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Choral Monuments
Choral Monuments
Studies of Eleven Choral Masterworks
DENNISSHROCK
1
1
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData

Names: Shrock, Dennis.
Title: Choral monuments : studies of eleven choral masterworks /
Dennis Shrock.
Description: New York, NY : Oxford University Press, [2017] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016052392| ISBN 9780190469023 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9780190469030 (pbk.) | ISBN 9780190469061 (oxford scholarly online)
Subjects: LCSH: ChorusesAnalysis, appreciation. | Choral music.
Classification: LCC MT110 .S57 2017 | DDC 782.509dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016052392
135798642
Paperback printed by WebCom, Inc., Canada
Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments xi
Introduction xiii
1. Josquin DesprezMissa Pange Lingua 1

BIO G R A PHIC A L A ND C OMPO SI T IONA L OV E RVIEW 1
S A L IE N T C OMPO SI T IONA L C H A R ACT E R I S T ICS 7
Imitation 7
Ostinatos 11
T HE MI S S A PA N G E L IN GUA 17
Structure and Parody Technique 17
PE RF OR M A NC E PR ACT IC E C ON SIDE R AT ION S 21
Performing Forces 21
Meter, Tactus, and Tempo 23
Text Underlay 26
Musica Ficta and Musica Recta 30
Summary 33
SE L E CT E D BIBL IO G R A PHY 34
2. Giovanni Pierluigi da PalestrinaMissa Papae Marcelli 36

T HE PA PAC Y A ND T HE C OUN T E R-R EF OR M AT ION 41
T HE MI S S A PA PAE M A RC E L L I 49
Musical Characteristics 49
Legacy 54
Pitch and Performing Forces 57
Meter and Tactus 59
Oratorical Phrasing 63
Tempo 65
v
vi Contents
Musica Ficta 68
Summary 70
3. Johann Sebastian BachB Minor Mass 72

B AC HS LU T HE R A N M A S SE S 76
Parody Technique 77
T HE B MIN OR M A S S 80
Parodies 83
Compositional Rationale 87
M A NU S CR IP T S , E DI T ION S , A ND PE RF OR M A NC E S 88
F OR M A L A ND MU SIC A L S T RUCTUR E S 91
Kyrie 92
Gloria 94
Credo 98
Sanctus 102
AgnusDei 104
Summary 105
Meter and Tempo 111
Rhythmic Alteration 113
Ornamentation 114
Summary 117
4. George Frideric HandelMessiah 120

G E NE SI S A ND HI S TOR IC A L PE R SPE CT I V E 120
H A NDE LS C OMPO SI T IONA L PRO C E S S 129
Speed of Writing, Parody Technique, and Revision of Works 129
T HE L IBR E T TO OF ME S S I AH 134
Instrumental Movements 138
Recitatives 138
Solo Vocal Movements 139
Choruses 140
Performing Forces and Stage Set-up 143
Volume, Timbre, Pitch, and Vibrato 147
Contents vii
Metric Accentuation 149

Rhythmic Alteration 151
Recitative 153
Ornamentation 155
Summary 162
5. Joseph HaydnThe Creation 165

IN T RODUCT ION165
T HE T EXT OF T HE CR E AT ION 174
MU SIC A L EXPR E S SION 182
Editions 188
Meter and Tempo 194
Recitative 197
Ornamentation 202
Summary 205
6. Ludwig van BeethovenSymphony no.9 207

IN T RODUCT ION207
S C HIL L E RS A N DIE F R EUDE 217
EXPR E S SION225
Tempo 231
Orchestration 240
Stage Set-u p 243
7. Felix MendelssohnSt. Paul 247

R E C EP T ION OF S T. PAUL 254
C OMPO SI T IONA L HI S TOR IC I SM 256
T HE T EXT OF S T. PAUL 258
viii Contents

Recitatives 263
Turba Choruses 264
Arias 264
Chorales 265
Choruses 266
Introduction 269
Performance in German or English 272
Fermatas 275
Recitatives 277
Recommendations 279
8. Johannes BrahmsEin deutsches Requiem 282

R E C EP T ION OF T HE R EQ UIE M 287
T EXT S SE T BY BR AHMS R E L AT E D TO T HO SE OF T HE R EQ UIE M 289
T HE T EXT S BR AHMS C HO SE F OR T HE R EQ UIE M 294
MU SIC A L A ND F OR M A L S T RUCTUR E S 300
Motifs 300
Mirror Construction 305
Instrumentation, Timbre, and Vibrato 308
Stage Set-u p 312
Tempo Fluctuation 313
Summary 320
9. Giuseppe VerdiMessa da Requiem 322

IN T RODUCT ION322
T HE T EXT OF T HE R EQ UIE M 328
Structures Exhibited in Scoring 335
Structures of Individual Movements 337
Structures Related to Melodic Design 340
Contents ix
Rhythm and Expressive Markings 342

Tempo 346
Summary 352
10. Igor StravinskyMass 354

M A S SE S B A SE D ON HI S TOR IC MODE L S 359
The Nineteenth Century 359
The Twentieth Century 361
S T R AVIN SK Y A ND MU SIC A L S T YL E S OF T HE PA S T 365
Oedipus rex and Babel 368
Symphony of Psalms and Canticum sacrum 368
Mass and Cantata 370
F OR M A L A ND MU SIC A L S T RUCTUR E S OF T HE M A S S 372
Kyrie and AgnusDei 373
Gloria and Sanctus 374
Credo 377
Summary 379
Text Setting 379
Summary 386
11. Benjamin BrittenWar Requiem 387

IN T RODUCT ION 387
W ILF R E D O W E N A ND HI S POE T RY IN T HE WA R R EQUIE M 394
MU SIC A L SYMB OL I SM 401
S T RUCTUR A L SYMB OL I SM 409
Movement 1Requiem Aeternam 410
Movement 2Dies Irae 412
Movement 3Offertorium 414
Movement 6LiberaMe 415
Supplementary Structures 416
x Contents
Stage Set-u p 418

Nationalities of the Vocal Soloists and Their Vocal Timbres 419
Acoustics 420
A DDE NDUM 420
Appendix: Score Data 425

Index 431
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express heartfelt thanks to those of my many students and colleagues

who, with their high expectations and voracious appetites for information, have
motivated me to seek and acquire extensive knowledge of choral repertoire. While
Ihave always had, in the words of one of my early mentors, a chronic enthusi-
asm for all things choral, Iam fortunate that a community of choral musicians
and enthusiasts has shared in my enthusiasm and has incited my fervor.
I am especially grateful for remarkable individuals who have, fatefully, been in
my life at critical times to aid me in my work and to make it possible for me to com-
plete projects at hand. For this book, Ryan Chatterton designed and executed all
the diagrams for the original and recommended stage set-ups, and, in addition, he
was of regular assistance in helping me resolve ever-so-frequent computer issues.
Jonathan Hatley proofread every chapter of the book multiple timesfinding
typos, misattributions, and inconsistencies of spelling, and also recommending
various changes of presentation for greater clarity. Brian Nossamon, who desiring
that Ipublish a lecture on the Britten War Requiem Ipresented at an American
Choral Directors National Conference, gave me the idea for thisbook.
I also wish to thank and pay tribute to Suzanne Ryan, Editor in Chief of
Humanities at Oxford University Press, who has guided me through three books
holding me to high standards, responding with lightning speed to my every com-
munication, and faithfully supporting all mywork.
xi
INTRODUCTION
The eleven masterworks of this book were chosen to represent remarkable

compositions throughout the five major historical eras in Western culture
compositions that were consequential during their time and also significant in
their historical impact. Some of the works were groundbreaking (e.g., Josquins
Missa Pange lingua, Palestrinas Missa Papae Marcelli, and Beethovens Symphony
no. 9) in that they introduced compositional techniques that would be emu-
lated in the future. Other works were summations (e.g., Bachs B Minor Mass,
Mendelssohns St. Paul, and Verdis Messa da Requiem) in that they became para-
gons of past compositional styles. All of the works were epoch-making; they came
to define the era in which they were composed, and they are considered to be
exceptional masterpieces today. The works, for the most part, have also been per-
formed regularly and recorded numeroustimes.
It is because the works are so revered and popular that Ihave been prompted
to write about them. Agreater understanding about the composers, the composi-
tions themselves, and their performance histories will undoubtedly aid those who
interact with the works todayfrom performers and audience members to histo-
rians and musical enthusiasts. Of course, because of the artistic stature and popu-
larity of the masterworks, many other books and articles have also been written
about them, and one might be of the opinion that nothing new or nothing of
import can now be added. This is not so. Considerable and significant information
can be appended to what has already been written, mostly about performance
practices but also about other topics as well, including particular histories that
illuminate the works, textual choices that provide insight into the composer and
his compositional style, and analyses that reveal the composers depth of struc-
tural comprehension.
Regarding histories, the information provided is focused on relevancies, begin-
ning with the genesis of the designated work in reference to the composers total
choral output and the works place within the musical environment and social
climate of its time. As examples, Palestrina is discussed in relation to the papacy
and Counter-Reformation and Bach to circumstances of his employment, which
xiii
xiv Int roduc tion
often dictated the genres of his compositions. Historical discussion also includes
relevant focuses of the composers: Handel to opera, the major compositional
interest throughout most of his life; Mendelssohn and Stravinsky to historical
models; and Brahms to the specific nature of all the sacred texts he chose to set.
In addition, the discussion of compositional history addresses factors such as the
identified works public reception and critical response, both at the time of its
composition and in ensuing years; the history of score publications, detailing the
various differences between editions; essential compositional features of the work
that make it noteworthy; and the texts of the composition. The material regarding
textual treatment, which often includes the complete texts of the works being dis-
cussed, concentrates on primary concerns of the texts usage, significant aspects
of texts separate from the music, and biographical details of librettists and poets,
if appropriate. For example, there is discussion of Friedrich von Schillers poem
An die Freude used by Beethoven in his Symphony no.9, considerable discourse
on the texts Brahms selected for Ein deutsches Requiem and his other sacred works
in German, and examination of the poems of Wilfred Owen used by Britten in the
War Requiem. Each focus of history acts as a staging for discussion of the specific
composition being considered.
The analysis section of each chapter outlines and describes musical forms and
other types of compositional organization, including salient compositional char-
acteristics that directly relate and contribute to the works artistic stature. With
Josquin, the focus is on imitative technique, especially regarding motto repeti-
tion as a manifestation of a personal credo:Qui perseveraverit salvus erit (Who
persists will be saved); with Palestrina, on vertical sonorities that made his Mass
seem new, different, and acceptable to the mandates of the Council of Trent; with
Bach, assemblage of disparate movements and styles (stile antico and stile mod-
erno) to create a symmetrically balanced unity; with Handel, parody techniques
and choral structures that would be emulated by composers for generations after
him; with Haydn, text expression; with Beethoven, the relationship of the final
movement of the symphony to the previous movements and to an overall extra-
musical message; with Mendelssohn, choral structures based on those employed
by Bach and Handel; with Brahms, symmetrical organization and structural unity
based on mottos, key relationships, and compositional forms; with Verdi, the
often overlooked but important matter of formal structures, which contribute
to the works aesthetic appeal; with Stravinsky, the combination of neo-Gothic
and neo-Renaissance styles as well as mirror structures; and with Britten, detailed
considerations of structural and musical symbolism that reveal the depth of emo-
tion in the War Requiem.
As regards performance practices and their consequential role in music, dis-
cussion is given to key elements of notational interpretation that affect the basic
fabric of the music. These include such issues as meter, pitch, tactus, text under-
lay, oratorical phrasing, and musica ficta/musica recta in the compositions from
Int roduc tion xv
the Renaissance era, and rhythmic alteration, ornamentation, vibrato, and metric
accentuation in the Baroque-and Classical-era compositions. Issues of instru-
mentation, language, and attention to expressive markings are examined in the
more recent works. The topics of tempo (including tempo fluctuation) and per-
forming forces are discussed as they affect every composition in every era. Most
of the performance practices are discussed as separate topics under identified sub-
headings. However, some of the practicessuch as vibrato and vocal timbreare
subsumed under the general subheading of Performing Forces.
Examples of specific performance practices that are, Ibelieve, of special conse-
quence to the manifestation of the works being discussed are oratorical shaping
of phrases with resulting syncopations in Palestrinas Missa Papae Marcelli; orna-
mentation and meter as it affects tempo in Bachs B Minor Mass; metric accentua-
tion and metrically free recitative in Handels Messiah and Haydns The Creation;
tempo based on character in Beethovens Symphony no.9; timbre, vibrato, and
tempo fluctuation in Brahmss Ein deutsches Requiem; articulation in Stravinskys
Mass; and disposition of forces and vocal styles in Brittens War Requiem. Of spe-
cial interest to all the works is discussion, with primary source stage diagrams,
of the disposition of performing forces during premieres and other early perfor-
mances. These arrangements of performers reveal that the chorus was positioned
either in front of or beside orchestras for all the works of the Baroque, Classical,
and Romantic eras for all the works of Bach, Handel, Haydn, Beethoven,
Mendelssohn, Brahms, and Verdi. Indeed, the chorus was in front of the orches-
tra for performances of Beethovens Symphony no.9, and the chorus was on one
side of the stage and the orchestra on the other side for performances of Verdis
Messa da Requiem.
There is very little overlap or duplication of historical and analytical material
in the various chapters, and there has been no effort to relate one composer or his
works to another. Exceptions occur only when historians or the composers them-
selves make relationships. Performance practices are treated differently, however,
with coverage of some issues occurring in multiple chapters. These issues do not
include tempo and performer arrangements, the discussions of which are not rep-
licated from chapter to chapter. Other issues, such as musica ficta/musica recta,
ornamentation, and instrumentation, are also given individualistic treatment
in each chapter. Metric accentuation and the consideration of recitative, on the
other hand, are performance practices that are similar from work to work and
era to era. As such, even though these topics have been treated individually in
each chapter, the information in all the chapters will likely contribute to a better
understanding of the topic and to its application in multiple compositions.
Quotations from primary sourcesthose documents that are from the time
of the works composition and performance historyare central to the studies.
Every attempt is made to convey historically accurate information and to provide
historical material that will aid the reader in understanding the compositions.
xvi Int roduc tion
Many of the primary sources, such as letters and performance reviews, are pub-
lished and readily available to the public, although in disparate and varied publica-
tions. The sources are brought together here for ease of comprehension and for
direct relationship to the works in question. The translations aremine.
All works are referred to by their most common names. In several cases
these names are in English even though the compositions were originally writ-
ten in another language. As examples, Haydns Die Schpfung (The Creation) and
Mendelssohns Paulus (St. Paul) were composed in German but immediately trans-
lated into and performed in English. Also, both works have had a significant per-
formance life in both German and English. To refer to the works sometimes in one
language and sometimes in another is unwarranted and would be unnecessarily
cumbersome. The same practice of titles in English applies to the works of Bach.
Since his mass in the key of B Minor did not have a title at the time of its composi-
tion, but instead, various titles that describe the assemblage of mass movements,
the work is referred to, for convenience, as the B Minor Mass (in other publications
the Messe H-Molle or Messe in h-moll in German). For convenience, other works
of Bach are also referred to in English (e.g., St. Matthew Passion).
The scores used for reference represent the most historically informative and
scholarly editions currently available, for example: the 1995 Oxford University
Press edition of Haydns The Creation, edited by A.Peter Brown; the original 1868
Rieter-Biedermann edition of the Brahms Ein deutsches Requiem, as annotated by
the composer himself; and the 1990 University of Chicago edition of the Verdi
Messa da Requiem, edited by David Rosen. The analyses are all original.
Musical examples generally refer to their location in full scores by means other
than measure numbers since many scores differ in this respect. For example, some
publications of the Josquin Missa Pange lingua have measures numbered continu-
ously throughout movements (such as the Gloria, Credo, and Sanctus), while other
publications have separate numbering for the various sub-sections of the move-
ments. This is also the case with Palestrinas Missa Papae Marcelli and Beethovens
Symphony no.9, which has various numberings in the fourth movement. Haydns
The Creation is particularly troublesome in that virtually every publication differs
in the separation of movements as well as the numbering of measures. This situa-
tion is addressed and discussed in the Haydn chapterhere.
Short bibliographies are included at the end of each chapter with listings of
sources the reader might wish to pursue for further study. The bibliographies are
not meant to represent every source consulted in the preparation of the studies.
Much of the material, such as historical information, is common to many sources.
I have been most fortunate throughout my career in having had multiple oppor-
tunities to encounter these and other choral masterworks, opportunities that
include lectures about the works in choral conferences and workshops, various
accounts of the works in articles and books, numerous classes taught to students
in diverse university settings, and performances Ihave attended and conducted.
Int roduc tion xvii
Most important, however, has been the study of these masterworks. As I have
researched their histories and the state of music during their times, as Ihave read
about the works and their composers in historic primary source documents, and
as Ihave analyzed structures of the works and contemplated their compositional
individualities, Ihave come to comprehend and appreciate the exceptional monu-
mentality of the works in a more meaningful and profoundway.
My goal and hope is that the readers about the masterworks herethe schol-
ars, conductors, singers, instrumentalists, students, and enthusiastswill also
have a greater comprehension and appreciation of the works, and further, that
the knowledge of histories, analyses, and performance practices will result in
enhanced personal fulfillment and more meaningful performances.
Choral Monuments
1
Josquin Desprez Missa Pange Lingua

God has preached the Gospel inmusic,
as can be seen in Josquin, from whom all compositionflows.
MartinLuther
Biographical and Compositional Overview

Josquin Desprez (or Josquin des Prez, as is currently the spelling used by many
historians) was likely born between 1450 and 1455 in Burgundy near the pres-
ent-day region of Hainaut in Belgium and also near Tournai. This region and sur-
rounding areas, today comprising western Belgium, the southwestern portion
of the Netherlands, and northern France, was culturally fertile during the early
years of the Renaissance. Royal courts fostered and supported the arts, nurturing
painters and musicians, and establishing what was then called Flanders or north-
west Burgundy as a center of high artistic activity. Philip III, called Philippe le Bon
(Philip the Good), was duke of Burgundy from 1419 to 1467 and creator of one
of the most lavish courts in Europe. His painters included Jan van Eyck (c.1390
1441), famous for the Ghent Altarpiece, and Roger van der Weyden (c.13991464),
who painted two portraits of the duke. Composers at the court included Gilles de
bins Binchois (c.14001460) and Guillaume Dufay (c.13971474), both of whom
were at the court concurrently and were painted together in an illumination by
Peronet Lamy (died c.1453) that is contained in the epic poem Le champion des
dames by Martin le Franc (c.14101461). Binchois and Dufay were considered the
most famous composers of their time, their works copied in numerous manu-
scripts and parodied by numerous later composers. Jean de (Johannes) Ockeghem
(c.14101497), the most acclaimed European composer after Dufay and Binchois,
was also born in Flanders and likely spent some time at the Burgundian court
with Binchois under Philip III. Ockeghem spent most of his life, however, at the
French court under Charles VII, called le Victorieux (the Victorious); Louis XI,
called le Prudent (the Prudent); and Charles VIII, called lAffable (the Affable).
Other notable Flemish composers born before or shortly after Josquin include
Antoine Busnois (c.1430c.1492), Loyset Compre (c.14451518), Alexander
1
2 Choral Monuments
Agricola (c.14461506), and Jacob Obrecht (c.14571505). Busnois, who sang in

the Burgundian court under Charles I(the Bold) and Mary (the Rich), was hon-
ored with a lament on his death composed by Ockeghem, and Josquin used the
chanson Fortuna desperata by Busnois as the basis for a Mass. Compre was born
in Hainaut, near the place of Josquins birth, and served as a singer and chaplain
in the French court of Charles VIII; in addition, Compre was dean of the church
of Saint-Gry, where Josquin likely sang as a choirboy. Agricola also served at the
French court under Charles VIII, and several of his Masses are parodies of chan-
sons by Busnois, Dufay, and Ockeghem. Finally, Obrecht parodied several compo-
sitions by Busnois, who was probably one of Josquins teachers. In Missa Lhomme
arm, for instance, Obrecht arranged the notes of the Lhomme arm tune exactly
as Busnois had arranged them in his Missa Lhomme arm, with one exception.
Whereas Busnois had set the melody in inversion in the Agnus Dei, Obrecht set it
in retrograde inversion.
Josquin either knew of his contemporary Flemish composers or he worked
directly with them; he also parodied a number of their compositions. For exam-
ple, Josquins Missa Dung aultre amer and the motets Tu solus qui facis mirabilia
and Victimae paschali laudes are all early works based on Ockeghems chanson
Dung aultre amer. Furthermore, Alma redemptoris mater/Ave regina celorum, one
of Josquins few polytextual motets, quotes the beginning of Ockeghems Alma
redemptoris mater; Josquin and Ockeghem are praised together in Compres 1472
motet Omnium bonorum plena; and Josquin composed an elegy on the death of
OckeghemNymphes des bois (also called La dploration de Johan. Ockeghem),
which employs the Requiem aeternam Gregorian chant as a cantus firmus. In this
elegy, considered to be one of the most profound of its kind, Josquin calls upon
the nymphes des bois (nymphs of the woods) and chantres experts de toutes
nations (expert singers of all nations) to mourn their dead master, le vrai trsoir
de musique (the truest treasure of music). Josquin even included his own name
in the elegy as well as the names of Compre and Antoine Brumel (c.14601512).
Very little is known about Josquins early life. He probably sang as a choir-
boy at the church of Saint-Gry in Cambrai and perhaps also as a choirboy at
the collegiate church of Saint-Quentin, where Jean Mouton (c.14591522) was
a singer and where Mouton and Compre are buried. It is certain that between
1475 and 1478 Josquin was a singer at the court of Ren, duke of Anjou, in
Aix-en-Provence. However, the following years are unaccounted for. It is pre-
sumed that he either sang at the French royal court under Louis XI (where he
would have encountered Ockeghem) or he may have been at the Italian court
of Cardinal Ascanio Sforza in Milan. It is most likely that Josquin was in both
placesfor a time at the royal court in France and then later at the Italian court in
Milan. It is known and confirmed that he was a singer in the papal choir in Rome
from 1489 until sometime during 1495 under popes Innocent VIII and Alexander
VI. Following local tradition with Vatican singers, Josquin carved his name on
the wall of the singers gallery of the Sistine Chapel (a photo of this graffito can be
De sp re z Mi ssa Pange L i ng u a 3
seen in a number of current published sources). It should be noted here that the
two skills of singing and composing were generally joined, with most composers
(including Palestrina later in the century) serving as singers in significant court
or church choral ensembles.
Because of political turmoil in Rome Josquin returned to the Sforza court in
1498 and then to the French court under Louis XII around 1500. In 1503 Josquin
went back to Italy for a one-year appointment as maestro di cappella at the court
of Ercole I dEste in Ferrara, where he most likely composed his soggetto cavato
Mass, Missa Hercules dux Ferrariae. In 1504, perhaps as a result of the outbreak of
the plague in Ferrara, Josquin moved to the northern French city of Cond-sur-
lEscaut, very near the place of his birth, where he served as provost at the church
of Notre Dame until his death on August 27, 1521. He was buried in the choir of
the church, and he bequeathed his estate to the church, with the request in his will
that his motets Pater noster, qui es in celis - Ave Maria, gratia plena and Ave Maria
virgo serena be sung in front of his house during annual processions on the anni-
versary of his death.
Josquin was, and is, considered to be the finest composer of the early
Renaissance. Before his appointment as maestro di cappella at the Sforza court in
Ferrara, an emissary of Duke Ercole was sent throughout Europe to look for the
best singer and composer. The emissary, Gian de Artiganova, wrote to the duke
in1502,
I must notify Your Lordship that [Heinrich] Isaac the singer has been in
Ferrara and has made a motet on a fantasy entitled La mi la so la so la mi
which is very good, and he made it in two days. From this one can only judge
that he is very rapid in the art of composition; besides, he is good-natured
and easy to get along with. To me he seems very well suited to serve Your
Excellency, much more than Josquin, because he gets along well with his col-
leagues and will compose new works more often. It is true that Josquin com-
poses better, but he composes when he wants to and not when someone else
wants him to, and he is asking for 200 ducats in salary while Isaac will come
for120.
And confirming this, another of the dukes emissaries, Girolamo da Sestola,wrote,
My Lord, Ibelieve no Prince or King will have a better Chapel than you if you
send for Josquin, and Josquin will be the crowningofit.
Several sixteenth-century composers, including Nicolas Gombert (c.1495

c.1560), wrote laments on Josquins death, and numerous composers, includ-
ing Adrian Willaert (c.14901562), Cristbal de Morales (c.15001553), G.P.da
Palestrina (c.15251594), and Claudio Merulo (15331604) parodied his composi-
tions. Most notably, Ludwig Senfl (c.14861543) parodied Josquins Ave Maria
4 Choral Monuments
virgo serena by expanding Josquins original four voices to six and by lengthening
the composition considerably. Jean Richafort (c.1480c.1547) wrote a Requiem
in commemoration of Josquin, and the printer Ottaviano Petrucci (14661539),
who never published more than one book each of any composers music, devoted
three books (published in 1502, 1505, and 1514) to Josquin Masses. Petrucci
also began each of his first three books of motets (1502, 1504, and 1505)with
a work by Josquin. In addition, the French printer Pierre Attaingnant (c.1494
c.1551) published many of Josquins chansons, and copies of Josquins works cir-
culated in manuscripts throughout Europe. For example, the Missa Una musque
de Buscaya and Missa Faisant regretz appear in Austrian manuscripts belonging
to the Hapsburg family, and five Josquin chansons are contained in albums that
belonged to Maximilians daughter Marguerite. As a final testament to Josquins
fame, Leonardo da Vinci (14521519), who spent the final years of his life at the
French court of Francis I, called le Pre et Restaurateur des Lettres (the Father
and Restorer of Letters), is the presumed painter of a portrait of Josquin, entitled
Portrait of a Musician now displayed in the Pinacoteca Ambrosiana inMilan.
Numerous authors praised Josquin and his musical abilities. The Italian dip-
lomat Baldassare Castiglione (14781529) gave special mention of Josquin in
Il Cortegiano (The Book of the Courtier) published in 1528, and the German pub-
lisher Hans Ott (d.1546) wrote the following tribute to Josquin in the preface to
his Novum opus musicum of1537.
All will easily recognize JOSQUIN as the most celebrated hero of the art of
music, for he possesses something that is truly divine and inimitable.
The Swiss music theorist Heinrich Glareanus (1488

1563) wrote in his
Dodekachordon of1547,
No one has more effectively expressed the passions of the soul in music than
this composer, no one has more felicitously begun, no one has been able to
compete in grace and facility on an equal footing with him. Josquin
has brought forth nothing that was not delightful to the ear and approved as
ingenious by the learned, nothing, in short, that was not acceptable and pleas-
ing. In most of his works he is the magnificent virtuoso.
And the Italian diplomat Cosimo Bartoli (15031572) wrote in his Ragionamenti
accademici of1567,
It is known that Ockeghem was, as it were, the first in his days to rediscover
music when it was almost extinguished, just as Donatello in his time breathed
new life into sculpture. It can be said of our Josquin, Ockeghems pupil, that in
music he was a natural prodigy, just as our own Michelangelo Buonarroti has
been in architecture, painting, and sculpture. For just as no one until now has
rivaled Josquin as a composer, so Michelangelo still stands lonely at the sum-

mit of all those who have practiced his arts. Both have opened the eyes of all
those who rejoice in these arts or who will rejoice in the future.
The protestant reformer Martin Luther (14831546) praised Josquin, stating

about Law and Gospel,
What is law is not done voluntarily; what is gospel is done voluntarily. In this
way God has preached the Gospel also in music, as can be seen in Josquin, from
whom all composition flows gladly, willingly, mildly, not compelled and forced
by rules. Josquin is the master of notes, who must do as he wills; other
choirmasters must do as the noteswill.
Finally, Charles Burney (17261814) wrote in his General History ofMusic,
The laws and difficulties of Canon, Fugue, Augmentation, Diminution,

Reversion, and almost every other species of learned contrivance allowable in
ecclesiastical compositions for voices, were never so well observed, or happily
vanquished, as by Josquin, who may justly be called the father of modern har-
mony, and the inventor of almost every ingenious contexture of its constituent
parts, near a hundred years before the time of Palestrina, Orlando di Lasso,
Tallis, or Bird [i.e.,Byrd].
Today, Josquin is considered to be the most important composer in the devel-

opment of imitative polyphony. He is especially noted for duet-like pairing of
voices (usually soprano with alto and tenor with bass) and for the use of ostinatos.
His compositional output includes eighteen Mass cycles, 109 motets, and
seventy-eight chansons and frottolas. All the early works exhibit traits of con-
struction techniques that were prevalent in the late years of the Medieval era. The
Masses and motets are based upon cantus firmi that are either mathematically
organized or formed from a notational puzzle, and the chansons are in the style
of formes fixes pieces by composers such as GuillaumeDufay.
Of the early Masses, Missa di dadi utilizes notational puzzles based on the
numbers of dots that appear on the faces of dice; Missa Hercules dux Ferrariae is a
soggetto cavato Mass with a cantus firmus constructed of the solmization pitches
(re ut re ut re fa mi re) that correspond to the vowels in the Masss title (the final
ae in the dukes name is considered one letter and, therefore, set as the pitch
re); Missa Mater patris is a parody of the three-voiced polyphonic song by Antoine
Brumel, who succeeded Jacob Obrecht at the Este court in Ferrara; and the cantus
firmus of Missa Lhomme arm super voces musicales (the first of two Masses on
the popular song) is structured of successive steps of a hexachord presented in
various mensuration canons. In addition, the cantus firmus of Missa Fortuna des-
perata is formed from all three voice parts of an anonymous preexisting chanson.
6 Choral Monuments
Of the early motets, two are based upon entire melodies from preexisting chants
and chansons. Victimae paschali laudes - Dic nobis, Maria uses the Gregorian chant in
the alto and tenor voice parts as well as two chansons (Ockeghems Dung aultre amer
and Ghizeghems De tous bien plaine) in the soprano voice, and Stabat mater - Eya
mater, fons amoris uses the tenor of Binchoiss chanson Comme femme desconforte
as a cantus firmus in long notes. Other early motets utilize fragments of preexist-
ing material. Illibata dei virgo nutrix - Ave virginum decus hominum has a three-note
cantus firmus ostinato, set to the solmization syllables la mi la, that is telescoped
proportionally as in motets by Dufay and Dunstable; Miserere mei, Deus has a can-
tus firmus built from a short fragment of chant that is repeated as an ostinato
on descending and ascending pitch levels; and the five-voiced Salve regina - E ya
ergo, advocata nostra has a cantus firmus comprised of the four-note opening of the
chant melody on two pitch levels. The cantus firmus treatments in the latter two of
these motets are particularly noteworthy and are discussed in detail below.
Of the early chansons, Cela sans plus is in the form of a rondeau; Parfons regretz
is constructed on a cantus firmus in the middle voice part, with motifs that are
treated imitatively in the other parts; Adieu mes amours features two indepen-
dent voice parts over a double canon; and Petite camusette is entirely canonic. The
most popular chansons, both during the Renaissance and today, are the six-voiced
Allegez moy and Baisez moy, and the Italian frottolas El grillo (with sounds of chirp-
ing crickets) and Scaramella (about an Italian folk hero going off to war). The also
popular Mille regretz is probably not by Josquin, and mention has already been
made of Nymphes des bois (aka La dploration de Johan. Ockeghem).
The later Masses and motets dispense with notational puzzles and preexisting
material limited to one cantus firmus voice part and, instead, they present musi-
cal material freely and in textures unified by statements of motifs or phrases that
pervade all voice parts. For example, the Lhomme arm tune is stated in all voice
parts of Missa Lhomme arm sexti toni, the solmization motif la sol fa re me is
presented hundreds of times throughout the fabric of Missa La sol fa re mi, and the
chant Pange lingua is paraphrased, imitated, and used as a head motif to unify the
entire texture of Missa Pange lingua. Similarly, imitative techniques permeate and
integrate the voice parts in the motets Praeter rerum seriem, De profundis, and In
principio erat verbum. In Pater noster, qui es in celis - Ave Maria, gratia plena Josquin
artfully combines a two-voice canon derived from two Gregorian chants (one in
each movement) with polyphony based on the chants to form a cohesive imitative
texture. Two motetsGaude virgo mater Christi and Memor esto verbi tui - P ortio
mea, Domineexhibit the voice pairing technique that was such an important
characteristic of Josquins late writing. Each motet is also in an ABA-like struc-
ture: motifs used at the end of the motet are drawn from the motets begin-
ning phrase. Memor esto verbi tui - P ortio mea is particularly interesting in that
it is almost entirely comprised of duet passages, including very short motif-like
phrases that are in dialogue between the upper and lower voices. This dialogue
effect is noteworthy because the motifs are melodically and rhythmically almost
identical. In Ave Maria virgo serena, Josquins most celebrated motet (circulated
in thirteen manuscripts during the Renaissance era and praised by Glareanus in

his Dodekachordon), the six verses of the motets text are set in six different imi-
tative styles. Also of interest, Josquin closes the motet with a homophonic coda
in the form of a personal pleaO mater Dei, memento mei, Amen (O mother
of God, remember me, Amen). The Missa de beata virgine, Josquins most popu-
lar Mass during the sixteenth century (appearing in fifty-four sources during the
Renaissance), is also in an imitative style. However, because each movement is
based on a different Gregorian chant and the movements have varied scoring, the
Mass may be a compilation of movements rather than a unified work.
The Missa Pange lingua is Josquins final Mass, composed sometime after 1515
but not published until 1539, after Josquins death (the publication by Hans
Ott in Nuremberg). However, numerous copies of the Mass existed during and
shortly after Josquins lifetime. Following is a partial listing of the thirteen existing
manuscripts.
Brussels, Bibliotheque Royale, MS.IV-922

