, or it broadcasts a TD message for all devices
to have exactly the same data link time, or it uses the PT massage to pass the
token for unscheduled communication. Following this, the sequence starts all
over again with the above mentioned check of the transmission list entries.
It is obvious that this cycle gives scheduled transmission the highest priority highest priority
and that the scheduled times are strictly observed, regardless of other opera- for scheduled
tions. data transmission
action prior no no
time for idle message
to CD? CD?
yes yes
issue issue
PN, TD, PT CD
SAMSON AG 00/05
Fig. 14: LAS communication control
25
Application layer
interface between The Fieldbus Access Sublayer (FAS) and Fieldbus Message Specification
data link layer and (FMS) layer form the interface between the data link layer and the user appli-
user application cation (see Fig. 3). The services provided by FAS and FMS are invisible for
the user. However, the performance and functionality of the communication
system considerably depends on these services.
Fieldbus Access Sublayer (FAS)
Virtual Communication FAS services create Virtual Communication Relationships (VCR) which are
Relationship VCR used by the higher-level FMS layer to execute its taks. VCRs describe differ-
ent types of communication processes and enable the associated activities to
be processed more quickly. FF communication utilizes three different VCR
types as follows (Fig. 16).
transmitting input/ 4 The Publisher/Subscriber VCR Type is used to transmit the input and out-
output data of put data of function blocks. As described above, scheduled data transmis-
function blocks sion with the CD command is based on this type of VCR. However, the
Publisher/Subscriber VCR is also available for unscheduled data trans-
mission; for instance, if a subscriber requests measuring or positioning
data from a device.
Client/Server Report Distribution Publisher/Subscriber
Operator Event notification, alarms, Data publication

communication trend reports
Set point changes Send process alarms to Send actual value of a

Mode and device data operator consoles transmitter to PID block
changes and operator console
Upload/download Send trend reports to data
Adjusting alarm values historians
Access display views
Remote diagnostics
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 15: Virtual Communication Relationships of the FAS
26
Part 4 L454EN
4 The Client/Server VCR Type is used for unscheduled, user-initiated com- unscheduled
munication based on the PT command. If a device (client) requests data communication
from another device, the requested device (server) only responds when it
receives a PT from the LAS.
The Client/Server communication is the basis for operator initiated re- basis for
quests, such as set point changes, tuning parameter access and change, operator-initiated
diagnosis, device upload and download, etc. requests
4 Report Distribution communication is used to send alarm or other event

notifications to the operator consoles or similar devices. Data transmission
is unscheduled when the device receives the PT command together with the
report (trend or event notification). Fieldbus devices that are configured to
receive the data await and read this data.
Fieldbus Message Specification (FMS)
FMS provides the services for standardized communication. Data types that communication services
are communicated over the fieldbus are assigned to certain communication are assigned to each
services. For a uniform and clear assignment, object descriptions are used. data type
Object descriptions contain definitions of all standard transmission message
formats, but also include application specific data. For each type of object
there are special, predefined communication services.
Object descriptions are collected together in a structure called an object dic- access via the object
tionary. The object description is identified by its index (Fig. 17). dictionary
4 Index 0, called the object dictionary header, provides a description of the

dictionary itself.
4 Indices between 1 and 255 define standard data types that are used to standard data types
build more complex object descriptions.
4 The User Application object descriptions can start at any index above User Application
255. object descriptions
SAMSON AG 00/05
27
index 0
index 1 object description 1
...
index 2 object description 2

index n object description n
Fig. 16: Access to the object dictionary using indices
virtual field devices The FMS defines Virtual Field Devices (VFD) which are used to make the ob-
ject descriptions of a field device as well as the associated device data avail-
able over the entire network.
remote access The VFDs and the object description can be used to remotely access all local
to all data field device data from any location by using the associated communication
services.
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L454EN
User application
An important criterion for a fieldbus system to be accepted by the market is interoperability and
the interoperability of the devices. Interoperability is the capability of devices interchangeability
of different manufacturers to communicate with each other. In addition, it
must be ensured that a component from one manufacturer can be substituted
with that of another, also called interchangeability.
This requires an open protocol specification which defines uniform device