Jena, Universitts-Bibliothque, Cod.Mus.21
Leipzig, Bibliothek der Thomaskirche,MS.49
Milan, Biblioteca Ambrosiana, MS.Mus.E46
Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Mus.MS.510
Rome, Biblioteca Vaticana, Cappella Sistina,MS.16
Rome, Cappella Giulia, MS.XII.2.C48
Vienna, National-Bibliothek, MS.4809
Salient Compositional Characteristics

There are two compositional features that permeate Josquins writing and that
serve as hallmarks or identifying traits of his music. The first of these is imita-
tion between vocal parts, most often between two parts (both as the two parts
interact with each other and also as the two parts interact with two other parts),
but also between all parts in a pervasive manner. Josquin did not invent imita-
tive technique; forms of imitation occurred occasionally in incipient forms before
him. But in Josquins music, imitation became the norm and would continue
to be the defining textural style of writing in both sacred and secular composi-
tions throughout the remaining years of the Renaissance era. The second notable
compositional trait in Josquins music, repeated ostinato patterns, is specific to
Josquin and can be seen to represent his psyche as a composer and even perhaps,
as will be pointed out, his philosophy oflife.
Imitation
As mentioned earlier, imitative polyphony was uncommon before Josquin. In
the works of Dufay, for instance, the various parts of a composition rarely trade
8 Choral Monuments
compositional material. Instead, the voice parts are generally independent, with
rhythmic and melodic characteristics of the Medieval era. As an example, the
tenor part of Missa Lhomme arm is a cantus firmus in long note values entirely
based on the original tune, the bass part shares none of the tune and is somewhat
faster rhythmically, and the two upper parts are even faster moving, with material
that only sporadically participates in imitation between the voice parts. In Dufays
Missa Se la face ay pale, a paraphrase Mass based on the composers chanson of the
same name, a head motif begins each movement and is imitated in the two upper
voice partsbut only for the duration of the motif. Otherwise, there are several
slightly longer passages of imitation in the Benedictus duet and in the second
Agnus Dei trio. Ockeghems Missa Mi-mi is similar in having just a few imita-
tive passages, most notably duet imitation between the upper and lower voices
at the Pleni sunt coeli text of the Sanctus. The remainder of the Mass is, for
the most part, texturally dense, however, with all voice parts scored simultane-
ously and without imitation. On the other hand, there are quite a few duet pas-
sages in Ockeghems Missa Caput, although these are not imitative either within
the duets or with the other voices, and the canons that exist in Dufays Gloria ad
modum tubae and Ockeghems Missa prolationum, while exhibiting imitation in a
formal sense, are not considered to be imitative as the term is used to describe
Renaissance polyphony.
Josquins compositions, in contrast to those of his predecessors, are often
replete with imitative passages. In the motet Illibata dei virgo nutrix - Ave virgi-
num decus hominum composed in 1489, for example, most of the phrases in the
motets first part begin with imitation between two voices, and some phrases of
text involve imitation between more voices. For instance, four voices participate
in imitation at the beginning of the first phrase and also at the beginning of the
antepenultimate phrase (at the text roborando), and three voices are involved
in imitation at the beginning of the third phrase. These phrases, by the way, begin
with words, as an acrostic, that spell Josquins name (seen in the boldface letters
below, I serving as J, and V serving as U):
Illibata dei virgo nutrix (Unimpaired virgin nurse ofGod),

Olympi tu regis o genitrix (Olympus king, oh mother),
Sola parens verbi puerpera (sole parent of theword),
Quae fuisti Evae reparatrix (who repaired Eves damage),
Viri nefas tuta mediatrix (for the wicked you intercede),
Illud clara luce dat scriptura (this is clear in the scriptures).
Nata nati, alma genitura (Born of your son, bountiful birth),
Des ut laeta musarum factura (grant that the muses),
Praevaleat hymnus, et sit ave (may make joyful hymns),
Roborando sonos, ut guttura (strengthening the sound theymake),
Eflagitent, laude teque pura (with urgent praises),
Zelotica arte clament ave (with the zeal of art cryinghail).
The somewhat later setting of Miserere mei, Deus (likely 1503 or 1504)also has
numerous phrases that begin imitatively. In this lengthy motet (one of the most
famous compositions of the early Renaissance) Josquin clearly demarcates the
nineteen verses of the Psalm text, closing each verse with a brief cantus firmus
statement of a Gregorian chant fragment and a relatively homophonic statement
of miserere in the other voices. Verse 1 has two extended phrases of imitation
between the top two voice parts, verse 3 begins with imitation between the top
and middle voice parts, and verse 4 is almost entirely an imitative duet between
the first and second tenor voices. There is also paired imitation at the beginnings
of verses 8 and10.
The most extensive imitative procedure in Josquins motets can be seen in the
four-voiced Ave Maria virgo serena most likely composed in 1497 and published
by Petrucci in 1502. Here, as mentioned previously, there are six different imita-
tive styles that correspond to the six verses of text. Verse 1 is a canon at the octave
involving all four voices; the canon is exact for the first phrase of the verse and
somewhat free and decorated for the second phrase. Verse 2 begins with a duet
by the upper two voices that is imitated by the two lower voices (with an added
third voice to create a fauxbourdon effect); verse 3 is a similar imitated duet, but
with imitation between the two originating voices; verse 4 is like verse 2, but more
elaborate; verse 5 is a canon at the interval of a fifth between the soprano and
tenor; and verse 6 is an expanded version of verse 3, with pervasive imitation
throughout the verse. Shown in Example1.1 is the beginning of verse 3 (a typical
Josquin imitativeduet).
Example1.1
Imitative procedure is also prevalent in Josquins late Masses. In the popular

Missa de beata virgine, for example, each of the movements begins with imita-
tions. In addition, there is often extensive imitation within the movement. The
first Kyrie begins with a duet imitation between the sopranos and tenors that
is replicated by the altos and basses, the Christe begins with a duet imitation
between the bass and tenor that is answered exactly by the altos and sopranos,
and the second Kyrie begins with a non-imitative alto and bass duet that is imi-
tated by the sopranos and tenors. Shown here in Example1.2 is the beginning
of the Christe. Note that the music to the phrase Christe eleison occurs four
times (twice in the bass and twice in the tenor).
10 Choral Monuments
Example1.2
Further examples of imitation in the Missa de beata virgine occur in short

phrases throughout the Mass, notably in the Laudames te, Benedicimus te,
Adoramus te, and Glorificamus te sections of the Gloria.
Every movement of the Missa Pange lingua begins with imitation between the
voices, and every sub-movement of the Mass except for Et incarnatus est and
Et in spiritum sanctum also begins with imitation. Most of the imitation, typi-
cal of Josquin, is paired:two voices imitate each other and are then imitated by
the remaining two voices. The opening of the Kyrie, seen in Example1.3, demon-
strates. (Note that, for convenience, the alto is scored at tenor pitch.)
Example1.3
A few of the imitative passages, as seen at the beginning of the Et vitam

venturi section of the Credo (Example1.4), occur in all the voice parts in close
succession.
Example1.4
Ostinatos
A vast majority of Josquins compositions have notable ostinatos, sometimes
referred to as motto repetitions, and the instances of these are considerably more
frequent and pronounced than instances of imitative phrases, in part because the
ostinatos occur within single voice parts that do not interact with other parts but
also because the ostinatos occur in voice parts that participate in imitation with
otherparts.
Perhaps the composition that most elucidates Josquins procedure for ostinato
patterns is the motet Salve regina composed in 1500. This motet is scored for four
voices (SATB), with another voice part, the Quinta pars, that can only be realized
by solving a rubric and its attendant musical motto. The rubric is Qui persever-
averit salvus erit (Who persists will be saved), and the musical motto, with rests
and text underlay as Josquin indicated them, is depicted in modern notation in
Example1.5.
Example1.5
The two four-note phrases of the motto are the opening notes of the Salve
regina Gregorian chant, called the great Salve regina and found on page276 in the
12 Choral Monuments
Liber usualis. To realize the phrases as a voice part in the motet, one must simply
repeat the fourteen-measure passage. In other words, one must persist and sing
the rubrics music a total of twelve times (six times in the first part of the motet,
two times in the second part, and four in the last part). The result is an ostinato of
the four-note opening of the Salve regina chant sung twenty-four timestwelve
times beginning on the pitch G and twelve times beginning a fourth loweronD.
A different ostinato pattern, this made up of five notes (first beginning on D
and then on G), is heard a total of nine times in the bass voice at the beginning of
the motet. Shown here in Example1.6 are the first two instances of the motto at
the beginning of themotet.
Example1.6
To balance the motet, yet another ostinato, one characterized by descending

eighth notes, is presented intermittently nine times at the end of themotet.
A cantus firmus ostinato (Example 1.7) similar to that in Salve regina also
occurs in Josquins 1503 or 1504 setting of Psalm 51, Miserere mei,Deus.
Example1.7
This ostinato, undoubtedly based on a Gregorian psalm tone chant, appears as

a unifying structural device in one voice part (tenor 3)that has no other musical
material and is stated twenty-one times, twice in verses 1 and 13 of the nineteen-
verse Psalm and once at the close of the other verses. Uniquely, the initial note of
the ostinato is stated on pitch levels that create descending and ascending scalar
patternsin the first part of the motet descending (E, D, C, B, A, G, F, E), in the
second part of the motet ascending (E, F, G, A, B, C, D, E), and in the third part of
the motet descending again (E, D, C, B, A). Furthermore, the ostinato is stated at
the beginning of the motet in the other four voiceparts.
As in Salve regina, there are also additional ostinato patterns in Miserere mei,
Deus not directly related to the original ostinato psalm tone. For example, shown
in brackets of Example 1.8 are repeated three-note motifs at the beginning of
verse 2 (measures 2326).
Example1.8
Even more repetitions of the same motif (remarkably, seven successive times
in each voice part) occur at the beginning of verse 6.Shown in Example1.9 are the
soprano and second tenor parts (the other participating voice, tenor 1, is often in
parallel tenths with the soprano).
Example1.9
Yet another similar use of ostinatos, in both a single voice part (as a struc-
tural device unifying the composition) and as persisting repetitions of a
motif, occurs in Illibata dei virgo of 1489. In this motet the fifth voice part
14 Choral Monuments
has a three-note solmization syllable la mi la which is a soggetto cavato of

the vowels from the name Maria, referring to the Virgin Mary. The osti-
nato appears thirty times in groups of successively shorter note values: at
the beginning of the motet it is in very long notes, each note of which cor-
responds to three measures of the surrounding parts, and by the end of the
motet it is in note values that correspond to those in the other parts. Shown
here in Example 1.10 are the fourteenth through seventeenth appearances
of the ostinato, which, as in Salve regina, begins alternately on the pitches
DandG.
Example1.10
Ostinatos used in the other parts of Illibata dei virgo, unrelated to the la mi la
motif, demonstrate Josquins practice of repetitions not on the same pitch levels
but in sequential patterns. Shown in Example1.11 is the second half of the phrase
that begins with U in Josquins name (viri nefas tuta mediatrix). There is no text
underlay to the passageshown.
Example1.11
The majority of repetitive motifs in the Masses generally occur at the ends of
movements. As an illustration, shown in Example 1.12 is the final soprano phrase
of the Gloria from the Missa de beata virgine.
Example1.12
There are also several notable instances of ostinatos at the ends of movements
in the Missa Pange lingua. Seen in Example1.13, the final measures of the Kyrie
have two repeated three-note motifs, the first to the word Kyrie and the second
to the word eleison.
Example1.13
16 Choral Monuments
Example1.13Continued
An example of a longer repeated motto can be seen in the final fourteen mea-
sures of the Pleni sunt caeli sub-section of the Sanctus from the Missa Pange
lingua. Example1.14 shows the sopranopart.
Example1.14
Motto repetitions occasionally also occur within the body of movements. For
instance, note in Example 1.15 the mottos in measures 3543 of the fifty-seven-mea-
sure second Agnus Dei (a duet between altos and basses) from the Missa de beata
virgine.
Example1.15
In conclusion, Josquin begins to unify the textures of motets and Masses in

the Renaissance era by employing imitation between the voice parts and ostina-
tos pervasively in all the parts; he establishes a style of writing in which the voice
parts, by sharing and repeating melodic material, have consistency in melodic and
rhythmic design. While Josquin continues to occasionally utilize some of the late-
Medieval techniques, such as an independent cantus firmus within the texture of
motets, he fashions the cantus firmus as a succession of repeated motifs. He also
employs repeated motifs in all his compositions, to such an extent that the pro-
cedure becomes an idiosyncratic mannerism, one that seems to reflect a personal
belief that repetition represents the ideal of persisting or persevering inlife.
The Missa Pangelingua

Structure and Parody Technique
Josquins Missa Pange lingua is scored overall for four voices (the clefs indicat-
ing soprano, alto, tenor, and bass), with three of the sub-movements of the Mass
(Pleni sunt caeli, Benedictus, and Agnus Dei 2) scored as bicinia (duets). Each
of the movements is divided into sub-sections, identified and separated by double
bars, and listed as follows.
Kyrie
Kyrie1
Christe
Kyrie2
Gloria
Et in terrapax
Quitollis
Credo
Patrem omnipotentem
Et incarnatusest
Crucifixus
Et in spiritum sanctum
Sanctus
Sanctus
Pleni suntcaeli
Hosanna
Benedictus
AgnusDei
AgnusDei1
AgnusDei2
AgnusDei3
18 Choral Monuments
The entire Mass is unified in that each movement is based on melodic

material that is paraphrased from the Pange lingua Gregorian hymn chant.
The Kyrie and Agnus Dei 3 (first and last movements) paraphrase the entire
chant (i.e., all six of the chants phrases); the middle movements generally
paraphrase only the first, second, and third of the chants phrases. In addi-
tion, all the major movements plus the sub-movements Et incarnatus est
and Crucifixus begin with a head motif derived from the chants opening
phrase.
The basic distribution of the Pange lingua chant phrases in Josquins Mass can
be seen in the following listing.
Kyrie
Kyrie 1 chant phrases 1 and 2
Christe chant phrases 3 and 4
Kyrie 2 chant phrases 5 and 6
Gloria
Et in terra pax chant phrase 1
Gratias agimus tibi chant phrase 2
Propter magnam gloriam tuam chant phrase 3
Qui tollis peccata mundi chant phrase 2
Credo
Patrem omnipotentem c hant phrase 1
Factorem caeli et terra c hant phrase 3
Et invisibilium chant phrase 2
Et incarnatus est chant phrase 1
Crucifixus chant phrase 1
Confiteor unum baptisma chant phrase 2
Et expecto resurrectionem mortuorum chant phrase 4
Sanctus
Sanctus chant phrase 1
AgnusDei
Agnus Dei 1 chant phrases 1 and 2
Agnus Dei 2 chant phrases 1, 2, and 3
Agnus Dei 3 chant phrases 16
As for the manner in which Josquin paraphrases the chant, the first several
notes of the chant phrase are generally stated literally, without alteration. The
remainder of the chant phrase is then presented in a somewhat free manner, with
added ornamental passages as the phrase comes to a close. As an example, shown
here in Example1.16 is the original Gregorian chant followed in Example1.17 by
Josquins paraphrase of the first two chant phrases in the soprano part of the first
Kyrie (the x marks indicate chant notes).
Example1.16
Example1.17
This paraphrase technique was employed by most composers after Josquin, includ-
ing Palestrina, whose similar paraphrase procedure can be seen in his motet and
Mass based on the Gregorian chant antiphon Veni sponsa Christi (see Examples2.1
and 2.2 in the following chapter discussing Palestrinas Missa Papae Marcelli).
Wedded to the paraphrase technique by Josquin, Palestrina, and many other
composers is the procedure of imitation between voice parts. Josquins imitative
procedure in the Missa Pange lingua is characterized by obvious references to the
chant at the beginnings of major movements and by equally obvious instances
of motto repetition at the ends of the movements. As previously mentioned, the
20 Choral Monuments
first and last movements of the Mass (the Kyrie and Agnus Dei) cite all six phrases
of the chant and, because of this, the movements are almost entirely given over to
imitation of chant phrases. The other movements have sporadic references to the
chant and also sporadic instances of imitation.
The Kyrie begins with double paired imitation:the basses imitate the tenors in a
paraphrase of the first chant phrase followed by a virtual repeat of the paraphrase
by the sopranos and altos. The basses, followed by the tenors and sopranos, then
participate in imitation of the second chant phrase, which ends the Kyrie 1. The
Christe has double paired imitation of the third chant phrase, first between the
basses and altos, and then between the tenors and sopranos. This is followed by a
similar treatment of the fourth chant phrase, although now with the voice parts
reversed (the altos lead the basses and the sopranos lead the tenors). Kyrie 2
is like the first, but with the sopranos and altos leading the imitative procedure
of the chants fifth phrase and with the sopranos and basses in imitation of the
chants final phrase. During this final phrase the sopranos, altos, and tenors have
repeated mottos in sequential arrangement as shown in Example1.13.
The Gloria, in two sub-movements, begins with double paired imitation almost
identical to that at the beginning of the Kyrie. In the Gloria, however, the end
of the chant paraphrase is decorated differently and the phrases are longer.
Paraphrase of the chant is interrupted for the text Laudamus te, benedicimus te,
adoramus te, glorificamus te (which has motto repetition), but continues with
double paired imitation of the second chant phrase to the text gratias agimus
tibi (sopranos and altos, followed by tenors and basses), and similar double paired
imitation of the third chant phrase to the text propter magnam gloriam tuam
(tenors and basses, followed by sopranos and altos). The first sub-movement of
the Gloria concludes with a lengthy eleven-measure passage of motto repetition,
with fourteen statements of the five-note motto. The second half of the Gloria
begins with strict canonic treatment of a fragment of the second chant phrase (to
the text Qui tollis peccata mundi) followed by alternating passages of homoph-
ony and paired imitation not related to the chant. The movement ends with rep-
etition, but of a phrase, not amotto.
The Credo, as one might expect, begins in a manner similar to the previous
movements; clear parallels between the beginnings of movements was a priority
with Josquin and most composers who followed him, but, as with all the move-
ments, the paraphrase and imitative procedures are not identical from move-
ment to movement. The double paired imitation at the beginning of the Credo,
for instance, is twice as long as that at the beginning of the Gloria. The remainder
of the movement, divided into three sub-movements, is also similar to, but not
exactly the same as, the Gloria. In the Credo, paraphrase is interrupted briefly
before introducing a fragment of the second chant phrase (to the text et invis-
ibilium). In addition, there are passages of imitation not related to the chant
(e.g., sopranos and altos to the text beginning Genitum non factum); the sec-
ond sub-movement of the Credo, to the text Et incarnatus est, is homophonic,
with the soprano quoting the first four notes of the chants first phrase; there are
instances of motto repetition (to the text qui propter nos homines, et propter
nostram salutem); and the movement ends with repetition of a phrase, not a
motto. The Credo, because of its lengthier text, is more extensive than the Gloria,
however, and there are, therefore, considerably more passages of paired imitation
not related to the Pange lingua chant. Also, the Credo ends with a paraphrase of
the chants fourth phrasesomething not done in the other movements.
The Sanctus is the most individualistic of the movements. It begins with a dou-
ble paired imitation of the chants first phrase, but not initiated by the tenors and
basses as in the previous movements (but by the sopranos and altos instead). In
addition, the chant is paraphrased only at the beginning of the movement and the
instances of motto repetition are unique. For example, the ostinatos in the middle
of the Pleni sunt caeli involve an octave leap, and the repetitions of Hosanna
during the triple-meter portion of this sub-movement occur numerous times in
all voice parts. Most uniquely, the Sanctus has two bicinia, which are placed so that
the overall structure of the movement is balanced:Sanctus (SATB), Pleni sunt
caeli (SA), Hosanna (SATB), Benedictus (TB), and Hosanna (SATB).
The Agnus Dei 1 is slightly different from the other movements in that it
begins not with paired imitation but with imitation in all four voices. Also, this sub-
movement continues with the second chant phrase paraphrased in the tenor and
then soprano parts, not just in the soprano part. The Agnus Dei 2, another lengthy
bicinia, is almost entirely imitative, with passages paraphrasing the first, second,
and third chant phrases. Finally, after presenting the first chant phrase in all four
voices (in the order soprano, alto, bass, tenor), the chant phrase appears in the
soprano as a cantus firmus in long notes, decorated only before the final note of the
phrase. Following this are paired imitative paraphrases of the chants second phrase
(tenor and soprano), third phrase (soprano and tenor), and fourth phrase (tenor
and soprano), with paraphrases of the final two chant phrases in all the voices.
Performance Practice Considerations

PerformingForces
Church and court choirs varied in size during the Renaissance era. As one might
expect, the major courts and churches had larger musical establishments, while
minor courts and churches with modest means had limited forces. Most choirs,
however, were relatively small. In 1504 the choir at the Milan Cathedral (the
Duomo di Milano) had nineteen singers (seven boys and twelve men), and dur-
ing the early years of the sixteenth century the choir at the Duomo in Florence
(the Cattedrale di Santa Maria dei Fiore) numbered fourteen singers (seven boy
sopranos, two adult male altos, three tenors, and two basses). In 1513 the choir of
the Basilica di San Petronio in Bologna had ten adults and an unspecified number
of boys (most probably between six and eight, since there were generally twice as
22 Choral Monuments
many boy sopranos as there were adult males on the other parts), and the choir
of the Sistine Chapel (the Cappella Sistina) fluctuated during the mid-sixteenth
century between twenty-one and thirty-six singers, all of whom were adult males.
During the papacy of Leo X (15131521), when Josquins Missa Pange lingua
would certainly have been performed at the Vatican, the Sistine Chapel Choir
was composed of twenty-three singers plus a maestro di cappella, and during the
papacy of Clement VII (15231534), the choir had twenty-four singers (seven
sopranos, seven altos, four tenors, and six basses). In contrast, the choir at the
Bavarian Court in Munich at the end of the century under the musical leadership
of Orlando di Lasso (15321594) had forty-eight singers, including both boys and
adults. No specific information exists about the choir at Notre Dame in Cond-
sur-lEscaut, where Josquin spent the final years of his life and where he most
certainly composed the Missa Pange lingua. The church was destroyed in 1793.
However, it is believed that the musical resources at the church were large, that
the musicians were skilled, and that the Missa Pange lingua might have been sung
by an ensemble of between twenty and thirty singers.
Performing with an ensemble larger than twenty or so singers would have been
impractical during the Renaissance in that the singers, in sections, had to gather
around part books or all had to gather around and sing from a single choir book, gener-
ally placed on a high stand. While the choir books were often large (three feet high and
wide), they could only be seen by a limited number of singers. Typically, each page of the
book had the music for a single sub-movement of the Mass (e.g., Kyrie 1, Christe,
Kyrie 2, Et in terra pax, Qui tollis, etc.). The soprano and tenor parts were, respec-
tively, on the top and bottom halves of the left page, and the alto and bass parts were,
similarly, on the top and bottom parts of the right page. Each part began with a large
illuminated letter, generally the first letter of the first word of text to besung.
Replicating performance today with singers gathered around a single choir
book would serve no aesthetic or historical objective. It does seem logical, how-
ever, to group singers into vocal sections, as they were likely assembled in the
sixteenth century, and to arrange the groups, left to right, as they would have
been positioned to view a choir book. As such, a choir for performances of the
Missa Pange lingua today might be positioned as shown in Diagram 1.A, with
the suggested number of singers, assuming that all the parts would be sung by
adults.
B B T T
B T
B A A S T
A S
S
B A S T
A S
B T
A S
Diagram 1.A
The choirs in the Sistine Chapel always sang a cappella, while other choirs
throughout Europe, including those at St. Peters Basilica in Rome, often sang with
instrumental accompaniment, including organ. Accounts mention organ accom-
paniment of Masses in both St. Peters and the Munich court. Nevertheless, it is
certain that in many churches Masses and other sacred works sung in a liturgical
setting were often performed a cappella. Hans Mielich (15161573), who painted
miniatures of vocal and instrumental ensembles in Munich, depicted the perfor-
mance of sacred music without instruments; approximately forty singers, both
boys and adults, are gathered around and looking up at a single large choirbook.
Meter, Tactus, andTempo

There were four meter or mensuration signs in use during the Medieval era and
early years of the Renaissance: a circle with a dot in the center, equivalent to
9/1 or 9/2 in Josquins time and 9/4 today (perfect tempus and perfect prolation);
an empty circle, corresponding to 3/1, 3/2, or 3/4 (perfect tempus and imperfect
prolation); a half circle with a dot in the center, indicating 6/1, 6/2, or 6/4 (imper-
fect tempus and perfect prolation); and a plain half circle, which corresponds to
2/1, 2/2,or 2/4, (imperfect tempus and imperfect prolation). A fifth sign was also
commonly used during the Renaissance, this being a half circle with a vertical
slash through it, equivalent to alla breve or cut time and, therefore, also imper-
fect tempus and imperfect prolation. There was no such meter as 4/4 during the
Renaissance; the plain half circle that today indicates common time (i.e., 4/4) was
identical in meaning to the half circle with a slash through it (todays alla breve).
Both and meant two beats to a presumed measure.
Josquin preferred the alla breve sign to the plain half circle, and he used only
this and the empty circle in the majority of movements and sub-movements of his
Missa Pange lingua. The distribution of these mensuration signs, with 3/2 indicat-
ing the empty circle and 2/2 indicating alla breve, is shown in the following list.
Kyrie
Kyrie 1 3/2
Christe 2/2
Kyrie 2 3/2
Gloria
Et in terra pax 3/2
Qui tollis 2/2
Credo
Patrem omnipotentem 2/2
Et incarnatus est a continuation of 2/2, with no new mensuration sign shown
Crucifixusditto
Et in spiritum sanctumditto
Confiteorthe numeral3
24 Choral Monuments
Sanctus
Sanctus 3/2
Pleni sunt caeli 2/2
Hosanna 2/2for twelve measures and then the numeral 3
Benedictus 2/2
AgnusDei
Agnus Dei 1 3/2
Agnus Dei 2 2/2
Agnus Dei 3 3/2 and the numeral 2
The numeral 3 at the end of the Credo is curious in that the measures following
it alternate with passages that return to alla breve. Most likely, Josquin used the
3 to indicate that immediate forthcoming measures were to be in three but that
there was not a full-scale change of mensuration. The combination of the circle
and the numeral 2 at the beginning of Agnus Dei 3 probably means that the
beginning of the soprano line is in a large perfect tempus and imperfect prola-
tion relationship (3 whole notes to one presumed present-day measure), while the
remaining parts are in a standard allabreve.
Josquins Mass, and most compositions of the early Renaissance era, employed
the semibreve (whole note) as the standard tactus or unit of pulse. Shorter note
values were indicated by the minim (half note) and crotchet (quarter note). Longer
note values were indicated by the breve (double whole note) and longa (a note of
indeterminate length, usually shown at the ends of movements). At the end of
the Gloria, for example, the final note is shown as a longa in all voice parts, even
though the soprano is six breves, the tenor one breve, and the alto and bass four
breves in length.
The standard durational value of the tactus increased over the years, with the
half note becoming most common in the latter years of the Renaissance and with
the quarter note becoming the norm thereafter. As such, editors of early music
have generally reduced by half the original notational values in order to make the
music appear more normal to modern-day performers. For example, an original
composition with a whole-note tactus, as is the case in Josquins Missa Pange lin-
gua, is presented with a half-note tactus (as is the case in most published editions
of the Mass and here in this chapter aswell).
Being the standard unit of pulse, the tactus was generally assumed to have a
standard durational value in time. Anumber of writers throughout history have
related this general value to a persons heartbeat, including the Spanish mathema-
tician and music theorist Bartolom Ramos de Pareja (c.14401522), who wrote
in his Musica practica of1482,
Mensura is that time or duration which comprises the expansion and con-
traction inside the bodies of healthy people. So, when a singer wants to sing
correctly and in time, he should tap with his foot, hand, or finger when singing,
just as quickly as the heart beat [pulses].
Franchinus Gaffurius (14511522), Josquins contemporary and friend, basically

agrees, stating in his Practica musicae of1496,
Physicians believe that the accurate measurement of a short span of time con-
forms to even pulse beats of the heart by establishing an equal arsis and thesis,
which they call diastole and systole. But it is well known that the pulse rate of
fevered persons, by increasing and changing, makes the relation of diastole and
systole unequal.
The standard rate of speed was just that, however, only a standard; it was not a
fixed measurement of speed or tempo that applied to all music. As early as the
beginning of the fifteenth century Giorgio Anselmi Parmense, also known as
Anselmus de Parma (c.1386c.1440),wrote,
It is not so that a fixed mensura does not surpass its limitation; it can be
greater and then again lesser, and this is left to the opinion of the cantor. But
within those limitations the tactus cannot be changed, as it is also the case
with constant quantities of all sorts of other things. In any case, according to
a determined estimate, the mensura approaches a middle-time in which the
cantor does not quicken the singing too much, nor slackens it too much, while
tacting with the tip of his foot, with his shoe on the floor, or tapping with his
hand on the hand or shoulder of a singer as uniformly as hecan.
Anselmi is stating that the tempo of a tactus can vary (it can be faster or slower)
but that the durational value of it cannot change (it cannot be a half note some-
times, for instance, and a whole note at other times). Conrad von Zabern (d.1481)
confirms the concept of tempo variation in his 1473 publication De modo bene
cantandi:
To sing with discrimination means to observe fittingly the necessary require-

ments for the church services and the church year. This is accomplished a)
through the selection of different tempos, and b) through the practice of using
different pitches. In regard to a), high feasts, in general, are to be sung in a
very slow tempo, on Sundays and single feasts in a moderate tempo, and daily
services in a fairly rapidtempo.
Commentary such as the above continued in the sixteenth century. As examples

are the three following quotes (each in its own paragraph) from (1) Tres Libros
de Musica, written in 1546 by Alonso Mudarra (c.15101580); (2)Lantica musica
26 Choral Monuments
ridotta alla moderna prattica of 1555 by Nicola Vicentino (1511c.1575); and (3)Le
istitutioni harmoniche of 1558 by Gioseffo Zarlino (15171590).
(1) If a text is of gay and merry content, the tactus, of necessity, is to move
merrily and quickly. And if another text is neither all gay nor all sad, this
text will require another tactus which moves neither very quickly nor very
slowly. And that text which is sad throughout will demand the slow tactus.
(2) Sometimes one uses a certain way of proceeding in a composition that can-
not be written downsuch as to sing piano and forte, and to sing presto
and tardo, moving the measure according to the words to demonstrate the
effects of the passions of the words and of the harmony. Changes of
tempo are not unusual in a composition. The practice of the orator teaches
this, for one sees how he proceeds in an orationnow he speaks loudly,
now softly, and slower and faster. This way of changing the tempo has
an effect on the mind. So, one should sing music all mente to imitate the
accents and effects of the parts of the oration, for what effect would the
orator make if he recited a fine speech without arranging his accents and
pronunciations with fast and slow movement, softly and loudly? That
would not move his hearers. The same [consideration of oratory] should
occur inmusic.
(3) Singers should seek to sing in accord with the nature of the words of
the composition. Happy words will be sung happily and at a lively pace,
whereas sad texts call for the opposite.
Considering Josquins Missa Pange lingua, it seems appropriate that the serious
nature of the Mass and its intended performance for the feast of Corpus Christi
calls for an overall tempo that conveys solemnity and gravity. Within the Mass,
however, sub-movements should be at relatively faster or slower tempos, accord-
ing to the character of thetexts.
Text Underlay
Words in manuscripts and printed scores of the early sixteenth century were not
positioned specifically. That is, words and syllables did not appear under the spe-
cific notes to which they were to be applied or sung. Words were usually placed
in a general or even random manner, often with an entire phrase of text at the
beginning of a melodic line or with a phrase of text divided arbitrarily between the
beginning and ending of a lengthy melodic phrase. In the Vatican copy (MS.16)
of Josquins Missa Pange lingua, for example, each vocal part of the Mass begins
with the word Kyrie and is followed by eleyson at the end of the initial melodic
phrase. There is no indication as to how the syllables are to be distributed in
the phrase (i.e., how the syllables are to be aligned to specific notes). Moreover,
this copy of the Mass has the words Pange lingua also at the beginning of the
phrase, even though it is obvious that these words are not to be sung. Shown in
Example 1.18 is a relative depiction of the tenor line as it appears in the manu-
script. The notational values have been proportionally shortened (i.e., the original
whole notes have been changed to half notes), the circle immediately following
the tenors clef sign indicates the mensuration perfect tempus and imperfect pro-
lation (equivalent to 3/2), and the two vertical bars at the end of the first staff
indicate three measures of rest.
Example1.18
The singers did not align the words to the notes according to modern-day
come scritto (as written) standards, putting, for instance, the final son of eley-
son under the penultimate note, as is printed in several so-called authoritative
present-day editions. Nor did the singers repeat words, singing Kyrie eleison
twice within the phrase (i.e., twice in the first staff above), as is also indicated in
a present-day edition. Instead (as shown in Example1.19), the singers followed
basic rules of text underlay and attached the beginnings of text phrases to their
musical mottos (e.g., singing Kyrie after the rests to the musical motto that
begins the Mass), and also putting strong words or syllables of words with strong
beats. There were, as a result, few repetitions of text, but long melismatic phrases
instead.
Example1.19
The rules, or recommendations for following common-sense placement of text

are stated in a number of primary sources from the Renaissance. Gaffurius wrote
in his Practica musicae, Poets and musicians employed their powers of reason
to fix every beat of time as short or long by considering whether the syllables
28 Choral Monuments
of a word are short or long. Other writers of the time expressed similar ideas,
addressing them as advice to composers when setting melodies to words. The
Italian music theorist Giovanni Maria Lanfranco (1490c.1545), in the second
part of his Scintille di musica of 1533 under the chapter heading How to put words
under the music, states,
Now one must know that the articulation of the words is made in measured
music but not in plainsong, because in the latter the articulation is made
according to the sense of the words, and in the former, according to the order
of the polyphony and the necessity of rests, although the composer ought to
take care to make the cadence or general separation according to the sense and
articulation of the words. The repetition of words is never made in plain-
song but is made in figured music when the notes can carry it. But when they
do not bear it, then one stays on the penultimate syllable until one arrives at
the cadence or at the last singable note, applying there the last syllable of the
word. And this is said with respect to masses and motets.
Similarly, Giovanni Del Lago (c.1490c.1543) writes in a letter of 1541 (an extrac-
tion of text from his Breve introduttione di musica misurata of1540),
Cadences are really essential, not optional (as some people say unthinkingly),
especially in a melody composed to words, and this in order to define the parts of
speech. Astop is made, then, after a short phrase, a half sentence, or a full sen-
tence so that the meaning of the parts of the text in its entirety, whether in verse
or in prose, may be understood. Indeed, the cadence in music is like a period in
grammar. Be careful not to commit such barbarisms in composing notes to
words as placing a long accent on short syllables or a short accent on long syl-
lables, because that goes counter to the rules of grammar. Without grammar, no
one can be a good musician, for it teaches one to pronounce and write correctly.
Nicola Vicentino lists a number of rules for text underlay in his LAntica musica
ridotta alla moderna prattica, and, in addition, he provides the following musical
example in chapter30 (Example1.20) as a proper way to align accented and unac-
cented syllables of text withmusic.
Example1.20
The German composer Hermann Finck (15271558) in his Practica musica of

1556 acknowledges the difficulty of text underlay in the music of Josquin and
other composers of the early Renaissance as he compares text setting of his time
to that by earlier composers.
More recent composers devote more care to the sweetness of euphony and are
diligent and careful in fitting the text so that it agrees with the notes placed
above it, and that these [notes], in turn, express, as characteristically as possible,
the sense of the language and the individual feelings. This care is not to be denied
completely to the older musicians, although it must be admitted that they were
rather more free, and did not keep themselves within such bounds and limits as
did the more recent [composers].
One of the most detailed and extensive discussions of text underlay is in Gioseffo
Zarlinos Le istitutioni harmoniche. In the third book of this treatise, in section 32
entitled How the Harmonies are Adapted to the Words Placed Beneath Them,
Zarlino states,
Take care that we adapt the words of speech to musical figures in such a way
and with such rhythms that nothing barbarous is heard, not making short
syllables long and long syllables short. In a similar way we ought to take
care not to separate the parts of the speech from one another with rests, so
long as a clause, or any part of it, is incomplete and the sense of the words
imperfect.
Applying these principles of text underlay to a passage from Josquins Missa

Pange lingua, as was done with the beginning of the Kyrie in Example1.19, the
following musical lines of the opening soprano phrase of the Qui tollis peccata
mundi from the Gloria are presented in Example1.21, first as the line appears in
Josquins manuscript (with the note values reduced by half) and then as the text
should probably be underlayed.
Example1.21
30 Choral Monuments
In addition to the consideration of prosody in text underlay, one needs to be

conscious of ligatures, which are two notes joined together as one musical sign,
comparable to the Gregorian chant clivis or flexa. Ligatures are numerous in the
Missa Pange lingua, most notably in the triple-metered portion of the Hosanna,
and are to be treated as one note and, therefore, given only one syllable or word of
text. Example1.22 shows the soprano line, with appropriate text underlay, at the
opening of the triple section of the Hosanna. The brackets indicate the ligatures.
Example1.22
The treatment of ligatures is explained by the German music publisher Georg

Rhau (14881548), who printed a number of works by Josquin, and who wrote in
his treatise Enchiridion musicae mensuralis of1520,
A ligature is a connection of one note to another. It is formed from either

square or oblique figures or from both. It was invented, first, for the refine-
ment of composition, second, for the adornment of melody, and third, for the
distribution of text. [As to the latter,] in a ligature in song [chant and mensural
music], a syllable of text is assigned to the first constituent only of its particu-
lar grouping ofnotes.
In conclusion, applying the text, logically, to the entire of Josquins Missa Pange
lingua is not particularly challenging; the musical phrases lend themselves well to
text underlay that is coherent and aesthetically pleasing, and the ligatures pres-
ent no problems in being set to one word or syllable. It should be acknowledged,
however, that no one manner of text underlay is correct in and of itself. Multiple
applications are possible and acceptable as long as the following guidelines are fol-
lowed:(1)text phrases should be repeated only as they fit to musical mottos and/
or only if rests separate musical phrases (as in the Kyrie shown in Example1.19);
(2)accented words or syllables should be sung to melismas and should be placed
on importantly placed notes (downbeats or notes of considerable length); and
(3)final syllables of text phrases should be aligned with final musicalnotes.
Musica Ficta and MusicaRecta

The term musica ficta refers to the practice of raising a printed pitch by a half
step, while the term musica recta refers to the practice of lowering a tone by a half
step. Musica ficta was employed for a number of reasons, mainly to purify a musi-
cal interval (e.g., to make an augmented fourth, or tritone, into a fourth) or to
make a musical line more functionalto make a leading tone serve the function
of a leading tone. The practice was necessary because composers during the early
Renaissance assumed that without specific sharp or flat signs, performers would
recognize the function of intervals and perform them appropriately. Zarlino, in
reference to leading tones, explains in the chapter on cadences in his Le istitutioni
harmoniche,
Penultimate notes can always be [shown] without putting in the sign of the
chromatic tone (#)to change the interval of a tone [whole step] to a semitone
[half step], because in the part that ascends from the penultimate note to the
final, the semitone is always intended to be placed. Nature has shown this,
because not only learned musicians but also peasants, who sing without any
art, always proceed by the interval of the semitone.
Recognition of the final note is important in determining whether or not to raise

the penultimate note or notes immediately preceding it as musica ficta. For a note
to be raised, the final note must have the function of a final. That is, it must serve
as a tonic note in the mode, whether that mode is the main or a secondary one of
the composition. Composers often changed modes in a composition. According
to Johannes Tinctoris (c.14351511) in his Liber de natura et proprietate tonorum
completed in 1476, It should be noted that the intermixture of modes takes
place not only in plainsong but also in polyphonic music. In Josquins Missa
Pange lingua, for example, Kyrie 1 has a final cadence on G, the Christe on D,
and Kyrie 2 on E.The penultimate soprano F-natural in Kyrie 1 should, there-
fore, be raised to an F-sharp, and the penultimate alto C-natural of the Christe
should be raised to a C-sharp. Other cadences are also clear-cut and warrant the
raising of the note penultimate to the cadence, including the F soprano note in
measure 23 of the Gloria and the comparable F tenor note in measure 24 (both
ending the phrase Gratias agimus tibi); the soprano G at the end of measure 72
in the Gloria (ending the phrase Suscipe deprecationem nostram); the F soprano
note at the end of measure 72 in the Credo (ending the phrase lumen de lumine,
Deum verum de Deo vero); the F soprano note in measure 81 of the Credo (end-
ing the phrase per quem omnia facta sunt); the penultimate C bass note at the
very end of the Benedictus; and the G soprano note at the end of Agnus Dei 2.
Yet other notes penultimate to cadences warranting musica ficta involve two or
three notes as part of a cadential formula. An example can be seen in the soprano
part just prior to the Amen text at the end of the Credo (Example1.23).
Example1.23
32 Choral Monuments
All these notes to be raised are parts of distinct cadences that involve two or
more voice parts, and all are at the ends of text phrases, many of which are fol-
lowed by rests. The notes clearly fulfill Zarlinos definition of final. However,
notes that may seem to be final in one voice part but are not supported by a
final note in a simultaneous additional part should probably not be raised. An
example can be seen in the soprano phrase that begins the Qui tollis, shown
in Example 1.21. Here no other voice part participates in a cadence and the
tonality of D is compromised by a B-flat in the tenor voice. Similarly, the final
soprano note of measure 81 in the sub-movement Pleni sunt caeli should not
be raised; there is no subsequent cadence and the phrase of text does not come
to anend.
The soprano and tenor duet that begins Agnus Dei 2 presents the same non-
cadential situation, but also a situation that calls for musica rectathe applica-
tion of a lowered note to conform to expected modal patterns of the music (i.e.,
to rectify the notation to its intended purpose). In Josquins duet, the printed
B-natural at the beginning of the tenor line should be lowered to a B-flat in imita-
tion of the soprano line that precedes it. The Cs that follow should not be raised
(as they are in some modern-day critical editions of the Mass) because they are
not part of a cadence or phrase end; neither should the Fs of the soprano part in
measures 8 and 9 be raised (see Example1.24).
Example1.24
The B-naturals in the bass voice at the beginning of the Credo should likewise
be lowered to B-flats; this is confirmed by the following alto part in imitation
of the bass voice, which has a B-flat (in measure 19)marked by Josquin. Other
B-naturals that should be rectified to B-flats occur in the tenor voice at measures
53 and 62 of theCredo.
Regarding tritones, Pietro Aaron (c.1480c.1545), who claimed to have been a

friend of Josquin, wrote in his Toscanello in musica published in1523,
Although some say that the signs of b molle and b duro or b rotundus and qua-
dratus are signs pertaining to modern musicians which have no reason, one
answers that this usage is intended solely for the mitigation and temperament
of the tritone. Even if b molle is not shown, with every learned and unlearned
musician, as an ordinary and special rule constituted by musicians, it is under-
stood that this harshness is never to be tolerated. Many composers have
observed this rule, and although they understood the rule themselves, they
considered the carelessness of the singers, which arises easily, and they
have brought into light and shown openly the flat sign. Josquin confirms
this, as seen in his motet Memor esto [and in other works].
In the Missa Pange lingua, Josquin wrote a B-flat at the end of the tenor line in the
Christe in order to avoid a tritone interval (shown in Example1.25).
Example1.25
As with text underlay, there is no single correct application of musica

ficta or musica recta, either in Josquins Missa Pange lingua or in any other
work of the Renaissance era. One can be liberal or conservative in applica-
tion. One should appreciate, nonetheless, that compliance to certain basic
rules, especially with musica recta, can greatly enhance the inherent beauty
of themusic.
Summary
It can easily be deduced from reading the preceding discussions of meter, tac-
tus, tempo, text underlay, and musica ficta/musica recta, that these and other
performance practices are integral aspects of notation. They are not extra, added
features of music-making that may or may not be necessary in performance. To
the contrary, these performance practices are integral to the understanding of
notation and to its manifestation in sound. Put another way, the performance
practices are embedded in notation, which must be understood in order for it
to be revealed. As such, performance practices should be a part of a musicians
training. Adrian Petit Coclico (14991562), who claimed to have been a student
34 Choral Monuments
of Josquin, mentions this in his Compendium musices of 1552 as he lists the skills
necessary for the training of a student musician.
He will apply himself to learn the musical hand or scale and soon
he will recognize the individual clef symbols. Immediately thereafter, he will
begin to practice solmization in plainsong or Gregorian chant, and to pro-
nounce musical syllables and their combinations in order. To these he will add
the knowledge of the eight modes; he will recognize their signs, quantities and
values, and soon after, the shapes of notes, ligatures, points, pauses, and after-
wards, prolations, major and minor, augmentation, diminution, imperfection,
alteration, syncopation, and at the same time, the beats and certain propor-
tions of utility. He will then begin to sing, not only as [the music] is writ-
ten, but also with embellishments, and to pronounce skillfully, smoothly and
meaningfully, to intone correctly and to place any syllable in its proper place
under the rightnotes.
Note that Coclico includes the skills of ornamentation and text underlay as well as
the recognition of ligatures, cadences (points and pauses), and prolations (which
determine meter and subsequent resulting syncopations).
The fullest greatness of Josquins Missa Pange lingua can only be revealed if the
notation is transmitted according to its intended meaning and if the performers
of the music are sensitive to subtleties of the notation. These subtleties include
adherence to the meter and tactus, establishment of tempo as it reflects the pur-
pose of the Mass and variation of tempo as it reflects its textual content, text
underlay that is coherent and that conveys a sense of natural oratory, and altera-
tion of pitches that bring a sense of order and beauty to phrases, both musical
and textual.
Selected Bibliography
Alwes, Chester L. A History of Western Choral Music, Volume 1. Oxford University Press,2015.
Berger, Karol. Musica Ficta:Theories of Accidental Inflections in Vocal Polyphony from Marchetto da
Padova to Gioseffo Zarlino. Cambridge University Press,1987.
Brown, Howard Mayer. Embellishing 16th-Century Music. Oxford University Press,1976.
Caldwell, John. Editing Early Music. Clarendon Press,1985.
Charles, Sydney R. Josquin des Prez:AGuide to Research. Garland,1985.
Duffin, Ross W., editor. A Josquin Anthology. Oxford University Press,1999.
Elders, Willem. Josquin des Prez and His Musical Legacy, An Introductory Guide. Leuven University
Press,2013.
Fallows, David. Josquin. Brepois,2009.
Finck, Herman. Practica musica. Wittenberg:Georg Rhau,1556.
Gaffurius, Franchinus. Pratica musicae. Milan:Gulielmum Signer Rothomagensem. Published by
A-R Editions, 1968. Edited by Clement A. Miller.
MacClintock, Carol, editor. Readings in the History of Music in Performance. Indiana University
Press,1979.
Munn, Albert Christopher. Medieval and Renaissance Prescriptions Regarding Text Underlay
and Their Application to Music of the Fifteenth Century. University of Oklahoma Doctoral
Dissertation, 1991.
Sheer, Richard. The Josquin Companion. Oxford University Press,2000.
Strunk, Oliver, editor. Source Readings in Music History. Revised edition. Edited by Robert
Morgan; Leo Treitler, general editor. W. W.Norton,1998.
Vicentino, Nicola. Lantica musica ridotta alla moderna prattica. Antonio Barre, 1555. Brenreiter,
1959. Edited by Edward E. Lowinsky.
Warburton, Thomas. Josquin des Prez Missa Pange Lingua, an Edition, with Notes for Performance
and Commentary. University of North Carolina Press,1977.
Zarlino, Gioseffo. Le istitutioni harmoniche. Venice:Zarlino,1558.
2
Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina Missa

Papae Marcelli
Music would have come very near to being banished from the Holy
Church had not Giovanni Palestrina [composed] the Missa
Papae Marcelli.
Agostino Agazzari

It is generally assumed that Palestrina was born sometime during 1525 and also
assumed, although not without question, that he was born in the city of Palestrina
in the Sabine Hills a short distance of about twenty-four miles from Rome. During
his youth he sang as a choirboy at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome,
one of the largest and most significant Roman churches outside the Vatican, and
in 1544, at the age of nineteen, he was appointed organist at the cathedral of
Saint Agapito in his presumed hometown of Palestrina. He remained at Saint
Agapito for seven years, during which time he married and had two children
Rodolfo (15491572) and Angelo (15511575). Athird child, Iginio, was born in
1558 and died in1610.
On September 1, 1551, Palestrina was appointed maestro di cappella of the
Vatican Cappella Giulia by Julius III, who had been bishop of the city of Palestrina
before becoming pope and who would have known the young Palestrina. The
Cappella Giulia was created in the first decade of the sixteenth century by Pope
Julius II (thus the name Cappella Giulia) as a second choir to the Cappella
Sistinathe Cappella Giulia singing for many minor events in Saint Peters and
the Cappella Sistina singing for the pope in the Sistine Chapel (thus the name
Cappella Sistina). Palestrina responded to his high- ranking position in the
Cappella Giulia by dedicating his first book of Masses (published in 1554) to
Julius III, the initial Mass in the book being set to the cantus firmus antiphon
Ecce sacerdos magnus (Behold the great priest). Julius then admitted Palestrina to
36
Pal e str ina Mi ssa Papae Marcel l i 37
the Cappella Sistina in 1555 even though it was against church regulations for the
choir to admit singers who were married.
Palestrina remained in the Cappella Sistina during the papacy of Julius III and
Marcellus II, the latter of whom during his brief twenty-two days as pope had an
enormous impact on Palestrina and the Counter-Reformation. On Good Friday, April
12, 1555 (the third day of his papacy), Marcellus II gathered together the singers of
the Cappella Sistina and admonished them to sing with properly modulated voices
in such a way that everything could be properly heard and understood. This man-
date for intelligibility of text and appropriateness of sacred character would come to
be central goals of church music, both Catholic and Protestant, and many composers
would strive to write in a way that better served the text. Palestrina responded to the
mandate with the Missa Papae Marcelli, likely composed in 1555 or shortly thereafter
and later included in his second book of Masses, published in 1567 with the com-
ment in the dedication that the Mass was written in a new manner.
Meanwhile, Palestrina was active composing music in other genres as well.
His first book of madrigals was published in 1555 and his first book of motets
appeared in 1563. Both publications were extremely popular, the book of mad-
rigals reprinted eight times before 1600 and the book of motets reprinted seven
times before Palestrinas death. As further testimony of his success with madri-
gals and motets, his madrigal Io son ferito, first published in 1561, appeared in
four other publications, and Vestiva i colli, first published in 1566 and considered
to be one of the finest Italian madrigals of the Renaissance era, was published
in seven other separate publications. Of his motets, Veni sponsa Christi was pub-
lished in 1563 and Canite tuba -Rorate coeli, as well as the six-voiced Tu es Petrus -
Quodcumque ligaveris, appeared in 1572.
Paul IV, pope from 1555 to 1559, believed in and followed strict church poli-
cies and, therefore, dismissed Palestrina and two other married singers from the
Cappella Sistina. This was in September 1555. The following month Palestrina was
appointed maestro di cappella of San Giovanni in Laterano, officially known as the
Arcibasilica Papale di San Giovanni in Laterano and also Omnium Urbis et Orbis
Ecclesiarum Mater et Caput (Cathedral of Rome and of the World). Originally
built in the fourth century by Constantine the Great, it is the oldest of Romes
four basilicas and also one of the most important. However, its musical cappella
had only been instituted in 1535 and its financial resources were limited. As a con-
sequence of restricted funding, Palestrina left his position in 1560 and returned
to the church of his training, the Basilica di Santa Maggiore, where he served as
maestro di cappella until 1566. During his employment there he also worked dur-
ing the summer months for Cardinal Ippolito II dEste at the cardinals estate in
Tivoli, and he continued composing Masses and motets, his third book of Masses
being published in 1567 and his second book of motets in1569.
Palestrina remained in the employment of Cardinal Ippolito II dEste until
1571, and, in addition, from 1566 to 1571 he taught music at the Pontificio
Collegio Romano, also known as the Seminario Romano, established in 1565 by
38 Choral Monuments
Pius IV for the education of future priests. With the death in 1571 of Giovanni
Animuccia (c.15001571), maestro di cappella of the Cappella Giulia at the time,
Palestrina succeeded him and remained in the position until his own death in
1594. Interestingly, Animuccia began his service in the Cappella Giulia at the
same time Palestrina went to the Cappella Sistina.
During his life Palestrina composed 104 Masses, approximately 500 motets
(including offertories and hymns), thirty-five settings of the Magnificat, eleven
Litanies, four sets of Lamentations, and approximately 140 madrigals. His large out-
put of Masses (more than any composer before him) no doubt reflects his long tenure
in the major churches of Rome and also his perceived position as leader of Catholic
church music. The structural bases of the Masses reflect the common practices of
the time; half are parodies of preexisting polyphonic compositions, about a third are
paraphrases of preexisting melodies, and the remainder, including the Missa Papae
Marcelli, are freely composed or have no known or discovered parody source.
Of the parody Masses, thirty-one are based on works by other composers and
twenty-two are based on his own works, most of which are motets. It is inter-
esting to note that many of these motets, which were obviously well liked by
Palestrina, include works that are popular today (e.g., Assumpta est Maria, the
four-voiced Dies sanctificatus, the eight-voiced Hodie Christus natus est, the six-
voiced Tu es Petrus -Quodcumque ligaveris, and Veni sponsa Christi). Three of his
madrigals used as models were and are still also popularthe four-voiced Gi fu
chi mebbe cara, the five-voiced Io son ferito (used in Missa Petra sancta), and the
five-voiced, two-madrigal cycle Vestiva i colli (one of the most published works of
the sixteenth century). The parodies of works by other composers include Missa
Benedicta es based on a motet by Josquin Desprez, Missa O sacrum convivium on a
motet by Cristbal de Morales, Missa Gabriel archangelus on a motet by Philippe
Verdelot, and Missa Qual il pi grande amore and Missa Quando lieta sperai based
on madrigals by Cipriano de Rore.
Of the paraphrase Masses, most are based on Gregorian chants; sixteen use
chants from liturgical mass cycles, one (Missa pro defunctis) uses chants from
the Requiem Mass, and many others use familiar chants from important liturgi-
cal feasts or celebrations. These latter Masses include the six-voiced Missa Alma
redemptoris mater and the five-voiced Missa Regina caeli, both based on Gregorian
antiphons, and the four-voiced Missa Iste confessor and Missa Jesu, nostra redemp-
tor, both based on Gregorian hymns. Palestrina used only a few secular tunes as
models, including two Masses based on Lhommearm.
Only seven Masses employ a cantus firmus. The most famous of these is the
four-voiced Missa Ecce sacerdos magnus composed for Pope Julius III. Other cantus
firmus Masses include the five-voiced Missa Lhomme arm of 1570 and the six-
voiced Missa Ave Maria composed in 1596. Only one Mass, Missa Ut re mi fa sol la,
uses the soggetto cavato technique.
Most of the Masses have varied scoring (a practice that was commonplace dur-
ing the Renaissance), with sections for both smaller and larger forces than the
overall vocal distribution of voices. For instance, in Missa Vestiva i colli (SATTB),
the Christe is scored for SATT, the Crucifixus and Benedictus for SSAT,
and the final Agnus Dei for SSATTB; in Missa Dies sanctificatus (SATB), the
Crucifixus is for SSAA and the Benedictus for SSAT; and in Missa Assumpta
est Maria (SSATTB), the Christe is for ATTB, the Crucifixus for SSAA, and
the Benedictus for SSAT. In the Missa Papae Marcelli, scored for six voices (the
original clefs indicating SSAATT, but modern transcriptions for SATTBB), the
Crucifixus is scored for SATB, the Benedictus for SATT, and the Agnus Dei 2
for SSAATBB. The expansion of the final Agnus Dei was often the result of a the-
matic cantus firmus for an extra voice part or for an added canon with an existing
voice, the latter being the case in the Missa Papae Marcelli.
The motets include twenty-nine individual texts from the Song of Songs, pub-
lished together in 1584 and dedicated to Pope Gregory XIII; sixty-five hymns for
four to six voices in alternatim style composed as a cycle for the liturgical year; and
sixty-eight offertories for five voices in imitative motet style, also composed as a
cycle for the liturgical year. The motets also include multiple settings of the same
text. For instance, there are four settings each of Alma redemptoris mater and
Regina coeli, five each of Ave Maria and Ave regina coelorum, six of Miserere
mei, and seven of Benedictus Dominus.
Of the motets based on preexisting material (mostly chants), the melodic
paraphrases generally follow their models closely, with near identical replica-
tion at the beginning of the paraphrase and ornamental added extra material at
the end. This procedure is almost identical to that used by Josquin and shown
in Examples1.16 and 1.17. Shown here in Example2.1 is the Gregorian chant
Veni sponsa Christi, followed by measures 1426 of the soprano line in Palestrinas
motet (Example2.2). The x marks indicate the original chant melody.
Example2.1
Example2.2
40 Choral Monuments
The madrigals, similar in style and structure to the motets, have become over-
shadowed in modern times by the sacred works. However, many of the madrigals
were quite popular during the latter half of the sixteenth century. The aforemen-
tioned Io son ferito and Vestiva i colli, for instance, were two of the most popular
madrigals of the era, reprinted numerous times, and parodied by such composers
as Orazio Vecchi and Adriano Banchieri in their madrigal comedies. The six-voiced
Quando dal terzo cielo was selected for inclusion in Il trionfo diDori.
Whether in Masses, motets, or madrigals, the overall style of Palestrinas writ-
ing represents imitative polyphony in its most idealized state, with balanced
melodic shapes, consistently prepared and resolved dissonances, and structural
symmetry. Melodies and rhythms are not varied for expressive purposes as in the
motets and madrigals by Cipriano de Rore, and textures do not alternate phrases
of imitative polyphony with passages of homophony as in the motets and Masses
of Andrea Gabrieli, although a number of Palestrinas works do contain homopho-
nic passages. Palestrinas compositions are modeled after the pervasive point-of-
imitation style as practiced by Adrian Willaert and other Franco-Flemish masters.
That is, each phrase of text, called a point, is imitated multiple times throughout
all the voice parts, generally resulting in several phrases of text and a resulting
several points of imitation. Otherwise, melodies are characterized by balanced
melodic writing, with leaps of a third or a fourth followed by stepwise motion in
the opposite direction; rhythms are within a narrow range of durational values,
with a preponderance of half and quarter notes (in present-day transcriptions);
and harmonies are logically ordered, with buildup of tension followed by inevi-
table resolution. Moreover, phrase structures are also well balanced. As seen in
Veni sponsa Christi, a motet for the ordination of nuns, the text is divided into four
short phrases Veni sponsa Christi (Come, bride of Christ), accipe coronam
(receive the crown), quam tibi Dominus (that for you the Lord), and praeparavit
in aeternum (has prepared in eternity)each given equal treatment imitatively.
The first and second points of imitation, as well as the third and fourth points, are
overlapped slightly, while there is a clear textural demarcation between points two
and three. Many other motets are constructed similarly, including Sicut cervus,
Super flumina Babylonis, and Dies sanctificatus. The two-movement motets Canite
tuba - R orate coeli and Tu es Petrus - Quodcumque ligaveris, also in the point-of-
imitation style described earlier, are structured in ABCB format. The B sections in
the first movements of the motets (Canite tuba and Tu es Petrus) end in dominant
keys, while the B sections in the second movements (Rorate coeli and Quodcumque
ligaveris) end in the tonic.
Yet other structural characteristics are common in Palestrinas longer motets
and the majority of his Masses. Most noteworthy, the imitative textures are
somewhat thin at the beginning of major sections or movements, with selected
voices exchanging material, while toward the end of these sections or movements
Palestrina employs all the voices. This procedure can be seen in the Gloria of Missa
Papae Marcelli, in which all voices do not sound simultaneously until near the end
(measure 34) of the first sub-movement. In the motet Tu es Petrus -Quodcumque

ligaveris, all six voices are not scored simultaneously until seventy-one measures
into the motet at the words claves regni coelorum (the keys of heaven). Palestrina
also often has more frequent cadences early in a work and fewer cadences as major
sections or movements come to a conclusion.
The Papacy and theCounter-Reformation