functions and application interfaces. Other devices on the network and ap- uniform device
plication programs can use these interfaces to access the functions and pa- functions and
rameters of the field devices. The FOUNDATION fieldbus makes these application interfaces
definitions based on blocks and device descriptions.
Block model
The FOUNDATION fieldbus assigns all functions and device data to three
different types of blocks (Fig. 18). The assignment depends on the devices
type of function. Depending on its functionality, it is described as follows:
identical
universal
in each block
parameters defined
in the
specifi-
AI PID cation
function block device
parameters
Temp Flow
transducer block
parameters
defined by
the device
Manufacturer manufacturer
specific
parameters
resource transducer function
block block block
SAMSON AG 00/05
Fig. 17: Division of field device data in resource, function and

transducer block
29
block model 4 Resource block

elements
4 One or multiple function blocks
4 Several transducer blocks, if required
resource block The resource block describes characteristics of a fieldbus device, such as the
device name, manufacturer, serial number, hardware and firmware version,
etc.
function block Function blocks describe a devices functions and define how these can be
accessed. The transmission schedules of scheduled data transmission are
based on these function blocks. Each block has a certain task including the
associated inputs and outputs. Each device is equipped with one function
block minimum.
The FF specification has defined sets of standard function blocks which can
be used to describe all basic functions. These are listed below:
AI: analog input

AO: analog output
B: bias
CS: control selector
DI: discrete input
DO: discrete output
ML: manual loader
PD: proportional/derivative
PID: proportional/integral/derivative
RA: ratio
transducer block Transducer blocks expand the complexity and application possibilities of a
device. Their data enables the input and/or output parameters of a function
block to be influenced. They can be used to calibrate and reset measuring
and positioning data, linearize characteristics or convert physical units using
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
additional process data.
Besides the three block types, the following additional objects are defined in
the block model (Fig. 19).
30
Part 4 L454EN
4 So-called Link Objects define the links between different function blocks, Link Objects in the
internal to the field device as well as across the fieldbus network. block model
4 Alert Objects allow reporting of alarms and events on the fieldbus. Alert Objects
4 Trend Objects allow trending of function block data for access and Trend Objects
analysis from higher-level systems.
4 View Objects are predefined groupings of data and block parameter sets View Object
that can be used to view and display these quickly according to their tasks:
process control, configuration, maintenance, additional information (Fig.
19).
The grouping of parameters in Trend and View Objects accelerates access to parameter
this data. If required, the operating program simply accesses the object groups
which contains the predefined, desired data group (Fig. 19).
dynamic information
data trend alarm
static
information
FOUNDATION fieldbus
1 2 3
diagnostics view detailed view
Fig. 18: View Objects group functions block data

SAMSON AG 00/05
31
Function block applications

resource
block
transducer Link Alert transducer

block1 Objects Objects block2
function function
block1 block2
View Object View Object Trend

list list Object
0 Object dictionary header
301 Index
302 resource block
310 transducer block
Object 350 Link Objects
descriptions 400 Trend Objects
500
600 Function blocks
1000 View Objects
2000 View Objects
Fig. 20: Assignment of block model data to an object dictionary
The entire block model of a field device with two function blocks (e.g. AO
and PID) consists of the elements depicted in Fig. 20. The data structure of the
blocks is accessed via the associated object dictionary.
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Part 4 L454EN
Device descriptions
During start-up and maintenance as well as when performing diagnostic open communications
functions, an open communication system must ensure that higher-level con- system
trol computers or the control system
4 can access all field device data and