An understanding of the Palestrina phenomenon can be aided by an overview of
the sixteenth-century popes and their relative involvement in efforts to reform
church policiesthe church politics and practices that gave rise to the need for
reform, the development of the Protest Reformation and its impact in Rome, the
degree to which the popes were interested in and supportive of the arts, the state
of musical composition and performance to which Palestrina reacted, and the cir-
cumstances surrounding the composition of the Missa Papae Marcelli.
The Catholic Counter-Reformation is generally considered to have begun with
Pope Paul III and his establishment of the Council of Trent beginning in 1545.
In reality, though, significant attempts at reform began more than 150 years
earlier. John Wycliffe (c.13311384), an English philosopher and scholar, chal-
lenged papal authority and promoted his belief that the individual should have
direct access to God; to further this cause he saw to the translation of the Bible
in 1382 from Latin into English, the vernacular language of the people. Jan Hus
(c.13691415), a Czech priest, admonished the church for its many moral failings
and preached against the practice of indulgences (one of the chief concerns of the
Protestant Reformation). Girolamo Savonarola (14521498) accused the church
of corruption and tried to limit secularism; in his famous bonfire of the vanities
on February 7, 1497, he staged a public burning of objects deemed to be sinful,
including publications of secular songs and books on supposed immoral subjects.
Ettore Vernazza (14701524), called lapostolo degli incurabili (apostle of the
incurable), became the figurehead of the Oratory of Divine Lovea group of
believers who were devoted to the sick and poor being ignored by the church.
Vernazza also delivered a report in 1538 to Pope Paul III outlining the many vices
of church leaders. The reform efforts of these individuals and their causes did
little to change the church, however. Most of the popes and other church hier-
archy during the sixteenth century either ignored the reform efforts or worked
to protect their lives and the wealth they had acquired, mostly through political
stratagems. Reforms, including those affecting music, were slow to be endorsed
and adopted, although a number of popes supported and greatly advanced the
state of art and architecture.
Alexander VI (14311503), pope from August 11, 1492, to August 18, 1503,
was known for his open libertinism; he had several mistresses and fathered at
42 Choral Monuments
least nine children. He was also known for his nepotism. He had been a prod-
uct of this himself, being ordained a deacon at age twenty-five by his uncle, Pope
Callixtus III. Furthermore, he worked to suppress efforts of reform to the Catholic
Church and had Savonarola excommunicated.
Alexanders successor, Pius III (14391503), was also a product of nepotism.
He was raised by his uncle, Enea Silvius Piccolomini (14051464), who became
Pope Pius II and who appointed his nephew archbishop of Siena when he was only
twenty-one. Pius III declared that he would reform the church by establishing a
council of cardinals and that he would address corruption regarding the churchs
finances. He could accomplish none of this, however, since his papacy lasted only
twenty-six days (from September 22, 1503, to October 18,1503).
Julius II (14431513), nephew of Pope Sixtus IV and yet another product
of nepotism, restored the Sistine Chapel, organized its choir in a papal bull of
1483, and commissioned frescos for its walls by Botticelli (c.14451510) and
Ghirlandaio (14491494), among others. As pope from October 31, 1503, to
February 21, 1513, he worked diligently to secure his power, founding the Swiss
Guard to protect his safety and engaging in numerous military campaigns across
Italy. He also had a passionate interest in the arts and in reestablishing the gran-
deur of Rome. To this end he became a patron to important artists and architects
and saw to the creation of notable paintings and buildings that would establish
the High Renaissance in Italy. He commissioned Raphael (14831520) to paint
frescos in the Palace of the Vatican and he also commissioned the architect
Bramante (14441514) to design the rebuilding of St. Peters Basilica (the cor-
nerstone of which was laid on April 18, 1506)and to design the Tempiettothe
tomb of St. Peter in the church of San Pietro in Montorio. Furthermore, Julius II
commissioned Michelangelo (14751564) to paint the ceiling of the Sistine
Chapel, and he reorganized the Vatican choirs into two ensemblesthe Cappella
Giulia, which was a training choir of twelve men and twelve boys that sang for
many official functions, and the Cappella Sistina, a smaller ensemble that sang for
the pope in the Sistine Chapel.
Leo X (14751521) was the first of four popes from the Medici family. Born
Giovanni di Lorenzo de Medici, he was the second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent
(14491492). As pope from March 9, 1513, to December 1, 1521, he was known
for his commitment to education and the arts. He supported and improved the
Roman university and he elevated the stature of the papal choir by hiring pro-
fessional singers and notable composers from around Europe, something that
had not been done since Guillaume Dufay (c.13971474) and Josquin Desprez
(c.14501521) were in the choir. Leo X also furthered the dissemination of music
by granting Ottaviano Petrucci (14661539) printing rights, the result being the
publication of sixteen books of Masses and five books of motets.
Unfortunately, Leo X is best known for his support of indulgences (which pro-
vided revenue for the ongoing building of St. Peters Basilica) and for his inat-
tention to the growing Protestant movement that was taking place throughout
Europe. Most especially, Leo paid little heed to Martin Luther (14831546), whose
Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum (referred to as the Ninety-Five
Theses on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences) of 1517 was translated from Latin
to German, printed, and within months, disseminated throughout Europe. Leo
acknowledged Luthers power of influence and tried to persuade him to uphold
current church practices, including indulgences, but when Luther refused, Leo X
excommunicatedhim.
Adrian VI (14591523) was born in Utrecht and studied at the University of
Leuven, where he earned the degree Doctor of Theology in 1491 and became vice-
chancellor in 1493. He was later tutor to Charles, son of Emperor Maximilian I,
who became Charles V and who made Adrian a bishop. Leo X elevated him to a
cardinal and he was subsequently elected pope, partly to prevent the appointment
of Leos cousin Giulio de Medici (who would become Clement VII after Adrians
death). While pope from January 9, 1522, to September 14, 1523 (a little less
than two years), Adrian VI attempted reform, but as a foreigner, he had little
political clout and could effect no change in church practices.
Clement VII (14781534), born Giulio di Giuliano de Medici, was the nephew of
Lorenzo the Magnificent and cousin of Leo X.He was archbishop of Florence during
the decade before being elected pope, and during Leos papacy he was the popes main
advisor. Like many of the popes before him, Clement VII, pope from November 19,
1523, to September 25, 1534, was focused on military activities and was indifferent
to the threat of the Protestant Reformation. In 1527 he was almost killed during the
Sack of Rome by the forces of Charles V, and in that same year he refused the request of
King Henry VIII of England for an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.
Clement later excommunicated Henry and the archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas
Cranmer (14891556). Henry and the English Parliament subsequently instituted
the Act of Supremacy in 1534, which officially established the Church of England.
Paul III (14681549), born Alessandro Farnese, was educated, in part, at
the Medici court. In 1523 he was appointed cardinal- bishop of Palestrina,
and from 1524 to 1534 he served as dean of the College of Cardinals under
Clement VII. Throughout his papacy (from October 13, 1534, to November
10, 1549) Paul worked to further the careers and wealth of his family.
Most notably, he finished the building of the Palazzo Farnese, considered
to be one of the most lavish palaces in Rome. Pope Paul III also appointed
Michelangelo to supervise the building of St. Peters Basilica, and he commis-
sioned Michelangelo to paint The Crucifixion of St. Peter and The Conversion of
St. Paul for the Pauline Chapel of the Vatican. In addition, Paul took an interest in
the work of Copernicus (14731543), who dedicated his De revolutionibus orbium
coelestium (On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres) to the pope, and he admit-
ted Jacques Arcadelt (c.15051568) into the Cappella Sistina.
As pertains to the Protestant Reformation and responses of the Catholic
Church to claims of abuses, Paul III convened the Council of Trenta commis-
sion of cardinals who first met in the northern Italian city of Trento in 1545.
44 Choral Monuments
The commission during Pauls papacy addressed such issues as the moral behav-
ior of clerics, indulgences, and financial misdoings, and it issued recommenda-
tions for improving the education of priests, communication between bishops
and priests, and discipline and administration of the church. The commission also
denounced the granting of indulgences for the financial gain of the church and the
appointment of bishops for political reasons.
The arts would be addressed by the council in later years, although the need
for musical reforms was already known and being discussed. The prevailing sen-
timent can be gleaned from a 1549 letter by bishop Bernardino Cirillo (c.1500
1575) to a friend.
Music among the ancients was the most splendid of all the fine arts. With it
they created powerful effects that we nowadays cannot produce either with
rhetoric or with oratory in moving the passions and affections of the soul.
Nowadays [we hear the Mass] in an indifferent and uncertain manner. It
is Lhomme arm or Hercules dux Ferrariae or Philomena. What the devil has
the Mass to do with the armed man, or with Philomena, or with the duke of
Ferrara? What numbers, what intervals, what sounds, what motions of the
spirit, of devotion, or piety can be gathered from them ? I should like, in
short, when a Mass is to be sung in church, the music to be framed to the fun-
damental meaning of the words, in certain intervals and numbers apt to move
our affections to religion and piety. Let them make their motets, chansons,
madrigals, and ballate in their own way, as long as our church bends its own
efforts to move men to religion andpiety.
This sentiment is echoed by the composer and theorist Nicola Vicentino (1511
1576), who in his treatise Lantica musica ridotta alla moderna prattica (Ancient
Music Adapted to Modern Practice) of 1555 stated, Settings of Masses and other
Latin texts must be serious and not greatly agitated. Since Masses and psalms are
church compositions, it is essential that their movement be different from that of
French chansons and of madrigals and villotte.
Julius III (14871555), the successor of Paul III, saw little need for reforms
or for the Council of Trent, although he served as its president in 1545; he sus-
pended the councils meetings and took no action to institute its recommen-
dations. Before he was pope he succeeded his predecessor as cardinal-bishop
of Palestrina, and while he was pope he admitted Domenico Maria Ferrabosco
(15131574) to the Cappella Sistina. As pope he also appointed the young musi-
cian from the city of Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi, as maestro di cappella of the
Cappella Giulia. In response, as mentioned earlier, Palestrina dedicated his first
book of Masses, published in 1554, to Julius III, who in turn the following year
admitted Palestrina to the Cappella Sistina as a singer, even though this was
against the rules of the choir since Palestrina was married (Ferrabosco was also
married).
While he was pope (from February 7, 1550, to March 23, 1555)Julius III also
emulated the lavish lifestyle of Paul III; Julius built and lived in his palace, the
Villa Giulia, the basic design of which was by Giorgio Vasari (15111574), famous
for his book, Le Vite de pi eccellenti pittori, scultori, e archittori (Lives of the Most
Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects), published in 1550 and dedicated to
Cosimo Ide Medici.
Marcellus II (15011555), born Marcello Cervini degli Spannochi, first worked
in Rome under Clement VII, who was close friends with Marcellos father. Marcello
then became papal secretary to Paul III and was later supervisor of the Vatican
library and one of the presidents of the Council of Trent. He was very much in
favor of the councils work and of the need for church reform, but his time as pope
was too short to cause much effect; he died after only twenty-two days in office
(from April 9, 1555, to May 1, 1555). Nevertheless, he was able to make a signifi-
cant impact on the reform of music. As written in the diary of Angelo Massarelli
(d.1566), private secretary to Marcello before he was pope and secretary of the
Council ofTrent,
On this day, Good Friday [April 12, 1555], the pope came down to witness
the sacred service. Yet the music performed by the singers at the service was
not fitting to the solemnity of the occasion, but rather, what emerged from
their concordant singing was a mood of joy. Thus it was felt that it was highly
improper that these days, which ought to be conducive to the recollection of
the Passion of our Lord and to the assuaging of our sins in tears, should both
in voices and in music be expressive of joy, above all in the very place in which
the head of the church and of the Christian domain resided. Accordingly, the
pope himself, having summoned his singers around him [one of whom was
Palestrina], enjoined on them, that whatever was performed on these holy
days in which the mysteries of the Passion and death of Christ were celebrated,
should be sung with properly modulated voices, and should also be sung in such
a way that everything could be properly heard and understood.
The mood of joy and unintelligibility of text most certainly resulted from the
prevalent practice of ornamentation. It was common for singers during the latter
years of the Renaissance to embellish the music and to display vocal dexterity.
Thus, reforms were necessary not only with the compositional textures of sacred
music, which were often thickly imitative, but also with the performance of the
music. Unfortunately, little was done at the time to correct these situations or
to implement the counsel of Marcellus II, and the papacy returned to business
asusual.
Paul IV (14761559) was a staunch believer in traditionally strict Catholic
policies, and he worked diligently to see to their adherence. While he was pope
(from May 23, 1555, to August 18, 1559)he initiated the Roman Inquisition that
prosecuted those with heretical beliefs or practices, including Protestantism.
46 Choral Monuments
He banned all books written by Protestants, and furthermore, he had no dia-

logue with the Protestants and he refused to acknowledge Queen Elizabeth Iof
England or the Church of England. He also confined the Jews in Rome to a ghetto.
Like so many popes before him, he was also engaged in military campaigns that
attempted to strengthen the power of the church. However, he suffered a great
loss in the Italian War of 15511559. Unlike popes before him, he had no interest
in the arts. He cut Michelangelos pension and he ordered that the nude figures
in The Last Judgment be repainted, and adhering to strict Vatican policy regard-
ing membership in the papal chapel, he dismissed Palestrina, Ferrabosco, and
another married singer. Nevertheless, he recognized Palestrinas compositional
talent. In particular, he was so taken with Palestrinas setting of the Improperia (a
series of antiphons and responses for Holy Week), he ordered that they be sung in
the Sistine Chapel on Good Friday, 1560, and they have been so sung eversince.
Pius IV (14991565), the third pope from the Medici family, believed that
church reforms were necessary and he worked to support the Council of Trent.
His papacy was from December 26, 1559, to December 9, 1565, and in January
1564 he issued a papal bull entitled Benedictus Deus that ratified all the councils
decrees. Reforms to music were addressed in the twenty-second session of the
council. Held on September 10, 1562, the cardinals issued the following state-
ment under the title Abuses in the Sacrifice of theMass.
Since the sacred mysteries should be celebrated with utmost reverence, with
both deepest feeling toward God alone, and with external worship that is truly
suitable and becoming, so that others may be filled with devotion and called to
religion:Everything should be regulated so that the Masses, whether they be
celebrated with the plain voice or in song, with everything clearly and quickly
executed, may reach the ears of the hearers and quietly penetrate their hearts.
In those Masses where measured music and organ are customary, nothing pro-
fane should be intermingled, but only hymns and divine praises. If something
from the divine service is sung with the organ while the service proceeds, let
it first be recited in a simple, clear voice, lest the reading of the sacred words
be imperceptible. But the entire manner of singing in musical modes should be
calculated not to afford vain delight to the ear, but so that the words may be
comprehensible to all; and thus may the hearts of the listeners be caught up
into the desire for celestial harmonies and contemplation of the joys of the
blessed.
Intelligibility of text was the main issue of concern by the Council of Trent and
by other concerned individuals. For example, Cardinal Carlo Borromeo (1538
1584), archbishop of Milan, wrote in 1565 to one of the Milan priests, Niccol
Ormaneto (15151577), I would like you to speak to the master of the chapel and
tell him to reform the singing so that the words may be as intelligible as possible,
as you know has been ordered by the council.
Pius V (15041572), like his predecessor Pius IV, also supported the recom-
mendations of the Council of Trent and it seemed as if the Counter-Reformation
was finally established. As parts of reforms to the Catholic Church, Pius V, who
was pope from January 7, 1566, to May 1, 1572, was against nepotism. He openly
criticized his predecessor, Pius IV, for wanting to make a thirteen-year-old fam-
ily member a cardinal and for also wanting to support him financially. Pius V
also reduced the lavish materialistic spending of the papacy, living simply in the
manner of the Dominican he had been before he was pope. But he did little to
improve relations with the Protestants; in a papal bull of 1570, Regnans in Excelsis,
he excommunicated Elizabeth I.It was during his papacy, however, that he rein-
stated Palestrina as maestro di cappella of the Cappella Giulia and that Palestrina
composed the Missa Papae Marcelli, which was published in 1567 in his Missarum
liber secundus (Second Book of Masses). In the dedication preamble to the publica-
tion Palestrinawrote,
I have considered it my task, in accordance with the views of most serious

and most religious-minded men, to bend all my knowledge, effort, and industry
toward that which is the holiest and most divine of all things in the Christian
religionthat is, to adorn the holy sacrifice of the Mass in a new manner.
In the year prior to this, in 1566, Palestrinas contemporary, Giovanni Animuccia

(c.15001571), maestro di cappella of the Cappella Giulia at the time, was com-
missioned by the Vatican to compose five Masses in accordance with the require-
ments of the Council of Trent, and in the publication of these Masses the
following year, Animuccia wrote in the preface to the publication, his Missarum
liber primus (First Book of Masses),
Being led by the judgment of worthy men, Ihave sought to adorn these divine
prayers and praises of God in such a way that the music may disturb the hearing
of the text as little as possible, but nevertheless in such a way that it may not be
entirely devoid of artifice and may contribute in some degree to the listeners
pleasure.
Animuccia was also involved with Filippo Neris Congregation of the Oratory,
an organization separate from the church begun in the early 1550s for prayer and
discussion of religious subjects. Animuccia served at its musical leader and com-
posed two books of laudi spirituali for use during oratory meetings. In the preface
to the second book, Animucciawrote,
The oratory having increased, by the grace of God, with the coming together
of prelates and of most important gentlemen, it seemed to me fitting in this
second book to increase the harmony and the combination of parts, vary-
ing the music in diverse ways, now setting it to Latin words and now to the
48 Choral Monuments
vernacular [Italian], sometimes with a greater number of voices and sometimes

with fewer, with verses now of one kind and now another, concerning myself as
little as possible with imitations and complexities, in order not to obscure the
understanding of thewords.
It should be noted that while Animuccias laudi and Palestrinas Missa Papae
Marcelli were composed in a new style, as will be described in detail below,
Palestrina continued to write in the older imitative style and on models with a
secular background. In his Missarum liber tertius (Third Book of Masses), pub-
lished in 1570, three of the eight Masses had secular beginningsMissa Io mi son
giovinetta (a parody of a madrigal), Missa Lhomme arm (on the popular secular
Medieval tune), and Missa Ut re mi fa sol la (a soggetto cavato Mass on a solfeggio
pattern). Palestrina also composed a second Mass on the Lhomme arm tune and
included it in his Missarum liber quartus of1582.
Gregory XIII (15021585) worked in the Vatican during the administration
of five popes, including Pius IV, who appointed Gregory a member of the Council
of Trent. He chose the name Gregory because of the reputation of Gregory
I as a reformer, and during his term as pope (from May 13, 1572, to April 10,
1585) Gregory XIII worked to justify this decision. He founded many seminar-
ies for the training of priests, including the Collegium Germanicum (German
College), which had a significant music program; Toms Luis de Victoria (1548
1611), one of the greatest composers of the High Renaissance, began singing in
the Collegium choir when he was fifteen or sixteen and began duties as maestro di
cappella of the choir when he was twenty-five. Pope Gregory XIII also officially rec-
ognized the Congregation of the Oratory, founded by Filippo Neri and responsible
for the composition of many oratorios during the seventeenth century. Most sig-
nificantly, Gregory XIII commissioned a new calendar, one that acknowledged the
actual length of the year and one that is still in use today. In addition, Gregory XIII
upheld the mandates of the Council of Trent and he lived a simple life, although
he appointed his illegitimate son to important church posts. Regarding music,
Gregory XIII admitted Felice Anerio (c.15601614) to the Cappella Giulia in
1575 and Giovanni Maria Nanino (c.15431607) to the Cappella Sistina in 1577,
Nanino serving as its maestro di cappella several times after 1586 (the position of
maestro di cappella was a rotating one at thetime).
The remaining popes during the end of the sixteenth century and Palestrinas
life did little to further the state of music in the Catholic Church. Sixtus V (1521
1590), who served as a cardinal under Pius V and was pope from April 24, 1585,
to August 27, 1590, worked to restore peace in Rome by upholding strict laws
and devoting large sums of money (collected through heavy taxation) to build-
ing roads and bridges and to improving Romes water supply. He also saw to the
completion of St. Peters dome and to the erection of four obelisks, one in the cen-
tral plaza of St. Peters. Urban VII (15211590), Gregory XIV (15351591), and
Innocent IX (15191591) could accomplish little since their times as pope were so
brieftwelve days, 315days, and sixty-two days, respectively. Finally, Clement
VIII (15361605), pope from February 2, 1592, to March 3, 1605, followed the
strict practices of Sixtus V, killing heretics and expelling Jews from papal states.
The Missa Papae Marcelli

Musical Characteristics
In its outward form and appearance, the Missa Papae Marcelli seems little dif-
ferent from other Masses by Palestrina and some of his contemporaries. They
all are clearly divided into the traditional five movements representing the five
portions of the mass Ordinary (Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus with Benedictus,
and Agnus Dei), and each of the movements is further divided into standard
sections: the Kyrie in three, customary in all Kyrie movements; the Gloria in
two; the Credo in three, at typical textual dividing points; the Sanctus in its
constituent parts of Sanctus, Hosanna, Benedictus, and the repeat of the
Hosanna; and the Agnus Dei in two, one ending with the text miserere nobis
and the other with dona nobis pacem. In addition, some sections have varied
scoring:the Crucifixus and Benedictus are for four voices (SATB), the sec-
ond Agnus Dei is for seven voices (SSATTBB), and the other sections are for
six voices (SATTBB in modern editions). Moreover, the textures of the Kyrie,
Sanctus, Benedictus, and Agnus Dei are polyphonic and largely imitative; the
Gloria and Credo, with their lengthy texts, are in the polychoral dialogue style
common during the late years of the Renaissance. The dialogue textures can be
seen as an attempt at textual intelligibility since most of the text is set syllabi-
cally and with little overlap. However, the imitative textures seem to defy the
purpose of the Mass, which was to conform to the mandates of Pope Marcellus
II and many others who desired the text of Masses to be conveyed clearly and
intelligibly. Each of the three portions of the Kyrie, for example (i.e., Kyrie 1,
Christe, and Kyrie 2), are made up of two points of imitation, each point
consisting of pervasive imitation throughout the voice parts. These instances of
imitative polyphony do not obscure the text, however, for a number of reasons.
Most obviously, the text of the Kyrie is brief and well understood by listeners
of the time. The melodic material of the phrases is also brief, being more like
mottos than phrases. Finally, and most important, Palestrinas harmonies are
vertically instead of horizontally conceived, and the phrases are in short, peri-
odic sections, with frequent cadential delineations, almost all either on tonic (I),
dominant (V), or sub-mediant (VI) chords. This vertically harmonic orientation
of the compositional process is what Palestrina referred to when he wrote that
the Mass was written in a new manner, a manner that was perceived to pres-
ent the text more clearly.
50 Choral Monuments
In Kyrie 1, the four voices that begin the Mass come to a cadence in mea-
sure 5, and this is followed by a cadence of four voices in measure 9.These two
cadences are in an antecedent and consequent relationship (i.e., dominant and
tonic) as shown in the opening first soprano line in Example2.3below.
Example2.3
Combinations of voices have less pronounced cadences in measures 12, 15, 16,
18, and 21, with a final strong cadence at the end of this Mass portion in measure
24. The harmonic nature of the cadences is made clear by their tonal formulas or
patterns and by the fact that all of the cadences but one produce a tonic chord (the
first cadence is in the dominant).
Supporting the harmonic nature of the cadences is the intervallic structure of
the bass parts, which, with frequent intervals of a fourth and fifth, indicate func-
tional tonal relationships. Example2.4 shows the final measures of the lower-of-
the-two bass parts in Kyrie1.
Example2.4
The short melodic phrases of the first half of the Christe are also cadentially
oriented. Seen in Example2.5 are the first four duet passages (soprano and first
bass, alto and first tenor, second tenor and second bass, and soprano and second
tenor), isolated for clarity of comprehension.
Example2.5
Throughout the second half of the Christe, the voices participate in pervasive
imitation of a six-note pattern, which occurs either in full or in part twenty-three
times. Similarly, there are two points of imitation in Kyrie 2, each of which con-
sists of short melodic patterns that are imitated pervasively.
The pattern of short phrases continues in the Gloria, with frequent triadic
chords in functional relationships ending each phrase. The texture of the Gloria
is mainly homophonic, however, with little repetition of text at the beginning of
the movement and with repetition of entire full-voiced sections in block-like fash-
ion at other times. For example, the first thirty-three measures of the movement
52 Choral Monuments
consist of the text delivered without repetition in homophonic textures by dif-

ferent and varied combinations of voices in dialogue. The next twenty-seven
measures consist of text repetition and instances of full-textured scoring. The
same basic procedure is followed in the second portion of the Gloria (beginning
in measure 61 with the text Qui tollis peccata mundi). Anotable feature of the
imitation is the trading of bass parts. For example, from measures 45 to 57, 76 to
92, and 111 to 119, the bass parts exchange almost identical phrases. Shown in
Example2.6 are the first of these phrase exchanges.
Example2.6
Phrase endings by all voices are frequent and in close proximity at the begin-
ning of both portions of the movement, but less frequent and farther apart at
the ends of the portions when Palestrina builds harmonic tension toward final
cadences. Almost all the phrases end on tonic, dominant, or sub-mediant chords.
The Credo is very much like the Gloria: the movement begins with phrases
in an antecedent and consequent relationship; the phrases are short and end in
chords functional to the tonic key of the movement; there is little text repetition;
and the scoring is for varied combinations of voices at the beginning of the move-
ment, with full-voiced scoring occurring only after extended periods of time. The
Credo is unique, however, in that it is organized in two large six-voiced book-
end sub-movements (seventy-three and eighty-two measures, respectively), with
a four-voiced Crucifixus in the middle. Also, there are three short passages in
which the rhythmic notation slows dramatically in order to convey a poignancy of
text. These passages are, Et incarnatus est (measures 5962), passus et sepul-
tus est (measures 8185), and vivos et mortuos (measures 103106). In addi-
tion, the bass parts exchange material with greater frequency in the Credo than
in the Gloria.
The Sanctus is similar to the Kyrie in being mainly polyphonic, although the
first portion of the movement, that set to the text Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus,
Dominus Deus Sabaoth, has very little imitation. The two bass parts exchange
phrases during the first eight measures but then participate in free polyphony
until the beginning of the text Pleni sunt coeli et terra gloria tua. During this
portion of the movement, all parts participate in two points of imitation, one
to the text Pleni sunt coeli et terra and the other to gloria tua. Only the
first several notes of each point is treated imitatively, however, and at this, the
opening interval of the first point is variously a fourth or fifth, one or the other
used according to its harmonic function. The brief Hosanna has the charac-
ter of homophony, mostly due to the lack of rhythmic activity, but also to the
angular nature of the bass parts, which have rare instances of stepwise motion.
The Benedictus, scored for four voices (SATT), is the most traditional of all the
movements or portions of movements in the Missa Papae Marcelli in that it is
entirely in a pervasive point-of-imitation texture. The text Benedictus repre-
sents the first point, with single imitative statements by all the voices except
the first tenors, who have two statements. The second point is given to the text
qui venit, with ten statements in the space of eleven measures (1525). Athird
point, to the text in nomine Domini, has twelve statements in the space of
twelve measures (2536).
The first of the Agnus Dei sub-movements is like the Benedictus in being
structured of three points of imitation (Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi,
and miserere nobis, respectively), although the imitation in this first Agnus
Dei is not as strict. The second Agnus Dei sub-movement is, however, very
strictand archaicin that three of the voices participate in a canon:the first
bass is followed by the first tenor at the interval of a fourth above, which is fol-
lowed by the second soprano at the interval of a fifth above the second alto. The
other voices participate in loose imitation with each other, again in three basic
points (Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, and dona nobis pacem). This last
point is especially distinct, and harmonic, in its intervallic structure of downward
followed by upward fourths or fifths. As a result of the canon, and as a character-
istic of archaic Masses, the total voicing of this movement expands to seven voice
parts (SSATTBB).
While the Mass is considered free in that it is not based on previously com-
posed material, it is a motto Mass since three of the movements (Kyrie, Credo,
and Agnus Dei) begin with the same melodic material. The use of this motto in the
first, middle, and last movements is structurally significant. It is also noteworthy
that, as seen in Example2.7 below, this motto has the same intervallic structure
as the beginning of the Lhomme armtune.
Example2.7
54 Choral Monuments
Legacy
Palestrinas Missa Papae Marcelli was immediately deemed to satisfy the goals of
musical reform, chiefly regarding text intelligibility. According to Giuseppe Baini
in his biography of Palestrina,
On Saturday, April 28, 1565, by order of Cardinal Vitellozzi, all the singers of
the papal chapel were gathered together at his residence. Cardinal Borromeo
was already there, together with the other six cardinals of the papal commis-
sion. Palestrina was there as well; he handed out the parts to the singers, and
they sang three Masses. The most eminent audience enjoyed the three
Masses very much. But the greatest and most incessant praise was given to the
third, which was extraordinarily acclaimed and, by virtue of its entirely novel
character, astonished even the performers themselves. Their eminences heaped
their congratulations on the composer.
The composer and theorist Agostino Agazzari (15781640) in his basso con-
tinuo treatise of 1607 was the first person to print and publish praise of Palestrina
and the Missa Papae Marcelli. Agazzaris comments were then reprinted in a num-
ber of other sources, including the 1605 organ treatise by Adriano Banchieri
(15681634) and the 1619 third volume of Syntagma musicum by Michael
Praetorius (15711621). From Agazzaris commentary,
Music of this [ancient] kind is no longer in use, both because of the confu-
sion and babel of the words, arising from the long and intricate imitations, and
because it has no grace, for, with all the voices singing, one hears neither period
nor sense, these being interfered with and covered up by imitations; indeed, at
every moment, each voice has different words, a thing displeasing to men of
competence and judgment. And on this account music would have come very
near to being banished from the Holy Church by a sovereign pontiff had not
Giovanni Palestrina found the remedy, showing that the fault and error lay, not
with music, but with the composers, and composing in confirmation of this the
Mass entitled Missa Papae Marcelli.
The story of Palestrina saving the fate of Catholic church music, which soon
became legend, continued. The following excerpt from a 1637 letter by the poet
and cleric Lelio Guidiccioni (15701643) is important for it confirms that the
unintelligibility of text in the church music of the Renaissance was not only
caused by imitative polyphony but also by singer ornamentation.
The Tridentine fathers were gathered to consider the resolution to prohibit

music in the church by decree. They were motivated, Ibelieve, by the frivolous
diminutions and ornaments used in singing, which carried music too far away
from the sanctity of the divine service. On the day when the session was fixed,
they had performed a Mass sent there by Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina.
The mighty energy of that eminent creator, the chaste and correct style of the
work combined with sweet concentus, and the unanimous eagerness of the
singersall this aided and sustained the music. Consequently, having scarcely
heard the sweet sounds of that most exquisite and well-ordered harmony of
sounds, the Holy Fathers changed their opinion and rescinded the decree.
Music flourished, and the Palestrinian seed spread marvelously through the
Christianworld.
There is no evidence that any pope or that the Council of Trent was considering
banishing polyphony. Nevertheless, the legend continued to be related through-
out the years as truth. Following are three assertions from the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries:(1)an excerpt from A General History of Music by Charles
Burney (17261814) published in 1789; (2)part of an article by E.T. A.Hoffmann
(17761822) in the Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung of September, 1814; and (3)a
statement by Richard Wagner (18131883) from Entwurf zur Organisation eines
deutschen Nationaltheaters of1849.
(1) Book II of his Masses, which includes the celebrated composition

titled Missa Papae Marcelli, was published at Rome in 1567. Of this
production it has been related by musical writers that the Pope and
Conclave having been offended and scandalized at the light and inju-
dicious manner in which the Mass had been long set and performed,
determined to banish Music in parts entirely from the church; but that
Palestrina, during the short pontificate of Marcellus Cervini, entreated
his Holiness to suspend the execution of his design till he had heard
a Mass composed in what, according to his ideas, was the true ecclesi-
astical style. His request being granted, the composition, in six parts,
[was found to be] so grave, noble, elegant, learned, and pleasing, that
Music was restored to favor, and again established in the celebration of
sacredrites.
(2) A reconciliation with art was made by Pope Marcellus II, who at first held
the view that all music should be banned from the church. Religion would
have been robbed of its highest glory had not the great master, Palestrina,
restored to it the holy wonder of musical art in its inmost being. From
then on music became the truest means of worship in the Catholic Church.
(3) Pope Marcellus in the sixteenth century wanted to ban music completely
from the church, for the scholastic and speculative character of church
music at the time threatened the devoutness and piety of religious expres-
sion. Palestrina saved church music from the ban by restoring to it an
essential expressive character.
56 Choral Monuments
Palestrinas manner of imitative polyphony was held in high regard, and

throughout the years after his death there were significant theorists and com-
posers who described and emulated it. For example, Johann Joseph Fux (1660
1741) wrote his famous counterpoint treatise Gradus ad Parnassum in 1725 with
Palestrina as the model for students to emulate. As explained by Fux in the intro-
duction to the treatise,
For the sake of better understanding and greater clarity, Ihave used the form
of dialogue [between teacher and student]. By Aloysius, the master, Irefer to
Palestrina, the celebrated light of music to whom I owe everything that
Iknow of this art. By Josephus Imean the pupil who wishes to learn the art
of composition.
Also during the Baroque era, J.S. Bach (16851750) wrote portions of the B Minor
Mass in the Palestrinian point-of-imitation style, and during the Classical era,
Michael Haydn (17371806), brother of Joseph Haydn and student of Fux, wrote
a number of Masses in the stile antico style of Palestrina.
In the nineteenth century there were several efforts to reform Catholic church
music and return it to the compositional style of Palestrina. Two Catholic priests
from Regensburg were especially instrumental in this effortFranz Xaver Witt
(18341888) and Franz Xaver Haberl (18401910). Witt founded the Allgemeine
Deutscher Ccilienverein in 1868 as a society to foster the return of church music
to the a cappella textural ideals exemplified by Palestrinas music, and Haberl, who
spent time in Rome at the church of Santa Maria dellAnima, was president of the
Ccilienverein beginning in 1899. Haberl also edited the first complete works of
Palestrina.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, Palestrina became the focus of a
neo-Renaissance movement instigated by Pope Pius X. On November 22, 1903
(Saint Cecilias Day), the pope issued a motu proprio, entitled Tra le sollecitudini
(Among the concerns). The popes message criticized the current state of Catholic
church music and mandated a return to the use of Gregorian chant, with recom-
mendations that new compositions be composed in the style of Palestrina. The
basic thrust of the motu proprio, as seen in the excerpts below, is similar to that of
the Council ofTrent.
The principal function of sacred music is to clothe with suitable melody the
liturgical text proposed for the understanding of the faithful. Therefore, its
purpose is to add greater efficacy to thetext.
Gregorian Chant has always been regarded as the supreme model for sacred
music. Therefore, it is fully legitimate to lay down the following rule: In its
movement, inspiration, and mood, the more closely a church composition

approaches the Gregorian form, the more sacred and liturgical it becomes. The
more out of harmony it is with that supreme model, the less worthy it is of the
temple.
The above-mentioned qualities are also possessed in an excellent degree by

classic polyphony, especially of the Roman School, which reached its great-
est perfection in the fifteenth century [sic], owing to the works of Pierluigi da
Palestrina.
Twentieth-century composers who wrote Masses reflective of the neo-

Renaissance style of Palestrina include Herbert Howells, Ralph Vaughan Williams,
Frank Martin, Francis Poulenc, Paul Hindemith, and Vincent Persichetti.

Pitch and PerformingForces
There was no standardization of pitch during the Renaissance. The highness or
lowness of pitch as it related to the clefs and printed notes of a composition was
relative and dependent upon the tessituras of vocal parts, the matching of instru-
mental pitches to each other, or to the fixed pitch of an organ. Singers of the
Renaissance chose pitch levels that accommodated their parts within their stan-
dard vocal ranges, string instrumentalists adjusted the tension of strings to raise
or lower pitch, and wind and brass players used crooks of different sizes to adjust
the basic pitch of their instruments. The pitch of any note could and often did
vary within the range of a minorthird.
Music in the Sistine Chapel was always a cappella; instruments were not per-
mitted. Thus the pitch level of Palestrinas Missa Papae Marcelli would have been
determined by the clefs and by ranges comfortable for the singers. This latter
consideration, with commentary about choral and chamber pitch, is addressed
by Michael Praetorius in the second volume of his 1619 publication Syntagma
Musicum.
Choral pitch, which is a whole tone lower [than chamber pitch], is employed only
in church. This is done primarily for the sake of the singers, so that they can
perform their parts without becoming hoarse from the highness of the range, for
a very great effort is required from them in the services. Further, the choral
pitch is used because the human voice sounds much more pleasant in the middle
and lower part of its range. The Italians believe, and not without reason, that
singing in the high range is very unpleasant and without any charm, and that it
causes the text to be obscured.
58 Choral Monuments
The original clef names of the Missa Papae Marcelli with their basic pitch ranges
(from bottom to top) can be seen in the following listing.
Soprano:g'tog"
Mezzo soprano:gtoc"
Alto:gtoa'
Alto:gtoa'
Tenor:Ctod'
Tenor:Ctod'
The clefs should not be seen as designations of voice parts, however, for the pitch
ranges suggest voice parts of soprano, alto, tenor, tenor, bass, bass (from top to bot-
tom). And for these voice parts, the ranges are somewhat high, especially consider-
ing the remarks by Praetorius. It is likely, then, that the actual ranges were a step to
a minor third lower, putting the Mass in the present-day keys of either B-flatorA.
The choir of the Sistine Chapel (the Cappella Sistina) fluctuated during the mid-
sixteenth century between twenty-one and thirty-six singers. During the papacy
of Clement VII (15231534) the choir had twenty-four singers (seven sopranos,
seven altos, four tenors, and six basses), and during the time that Julius III was
pope (15501555) the choir numbered twenty-eight singers. The distribution of
singers for the Missa Papae Marcelli, with some redistribution of vocalists for bal-
ance, would likely have been approximately six sopranos and six altos, with four
singers on each of the tenor and bassparts.
Throughout the sixteenth century all the singers in the Cappella Sistina were
men, the soprano and alto parts being sung by falsettists. It is possible that by mid-
century there were also castratos in the choir since they had become popular in
Italian courts and were definitely included as members of the Cappella Sistina dur-
ing the last decade of the century. Two factors are important about the all-male
composition of the choir:(1)the sound would have been homogeneous, especially
among the voices of a specific clef (e.g., tenors or basses), and (2)there was an ideal
of timbral consistency during the latter half of the sixteenth century; voices were
expected to match each other in quality or color, and instruments were generally
grouped in consorts (e.g., families of recorders, gambas, or sackbuts). In consider-
ation of these factors, it is important that present-day performances of the Missa
Papae Marcelli sung by a mixture of adult females and males or boys with men strive
for a unified timbre of sound, one that is consistent from voice part to voice part.
Passages of imitative polyphony are thus manifested in sound; vocal imitation corre-
sponds to musical imitation. Timbral consistency is particularly important between
the voice parts that exchange phrases at the same pitch levels, voice exchange
between two soprano or two tenor parts being common during the Renaissance.
In Palestrinas Mass, the two tenor and two bass parts, which are of the same range
and which exchange melodic material frequently, should match in timbre.
Diagram 2.A The SistineChapel
The Sistine Chapel is quite small (134 feet by 44 feet), and is designed with
an altar on a raised platform at one end (under Michelangelos painting The Last
Judgment) and a screen to divide clerics from the general population at the other
end. Two small doors flank the altar, and a large door is in the center of the wall at
the other end. Toward the center of the chapel there are irregularly shaped steps
that lead up to the altar area, and on one side of the long wall there is a balcony
for singers that protrudes only slightly into the chapel area. At the front center of
the singers balcony there is a raised lectern on which choir books would be placed
and around which singers would be gathered. The floor plan in Diagram 2.A is
a representation of an anonymous 1578 drawing housed in the Vatican Library.
The Missa Papae Marcelli was performed not from a choir book, however, but
from six part books, with the singers of each part gathered around their corre-
sponding book. The arrangement of the singers on the balcony is unknown.
Meter andTactus
Identifying the meter and subsequent tactus, or pulse unit, of a Renaissance-era
composition can be challenging since most published editions of the music are
modern alterations of original manuscripts or printed scores, with no incipit
showing the original clefs, mensuration signs (i.e., meter signatures), rhythmic
60 Choral Monuments
values, or starting pitches. Editors frequently change clefs and pitch ranges to
accommodate modern-day choral ensembles, for example, transcribing an origi-
nal scoring of ATTB to SATB. Similarly, editors update meters and rhythmic val-
ues to those in common present-day usage; whole notes are changed to half or
quarter notes. But even with the original information, identification of the tactus
is still challenging. This is because composers were not consistent in their use
of meter signatures. Heinrich Glareanus (14881563), in his music theory trea-
tise Dodecachordon of 1547 states, We are confused by so many inaccuracies in
the [meter] signs because they are written this way by one [composer] and that
way by another. Reinforcing this view, Michael Praetorius, in the third volume
of his Syntagma Musicum, states, Most [composers] do not observe their own
rules and use one [meter signature] indiscriminately in place of another. These
inconsistencies are generally not problematic with three of the four mensura-
tion signs common in Renaissance music, those equivalent to present-day 9/8 or
9/4 (perfect tempus and perfect prolation), 3/4 or 3/2 (perfect tempus and imper-
fect prolation), and 6/8 or 6/4 (imperfect tempus and perfect prolation). The
fourth sign (imperfect tempus and imperfect prolation) was indicated during the
Renaissance by or , both of which translate as 2/4 or 2/2, not 4/4 or common
time. The use of as 4/4 (i.e., four beats per measure) did not exist during the
Renaissance. This is an extremely important matter of notation and, thus, perfor-
mance practice: the editions of Palestrina Masses, motets, and madrigals with the
meter signature should be seen as indicating two beats per measure, generally
with the half note as the tactus. Therefore, there is no basic conflict, for example,
between editions of the motets Veni sponsa Christi or Sicut cervus scored as 4/4 ()
or as alla breve (). Both signatures indicate two beats per measure. The 4/4 meter
would only be correct if the note values at the beginning of the motets were tran-
scribed as quarter notes, the pulse of the quarter note serving as the tactus of the
compositions. But since the opening notes of the 4/4 or common-time editions
are half notes, the half note is the tactus. The 4/4 indication should be ignored,
the performer keeping in mind that both and indicate two beats per measure
(imperfect tempus and imperfect prolation).
To aid in the determination of 2/2 as the appropriate meter for the motets
mentioned (and virtually every other composition of the Renaissance), one can
assess the rhythmic activity and harmonic motion of the music. Pieces with
dense rhythmic textures (a predominance of quarter, eighth, and sixteenth notes,
referred to as black notation during the Renaissance) generally call for common
time execution, with the quarter note as the tactus in modern-day editions. This is
also the case with pieces in which the harmonies change at the pace of the quarter
note. However, in pieces with sparse rhythmic textures (referred to as white nota-
tion) and with harmonic changes at the half or whole note, the half note is the tac-
tus and the meter is 2/2. Harmonic motion is the most critical and helpful of the
musical elements indicating meter since composers allied harmonic motion with
meter, one determining the other. With this in mind, the duple meters of virtually
all sacred music during the Renaissance era are appropriately 2/2, the half note
serving as the tactus in modern-day editions. A quarter-note tactus generally
applies only to madrigals in the note nere (black note) style.
Once identified, the tactus remains constant throughout the composition
or throughout the duration of the meter signature. Only the insertion of a new
signature (mensuration sign) calls for a change of tactus. For example, some
Renaissance motets and madrigals begin in duple meter but then have a section
or sections of music in triple meter, indicated by a new signature, this new signa-
ture most frequently corresponding to 3/4 (perfect tempus and imperfect prola-
tion). Each section of music, identified by its corresponding meter signature, has
an unchanging tactus. Numerous testaments to this rule of consistency occur in
Renaissance-era treatises. Below are excerpts from two treatises relative to the
time Palestrina composed the Missa Papae Marcelli: (1) De arte canendi (The Art
of Singing) of 1540 by Sebald Heyden (14991561) and (2) Arte de taer fantasa
(The Art of Playing the Fantasia) of 1565 by Toms de Santa Mara (c.15101570).
(1) Tactus is a movement or stroking motion of a finger fitting the value of all
notes and rests into an equally divided temporal beat. The tactus there-
fore defines very accurately the temporal value of every note and rest.
Moreover, nothing definite can be understood or taught about length,
perfection, imperfection, augmentation, and diminution of notes unless
previously the tactus has been established. The tactus corresponds to the
mensurationsign.
(2) All tactus are measured and regulated by the length of the first tactus,
that is, that the amount of time occupied by the first tactus be occupied by
each of the ones that follow, so that no more time elapses in one than in
theother.
The regularity of pulse was, of course, necessary for the reading of the music.
With singers able to see only their individual parts as they performed from choir
books or part books, a steady pulse was mandatory. But a regularity of pulse often
creates syncopations, which a number of modern-day editors, without documen-
tation, feel are antithetical to Renaissance music. These editors reason that since
choir and part books of the time had no measure bars, the tactus of a composition
was flexible and could be adjusted to align with natural declamation of text. It is
true that choir and part books had no bar lines. However, bar linesregularly
spaced to create measures of equal durationwere used when composers wrote
in score format. Andreas Ornithoparcus (born c.1490) wrote in his Musicae activae
micrologus of 1517 that Beginners of composition, if they are not to be embar-
rassed by a confused jumble of notes, will need to draw a staff of horizontal lines
and to divide it into measures of vertical lines, and Palestrina wrote in a 1570
letter to Guglielmo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, that in order to study [the motet
and madrigal you sent me] more satisfactorily, Ihave set them into scores. The
62 Choral Monuments
twentieth-century musicologist Edward Lowinsky (19081985) shows a consid-

erable number of original scores with regular measure bars in his article On the
Use of Scores by Sixteenth-Century Musicians in the Journal of the American
Musicological Society (JAMS), Volume I,1948.
The syncopations created by the regularity of tactus pulses and also the inher-
ent or real presence of regular bar lines was not incompatible with Renaissance
ideals of text expression, but was, on the other hand, a highly praised and valued
component of composition during the Renaissance. Attestations of this appear
in numerous primary sources. Following are excerpts from (1)Heydens De arte
canendi and (2)Santa Maras Arte de taer fantasa.
(1) Syncopation is generally considered to occur whenever the mensural val-

ues of notes are sung for some time in opposition to the uniform move-
ment of the tactus. Our brief advice here concerning this disparity is as
follows:while singing, do not allow the note values to return to agreement
with the tactus, but persist vigorously in the disparity until the notes are
reconciled to the tactus.
(2) The syncopations that occur because of the regularity of the tactus should
not be avoided.
In addition, the Italian mathematician and music theorist Prosdocimus de

Beldemandis (d.1428) wrote in his Tractatus pratice cantus mensurabilis ad modum
Ytalicorum (The Practice of Mensural Music in the Italian Manner) of 1412 that
Syncopation is the sweetest thing to be found in a piece of music.
The modern-day editors who desire to place all accented syllables and words on,
not between, a tactus, and who, therefore, generally assign a quarter-note tactus
to a composition and randomly vary the meters, misinterpret the meter signa-
tures and deprive the music of its expressive syncopations. An example can be
seen in the following first phrase of the soprano part of Palestrinas Stabat mater
from a current edition (Example2.8).
Example2.8
In contrast to this, by allowing the syncopation that results from the correct
alla breve meter and regularity of tactus, the declamation of text is not hampered.
Instead, the syncopation aids the declamation of text by drawing attention to a
stressed syllable or word. Such is the case with the opening line of Palestrinas
Stabat mater, which, with adherence to its meter signature (seen in Example2.9),
allows for the expressive and poignant delivery of the word dolorosa.
Example2.9
There are many, many instances of syncopation in the Missa Papae Marcelli.
Examples can be seen at the beginning of the Christe (shown earlier in
Example 2.5) and in the following second bass part in measures 1620 of the
Gloria (shown in Example2.10). Note that this phrase has three syncopations in
three consecutive measures.
Example2.10
Another example of multiple syncopations is seen in the soprano line from

measures 8 to 20 at the beginning of the Credo (Example2.11).
Example2.11
Oratorical Phrasing
Renaissance composers designed the musical shape of vocal phrases according to
the way in which the textual phrases might be delivered in natural speech or in an
oratorical manner. By doing so, the melodies were fashioned and the harmonies
arranged so that syllables and words were given varied treatment to underscore or
reveal their logical and expressive placement in a phrase; the melodies and harmo-
nies indicated the relative importance and flow of the syllables and words. Most,
but not nearly all, stressed textual syllables and words were placed on a tactus or
64 Choral Monuments
preceding a tactus with a syncopation, and most important syllables and words
of a phrase were set to harmonies that, in themselves, would have an element
of emphasis. The stresses of music were not of equal strength, of course, since
the melodies, by their pitch shapes and rhythmic diversity, indicated variety. In
like manner, the unfolding of harmonies indicated movement or progression to
cadences or to points of arrival.
The phrases and their inherent musical designs that corresponded to patterns
of spoken oratory were to be manifested in performance. Nicola Vicentino (1511
1576) attests to this in his treatise of 1555 Lantica musica ridotta alla moderna
prattica (Ancient Music Adapted to Modern Practice), stating that One should
sing to imitate the orator with his accents of prosody. Michael Praetorius explains
further in the third volume of his Syntagma Musicum.
How important it is to give form and shape to musical lines will be known
by those who train vocalists and boy singers in chapels. Now almost everyone
knows how unsatisfactory it is when an orator talks on and on in the same
tone, rather than pronouncing with a rising or falling inflection, in accordance
with the requirements of the text and of the Affections. If this is annoying to
hear in speaking, it is even more the case with singing.
Modern-day performers of Renaissance-era music who give equal stress to all

syllableswho, like orators who talk on and on in the same tone, render music
that is expressionless. Equally disagreeable are performers who give equal empha-
sis to all stressed syllables, this practice resulting in simplistic and childish rendi-
tions that deny the natural variety of oratory. Both the immutable and singsong
performances are destructive to the innate ebb and flow of text that was so impor-
tant to composers and performers of the Renaissance.
To determine the appropriate oratorical delivery of music in performance,
one can speak phrases of text in a free oratorical manner apart from the com-
posers setting. This procedure is helpful, but limiting, however, and should only
be used as a preliminary step in understanding musical phrase structure since the
composers phrasing concept, especially regarding word stress, may differ from
that of the modern-day performer. One can also gain understanding of musical
oratory from the pitch and rhythmic structure of phrasesfrom tessitura and
agogic accents. These considerations are also somewhat unreliable because higher
pitches did not necessarily indicate greater importance than lower pitches, and
because many syllables and words are set to the same or similar durational value;
rhythmic variety was certainly not a hallmark of Palestrinas writing. As with the
identification of tactus, harmonic motion is the best determinant of oratorical
phrase shape in that harmonies progress through building tension toward points
of significant importance just as syllables and words progress to peak points in
speech phrases. Harmonic motion can, therefore, be considered as the musical
equivalent to oratorical speech. In practical terms, the placement of pitches in an
unfolding scheme of harmonic tension and release provides the performer with
the composers concept of the text, and therefore, the harmonic scheme becomes
a guide to the performer.
In the following example (2.12) from the Credo of Palestrinas Missa Papae
Marcelli (the soprano line from measures 31 to 38), one can easily see the rela-
tionship between harmonic motion and text oratory, the harmonic implica-
tions of the melody being clear even without seeing the other voice parts. The
first short phrase fragment stands alone and is given a minimal emphasis on
the syllable ve of verum, with a de-emphasis on rum and a breath at the
comma. This fragment is then repeated, but with a continuation of the phrase
until the final strong tactus of the notes decorating the repeat of the syllable
ve, and with a diminishing of emphasis until the period that ends the phrase.
Caret signs of different sizes denote and correspond to the points of arrival or
emphasis.
Example2.12
By hearing the harmonic implications of the music, the performer is focused on

the overall design of the phrase and is unlikely to give undue emphasis to syllables
early in the phrase (e.g., rum on the first tactus of measure 4 in Example2.12
example) or on the beginning note of emphasized syllables (e.g., the first tactus of
measure 5 in Example2.12).
Tempo
Tempo in the performance of Renaissance musicincluding Masses, motets,
madrigals, and chansonsis closely related to oratorical delivery of text. The
concept of text expression that guides the performer to vary syllabic and word
emphasis also guides the performer in the establishment of a basic tempo and in
the variation of tempo as well. The following two excerpts from primary sources
of the Renaissance speak to the establishment of basic tempo (i.e., the speed of
the tactus). The first quotation, by Alonso Mudarra (c.15101580), is from the
preface to his collection of music for the vihuela and guitar entitled Tres Libros de
Musica published in 1546. The second quotation is from the 1558 publication of
Le istitutioni harmoniche by Gioseffo Zarlino (15171590).
66 Choral Monuments
(1) If a text is of gay and merry content, the tactus, of necessity, is to move
merrily and quickly. And if another text is neither all gay nor all sad, this
text will require another tactus which moves neither very quickly nor very
slowly. And, neither more nor less, that text which is sad throughout will
demand the slow tactus.
(2) Singers should aim to render faithfully what is written to express the com-
posers intent, intoning the correct steps in the right places. They should
seek to adjust to the consonances and to sing in accord with the nature of
the words of the composition. Happy words will be sung happily and at a
lively pace, whereas sad texts call for the opposite.
Two other authors of primary sources from the Renaissance speak to the estab-
lishment of tempo specific to sacred music. The first quotation below is from a
guide to liturgical singing, De modo bene cantandi choralem cantum of 1474 by the
German musical theorist Conrad von Zabern (d.1481). The second quotation is
from Nicola Vicentinos 1555 publication of Lantica musica ridotta alla moderna
prattica.
(1) To sing with discrimination means to observe fittingly the necessary

requirements for the church services and the church year. This is accom-
plished through the selection of different tempos. In general, a high feast
is to be sung in a very slow tempo, on Sundays and single feasts in a mod-
erate tempo, and daily feasts in a fairly rapid tempo. Such a gradation has
good basis in the authority of the Council ofBasel.
(2) Compositions that are settings of Masses and other Latin texts must
be serious. It is essential that their movement be different from French
chansons and Italian madrigals. One should strive to make a great dif-
ference between a piece that is sung in church and one that is sung in a
chamber.
Vicentino (in the first paragraph below) and Praetorius (in the second para-
graph) speak to a closer connection between oratory and tempo and also to varia-
tion of tempo within a composition.
(1) Sometimes one uses a certain way of proceeding in a composition that can-
not be written downsuch as to sing piano and forte, and to sing presto
and tardo, moving the measure according to the words to demonstrate the
effects of the passions of the words and of the harmony. Changes of
tempo are not inconvenient in any composition. The practice of the orator
teaches this, for one sees how he proceeds in an orationnow he speaks
loudly, now softly, and slower and faster. This way of changing the tempo
has an effect on the mind. So, one should sing music all mente to imitate
the accents and effects of the parts of the oration, for what effect would
the orator make if he recited a fine speech without arranging his accents
and pronunciations with fast and slow movement, softly and loudly? That
would not move his hearers. The same [consideration of oratory] should
occur inmusic.
(2) To use, by turns, now a slower, now a faster beat, in accordance with
the text, lends dignity and grace to a performance and makes it admira-
ble. Motets and concerti are particularly delightful when after some
slow and expressive measures several quick phrases follow, succeeded
in turn by slow and stately ones, which again change off with faster
ones. In order to avoid monotony, one should thus, where possible, vary
thepace.
Given the serious nature of the Missa Papae Marcelli and its intended response
to the recommendations by Pope Marcellus II and the Council of Trent for text
intelligibility and solemnity of occasion, the basic tempo of the Mass should be
perceived as relatively slow. If the standard tactus of the time was approximately
MM = 72 (which is likely), then the basic tactus of Palestrinas Mass might be
MM = 60. Some movements should be faster and some slower, however, based on
the character of text. The following chart shows tempo recommendations for the
speed of the half-note tactus.
Kyrie
Kyrie IMM = 60
ChristeMM = 6
Kyrie IIMM = 72
Gloria
Et in terra paxMM = 60
Laudamus teMM = 76
Qui tollisMM = 60
Quoniam tu solus sanctusMM = 76
Credo
Patrem omnipotentemMM = 72
CrucifixusMM = 50
Et resurrexitMM = 76
Et in spiritum sanctumMM = 76
Sanctus
SanctusMM = 60
Pleni sunt coeliMM = 66
HosannaMM = 76
BenedictusMM = 66
AgnusDei
Agnus Dei IMM = 52
Agnus Dei IIMM = 60
68 Choral Monuments
Tempo within the movements or sub-movements would also be pliable but

most likely subtle and only a result of gaining momentum toward points of
arrival and relaxing momentum after cadences. Since sections of music are
generally devoted to one characteristic of text expression (e.g., either happy or
sad), there would be little cause for notable tempo changes within sections or
movements.
MusicaFicta
Throughout the middle and late years of the Renaissance, musica fictathe raising
of a printed pitch by a half stepwas most often employed to highlight a cadence.
The leading tone of a perceived scale was raised as it approached a cadence or was
part of a cadential formula. Zarlino explains in the chapter on cadences in his Le
institutioni harmoniche.
Penultimate notes can always be [shown] without putting in the sign of the
chromatic tone () to change the interval of a tone [whole step] to a semitone
[half step], because in the part that ascends from the penultimate note to the
final, the semitone is always intended to be placed. Nature has shown this,
because not only learned musicians but also peasants, who sing without any
art, always proceed by the interval of the semitone.
The determination to raise a leading tone is based on the functionality of the

note in question. If the note is clearly part of a formula that is approaching a
cadencea cadence that is realized with participation of another voice or other
voicesthe note should be raised, whether the cadence serves a primary or sec-
ondary function (i.e., whether the cadence is on the tonic or dominant chord of
the scale or whether the cadence is on the dominant of the dominant). However,
if the note in question is part of a formula that appears to be a leading tone but
does not approach a cadence that verifies the note in question as a leading tone,
the note should not be raised. For example, the E-flat in the third measure of the
soprano part of Kyrie 1 (shown earlier in this chapter in Example 2.3) should be
raised because it leads directly to a cadence in F Major. On the other hand, the E-
flats of the second bass phrase of the Christe (shown in Example 2.5) should not
be raised, as is indicated in some present-day editions, because the cadence that
follows is not in the key of F but in the key of B-flat instead. In a related instance,
none of the E-flats during the first twelve measures of the Benedictus should
be raised. They are not part of cadential formulas and the tonality during these
measures is B-flat; a cadence in F does not occur until measure 15, which would
naturally be preceded by an E-natural in measure 14. Shown here in Example 2.13
are the alto and second tenor parts leading up to this cadence.
When considering cadential formulas, it is important to raise all the leading
tones that are a part of its makeup. That is, all the notes that are in a stepwise
Example2.13
relationship with the tonic note should be raised, not just the final one or two
leading tones. An example can be seen in the following first tenor part near the
beginning of the Qui tollis section of the Gloria (Example2.14).
Example2.14
Another form of musica ficta was occasionally employed during the