4 have the proper controls to achieve this.
The device descriptions (DDs) contain the necessary information to fulfill
these requirements. They provide the information needed to understand the
meaning of the device data and display them correctly at the operator con-
sole.
For the basic functions of the devices, the FOUNDATION fieldbus uses differ-
ent standard function and transducer blocks. For this purpose, predefined
device descriptions (standard DDs) are available that can be obtained from
the Fieldbus FOUNDATION (FF). FF operating devices can interprete and dis-
play the data and functions of these standard blocks as well as providing the
user with them via the operating interface.
standard
device
description
data in the
field device
manufacturer specific
device description
parameter description
units
representation of figures
help text
relation to parameters
calibration + diagnostic menus
SAMSON AG 00/05
Fig. 19: Device description extends the description of all objects in the
virtual field device
33
special device If a device supplier implements additional functions and parameters in a de-
description supplied vice, he must define the contents, access and representation in an extended
by the manufacturer device description. Only when the device manufacturer supplies a device de-
scription tailored to his product, can it be operated and applied to the full ex-
tent.
device description The device description is written using the Device Description Language
(DDL) to generate a text file (Fig. 22). This file is then converted with the help
of a Tokenizer and distributed on diskette or via Internet download. If the
manufacturer has registered his device with the associated device descrip-
tion with the FF, the DD can be also be obtained there.
device description with DDL:
VARIABLE ProcessVariable
{ LABEL MEASURED_VALUE
TYPE FLOAT
{ DISPLAY_FORMAT 3.11;
MAX_VALUE 110.0; DD
MIN_VALUE 0.0; }
}
converted device description
009 101
Tokenizer
002 MEASURED_VALUE
001 010
061 3.11
021 006 220 000 000
020 000 000 000 000
Fig. 20: Creating a device description

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Part 4 L454EN
System management
The system management of each device has the following tasks:
4 Synchronization of the relevant device activities in time, i.e. according to system management
the predefined transmission schedule (see page 25). tasks
4 Cyclical processing of the transmission list (LAS only) within the predefi-
ned time schedule (page 19).
Further tasks performed by system management are the following.
4 Automatic assignment of the LAS function to another Link Master, if the ac-
tive LAS fails.
4 Application clock synchronizations.

4 Automatic address assignment for new devices on the communications
network.
The automatic assignment of device addresses enables a device to be as- automatic address
signed a unique network address while the process is active. assignment
For the software controlled address assignment, special default addresses

are reserved over which the new devices can be accessed. After the internal
physical device tag as well as a unique and new bus address have been as-
signed to the new device, it is integrated in the communications network. The
default address is then available again for the assignment of more devices.
SAMSON AG 00/05
35
System configuration
Scheduled communication as well as all fieldbus devices must be

parameterized before the first start-up (Fig. 23). A configuration tool, e.g.
the NI-FBUS Configurator by National Instruments, is required for this pur-
pose.
configuration device The device description of all used devices must be entered into the configura-
loads the device tion device. The software must either be able to access the DDs in predefined
description libraries, or they must be loaded via external data carriers (e.g. via diskette).
connection of The configuration software determines how and with which devices the mea-
function blocks surement and control tasks of a plant are processed by interconnecting the
function blocks of the field devices. This job can be easily performed by
means of a graphical user interface. All that needs to be done is to connect
the inputs and outputs of the corresponding block symbols.
Fig. 24 shows an example of cascade control where the sensor output value
is connected to a PID function block. This block can be implemented, for in-
stance, in a control valves positioner. The positioner output acts locally on
the analog output of the final controlling element, so that no data has to be
configuration device device

description
con-
figuring
the Link Master
configur-
ing simple devices
FF fieldbus
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
Fig. 21: System configuration by means of a configuration device
36
Part 4 L454EN
control valve with

sensor Link Master function
AO BKCAL_OUT
PID OUT CAS_IN
AI
OUT IN
BKCAL_IN
Fig. 22: Connection of function blocks for cascade control (via software)
transmitted via the fieldbus. The configuration shown corresponds to the con-
trol loop example illustrated in Fig. 2.
Besides connecting the function blocks, the network configurator also config- control loop execution
ures the individual loop execution rate. Based on this data and the wiring di- rate
agram, the configuration tool generates the information needed to control
the devices and the communication.
Finally, this data is entered into the individual field devices. During this pro- configuration of LAS
cess, the LAS is configured and all Link Masters receive the current transmis- and Link Masters
sion list for scheduled data transmission.
The system configuration is now complete so that the system management of

the LAS and of the other field devices can take control over the system.
SAMSON AG 00/05
37
Appendix A1:
[1] Digital Signals