Renaissance, this being the raising of the third degree of a cadence chord to cre-
ate a major rather than a minor tonality (what would be called a Picardy Third in
later years). The raising of the third was done for reasons of beauty (causa pul-
chritudinis). The determination to raise or not raise the third in a cadence chord
is based on the character of the music and/or the overall function of modality or
tonality. In a composition that is basically modal, a raised third is not likely to
be appropriate, except, perhaps, in a final cadence. However, in a composition
that is tonal (such as the Missa Papae Marcelli) cadential raised thirds are suit-
able and plentiful. Indeed, virtually all the cadences in the Missa Papae Marcelli
have raised thirds, including the cadence in measure 42 of the Gloria, where the
third, not part of the diatonic scale, has been raised with manuscript authority
(i.e., the third is not left to the volition of the performer, but marked raised in
the original score).
In addition to the raising of pitches by means of musica ficta, there was during
the Renaissance a practice of lowering pitches by means of musica recta. This prac-
tice is generally limited to the lowering of the sixth degree of the scale as it leads
to the fifth degree, or dominant. The dominant note then leads to its tonic. An
example of this can be seen in the second bass part toward the end of the Credo
(Example2.15). Note that the lowering of the A-natural to an A-flat is necessary
to avoid the leap of a tritone.
70 Choral Monuments
Example2.15
Summary
For present-day performers and audiences to fully appreciate the Missa Papae
Marcelli and its status as one of the most revered compositions of the Renaissance
era, the Mass should be presented according to performance practices common
during the sixteenth century and inherent in the music of Palestrinas masterpiece.
Pitch in a range comfortable for the singers, consistent tactus that allows for the
expressive beauty of syncopation, phrasing that emulates a natural and oratorical
delivery of text, tempos that vary according to the character and solemnity of the
Mass, and musica ficta/musica recta that manifest the functional harmony of the
music are all important considerations. Most important is the consideration of
text intelligibility that was such a significant aspect of the Counter-Reformation
and that should be just as significant to us today. Intelligibility of text is more
than clarity of diction, however. It is a meaningful revelation and comprehen-
sion of text, neither of which can be achieved with an absence of word stresses,
with stresses on both accented and unaccented syllables of words, or with equal
stresses on all accented syllablesall these practices being common in modern
times. Text intelligibility occurs with variation of syllabic stress according to ora-
torical delivery and also to variation of tempo. By varying tempo, as called for by
the changing character of text and as supported by Palestrinas music, one can
experience the differing expressive characteristics of the Missa Papae Marcelli,
and by treating the text as oratory (by shaping phrases with varying points of
arrival), one can experience the Mass more profoundly and can better appreciate
the genius of Palestrinas creation.
Agazzari, Agostino. Del sonare sopra il basso con tutti gli strumenti. Siena:Domenico Falconi,1607.
Andrews, H. K. An Introduction to the Technique of Palestrina. Novello,1958.
Baini, Giuseppe. Memorie sotrico-critiche della vita e delle opera di Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina.
Rome:Dalla Societa Tipografica,1828.
Brown, Howard Mayer. Embellishing 16th-Century Music. Oxford University Press,1976.
Heyden, Sebald. De arte canendi. Johannes Petraeum, 1537 and 1540. Edited and translated by
Clement A. Miller and Armen Carapetyan, American Institute of Musicology,1972.
Jeppesen, Knud. The Style of Palestrina and the Dissonance. Dover,1970.
Kelly, J. N.D. The Oxford Dictionary of Popes. Oxford University Press,2005.
Lockwood, Lewis, editor. Palestrina Pope Marcellus Mass:An Authoritative Score, Backgrounds and
Sources, History and Analysis, Views and Comments. W. W.Norton,1975.
MacClintock, Carol, editor. Readings in the History of Music in Performance. Indiana University
Press,1979.
Marvin, Clara. Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina:AResearch Guide. Routledge,2001.
Mudarra, Alonso. Tres libros de musica en cifras para vihuela. Sevilla,1546.
Praetorius, Michael. Syntagma musicum. Michael Praetorius, 1619. Book two translated by Harold
Blumenfeld, Da Capo Press, 1980. Book three translated by Jeffrey T.Kite-Powell, Oxford
University Press,2004.
Roche, Jerome. Palestrina. Oxford University Press (Oxford Studies of Composers),1971.
Santa Mara, Toms de. Arte de taer fantasia. Valladolid:Francisco Fernandez,1565.
Smith, Anne. The Performance of 16th- Century Music: Learning from the Theorists. Oxford
Stewart, Robert. An Introduction to Sixteenth-Century Counterpoint and Palestrinas Musical Style.
Scarecrow Press,1994.
Strunk, Oliver, editor. Source Readings in Music History. Revised edition. Robert Morgan, editor;
Leo Treitler, general editor. W. W.Norton,1998.
Vicentino, Nicola. Lantica musica ridotta alla moderna prattica. Rome:Antonio Barre, 1555. Edited
by Edward E. Lowinsky, published by Brenreiter,1959.
Zarlino, Gioseffo. Le istitutioni harmoniche. Venice:Zarlino,1558.
3
Johann Sebastian Bach B Minor Mass

The greatest musical art-work of all times and all people.
Hans Georg Ngeli
(first publisher of the B Minor Mass)

Johann Sebastian Bach, like the other great musical giant of the Baroque era,
George Frideric Handel, lived during the final years of the era and came to define it
and bring it to an end. Both composers were born in the same year (1685) and close
to the same date (Handel on February 23 and Bach on March 21). Furthermore,
both were born in towns only about eighty miles apart (Bach in Eisenach, Germany,
and Handel in Halle), both were known during their time for their virtuoso key-
board abilities, and both composed in styles that would be considered paragons
of compositional technique and that would be emulated by composers for genera-
tions. The compositional styles of the two composers were quite different, how-
ever. Handels was new in many ways (cosmopolitan and beholden to no tradition)
while Bachs was old (following and encapsulating a tradition of many years).
The Bach lineage began with Johannes Hans (c. 15801626), a spielmann
(minstrel or fiddler) and stadpfeifer (town piper), and continued for five genera-
tions of families that produced approximately seventy-five musicians. Notable
among these are Johann Sebastians father, Johann Ambrosius (16451695),
who is credited with establishing Eisenach as a center of musical excellence,
and Johann Christoph (16421703) and Johann Michael (16481694), both
of whom wrote either motets or cantatas that became well known. Johann
Christoph, for instance, composed the popular motet Ich lasse dich nicht and
Johann Michael composed the motets Halt, was du hast and Ehre sei Gott in der
Hhe. Johann Ludwig (16771731), Johann Sebastians third cousin, is also
important; he composed a number of cantatas that were often performed during
the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the most popular being Denn
du wirst meine Seele nicht in der Hlle lassen, which was mistakenly attributed to
72
B ach B Min o r Ma ss 73
Johann Sebastian and catalogued as BWV 15. Johann Ludwigs motets, including
Das ist meine Freude, are popular today and have been performed and recorded by
a number of ensembles.
Aiding in the establishment of a musical lineage that ended with Johann
Sebastian and his sons, all the Bach family members lived and worked in a small
geographical area that in the twentieth century became East Germany, and fur-
thermore, all the musicians studied with their fathers or with other close fam-
ily members. Also, a number of the composers before Johann Sebastian wrote
cantatas and motets that were assembled and preserved in a collection called the
Alt-Bachisches Archivthe collection housed at St. Thomas Church in Leipzig
and the compositions within the collection performed frequently by Johann
Sebastian and others over theyears.
Thus, because of the direct contact with music from numerous generations,
the compositions from composer to composer were somewhat consistent. The
motets are almost exclusively scored for double choir without separate instru-
mental participation (although basso continuo participation was assumed and
colla parte instrumental performance was an option). The motets are also in the
dialogue style common at the end of the Renaissance and in many compositions
by Heinrich Schtz (15851672). The cantatas are frequently based on Lutheran
chorales and are scored for voices and instruments, often in the Baroque concer-
tato style explained later in this chapter.
Johann Sebastian studied with his father, Johann Ambrosius, until his fathers
death when Johann Sebastian was ten. He then lived and studied with his older
brother, Johann Christoph. At age fourteen Johann Sebastian moved to Lneburg,
a town on the outskirts of Hamburg, where he attended the Michaelsschule (the
school of St. Michaels Church), singing in one of the choirs there and also play-
ing violin and organ. In 1703 when he was eighteen, having established him-
self as a virtuoso keyboardist, he was appointed organist at the Neukirche
in Arnstadt. Four years later he accepted a similar position at the church of
St. Blasius in Mhlhausen. The following year he moved to Weimar as court organ-
ist, and in 1717, at the age of thirty-two, he was appointed Kapellmeister to the
Duke of Cthen (now Kthen). Six years later, after the death of Johann Kuhnau
(16601722), Bach was appointed Kantor at the Thomaskirche in Leipzig, a posi-
tion he would keep for the remainder of his life. For ease of reference, the following
list outlines Bachs five positions.
17031707organist at the Neukirche in Arnstadt

17071708organist at St. Blasius in Mhlhausen
17081717court organist to Duke Wilhelm Ernst in Weimar (17141717 also
Konzertmeister)
17171723 Kapellmeister to the Duke ofCthen
17231750 Kantor at the Thomaskirche in Leipzig
74 Choral Monuments
In the late 1740s Bach developed cataracts, and in March and April of 1750 he
underwent two eye operations (performed by the same doctor, John Taylor, who
operated on Handel). Bachs operations were unsuccessful and traumatic, and he
died of a stroke on July 28 at the age of sixty-five.
Bachs compositional output reflects his professional appointments and their
attendant duties and expectations. In his position as organist in Arnstadt, Bach
was required to play for services; he had no compositional requirements and did
not direct any vocal music. As a result he composed predominantly keyboard
music, including, most likely, the Prelude and Fugue in C Major (BWV 531)and
the Chorale Preludes BWV 10901120 (the so-called Neumeister Chorales).
While at the church of St. Blasius in Mhlhausen, however, Bach was expected
to compose vocal music for liturgical services and for important civic events. He,
therefore, began composing cantatas, including, Aus der Tiefe rufe ich, Herr, zu dir
(BWV 131), Christ lag in Todesbanden (BWV 4), and the funeral cantata Gottes Zeit
ist die allerbeste Zeit (BWV 106). The wedding cantata Der Herr denket an uns (BWV
196)and the cantata for the election of the Mhlhausen town council, Gott ist
mein Knig (BWV 71), were also composed while Bach was in Mhlhausen, as was,
most likely, Nach dir, Herr, verlanget mich (BWV 150), presumably the first cantata
Bach composed. However, there is some belief (put forth by Alfred Drr in his
The Cantatas of J.S. Bach) that this latter cantata was composed while Bach was
in Arnstadt.
The early cantatas, different from those composed later in Bachs life, are
characterized by a predominance of texts taken directly from the Bible, multi-
sectionalized movements, frequent examples of word painting, short arioso
sections for soloists, and instrumental accompaniment for strings and basso con-
tinuo. Cantata BWV 150 is an example. The first movement, which is just three
minutes in duration, has six different tempos, each of which corresponds to varia-
tions in textual content. The second movement is a one-and-a-half-minute arioso,
and the third movement paints the path to righteousness with a scalar passage
that ascends from the basses to the violins. The early cantatas are also predomi-
nantly choral; there are few solo passages, and these are fairlyshort.
When Bach left Mhlhausen in 1708 and went to Weimar, he no longer
was required to compose vocal music. He served as court organist, not the
Kapellmeister in charge of sacred vocal music. Consequently, he composed a great
deal of keyboard music, in large part because the Duke of Weimar, Wilhelm Ernst,
favored Bachs keyboard skills. The Organ Concertos (BWV 592596), the pieces
in Das Orgel-Bchlein (BWV 599644), and the sixteen Keyboard Concertos (BWV
972987) were all composed during the early years of Bachs employment in
Weimar. Bach also probably began work on the Brandenburg Concertos.
During his sixth year in Weimar Bach added to his duties the position
Konzertmeister, with responsibilities for composing a cantata every four weeks.
Thus, in 1714 he composed among other cantatas, Ich hatte viel Bekmmernis (BWV
21), Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland (BWV 61), and Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen
(BWV 12), the first chorus of which would later be adapted as the Crucifixus in
the B MinorMass.
Bach returned to an almost complete focus on instrumental music when he
moved to Cthen. There, his employer Prince Leopold, who sang and played the
violin, viola da gamba, and harpsichord, was partial to instrumental music and
certainly gave cause for Bach to compose most of his important instrumental
sets. These include Book Iof The Well Tempered Clavier (BWV 846869), the fifteen
two-and three-part inventions (BWV 772786), the fifteen Keyboard Sinfonias
(BWV 787801), the six English Suites (BWV 806811), the six French Suites
(BWV 812817), the six Violin Sonatas and Partitas (BWV 10011006), and the
six Cello Suites (BWV 10071012). Bach also composed the Clavierbchlein for
Anna Magdelena Bach and completed the six Brandenburg Concertos.
In Bachs position as Kantor of the Thomaskirche in Leipzig, he was respon-
sible for providing music for the citys four main Lutheran churches as well as
music for special events of the town council, weddings, and funeral services for
notable civic residents. Bach addressed these responsibilities immediately upon
his appointment, which officially began on June 1, 1723. During this year he
composed at least thirty-one cantatas, including the incomplete Nun ist das Heil
und die Kraft (BWV 50) and Schauet doch und sehet (BWV 46), which Bach would
later parody for the Qui tollis portion of the Gloria in the B Minor Mass. During
Bachs second year in Leipzig he composed at least fifty cantatasalmost one for
every week of the year. These include Ach wie flchtig, ach wie nichtig (BWV 26),
Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir (BWV 38), Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland (BWV 62),
and Jesu, der du meine Seele (BWV 78). In addition, he composed the motet Jesu,
meine Freude (BWV 227) for the July 1723 funeral of the postmasters wife, the
first version of the Magnificat (BWV 243a) for Christmas Day 1723, the Passio
secundum Johannem (BWV 245) for Good Friday 1724, and a Sanctus (BWV 238)
for Christmas Day 1724 (a work incorporated into the B Minor Mass). Bach con-
tinued this pace of compositional activity, eventually composing five complete
cycles of sacred cantatas (about three hundred total), four more Passion settings,
five more motets, and a total of five Masses. In addition, he conducted works of
his sons and contemporaries such as Telemann, Handel, and Graun; he continued
to travel, especially to Dresden, and to play organ recitals; he conducted the local
university collegium musicum; and he sought, unsuccessfully, more prestigious
employment at the court of Friedrich August II in Dresden.
The cantatas composed during Bachs years at Leipzig, being separated by a
decade from previous cantatas, are characterized by texts of pietistic poetry
or a combination of biblical passages and pietistic poetry, chorale movements,
extended movements all in one tempo and all based on a single compositional
idea, less frequent and more subtle word painting, lengthy da capo arias, and
accompaniment that involves obbligato wind instruments. These cantatas are also
less choral; most begin with a chorus and end with a chorale. Examples are Wie
schn leuchtet der Morgenstern (BWV 1), Jesu, der du meine Seele (BWV 78), Ein feste
76 Choral Monuments
Burg ist unser Gott (BWV 80), and Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme (BWV 140). Bach
also wrote a number of solo cantatas while in Leipzig, including Jauchzet Gott in
allen Landen (BWV 51)for soprano and Ich habe genug (BWV 82)forbass.
Bachs LutheranMasses
Bach composed five Masses over the course of his life. Four of these were called
missae during their timemissae being the plural form of missa, the term used for
Lutheran settings of the Kyrie and Gloria portions of the Mass, those portions
that were retained from the Roman Catholic Mass and celebrated in Lutheran
churches during festival services. Bachs missae were most likely composed during
a single time period in 1738 or 1739, although no date has been authenticated.
Moreover, there is no factual information regarding the reason for their composi-
tion or for any performances of them that may have been given during Bachs life.
There is speculation that they were commissioned by Count Anton von Sporck
(16621738) of Bohemia (now the Czech Republic). Sporck was a patron of the
arts and a close acquaintance of Christian Friedrich Henrici, known as Picander
(17001764), the librettist for many of Bachs cantatas. There is no evidence of a
commission, however. Nor is there any surviving documentation regarding com-
munication between Bach and Sporck until years later when Bach sent him a copy
of his 1724 Sanctus that would be incorporated into the B Minor Mass. If not a
commission, the missae could have been composed for festival services in the
main Lutheran churches of Leipzig. Johann Adam Hiller (17281804), who was
the founder of the Leipzig Gewandhaus concerts and, beginning in 1789, Kantor
of the Thomaskirche, commented in 1768, The Masses performed in Catholic
churches, which in some places, as here in Leipzig, are also given in the evangelical
service at high feasts. But accounts of performance in Leipzig would surely have
been documented in some manner or another. Whatever the reasons for compos-
ing the missae, it is reasonable to assume that, given his history of composing for
practical reasons (i.e., composing for the demands of his positions, for his employ-
ers, or for notable patrons who might be helpful to his career), Bach had a specific
purpose in mind.
All of the missae consist of a single-movement choral Kyrie followed by a Gloria
divided into five movements (three arias framed by two choruses). The keys of
the works, solo designations, and instrumental scorings are different. The Missa
in F Major (BWV 233) has arias for bass, soprano, and alto, and is scored for two
oboes, two horns, and strings; the Missa in A Major (BWV 234) also has arias for
bass, soprano, and alto, but is scored for two flutes and strings; the Missa in G
Minor (BWV 235) has arias for bass, alto, and tenor, and is scored for two oboes
and strings; and the Missa in G Major (BWV 236) has arias for bass and tenor plus
a duet for soprano and alto, and is, like the Missa in G Minor, scored for two oboes
and strings.
The missae are referred to as cantata Masses in structure since the Gloria
is divided into separate movements; the Masses, being constructed of arias and
choruses, parallel the similar construction of cantatas. Cantata Masses or Mass
movements were not uncommon during the latter half of the Baroque era.
Vivaldis Gloria (RV 589), for instance, is divided into twelve movements vari-
ously for soloists and chorus, and the Gloria of Johann Ludwig Bachs Missa sopra
Allein Gott in der Hh sei Ehr of 1716 is similarly constructed. J.S. Bachs B Minor
Mass is also considered a cantata Mass, especially since all five portions of the
Mass Ordinary (Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei) are divided into
separate movements. Unlike the B Minor Mass, however, which has a combina-
tion of Renaissance and Baroque styles, the Lutheran Masses are fully Baroque
for the most part. Almost all the choral movements are contrapuntal and in the
Baroque stile moderno or concertato style, with choral and instrumental forces fre-
quently in dialogue. In addition, there are substantial passages of fugal writing,
numerous melismatic passages for chorus, figural melodies for the instruments,
and dense contrapuntal textures. The arias are generally unified by motifs and
structured with instrumental beginnings and interludes (most in the form of
ritornellos). Only the Kyries of the Masses in F Major and G Major are reflective
of the Renaissance stile antico, with clear-textured imitative lines and with instru-
ments colla parte. Both these movements have independent basso continuo lines,
however.
Parody Technique
It is assumed that most of the movements of the missae are parodies of music
previously composed by Bachmostly cantatas BWV 79, 102, 179, and 187, but
also BWV 17, 40, and 138. This reuse of music, especially in Masses, had a long-
standing tradition that went back to the Renaissance, when composers frequently
took their motets or madrigals and used them as major compositional material for
Masses. Many of Palestrinas Masses are parodies, including Missa Vestiva i colli,
based on his famous madrigal, and Missa Tu es Petrus and Missa Hodie Christus
natus est parodies of his motets. During the early years of the Baroque era, paro-
dies were rare since the musical style of the Baroque was so new. However, by the
end of the era, the parody technique was again common. Handel, for instance,
often took movements from previously composed works and adapted them for his
oratorios. He most frequently borrowed from himself, although he also borrowed
from other composers of the Baroque era, and most of the borrowings were taken
from works composed shortly before the oratorios. For the original version of
Esther (1718) Handel borrowed nine movements from the Brockes Passion (1716
or 1717), and for the revised version of Esther (1732) he borrowed two move-
ments from the Coronation Anthems (1727) and one from the Ode for the Birthday
of Queen Anne (1713 or 1714). More than half the music of Deborah was borrowed,
without alteration, from earlier compositions, and the first large section of Israel
78 Choral Monuments
in Egypt was taken intact from the Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline (1737). Of
particular interest are four choruses from Messiah that Handel borrowed from
secular Italian duets he composed just seven weeks before beginning the orato-
rio. Bach also used secular compositions for parodies. For example, the opening
chorus, Tnet, ihr Pauken! Erschallet, Trompeten (Sound, you drums! Ring out,
trumpets) from the secular cantata BWV 214 was used for the opening chorus,
Jauchzet, frohlocket, auf, preiset die Tage (Rejoice, exalt, up, praise the days) of
the Christmas Oratorio BWV248.
A little more than half of the parodies in Bachs missae cannot be traced because
the original material has been lost. However, ten of the movements of the missae
can be directly compared to their previously composed models, and from these one
can see how closely the parodies match the originals. For example, note the simi-
larities between the opening chorus of the cantata Siehe zu, da deine Gottesfurcht
nicht Heuchelei sei (BWV 179)composed in 1723 (shown in Example3.1) and the
opening Kyrie from the Missa in G Major (shown in Example3.2).
Example3.1
Example3.2
In similar fashion, the opening Kyrie of the Missa in G Minor is almost identi-
cal to the opening chorus of the cantata Herr, deine Augen sehen nach dem Glauben
(BWV 102)composed in 1726. The lengthy instrumental introduction is exactly
the same in both works; only the vocal lines (the initial alto melody shown here in
Example3.3) are somewhat altered.
Example3.3
80 Choral Monuments
Other parodies involve transpositions of the original keys and scoring for dif-
ferent instruments. For example, the soprano aria Liebster Gott, erbarme dich
from cantata BWV 179 is in AMinor and is scored for two oboes da caccia and
basso continuo; its parody, the Qui tollis in the Missa in AMajor, is in B Minor
and is scored for two flutes. The tenor aria Erschrecke doch from cantata BWV
102 is in G Minor and scored for flute solo and basso continuo, while its parody,
the Quoniam from the Missa in F Major, is for alto solo in D Minor (a fourth
below the cantatas G Minor) and scored for violin solo and basso continuo. The
parodies all maintain basic textures, melodic designs, and rhythmic content of the
originals, thus making for easy comparison between the two versions.
The B MinorMass
The B Minor Mass (BWV 232)differs from the Lutheran missae in many significant
ways. Most obviously, the B Minor Mass contains all the movements of the Roman
Catholic Ordinary (not just the Kyrie and Gloria), the scoring of the B Minor Mass
is for many more vocal and instrumental forces, and its text is divided into more
movements. More importantly, the B Minor Mass is not a unified musical work
such as the Lutheran Masses. The B Minor Mass is a joining of four separate enti-
ties, composed at different times, and assembled by Bach to meet the require-
ments expected of a Roman Catholic setting of the Mass Ordinary. We refer to
the composite work as the B Minor Mass, or in German the Messe in h-moll, even
though Bach did not use this title and at the time of its assembly he did not intend
for the complete work to be performed. He gave descriptive titles to the four sepa-
rate entities or parts of the Mass, and put these titles on separate pages before
each section of the complete autograph manuscript (labeled P180 and housed in
the Berlin State Library). He included no performance parts as was customary.
Bachs titles for his four component entities of the Massare
No. 1.Missa
No. 2.Symbolum Nicenum
No. 3.Sanctus
No. 4.Osanna, Benedictus, Agnus Dei et Dona nobispacem
The Missa, as described above, is the traditional Baroque-era Lutheran title of

the Kyrie and Gloria, both being the two parts of the historical Roman Catholic
Mass that were retained in Lutheran services. Symbolum Nicenum is the Latin
name of the Nicene Creed, called the Credo in most musical settings. Bachs
Sanctus is only the first part of the traditional Sanctus Mass movement; he had
set this (to the text Sanctus, Sanctus, Sanctus, Dominus Deus Sabaoth. Pleni
sunt coeli et terra Gloria tua) for a Christmas Day service in Leipzig in 1724,
and simply used that setting for the first part of the B Minor Mass Sanctus. The
remaining movements of Bachs compilation complete the Sanctus (Osanna and
Benedictus) and fulfill the requirements of the Agnus Dei (Agnus Dei and Dona
nobis pacem).
The four titles, while descriptive, are unusual and inconsistent in describing
the contents of the Mass. The Missa includes two separate portions of the Mass
(the Kyrie and Gloria); the Symbolum Nicenum is one portion of the Mass but
divided into nine movements by Bach; the Sanctus is only the beginning por-
tion of one movement and deceptive in its title since the normal use of the term
Sanctus includes the Osanna and Benedictus; and Bachs Osanna, Benedictus,
Agnus Dei et Dona nobis pacem is merely a listing of separate movements, the
first two belonging to the Sanctus and the second two to the AgnusDei.
To further exemplify the singularities of the four separate entities, they each
require different performing forces. The Missa is scored for five-part chorus
(SSATB), two flutes, two oboes, two bassoons, corno da caccia, three trumpets,
strings, and basso continuo; the Symbolum Nicenum is the same except for no
corno da caccia or separately scored bassoons; the Sanctus is scored for six-part
chorus (SSAATB), three oboes, three trumpets, timpani, strings, and basso con-
tinuo (no flutes or bassoons); the Osanna is scored for double chorus (SATB/
SATB), two flutes, two oboes, three trumpets, strings, and basso continuo; and
the remaining movements, consisting of two arias and a repeat of the Gratias
music from the Gloria, have thin orchestrations. No other work of Bach is scored
in such a diverse mannerfive-part choir in one section, six-part in another, and
double-choir in yet another. Moreover, the corno da caccia is used in only one
movement and only the Sanctus requires a third oboe. Furthermore, the distri-
bution of solo movements is uneven. There are two duets and three arias in the
Missa, but only one aria (plus a short solo passage) and one duet in the Symbolum
Nicenum. The Sanctus is completely choral, and the remaining movements con-
sist of two duets and two choruses.
Finally, each of the four entities was composed at a different time in Bachs life.
The Missa was composed as a complete and independent composition in 1733 at a
time when Bach was experiencing significant difficulties with his work in Leipzig.
Some town authorities were trying to force Bachs dismissal, and the musical
resources at Bachs disposal were unsatisfactory, prompting Bach to write his
famous memorandum to the Town Council in August 1730, the Short but most
necessary draft for a well-appointed church music; with certain modest reflections
on the decline of the same. Bach was actively seeking other employment, and in
1733 he composed a Missa for Friedrich August II, the new Elector of Saxony, in
hopes that the elector would aid Bach in the betterment of his career. The choice
of a Kyrie and Gloria is logical in that the court (located in Dresden, about sev-
enty miles from Leipzig) was traditionally Catholic, but many of its officials were
Lutheran; the Kyrie and Gloria would seem to satisfy everyone, especially since
82 Choral Monuments
Bach composed the Kyrie 2 and Gratias in the stile antico popular in Catholic
music. Accompanying the manuscript of the Missa is the following letter:
In deepest Devotion Ipresent to your Royal Highness this small product of that
science which Ihave attained in Musique, with the most humble request that
you will deign to regard it not according to the imperfection of its Composition,
but with a most gracious eye, in accordance with your world- renowned
Clemency, and thus take me into your most mighty Protection. For some years
up to the present day Ihave had the Directorship of the Music at the two prin-
cipal Churches in Leipzig, but have also had to suffer one slight or another
quite undeservedly, and sometimes also a diminution of the Fees connected
with this Function, all of which could cease if your Royal Highness showed me
the favor of conferring upon me a Predicate in your Hoff-Capelle, and thus let
your high command be given to the appropriate authority for the bestowal of a
Decree; this most gracious fulfillment of my most humble petition will compel
me to unending adoration, and I offer myself in most dutiful obedience ever
to show, at your Royal Highnesss most gracious desire, my indefatigable dili-
gence in the composition of Musique for Church as well as for Orchestre, and
will devote all my powers to your service, remaining in unceasing loyalty Your
Royal Highnesss most humble and most obedient servant Johann Sebastian
Bach, Dresden 27 July1733.
Nothing came of Bachs musical submission or request. There are no docu-

mented performances of the Missa either in Dresden or Leipzig, although per-
formance was certainly intended since Bach sent a set of vocal and instrumental
parts to Dresden with his score. Some scholars believe that it was performed
on July 26, 1733, at the Sophienkirche in Dresden, where Bachs son Wilhelm
Friedemann was organist. In addition to no proof of performance, the elector
did not grant Bachs request. Anew Kapellmeister, Johann Adolf Hasse (1699
1783), had just been appointed at the court, and the duke was most interested
in opera, not church music. Bach did receive the title Hofcompositeur, however,
after another request in November1736.
The Sanctus was composed for Bachs first Christmas in Leipzig and performed
on Christmas Day 1724. It was later performed on Easter Day 1727 and again
sometime after 1743, and it was catalogued as BWV 238 in Bachs collected works.
Scored for six-part chorus and three oboes, in addition to trumpets, timpani,
strings, and basso continuo, it was Bachs most elaborately scored composition to
date, and its splendor no doubt was a motivating factor for Bach to send the score
and performing parts to Count von Sporck in 1724. The quality of writing also
testifies to Bachs use of it in the B Minor Mass; he made very few alterations to the
score, basically only changing the choral parts from SSSATB to SSAATB.
It is assumed that the remaining portions of the Mass were composed between
August 1748 and October 1749, the time during which Bachs eyesight was failing and
less than a year before his death of a stroke on July 28, 1750. The Symbolum Nicenum
(called hereafter Credo), the first and only setting of this text by Bach, is, logically, the
most Catholic of the four sections of the Mass. Seven of the nine Credo movements
are choral and of these, only two are in the Baroque stile moderno that characterizes
much of Bachs choral writing during his Leipzig years. The other movements are
imitative in some fashion or another, with two of the movements quoting Gregorian
chant in a neo-Renaissance imitative texture. Of the remaining Mass movements, the
Osanna exhibits traits of Renaissance dialogue technique, the two arias are typi-
cally Baroque, and the music of the Dona nobis pacem, reminiscent of Renaissance
point-of-imitation motets, is a literal repeat of the Gratias in the Gloria. Bach never
prepared performance parts for any of the newly composed movements.
Parodies
It is estimated that approximately twelve of the Mass movements are parodies of
earlier works. Of these, seven movements can clearly be compared to existing cop-
ies of earlier works. These Mass movements and their modelsare,
Gratias agimus tibi (fourth movement of the Gloria)

from the second movement of Wir danken dir, Gott, wir danken dir (BWV 29)
Qui tollis (sixth movement of the Gloria)
from the first movement of Schauet doch und sehet (BWV 46)
Patrem omnipotentem (second movement of theCredo)
from the first movement of Gott, wie dein Name, so ist auch dein Ruhm
(BWV 171)
Crucifixus (fifth movement of theCredo)
from the second movement of Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen (BWV 12)
Et expecto (final movement of theCredo)
from the second movement of Gott, man lobet dich in der Stille (BWV 120)
Osanna (third movement of the Sanctus)
from the first movement of Preise dein Glcke, gesegnetes Sachsen (BWV 215)
Agnus Dei (first movement of the AgnusDei)
from the fourth movement of Lobet Gott in seinen Reichen (BWV 11)
The first of the parodies above, that from Cantata BWV 29, is the easiest to
compare because of the almost identical music, but it is also the most perplexing
of the parodies since Bach used it twice in the B Minor Mass. The cantata source
was composed for the Leipzig Council election in 1731 and performed that year on
August 27. It was subsequently performed for later Council elections on August
31, 1739, and on August 24, 1749 (the latter date in close proximity to the time
when Bach assembled the movements of the B Minor Mass). Bach used the open-
ing chorus of the cantata, set to the text Wir danken wir, Gott, wir danken dir
und verkndigen deine Wunder (We thank you, God, we thank you and proclaim
84 Choral Monuments
your wonder). The scorings of the cantata movement and its two appearances in
the Mass are virtually identicalSATB chorus, three trumpets, timpani, strings,
and basso continuo, with oboes joining the violins colla parte in the cantata and
flutes and oboes joining the violins in the Mass. The meter signatures and melodic
designs have been altered somewhat between the cantata and Mass, but kept the
same between the two Mass movements. Bach scored the cantata with a slashed
2 meter signature (|2 but represented below by ) and the Mass movements with
an alla breve meter () in measures of four half notesboth meters and metric
organizations archaic and similar indicators of alla breve. The melodic design of
the texts second phrase represents the most radical change between the original
and the parodies.
The reason that this music appears twice in the Mass has been debated, with-
out resolution, for years. In all likelihood, both usages simply reflect common
parody practices, with no artistic, liturgical, or other connection between the
movements. Shown here in Examples 3.4, 3.5, and 3.6 is the opening bass line in
all three movements.
Example3.4
Example3.5
Example3.6
The transformation of the first movement of the cantata Schauet doch und sehet
(BWV 46)into the Qui tollis of the Mass involved more alterations than those
seen in Example3.6. Bach removed the sixteen-bar instrumental introduction of
the original chorus, transposed the key from D Minor down a third to B Minor,
deleted the two oboes da caccia and single trumpet that supported the voices in
the cantata, and adapted the rhythms of the original, somewhat extensively, to
fit the text of the Mass. Otherwise, the scorings of the two are identical, including
the two obbligato flute parts. Shown here in Examples3.7 and 3.8 are the opening
alto and tenor lines of both versions.
Example3.7
Example3.8
The other parodies, except for the Crucifixus from Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen,
Zagen, involve even more extensive alterations. Perhaps most altered is the
86 Choral Monuments
Agnus Dei taken from the fourth movement of Lobet Gott in seinen Reichen
(BWV 11), the Himmelfahrtsoratorium (Ascension Day Oratorio) composed
in 1734 or 1735. The text of movement four is from reflective poetry and reads,
Ach bleibe doch, mein liebstes Leben, ach fliehe nicht so bald von mir (Ah,
stay yet, my dearest life, ah flee not so soon from me). This certainly relates
in substance to the text of the Agnus Dei. Also closely related is the scoring of
both movements for alto solo, with accompaniment of violins in unison and
basso continuo. The melodic shapes of the two are, however, quite different.
This is likely the result of Bach parodying the Agnus Dei from a source com-
posed before the aria in the Ascension Oratorio (the oratorio being, itself, a
parody). But this source has been lost. Nevertheless, comparison between the
oratorio and Mass is interesting. The eight-bar instrumental introduction in
both versions is closely related (the original being only more melodically deco-
rated), but the entrance of the alto in the oratorio mirrors the violin introduc-
tion, as is common in most arias, while the entrance of the alto in the Agnus
Dei is completely different. It is only after four measures that the alto and
violin have material from the opening introductionmaterial that is related,
but quite different from that in the oratorio. Thereafter, Bach abbreviates the
Agnus Dei, which is forty-nine measures long compared to the seventy-nine-
measure oratorio aria. Following are first (in Example3.9), the initial two mea-
sures in each of the violin introductions, and then (in Example3.10) the initial
measures of the alto solo in both versions.
Example3.9
Example3.10
Compositional Rationale
The reason for Bachs composition of an Agnus Dei and Credo to be parts of a
Catholic Mass remains a mystery. He surely did not compose these movements
to impress the Dresden court or to seek a new position or title, as he had done in
1733 with the composition of the Missa. By the end of the 1740s he was almost
blind and in poor health. Moreover, while the assemblage of movements for a
missa tota, as it has been called, is Catholic, it is not liturgical and would have had
very little chance of performance in a Catholic service. But since he had already
composed the Missa and also had composed several settings of the Sanctus, per-
haps he wanted to compose the remaining Mass movements to form a complete
entity. He did, after all, have a decided liking for cycles (e.g., cantatas for each
Sunday of the liturgical year and keyboard pieces in The Well Tempered Clavier for
all twenty-four major and minor keys). During the last years of his life he also
liked and was interested in big projects, projects that were not directly related to
the demands of his employment and projects that were compendiums of sorts.
Examples include the aria and thirty variations of the Goldberg Variations
(BWV 988)of 17411742; the canons and fugues of the Musical Offering (BWV
1079), all based on a theme given to Bach by Frederick II of Prussia (Frederick
the Great) and presented to Frederick in 1747; and the fourteen fugues and four
canons of The Art of the Fugue (BWV 1080)from 17481749. The instrumental
work from Bachs late years most closely related to the B Minor Mass and most
illustrative of his state of mind and motivation for completing a Mass is the
Clavier-bung III, a collection of organ pieces begun in 1736 and completed in
1739 to serve as a German Organ Mass. The beginning of the collections title
explains its content and purpose:Dritter Theil der Clavier bung bestehend in
verschiedenen Vorspielen Catechismus und andere Gesnge vor die Orgel (Third
Part of the Keyboard Practice consisting in various Preludes on the Catechism
and Other Songs [Chorales] for the Organ). The pieces of the collection are both
old and new to the Lutheran Church, and to represent the old and new Bach com-
posed the pieces in the old stile antico of the Renaissance as well as in the new stile
moderno of the Baroque.
The B Minor Mass is, similarly, an assemblage of pieces in both old and new
compositional styles. The arias, beginning and ending movements of the Gloria,
and Sanctus are all masterful creations of the German Baroque style; the point-
of-imitation Kyrie 2 and Gratias/Dona nobis pacem, as well as the Credo
in unum Deum and Confiteor, with their quotations of Gregorian chant, are
equally masterful representations of the older Renaissance stylea style that
interested Bach, especially during the latter years of his life. Sometime between
the late 1730s and early 1740s, for instance, he copied Masses (including Credo
movements) by Giovanni Battista Bassani (c.16501716), and in the early years
of the 1740s Bach performed the Kyrie and Gloria (the Missa movements) of
Palestrinas Missa sine nomine. Also in the 1740s Bach arranged the Stabat Mater
88 Choral Monuments
by Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (17101736) as the soprano and alto motet Tilge,
Hchster, meine Snden (BWV 1083). Composing in the Catholic style would have
given Bach an outlet for his interest in Catholic music, an outlet he had little time
to address during most of his years in Leipzig.
Whatever Bachs reasons for creating a Catholic Mass, the assemblage of move-
ments has become an icon of the highest sort, one considered to be representative
of the greatest creations of Western artmusic.
Manuscripts, Editions, and Performances

After Bachs death in 1750 the majority of his sacred compositions were bequeathed
to his son Wilhelm Friedemann, who was organist of the Liebfrauenkirche in
Halle and who, therefore, had cause to perform his fathers works. Unfortunately,
many of these works were later lost since Wilhelm Friedemann sold most of them.
However, the autograph scorethe only existing scoreof the four parts of the
B Minor Mass was given to Bachs son Carl Philipp Emanuel, who as keyboardist
to Frederick the Great, may have played a part in the assemblage of the Masss
movements. C.P. E.made a copy of the Mass, with extensive revisions, that is
now housed in the Berlin State Library and catalogued as P572 (the Missa), P23
(the Symbolum Nicenum), and P14 (the remaining movements). Then in 1769,
after he had assumed the position of Musikdirektor der Hauptkirchen in Halle,
C.P. E.made another copy of the Mass and sent it to Johann Philipp Kirnberger
(17211783), who was music director at the court of Frederick the Greats sister,
Princess Anna Amalia, an avid collector of J.S. Bachs works. When C.P. E.sent
the manuscript copy to Kirnberger, he included the following letter.
I had a few leaves of the Mass copied, but they were full of errors. So Itore them
up and am sending you the original. Do take care and dont write in it, and send
it back to me after you have made a copy. Perhaps you would like to show
the Mass to our Princess.
Kirnberger made two copies, those now housed in the Berlin State Library as
Am.B.3 and Am.B1Am.b.2. After the death of C.P. E.Bach in 1788, the original
autograph manuscript (without any revisions) was offered for sale under the title
Die groe catholische Messe (The Great Catholic Mass). There were no buyers
and the Mass was kept in the family until after the death in 1804 of C.P. E.Bachs
last heir, Anna Carolina Philippina. The autograph was then purchased by the
Swiss music publisher Hans Georg Ngeli, who engraved and issued for sale the
Kyrie and Gloria in 1833 and the remaining movements in 1845. In his attempt to
sell copies of the Mass, Ngeli declared that Bachs Mass was the greatest musical
art-work of all times and all people.
The Mass was next published in 1856 as Volume 6 of the Bach-Gesamtausgabe

(Bachs Complete Works, referred to as the BGA, and begun in 1850 to commemo-
rate the one-hundredth anniversary of Bachs death). Unfortunately, this edition,
edited by Julius Rietz, was based on the Missa materials in Dresden and copies
of other portions of the Mass since Ngeli would not let the editors of the BGA
see Bachs original autograph manuscript. However, the following year Ngelis
son Hermann sold the manuscript to the Handel scholar Friedrich Chrysander,
who immediately gave it to the editors of the BGA, and who, in turn, used it for
a revised edition of the Mass published that same year. In 1861, the BGA sold
the autograph manuscript to the Berlin State Library, where it was catalogued as
P180 and where it has resided ever since. Thirty-six pages of the autograph score
were published in 1895 as Volume 44 of the BGA, and in 1924 a complete fac-
simile edition was published by Insel-Verlag. In 1954 a new revised edition of the
Mass was published by Brenreiter as part of the Neue Bach-Ausgabe (NBA, a new
Complete Works anthology established to update and correct previous editions
and to commemorate the bicentennial of Bachs death). This new edition, based
on knowledge unavailable in 1850, was edited by Friedrich Smend, who wrote in
the preface to the score, the old printed editions had an inadequate foundation
of sources. They therefore contained numerous misunderstandings and errors
of greater or lesser magnitude. Alittle more than half a century later, in 2010,
a newer edition of the B Minor Mass was published by the Neue Bach-Ausgabe
(NBArev), this revision edited by Christoph Wolff. Finally, the autograph, in its
entirety, was included in the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP).
Meanwhile, the Mass became known to various musicians shortly after its
assemblage, and copies of various manuscripts (copies of copies) were circu-
lated throughout Europe beginning in the late eighteenth century. Christoph
Nichelmann (17171762), a harpsichordist with C. P. E. Bach at the court of
Frederick the Great, mentioned the opening Kyrie of Bachs Mass in his composi-
tion treatise, Die Melodie nach ihrem Wesen sowohl, als nach ihren Eigenschaften of
1755. In addition, Kirnberger commented on two of the Masss movements in
his 1771 composition treatise, Die Kunst des reinen Satzes in der Musik, and the
English diarist Charles Burney (17261814) praised the Mass in his 1789 General
History of Music. Oddly, neither the Mass nor Bachs two great passions were men-
tioned by Johann Nikolaus Forkel (17491818) in his 1802 biography of Bach.
Joseph Haydn and his patron Gottfried van Swieten (17331803) both owned
manuscript copies of the Mass, and Beethoven sought a copy twice (first in 1810
from the publishing firm Breitkopf & Hrtel, and then in 1824 from Ngeli), but
was unsuccessful. In 1811 Carl Friedrich Zelter (17581832) began rehearsing
portions of the Mass with the Berlin amateur choral society Singakademie, which
had been founded in 1791 by Carl Friedrich Fasch (17361800) and which regu-
larly rehearsed Bach motets, and in 1816 Samuel Wesley (17661837) made an
unsuccessful attempt to publish the Credo in England. Felix Mendelssohn owned
copies of the Dresden Missa parts and the Ngeli publication, and in 1846, while
90 Choral Monuments
he was composing his oratorio Elijah, he wrote to his friend Karl Klingemann, I
obtained from Dresden the parts to the Bach B-Minor Mass and from these,
which Bach mostly wrote himself Ilittle by little freed my own score from its
host of printing errors.
The first performance of the Mass was limited to the Credoconducted by C.P.
E.Bach in April 1786 on a benefit concert in Hamburg for the Medical Institute
for the Poor that included some of his own works plus the aria I know that my
redeemer liveth and the chorus Hallelujah from Handels Messiah. The inclusion
of the Handel pieces is notable in that these same two movements from Messiah
were conducted by Johannes Brahms eighty-two years later, in April 1868, on the
program of the premiere of his then six-movement Ein deutsches Requiem.
After C. P. E. Bachs 1786 performance of the Credo it was forty-two years
before portions of Bachs Mass were again presented in public, and it was another
thirty years before the complete Mass was performed. Following is a listing, with
commentary, of the partial performances.
March 1828 Credo

Frankfurt Ccilienverein conducted by Johann Nepomuk Schelble (1789
1837). Schelble founded the Ccilienverein and later commissioned
Mendelssohns St.Paul
April 1828 C
redo
Members of the Berlin Opera conducted by Gaspare Spontini (17741851).
The program included the Kyrie and Gloria from Beethovens Missa solemnis
January 1831 Kyrie and Gloria
Frankfurt Ccilienverein conducted by Schelble
April 1831 K
yrie, Gloria, and Credo
November 1831 Credo
Felix Mendelssohn attended this concert
April 1834 K
yrie, Gloria, and Credo
Berlin Singakademie conducted by Karl Friedrich Rungenhagen (17781851).
Rungenhagen conducted the first nineteenth-century performance of Bachs
St. John Passion and also conducted many Handel oratorios
1834 Sanctus
Braunschweig Singakademie conducted by Konrad Friedrich Griepenkerl
(17821849). Griepenkerl was the editor of Bachs complete organ works
for C. F. Peters
1835 Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, and Sanctus
Berlin Singakademie conducted by Rungenhagen
1838 Credo
The Choral Harmonists Society ofLondon
1841 CrucifixusEt resurrexit and Sanctus

Leipzig Gewandhaus conducted by Felix Mendelssohn
Robert Schumann was in attendance and said of the Crucifixus, Before it all
masters of other ages must bow in reverence.
April 1843 S anctus
For the dedication of the Bach monument in Leipzig, conducted by
Mendelssohn
A performance of the complete B Minor Mass did not occur until 1861, more
than one hundred years after the last of the music was composed and the work
was assembled. Following is a partial listing of early performances.
1859 Leipzig by the Riedel-Verein conducted by Karl Riedel (18271888)

Franz Liszt attended this concert
1861 Frankfurt by the Ccilienverein conducted by Carl Christian Mller
(18311914)
1876 London by the Bach Choir conducted by Otto Goldschmidt (18291907)
Goldschmidt was a voice teacher at the Royal Academy of Music and founder
of the Bach Choir. His wife, soprano Jenny Lind, sang the sopranoarias
March 27, 1900 Bethlehem, Pennsylvania the Bach Choir conducted by John
Frederick Wolle (18631933). Wolle organized the first choral society in Bethlehem,
performing Bachs St. John Passion in 1888 and St. Matthew Passion in 1892
1900 New York the Oratorio Society of New York conducted by Frank Damrosch
(18591937). Damrosch served as chorus master of the Metropolitan Opera,
conductor of the Mendelssohn Glee Club, and director of the Oratorio Society from
1898 to 1912
1929 London The Philharmonic Choir (aka the Royal Choral Society) and the
London Symphony. This was the first recording of the B Minor Mass
Formal and Musical Structures

Given that the B Minor Mass is a composite of four distinctly different composi-
tional entitiesa point strongly made by Friedrich Smend, editor of the Neue
Bach-Ausgabe edition of the Massthere are no overall musical connections
between the entities; no one component relates to another, and the composi-
tional styles of the components are quite disparate. One might argue with this
premise and assert that Bachs reuse of the Gratias music in the Dona nobis
pacem ties two of the entities together. However, this argument is weak and
has no historical foundation. Use of music from the opening Kyrie to close the
Mass has precedent, but not use of a middle portion of the Gloria. As mentioned
earlier, Bachs use of the same music for the Gratias and Dona nobis pacem
92 Choral Monuments
is most likely circumstantial, not structural, artistic, or liturgical. Regardless of

the original assemblage of movements into four groups, the music of the Mass is
structured to create the five traditional portions of the Roman Catholic Ordinary,
and these portions have structural relationships to each other. Furthermore, the
five portions of the Mass are arranged, in typical Bach fashion, symmetrically. For
example, the middle three portions (Gloria, Credo, and Sanctus), as will be expli-
cated in detail below, can each be divided into five sections of movements, and
these sections can be seen to reflect a symmetrical arrangement.
Kyrie
The three movements of the Kyrie are, perhaps, the least related movements in
the entire Mass. Kyrie 1 is a lengthy fugue for five-part chorus (SSATB) and
independent orchestral scoring, the Christe is a duet (S1 and A) with instrumen-
tal scoring for violins in unison and basso continuo, and Kyrie 2 is for four-part
chorus (SATB) and instruments entirely colla parte throughout the movement
except for an independent basso continuo line. In addition, the first two move-
ments are in the Baroque stile moderno and the third movement is in a contrasted
imitative neo-Renaissance style. The three individual movements are, however,
highly structured and indicative of Bachs contrapuntalskill.
After an opening homophonic four-measure introduction (in the harmoni-
cally complex Italian-Baroque style), Bach constructs one of the lengthiest fugues
in his compositional output, one that makes Kyrie 1 almost twice as long as
any other movement in the Mass. Notable features of the fugue include opening
instrumental expositions in two related key areas (B Minor and F-sharp Minor);
six choral statements of the fugue subject following each instrumental section; a
total of twenty-one statements of the fugue subject (the number 21 being impor-
tant in Bach numerological studies); a preponderance of statements for the bass;
modulation to the dominant key area, with secondary dominants to support the
modulation; and reuse of material to close each major vocal section. Shown below,
the numbers in parentheses indicate measure numbers (with .5 indicating the
middle of the measure). Note that the entire second half of each choral section is
composed of repeated material (shown in bold print).
Instrumental exposition (530) (25.529.5 is similar to1115)

Statement 1flute 1 and oboe1(5)
Statement 2flute 2 and oboe 2(7.5)
Statement 3bassoon and basso continuo(22)
Choral exposition with episodic material (3072.5) (4972.5 derived from 129.5)
Statement 4tenor(30)
Statement 5alto(32.5)
Statement 6soprano1(37)
Statement 7soprano 2(39.5)
Statement 8 bass (45.5) cadences in F-sharp Minor (49)

Statement 9 soprano 2 (48)
Statement 10 soprano 1 (50.5) cadences in C-sharp Minor (58)
Statement 11 bass (65) modulates to F-sharp Minor (72.5)
Instrumental interlude (72.581)
Statement 12 oboe 2 (72.5)
Statement 13 flute 2 and violin 2 (76.5) modulation back to B Minor (81)
Choral closing (81end) (103122 derived from625)
Statement 14 bass (81)
Statement 15 tenor (83.5)
Statement 16 alto (88)
Statement 17 soprano 1 (90.5)
Statement 20 soprano 2 (104.5) cadences in F-sharp Minor (112)
Statement 21 bass (119)
The Christe is in a typical German-Baroque aria form, with the instrumental

melodic material based on recurring motifs, instrumental sections that separate
and delineate the vocal sections, and modulations to related keys. The recurring
melodic material, identified by the opening four notes, begins most violin phrases,
but also occurs in the basso continuo (measures 18, 19, 42, and 58)and the vocal
duet (measures 58 and 59). Three of the four instrumental sections, including the
opening and closing, are closely related, and all the instrumental sections serve
to confirm keyareas.
Instrumental introduction (110) in DMajor

Vocal duet (1033) modulating to AMajor
Instrumental ritornello (3342) confirming AMajor
Vocal duet (4253) cadencing in BMinor
Instrumental interlude (5358) confirming BMinor
Vocal duet (5876.5) modulating to DMajor
Instrumental closing (76.5end) confirming DMajor
Kyrie 2 emulates a point-of-imitation Renaissance motet, with melodic

phrases joined to the text, a melodically chromatic design that has the character
of modality, and white rhythmic notation (a basically half-note texture) in an alla
breve meter. Note that the movement is in F-sharp Minor, with only one internal
cadencein B Minor (measure 35). This cadence separates the two major por-
tions of the movement, the first portion consisting of four thematic entrances
(bass, tenor, alto, soprano) followed by three others (alto, bass, tenor), and the
second portion consisting of four thematic entrances (alto, tenor, soprano, bass)
followed by two others (bass and soprano), making a total of thirteen statements
94 Choral Monuments
of the movements theme. No compositional material is repeated. However, there

are recurring similarities such as the syncopated melody beginning in measures
43 and 51. Note also that the movement ends with a Picardy Third.
Gloria
Unlike the three movements of the Kyrie, the nine movements of the Gloria have
an overall structural design, one that exhibits Bachs predilection for symmetry.
As seen in the following listing, the first two, middle two, and final two move-
ments are all connected, the second movement of each group beginning in the
same measure as the ending of the previous movement. In this regard, the Gloria
is basically in five sections:(1)two connected choruses, (2)an aria and a chorus,
(3)an aria connected to a chorus, (4)an aria, and (5)a final connected aria and
chorus. It is understandable, considering text and texture, that the Gloria has
nine numbered movements. However, ontologically, the Gloria is in five sections.
To aid in the perception of symmetry, the opening two movements and the clos-
ing two movementsthe bookend movementsare all in D Major, and the end-
ing movements of both bookends are similarly concerted and fugal with almost
identical structural designs.
(1) Gloria in excelsis / Et in terra pax (two choruses, both D Major)

(2) Laudamus te (aria, AMajor) and Gratias agimus tibi (chorus, DMajor)
(3) Domine Deus / Qui tollis (aria, G MajorB Minor / chorus, B MinorF-sharp Minor)
(4) Qui sedes (aria, BMinor)
(5) Quoniam tu solus sanctus / Cum sancto spiritu (aria and chorus, both D Major)
A different symmetrical design of the Gloria has been posited, one of seven
parts in a mirror construct. In this arrangement, two connected movements, an
aria, and a chorus lead to a centralaria.
( 1) Gloria in excelsis / Et in terra pax (chorus / chorus)

(2)Laudamus te(aria)
(3) Gratias agimus tibi (chorus)
(4)Domine Deus(aria)
(5)Qui tollis (chorus)
(6)Qui sedes(aria)
(7) Quoniam tu solus sanctus / Cum sancto spiritu (aria / chorus)
While logical to a point, especially in terms of alternating solo and choral textures
of the middle movements, this mirror arrangement does not consider the impor-
tant connection of the Domine Deus and Qui tollis. Nor does it explain the
difference between the choral/choral and solo/choral connected movements that
frame the Gloria.
Of the separate movements, the Gloria in excelsis is in three sections: an

opening instrumental introduction that cadences with a hemiola in D Major
(measure 2324); a choral section in two parts, the latter of which cadences with
a hemiola in AMajor (measure 6364); and a closing choral section that, like the
opening introduction, cadences with a hemiola in D Major (measure 99100). All
the sections begin with the same musical material, and all the sections after the
opening instrumental introduction use music from it. Choral sections 1 and 2
begin with music that parallels material from the opening instrumental intro-
duction, and the instrumental interlude beginning in measure 65 also parallels
music from the introduction. Choral section 3 is similar, but not as exact; the
first instrumental interlude closes the preceding choral section, while the next
instrumental interlude introduces the choral section that follows. The opening
instrumental introduction is in D Major, choral section 1 and its following instru-
mental interlude modulate from D Major to AMajor, choral section 2 confirms
AMajor, and the closing instrumental interlude and choral section 3 modulate
back to DMajor.
(1) Instrumental introduction(125)

(2) Choral section 1 (2533) (derived from125)
Instrumental interlude (until 41)(3341 derived from917)
Choral section 2 (4165) (derived from125)
(3) Instrumental interlude (until 69)(6569 derived from15)
Choral section 3 (85100.5 derived from925)
Et in terra pax is symmetrical in that the beginning, middle, and end portions
of the movement have music similar in melodic design and homophonic texture,
with contrasting sections of fugal counterpoint in between. As in other move-
ments, Bach reuses material in the similar sections. Most obviously, measures
23.5 to 31 in the first contrapuntal section appear almost identically in measures
46 to 53.5 in the second contrapuntal section, only without instruments colla
parte in the first section and with the instruments colla parte in the second sec-
tion. The effect of the added instruments is dramatic. Otherwise, the homophonic
sections, because of their key functions, do not have literal repeats of music. The
beginning of the movement is in D Major, followed by a modulation through G
Major to E Minor. Following this are several cadences in B Minor and D Major, the
key in which the movement ends. Lengthy pedal points are a significant charac-
teristic of the opening homophonic section.
Ahomophonic (113.5) with instrumental extension to20.5

B fugal (2138.5)
A homophonic (38.546)
B fugal (4660)
A homophonic (60end)
96 Choral Monuments
The three arias and one duet of the Gloria are, like the Christe from the Kyrie,
in a typical German-Baroque aria form, with instrumental melodic material based
on recurring motifs, instrumental sections that separate and delineate the vocal
sections, and modulations to related keys. Each of the Glorias solo movements
is, however, distinctive in scoring and rhythmic texture. The Laudamus te has
virtuosic passages for both solo violin and solo soprano 2, and also has numer-
ous printed ornaments; the duet for soprano 1 and tenor, Domine Deus, fea-
tures solo flute, which is often in dialogue with the first violins; the alto aria, Qui
sedes, shares melodic material and is in dialogue with an oboe damore; and the
bass aria, Quoniam tu solus sanctus, is in dialogue with a corno da caccia. All the
solo movements are of a moderate and similar length.
The Gratias agimus tibi is the one movement of the Gloria representative of
the Renaissance stile antico. It is notated (like Kyrie 2) in white rhythmic nota-
tion and in an alla breve meter. In addition, the texture consists of two points
of imitation, both a wedding of text and music, and the instrumental scoring is
colla parte with the voices except that the trumpets participate in the imitation
independently toward the end of the movement. Also like Kyrie 2 and the other
stile antico movements of the Mass, the Gratias is basically without internal
cadences. Overlapping phrases conceal the few cadential demarcations that serve
to separate points of imitation (e.g., measures 20.5 and 33). The two points of imi-
tation are to the text Gratias agimus tibi and propter magnam gloriam tuam
and continuously overlap each other. Note that the statements are organized logi-
cally at the beginning of the movement but are mixed randomly at the end, and
note also that the points are organized two plus two, with a combination of both
points at the end of the movement. In this ending section there are fifteen state-
ments of point 1, including two impactful independent statements by the trum-
pets (measures 3133), and only five statements of point 2. Point 1, then, with
almost twice the number of statements as point 2, is the predominant musical
figure of the movement.
Point 1 BTAS(15)
Point 2 BTAS(59)
Point 1BTAS, TASA (920) with one bass statement of point 2 beginning in
measure13
Point 2SATSBS (2026)
Points 1 and 2 combined (25end)
Qui tollis is an amalgamation of Renaissance and Baroque styles. The cho-

ral parts of the movement are imitative and appear to be organized in points
as in the Gratias agimus tibi. The instrumental parts, however, are completely
independent and are scored for undulating strings and two rhythmically active
flute parts. Both the choral and instrumental parts are in a continuous overlap-
ping texture, with only one obvious cadencethat in measure 28 (approximately
halfway through the movement) which separates the two text phrases Qui tollis
peccata mundi, miserere nobis and Qui tollis peccata mundi, suscipe depreca-
tionem nostram. Other less obvious cadences, each consisting of a dominant
followed by a tonic in the basso continuo, separate the two phrases into two
parts:1-A (Qui tollis peccata mundi), 1-B (Miserere nobis), 2-A (Qui tollis
peccata mundi), and 2-B (suscipe deprecationem nostram). Keeping true to
the Renaissance imitative technique, both Qui tollis peccata mundi phrases are
set to the same music, and thus it is this thematic music that dominates the
movement.
Phrase 1-AATSB (113) cadence in F-sharpMinor

Phrase 1-BAT plus more undefined(714)
Phrase 1-ASATB (1320) cadence in BMinor
Phrase 1-Bundefined (2028) cadence in F-sharpMinor
Phrase 2-A BTAS and Phrase 2-B BTA (2842) cadence in C-sharp Minor
Phrase 2-BSB (42end) cadence in F-sharpMinor
Cum sancto spiritu is very much structured like Et in terra pax at the begin-
ning of the Gloria, the two movements serving as bookends (if one considers the
opening Gloria in excelsis as an introduction or incipit, as would be the case
in a liturgical Catholic Mass). Both movements are in the Baroque stile moderno
or concertato style, both contain two fugal sections (the first of which is without
instrumental participation, except for the obligatory basso continuo, and the sec-
ond of which has full instrumental scoring), both have reuse of previous material,
and both are symmetrical in construction (ABABA). The only appreciable differ-
ence between the two movements is one of texture; the opening material in Cum
sancto spiritu is motivic and concerted instead of homophonic. The reuse of
material in the movement here is especially striking: measures 917 are the same
as 19 but in the dominant key; the downward arpeggio passages of the basso
continuo in the A sections are all the same; the middle A section of the move-
ment begins with material from A-2 (6465 and 6667 are like 1718) and then
continues with material from A-1 (7073 is like 57); and the fugues are the same
except that the first is in the dominant (A Major) and the second is in its relative
minor (F-sharp). Functionally, the opening A-1 sections are expository and the A-
2 section, with its harmonic sequences, an extension; the B sections are harmoni-
cally stable and represent the main compositional elements of the movement; the
middle A-1 and A-2 sections are developmental and transitory; and the final A-2
section is an extended closing.
A-1 concerted(19)
A-1 concerted(917)
A-2 concerted (1737)
B fugal (3764)
98 Choral Monuments
A-1 and 2concerted (6481)

B fugal (80111)
A-2 concerted (111end)
Credo
The nine numbered movements of the Credo, as with the nine numbered move-
ments of the Gloria, can be divided into five sections that are symmetrical in
arrangement: (1) two choral movements that are joined by key relationship, the
first of which is in the Renaissance stile antico over a fortspinnung basso continuo
line; (2) a solo movement scored for two oboes damore; (3) a coupling of three
choruses, the central one of which is the Crucifixus; (4) a solo movement also
scored for two oboes damore; and (5) two choral movements that are connected
by notationthe first movement, like that at the beginning of the Credo, in the
Renaissance stile antico over a fortspinnung basso continuo line, and the second
movement beginning in the same measure as the ending of the previous move-
ment. The overall structure of the Credo can then be described as ABABA, a struc-
tural design of many movements in the Mass.
(1) ATwo chorusesCredo in unum Deum and Patrem omnipotentem