[5] HART Communications

[6] PROFIBUS-PA
APPENDIX
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
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Part 4 L454EN
Figures
Fig. 1: Logo of Fieldbus FOUNDATION members . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Fig. 2: Complete control loop based on the FOUNDATION fieldbus . . . 9
Fig. 3: Structure and description of the FF communication layers . . . 10
Fig. 4: Structure of the FOUNDATION fieldbus . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 5: Mixed topology for an H1 network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 6: Lengths of spurs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 7: Fieldbus cable types and maximum bus lengths . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 8: Elements for the intrinsically safe H1 bus . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 9: Limited operating area for Ex-i IIB and IIC installations
(including a safety factor of 1.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Fig. 10: Capacitance and inductance limit values for Ex-i installations . 16
Fig. 11: Schedule for processing function blocks. . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Fig. 12: Scheduled data transmission according to the transmission list . 20
Fig. 13: Scheduled transmission and unscheduled communication . . . 21
Fig. 14: Unscheduled data transmission with token . . . . . . . . . . 23
Fig. 15: LAS communication control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

FIGURES
Fig. 16: Virtual Communication Relationships of the FAS . . . . . . . 26
Fig. 17: Access to the object dictionary using indices . . . . . . . . . 28
Fig. 18: Division of field device data in resource, function

and transducer block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Fig. 19: View Object group functions block data . . . . . . . . . . . 31

SAMSON AG 00/05
Fig. 20: Assignment of block model data to an object dictionary . . . . 32
Fig. 21: Device description extends the description of all objects in the
virtual field device. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
39
Fig. 22: Creating a device description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Fig. 23: System configuration by means of a configuration device . . . 36
Fig. 24: Connection of function blocks for cascade control (via software) 37
FIGURES
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
40
SAMSON AG 00/05
Part 4 L454EN
NOTES
41
NOTES
SAMSON AG V74/ DKE
42
ISO 9001

2000/05 L454EN

Telefon (069) 4 00 90 Telefax (069) 4 00 95 07 Internet: http://www.samson.de

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Technical Information

Terminology and Symbols

Part 2: Self-operated Regulators

Part 3: Control Valves

Part 5: Building Automation

Part 6: Process Automation

Should you have any further questions or suggestions, please

Terminology and Symbols in

Terminology in Control Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Open loop control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Closed loop control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Abbreviations of variables relating to closed loop control. . . . . . . . . 10

Symbols in Control Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Signal flow diagrams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Blocks and lines of action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Instrumentation and control tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Control Systems and Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Fixed set point control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Appendix A1: Additional Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

The technical informations presented in this document are based on defini-

SAMSON AG V74/ DKE

Terminology in Control Engineering

To maintain a physical quantity, such as pressure, flow or temperature at a

Open loop control

Fig. 1: Operator controls the process variable p2 via remote adjuster

Fig. 2: Operator controls the process variable p2 an a closed loop

Closed loop control

In a closed loop control system, the variable to be controlled (controlled

The operator depicted in Fig. 2 monitors the pressure p2 in the pipeline to

closed action flow.

A control process can also be regarded as continuous if it is composed of a

A process comprises the totality of actions effecting each other in a system in

4 Generation of electricity in a power plant

Controlling system Controller and acuator components of the

+ Measuring Temperature sensor, pressure sensor,

Actuator (controlling system) Actuating drive

Abbreviations of variables relating to closed loop control

controlled variable, x (IEC chief symbol: y)

reference variable w (IEC chief symbol: w)

feedback variable r (IEC chief symbol: f)

error e = w x (IEC chief symbol: e)

equipment is included, xw = r w applies.

y (IEC chief symbol: m) manipulated variable

The manipulated variable is the output variable of the controlling equipment

z (IEC chief symbol: v) disturbance variable

Symbols in Control Engineering

Signal flow diagrams

A signal flow diagram is the symbolic representation of the functional inter-

Blocks and lines of action

The functional relationship between an output signal and an input signal is

Example: Root-extracting a quantity (Fig. 3)

xe = differential pressure xa = root-extracted differential pressure

Fig. 3: Root-extracting a differential pressure signal

Example: Representing dynamic behavior (Fig. 4)

xe = inflow xa = liquid level

Fig. 4: Development of a liquid level over time

Example: Summing point (Fig. 5)

Fig. 5: Summing point

Example: Branch point (Fig. 6)

A branch point is represented by a point. Here, a line of action splits up into

Fig. 6: Branch point

Fig. 7: Block diagram of manual open loop control

Fig. 8: Block diagram of manual closed loop control