(2) BDuetEt in unum Dominum with scoring for two oboes damore
(3) AThree chorusesEt incarnatus est, Crucifixus, and Et resurrexit
(4) BAriaEt in spiritum sanctum with scoring for two oboes damore
(5) ATwo chorusesConfiteor and Et expecto
The opening movement of the Credo, Credo in unum Deum, is a seven-voiced

point of imitation based on the first seven notes of the traditional Gregorian
chantthe incipit used by clergy in the Catholic Church (Example3.11).
Example3.11
The chant as it is notated in the Liber usualis has the fourth and fifth notes,
those set to the word unum, reversed, and this has caused considerable debate
among scholars, some postulating that Bach had religious reasons for the down-
ward stepwise motion. But Bach almost certainly took his chant from the Vopelius
Hymnbook of 1682, which has the notes as he used it. The seven voices of the
movement consist of five choral voice parts (SSATB) and two violin parts that,
together, participate in a total of sixteen statements of the chant point. Of
interest, the final bass statement is in augmentation (measures 3341), and the
final soprano 2 and alto statements (measures 3437) are simultaneous, in paral-
lel sixths. There are no internal cadences within the movement.
Patrem omnipotentem is also one lengthy point of imitation, here with
four-part chorus and trumpet participating in the imitative phrases over a rhyth-
mically dense basso continuo line. In this movement, however, there is also inde-
pendent scoring of different musical material for strings, oboes, other trumpets,
and timpani. There are eleven statements of the main theme, only one of which
is for trumpet (beginning in measure 29), and as with other similarly constructed
movements, there are no internal cadences with the exception of the downbeat of
measure 69, which acts as a final cadence, the remaining sixteen measures of the
movement serving as a closing or cadential extension.
Both solo movements of the Credo are, as the other solo movements in the
Mass, in a typical German-Baroque aria form, with instrumental melodic mate-
rial based on recurring motifs, instrumental sections that operate as ritornellos
and that alternate with the vocal sections, and modulations to related keys. The
Et in unum Dominum is unique in that Bach set it twice, first with text that
includes Et incarnatus est and then without this text after he set it as a sepa-
rate movement for chorus. Both versions of the Et in unum Dominum have the
same number of measures and are divided into the same key areas (except for the
first duet cadence, which is in G in the first version and in D in the second); only
the text setting and corresponding vocal writing are different. The chart below
illustrates, with the text of the first version on one line and the text of the second
version on the linebelow.
Instrumental Introduction (19) G

Duet (917) G/D
Et in unum Deum Jesum Christum, filium Dei ante omnia saecula
Et in unum Deum Jesum Christum
Duet (1728) D
Repeat filium Dei unigenitum, et ex Patre natum ante omnia saecula
filium Dei unigenitum
Ritornello (2834) D
Duet (3442) b
Deum de Deo, lumen de lumine, Deum verum per quem omnia
factasunt
et ex Patre natum ante omnia saecula
Ritornello (4248) b
Duet (4862.5) e
Qui propter nos homines, et propter nostram salutem descendit
de caelis
Deum de Deo, lumen de lumine, Deum verum per quem omnia factasunt
Ritornello (62.564.5) G

100 Choral Monuments
Duet (64.576.5) G
Et incarnatus est de spiritu sancto ex Maria Virgine, et homo factusest
Qui propter nos homines, et propter nostram salutem descendit de caelis
Ritornello (76.5end) G
This duet is also unique in its obvious text painting:the two vocal soloists and
the two oboes damore exchange motifs at the unison to portray the one God
of the text. In the aria for bass, Et in spiritum sanctum, the two oboes damore
are often in another form of union, that of simultaneous parallel thirds or sixths.
The three central movements of the Credoand of the Masshave no struc-
tural relationship, but instead seem to be one through-composed movement
divided into three separate and descriptive parts. Key relationships and the char-
acter of cadences aid in this perception:the first movement ends on a B Major
chord, the second movement begins in E Minor and ends on a G Major chord, and
the third movement begins and ends in DMajor.
Et incarnatus est is in three distinct sections:two similar sections to the text
Et incarnatus est de spiritu sancto ex Maria Virgine and a closing section to the
text et homo factus est. The first two sections are in two partsimitative (A-1)
and relatively homophonic (A-2), each ending with clear cadences (in F-sharp
Minor in measure 20 and in B Minor in measure 39), and each preceded by a
hemiola. Binding the entire movement together are continuous sounding violin
parts that introduce and separate the choral sections.
A-1(413)
A-2 (1320)
A-1 (2332)
A-2 (3239)
B (42end)
The Crucifixus consists of three textural strata:(1)strings and flutes in two-

note patterns that are in dialogue with each other and that pervade the entire
movement until five measures before it ends; (2) four-part chorus (specifically
designated for soprano 2, alto, tenor, and bass) that alternates between imitative
counterpoint and homophony; and (3)thirteen identical statements (except for
the final two measures of the movement) of a chaconne basso continuo line. The
constancy of the chaconne in both pitch and rhythm give the Crucifixus a stabil-
ity that plants this movement firmly at the center of the Credo and of the Mass.
There are occasional internal cadential demarcations that delineate text sections
(measures 29, 37, and 49), although only the last cadence feels in any way final. Of
particular expressive interest in this movement are the concluding five measures
that modulate to G Major and that are scored for chorus and basso continuo alone
and marked piano.
The Et resurrexit, as one would expect, is in the German-Baroque concerted
style, with scoring for full choral and instrumental forces and with these forces
participating in extended alternating passagesall passages based on a single four-

note motif. The movement is in three large sections, with each section further divided
into three parts and with the outer two sections similar in musical content and orga-
nization (i.e., instrumental ritornellos surrounding a central choral exposition). The
overall form can thus be seen, structurally, as ABA, even though the B section uses
material from A.The B section is also harmonically and texturally developmental
in nature. The openings of the two large Asections are referred to as instrumental
ritornellos because they serve this function and are mostly instrumental in content
even though they both begin with two measures of chorus and orchestra combined.
The second Asection is almost entirely derived from the first Asection.
Instrumental ritornello (19) AMajor cadence

Choral exposition (934) AMajor cadence
Instrumental ritornello (3450) AMajor cadence
Choral development (5066) B Minor cadence

Instrumental ritornello (6674) B Minor Cadence
Solo vocal development (7486) F-sharp Minor cadence
Instrumental ritornello (8692) Implied AMajor half cadence

Choral exposition (92111) D Major cadence
Instrumental ritornello (111end) D Major cadence
The two choruses that close the Credo, Confiteor and Et expecto, are, as
mentioned earlier, similar in design to the Credos opening two movementsone
movement being in the Renaissance stile antico with imitative phrases over a forts-
pinnung basso continuo line and quotations of Gregorian chant, and the other
movement being imitative but with independent instrumental scoring. The imi-
tative material in Confiteor is structured of overlapping phrases within a single
point of imitation that is divided into two portions (quite similar to Palestrinian
points of imitation). The first half of the point is to the text Confiteor unum bap-
tisma and the second half to the text in remissionem peccatorum. Bach begins
the movement with each of the five voice parts presenting the first half of the
point in descending order (S1-S2-A-T-B). Then he presents the second half of the
point by the voices in relative ascending order (T-A-S2-S1-B). Following this is
a lengthy section with both halves of the point used alternately or simultane-
ously (e.g., soprano voices in measure 31 and alto and tenor in measure 34), and
then, after a four-measure basso continuo pedal point (measures 6972), Bach
introduces the Confiteor text to the Gregorian chant as found in the Vopelius
Hymnbook of 1682 and as seen in Example3.12.
Example3.12
The chant is used as a cantus firmus in the bass and alto voices (the alto being
in canon with the bass), while the other voices continue statements of their previ-
ous material. Following this chant statement, Bach repeats the cantus firmus, but
this time in augmentation in the tenor voice. Finally, the movement ends with a
relatively homophonic section of music to the text Et expecto resurrectionem
mortuorum. While the movement is divided into the various sections described
above, most of the movement, because of overlapping phrases and cadences miti-
gated by suspensions, seems to be one long unfolding point of imitation. Internal
cadential demarcations can be observed, however, in measures 16, 32, 55, 73, 92,
and123.
The Et expecto resurrectionem mortuorum text in the closing of the move-
ment above (marked by Bach Adagio) acts as a dramatic transition to the same
text used in the movement that follows (marked by Bach Vivace e Allegro). This
movement, like so many in the B Minor Mass, is in five sections. The two white-
note imitative B sections are clearly related, as are the melismatic C sections. The
first C section ends with material from A, which has the same function as the end
of the firstA.
A (19, extendedto17)
B (17.541)
C/A (40.553, extendedto61)
B (61.587)
C (87.5end)
Sanctus
Traditional musical settings of the Catholic Mass Ordinary divide the Sanctus
into four component parts: Sanctus, Hosanna, Benedictus, and a repeat of the
Hosanna. Bach, however, divides the first portion into two, Sanctus and Pleni
sunt coeli, to make a total of five parts of the Sanctusfive parts here corre-
sponding to the five parts of the Gloria and Credo, and resulting in five parts each
to the three central movements of theMass.
The first part, Sanctus, is perhaps the most distinctive movement in the
Mass: triplet figurations, triple voice combinations moving in parallel motion
(emulating the fauxbordon textures of early Renaissance music), and downward
and upward scalar passages are all used exclusively in this movement. Bach logi-
cally structures these compositional elements into three sections (tonic, domi-
nant, tonic) followed by an extension that leads to Pleni sunt coeli. Referring
to the chart below, Sanctus 1 ends with a downward scalar passage in the bass,
Sanctus 2 ends with an upward scalar passage, and Sanctus 3 mimics Sanctus 1,
with additional downward scalar passages arranged sequentially. The extension is
notable for its five-measure upward scalar passage (measures 3034) and for its
ending, which is drawn from the ending of Sanctus 3.The transition to Pleni sunt
coeli is notable for its long choral bass melisma (measures 43.546.5). For clarity,
it is best to show the structure of the movement in groups of measures (e.g., 4 + 2)
followed by the measure numbers of the movement in parentheses.
Sanctus 14 + 2 down(17)
Sanctus 24 + 2 up(713)
Sanctus 34 + 6 down sequentially + 2 (1325)
Extension5 + 5 up + 6 down sequentially + 7 transition (25end)
Pleni sunt coeli is completely different from Sanctus and should be consid-
ered a separate movement. It is characterized by 3/8 meter, a fugal structure with
alternating sections of expository and episodic material, fugal statements that
frequently occur with two voices in thirds or sixths, and hemiolas that end each
fugal statement. The first expository section consists of five fugal statements,
with alternating cadences on the tonic and dominant (D, A, D, A, D). The first epi-
sodic section is in three parts, each part ending with a complete fugal statement
in a different key area (E Minor, B Minor, and D Major). The second expository
section is like the first, but with only three fugal statements (cadencing on A, D,
and G), and the final episodic section is like its predecessor, ending with com-
plete fugal statements (both on D). As with Sanctus, the chart below identifies
measure groupings in addition to sections in measure numbers. Note that each
number 6 represents a complete fugal statement.
Exposition 16 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 (4878)
Episode 19 + 6, 5 + 6, and 9 + 6 (78119)
Exposition 26 + 6 + 6 (119137)
Episode 210 + 6 and 9 + 6 (137end)
Osanna is in the double-choir dialogue style fashionable in the majority of

motets composed by members of the Bach family, with the exception that the
Osanna has independent instrumental parts whereas the motets were a cappella
(although instruments likely doubled the choral parts colla parte). Typical of the
motets, the two choirs have short passages that are in dialogue with each other
and also long sections of music that are exchanged. In the Osanna, the exposi-
tory material sung by the first choir in measures 15 to 38 is sung by the second
choir in measures 39 to 62. These lengthy expository sections are preceded by an
introduction and followed by episodic and closing material.
Introduction(114)
Expositionchoir 1 answered by choir 2 (1542)
Expositionchoir 2 answered by choir 1 (3962)
Episodedialogue between the choirs (63104)
Extension with echo effects(105116)

Instrumental closing (117end)
The Benedictus is in the style of the other solo movements in the Mass, with
instrumental melodic material based on recurring motifs, instrumental sections
that separate and delineate the vocal sections, and modulations to related keys.
In the aria here (for flute, tenor, and basso continuo) the flute and tenor do not
generally share motivic material. The flute has triplet figurations (perhaps reflect-
ing those in the Sanctus) and is rhythmically dense; the tenor part has duple
rhythms throughout and is much less active rhythmically. Structurally, it is impor-
tant to recognize that the aria is in five parts with alternating textures:instru-
mental, vocal, instrumental, vocal, and instrumental. Following the aria is a literal
repeat of the Osanna.
AgnusDei
The Agnus Dei is similar to the Benedictus in many respects:its texture con-
sists of a melodic instrumental line, a solo vocal line, and basso continuo; the
movement is divided symmetrically into five parts (instrumental, vocal, instru-
mental, vocal, and instrumental); and the two arias are about the same length.
Regarding the five-part structure, the middle instrumental section is taken from
the first four measures of the introduction, but in the dominant key, and the final
instrumental section is taken from the last four measures of the introduction,
but with significant octave displacements. The vocal part (for alto) is divided
into two melodically contrasting portions (a fermata divides these portions in
measure 34). The first portion has new material, not related to the instrumental
music (played by violins in unison), but the second portion is taken directly from
the instrumental sections. Both complete sections of the vocal part are similar to
eachother.
Traditional settings of the Agnus Dei are divided into three sections or move-
ments based on the organization of the Catholic Ordinarytext:
Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, misererenobis.

Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, misererenobis.
Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, dona nobispacem.
The first two of these lines are adequately covered in the two vocal sections dis-
cussed earlier. However, Bach does not set the beginning of the third line; he does
not state Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi a third time. Instead, in a radi-
cal departure from tradition, he only sets the final words, Dona nobis pacem.
Furthermore, as has been discussed, he borrows music for the Dona nobis pacem
from the Gratias movement of the Gloria. Comparison of the text underlay of
these two movements can be seen in Examples3.5 and3.6.
Summary
Symmetrical structuresthose made up of three, five, or seven partspervade
the B Minor Mass and can be seen in the organization of individual movements, in
the combinations of movements into the Ordinary portions of the Mass, and in
the arrangement of the Mass as awhole.
The structure of movements depends upon the style of the music, stile antico
or stile moderno. The older style, evident in five of the Masss choral movements,
is generally characterized by textures of overlapping points of imitation that
have no symmetrical disposition. The movements in the newer Baroque style, on
the other hand, are often structurally symmetrical. This includes all seven of the
movements for solo voice (the four arias and three duets), which have alternat-
ing sections of instrumental and vocal writing. The arias at the end of the Mass
(Benedictus and Agnus Dei) are in three parts, with related instrumental
sections at the beginning, middle, and end of the movement. The arias at the
beginning of the Mass (Christe, Laudamus te, Domine Deus, Qui sedes,
and Quoniam) are in seven comparable sections. The choral movements in the
stile moderno all have repeat structures, and these are significant. However, only a
few of them are symmetrical. Notable are the five sections of the Et in terra pax
and Cum sancto spiritu and the three-plus-three sections of the Et resurrexit.
The five-part structures of the three central Ordinary portions of the Mass are
especially striking. As described in detail above, the Gloria is anchored by three
connected pairs of movements at its beginning, middle, and end. Similarly, the
Credo has connected pairs of movements at its beginning, middle, and end, and
the Sanctus, while not symmetrical, is divided into five movements. Finally, it
should not go unnoticed that the Mass itself is divided into five portions.

PerformingForces
The B Minor Mass is scored overall for five soloists (SSATB), mixed chorus
(SSAATTBB), two flutes, three oboes (doubling two oboes damore), two bassoons,
corno da caccia, three trumpets, timpani, strings, and continuo (cello, bass, bas-
soon, and organ).
The soloists are employed as follows:soprano 1 in three duets, soprano 2 in
one aria and one duet, alto in two arias and one duet, tenor in one aria and one
duet, and bass in two arias plus a short passage in the Et resurrexit. The chorus
is mostly scored for four or five parts (SATB or SSATB), the only exceptions being
the Sanctus (SSAATB) and Osanna (SATB/SATB).
The oboe damore, which was commonly used in Germany during Bachs time,
is slightly larger and sounds a minor third lower than the oboe. As such, its tim-
bre is between that of an oboe and an English horn (cor anglais). Bach scored
the oboe damore in five movements of the B Minor Masstwo arias, one duet,
and two choruses (Kyrie 1 and Kyrie 2). Almost all the movements scored for
oboes or oboes damore call for two players; the third oboe is used only in the
Sanctus. The corno da caccia (hunting horn), also commonly used in orchestras
during Bachs time, was a valveless non-transposing instrument, generally played
by trumpeters. Only one movement of the B Minor Mass is scored for the corno da
cacciathe aria Quoniam tu solus sanctus.
Bachs Short but most necessary draft for a well-appointed church music
is often cited as the source for determining appropriate numbers of performers
when performing his compositions, including the B Minor Mass. Bachs memo-
randum, written to the Town Council of Leipzig in August of 1730, enumerates
the limited numbers of singers and instrumentalists he had at his disposal for
services in the four main Lutheran churches in Leipzig (St. Thomas, St. Nicholas,
St. Peter, and the New Church). The memorandum also makes a recommendation
for the minimum numbers of singers needed on a regular basis for the services.
Bach writes,
Every musical choir should contain at least 3 sopranos, 3 altos, 3 tenors, and
as many basses, so that even if one happens to fall ill (as very often happens,
particularly at this time of year, as the prescriptions written by the school phy-
sician for the apothecary must show) at least a double-chorus motet may be
sung. (N.B. Though it would be still better if the classes were such that one
could have 4 singers on each part and thus could perform every chorus with
16 persons.)
This recommendation is for regular services, not for special services such as those
at Easter and Christmas. For these special services, which generally alternated
year by year between St. Thomas and St. Nicholas, the musical forces were com-
bined. Combined forces were also used for other special performances, such as
those for the Town Council and for important weddings and funerals.
Existing manuscript parts (i.e., those individual performing parts for the sing-
ers and instrumentalists) is another source cited to determine the numbers of
singers and instrumentalists Bach used for performances. For instance, Bach
included only one set of partsone part for each performerwhen he sent his
Missa to Dresden in 1733. As a result, some present-day scholars and conductors
feel that the Missa and all other Bach works, including the B Minor Mass, should
be performed with only one singer and player per part. This is a flawed assump-
tion, though, since it was common practice to include only one set of parts for
scores sent as gifts (copying multiple parts was time consuming and expensive).
When Bach loaned the Sanctus to Count Sporck, he included only one set of parts.
However, he kept another set of parts for himself (which was fortuitous since
Sporck never returned the original set and Bach performed the Sanctus at least
twice again in Leipzig). There are, in addition, extant extra ripieno parts for some
of the Leipzig cantatas, including Ich hatte viel Bekmmernis (BWV 21)and Wir
danken dir, Gott, wir danken dir (BWV 29), the first choral movement of which was
parodied for the B Minor Mass. Also attesting to multiple performers per part are
eyewitness accounts of Bach leading thirty or even forty musicians at a regular
service in 1738 and over forty musicians in1745.
It is logical to assume, then, that the sizes of Bachs ensembles varied. For regu-
lar liturgical services, he might have had only one singer and instrumentalist per
part. But special observances and events, including Holy Week services during
which the passions were performed, he had multiple singers and instrumentalists
per part. In addition, for performances of works such as the B Minor Mass, it is
important to consider the musical resources available outside Leipzig. In Dresden,
for example, the Hofkirche had a regular choir of twenty boys, men, and castratos,
and in addition, there were singers, especially fine soloists, in the court cappella.
The Dresden instrumental resources included four to six first violins, four to six
second violins, and two to four violas, cellos, and basses.
Were there to have been a performance of the B Minor Mass in Leipzig or
Dresden during the 1740s, the total ensemble would likely have consisted of
twenty-four singers and from twenty-seven to thirty-three instrumentalists
(eleven winds and brass and from sixteen to twenty-two strings), plus a continuo
organist. Given that the soprano parts would have been sung mostly by boys and
that the other parts sung by adults, the vocal forces would have been divided into
six first sopranos, six second sopranos, four altos, four tenors, and four basses,
and divided further in the Osanna into six sopranos, two altos, two tenors, and
two basses for each of the two choirs.
The vocal forces were divided between soloists (called concertists) and choris-
ters (called ripienists). Bach explains in his Town Council memorandum:
In order that the choruses of church pieces may be performed as is fitting, the
vocalists must be divided into 2 sorts, namely, concertists and ripienists.
The concertists are ordinarily 4 in number; sometimes also 5, 6, 7, even 8; that
is if one wishes to perform music for two choirs. The ripienists, too, must be at
least 8, namely two for eachpart.
The concertists (soloists) would have been a part of the choral ensemble and
would have sung the choral movements as well as the arias. We know this because
the choral parts were also written in the solo parts. To clarify, Bach generally had
two sets of vocal parts for the singers; one part contained both the solo and cho-
ral movements or choral sections, and the other part contained only the choral
movements or choral sections. In the Dresden court there were generally three
sets of vocal partstwo containing just the choruses and one containing the
solos and choruses.
In addition to arias and choral movements, the soloists also sang shorter solo
sections within movements. Acase in point is the et iterum venturus passage
for bass (measures 7486) in the Et resurrexit movement from the Credo of the
B Minor Mass. Other examples can be seen in the Gloria of Bachs Missa in AMajor
(BWV 234), where lengthy passages, marked adagio e piano and scored for solo
voices, alternate with Vivace passages for chorus. These places in Bachs Masses
are clearly independent solo passages. There were, in addition, occasional ensem-
ble passages for the concertists. These, such as in the third movement of cantata
Ein ungefrbt Gemte (BWV 24), are marked by Bach solo. It is unlikely, as pro-
posed by some scholars and conductors, that the concertists sang thinly textured
passages in choral movements (such as at the beginning of fugues), joined by the
ripienists at some later point. The parts that the concertists sang are all soloistic
in nature and defined by phrases with clear beginnings and endings.
The soprano soloists for the sacred repertoire in Leipzig were boys. However,
the soprano soloists who performed sacred works in the Dresden Hofkirche were
adult women and castratos from the court cappella who also sang in opera produc-
tions. Famous among these were the soprano Faustina Bordoni and the castrato
Giovanni Bindi. When one considers the virtuosic nature of the Laudamus te
from the B Minor Mass, which was originally a part of the 1733 Missa composed
for the Dresden court, it is a logical assumption that Bach intended the aria to be
sung by an adult, not a boy. Women certainly sang in German churches. Johann
Mattheson (16811764) makes mention of this in his important 1739 treatise
Der vollkommene Capellmeister (The Complete Chapel Music Director).
The female is simply indispensable among these persons [chapel singers], espe-
cially where no castratos are available. Iknow the toil and trouble it cost me
to introduce female singers in the cathedral here [St. Marys in Hamburg].
Youths are of little use. Imean the chapel boys. Before they obtain reasonable
skill in singing the soprano voice isgone.
The alto solos were sung by men (counter tenors and falsettists), and the alto
choral parts were sung by a mixture of boys and adult men. The range of Bachs
alto parts is typically lower than that of modern-day alto parts in German (and
American) repertoire. For example, the range of the alto part in the Et in unum
Dominum duet from the Credo of the B Minor Mass goes to Aand G below middle
C (or G-sharp and F-sharp if performed at low pitch). In addition, the male alto
typically had (and still has) more natural volume in the lowrange.
All the soloistsmale or female, child or adultwould have had voices char-
acterized by clear and pure timbres, these timbres matching those of the instru-
ments of the time and, therefore, timbres considerably softer than those generally
produced by vocalists today. In his flute treatise of 1752, Johann Joachim Quantz
(16971773) makes a comparison between the sound of the voice and that of
the flute, writing, The most pleasing tone quality on the flute is that which more
nearly resembles a contralto than a soprano, or which imitates the chest tones
of the human voice. By comparing the timbre of the flute to that of vocal chest
tones clearly suggests that the vocalism of his time was different from the rich and
full-bodied sounds of modern times. Quantz also writes that A singer must know
how to join the falsetto to the chest voice in such a way that one does not perceive
where the latter ends and the former begins, and he further writes, The chest
voice is the natural one used in speaking, while the falsetto is artificial, and is
used only in singing. It begins where the chest voice ends, and the tone quality
becomes only a little weaker than in the natural voice. One could also say, then,
that the natural voice is only a little stronger than the falsetto. As an additional
perspective of the timbre and volume of voices, Johann Mattheson writes in his
1739 guide for the Kapellmeister, One simply must be amazed by the clever
rule which has already served for two hundred years, that each singing voice, the
higher it goes, should be produced increasingly temperately and lightly.
The matching of timbres and volumes between the singers and instrumental-
ists is rarely heard in modern-day performances, even performances with period
instruments; while the chorus is often compatible with the instruments, the
vocal soloists regularly sing with robust timbres, noticeable vibrato, and volumes
louder than an entire choral section. This disparity between the vocal soloists and
the instruments and chorus is unfortunate since the lightness of vocal production
is critical to effectively realizing Bachs textures and because the equable interplay
of performing forces is such a key element to the realization of Bachs masterful
writing.
Regarding stage placement, the soloists in a work such as the B Minor Mass
would have been positioned within the chorus and would, therefore, most likely
have sung their arias in close proximity to the chorus. In a venue such as St.
Thomas in Leipzig, all the performers were situated in the main balcony of the
church (on the west end of the building, above and behind the congregation/audi-
ence). As such, the soloists would probably have sung their arias close to the bal-
conys edge. In a venue such as the Dresden Hofkirche, all the performers would
have been on a stage area in front of the congregation/audience. (The Dresden
Hofkirchethe shortened name of Hofkirche im Theaterwas an opera house
until 1708, when it was converted for use as the court Catholic chapel; it remained
the chapel until a new Hofkirche was built in 1751.) Even in this stage-like space,
the soloists would likely have sung their arias close to their positions in the cho-
rus, and these positions would most certainly have been beside, not in front of
the orchestra, since the choir would have been arranged in two groups on either
side of the orchestra.
It was most common throughout the Baroque era to divide choirs and violins
into two relatively equal and balanced groupings on either side of the performing
area. The first sopranos with a contingent of altos, tenors, and basses would have
been on the left side (as seen from the audience) beside the first violins, and the
second sopranos with a grouping of altos, tenors, and basses would have been on
the right side beside the second violins. The placement of the sopranos and vio-
lins on either side of the performing area was sonically advantageous, as the parts
Organ
B
2 Fl. Hn. 4 Bass 2 Bsn. Timp.
SII
3 Tpt.
T
3 Ob.
SI
T
4 Vla. 4 Vlc.
Org.
A
A
6 Vln. I 6 Vln. II
Soloists Soloists
Diagram 3.A
Altar
B
B
T
T
Hn. Timp. SI
SI I A
A
2 Fl. 4 Bass 2 Bsn.

3T
b. pt
3O 4 Vla. Org. 4 Vlc. .
Soloists Soloists
6 Vln. I 6 Vln. II
Diagram 3.B
often traded musical material back and forth. Also, the disposition of the choir
into two groups was logistically necessary in most churchesthose with narrow
rear balconies or with choir stalls facing each other at the front of the building.
Furthermore, in a sacred space such as the Dresden Hofkirche, it would have
been inappropriate for singers to stand in the center of the space in front of
thealtar.
The rear balcony in St. Thomas is quite deep today, the depth being the result of
an expansion in the nineteenth century. In addition, there is a large organ (called
the Sauer organ) that did not exist during Bachs life. Current performances on
the balcony situate the choir behind the orchestra in front of the Sauer organ.
However, during the eighteenth century the choir would have been positioned on
either side of the orchestra, as was necessary logistically, but also the customary
arrangement of choral and orchestral forces.
Shown in Diagram 3.A is a proposed arrangement of performing forces in St.
Thomas, and in Diagram 3.B a proposed arrangement in the Dresden Hofkirche.
Meter andTempo
Meter and tempo were related during the Baroque era in that meter signatures
conveyed rates of tempo as well as metric organizations. Composers chose and
notated meter signatures based on the tempos they conceived for their composi-
tions, and in like manner, performers took meter signatures into account when
they ascertained tempos for performance. Composers generally did not feel the
need to indicate Italian tempo terms, although they occasionally added these
superscriptions to the signatures either to modify, change, or convey expressive
nuance to the meter signatures. In addition, composers relied on performers to
base their tempos on the compositions expressive contentthe Affekt of the
music. Confirming this, a student of Bach, Johann Gotthilf Ziegler (16881747),
wrote in a letter in 1746, I was instructed by my teacher, Kapellmeister Bach,
who is still living, not to play the songs [chorales] merely offhand, but according
to the sense [Affekt] of the words.
Affekt during the Baroque era in Germany, which refers to Affektenlehre
(the Doctrine of Affections), was a significant and important component of
composition. All musiceach phrase, movement, piece, or work, whether
vocal or instrumentalwas to embody a particular feeling, emotion, or pas-
sion. Meter, key, rhythmic content, and melodic shapes were the elements
chosen and designed by composers to represent and communicate the Affekt.
Performers were then obliged to discern the Affekt and communicate it in
performance. Johann Mattheson writes extensively about this, providing
specific guidelines for the composer and performer, and concluding with the
summary,
Because the proper goal of all melody can be nothing other than the sort of
diversion of the hearing through which the passions of the soul are stirred,
thus no one at all will obtain this goal who is not aiming at it, who feels no
affection. But if he is stirred in a more noble way and wants to move others
with harmony, then he must know how without the words to express sincerely
all the emotions of the heart through selected sounds and their skillful combi-
nation in such a way that the auditor might fully grasp and clearly understand
them, as if it were actual speech, the impetus, the sense, the meaning, and the
expression, as well as all the pertaining divisions and cadences.
Specifically regarding the communication of Affekt through meter and tempo,

small numbers in the denominator of the metric fraction indicated slow tempos,
large numbers indicated fast tempos, and numbers in between indicated medium
or regular tempos. This is especially evident in triple time: 3/2 indicated a slow
tempo, 3/4 a medium tempo, and 3/8 a fast tempo. In the B Minor Mass, one move-
ment (Crucifixus) is in 3/2, six movements (Qui tollis, Quoniam tu solus sanc-
tus, Cum sancto spiritu, Et incarnatus est, Et resurrexit, and Benedictus) are
in 3/4, and three movements (Gloria in excelsis, Pleni sunt coeli, and Osanna)
are in 3/8. Most of the meters of these movements are logical when one considers the
expressive meanings of their texts. This is especially true with the movements in 3/8;
the Affekt of the texts obviously imply fast tempos. The medium tempos of the
movements in 3/4 are also obvious except for Cum sancto spiritu and Et resur-
rexit, which, according to their texts, should be fast. But Bach indicates fast for
these movements by marking Vivace at the beginning of Cum sancto spiritu and
Vivace e allegro at the beginning of Et expecto. The 3/2 meter of the Crucifixus
should present no problem; the text is obviously mournful, the key is minor, and the
rhythmic content consists of thirteen statements of a downward chromatic passa-
caglia. The movement is clearly meant to be taken at a slow tempo. However, most
performances of this movement are taken at the same or even faster tempo than
the 3/4 Et incarnatus est which precedes it. This is nonsensical. The meter of the
Crucifixus as well as every element of its expressive content should align to com-
municate a consistent Affekt, one that is best served by its intended slow tempo.
The duple meters in the B Minor Mass are divided between common time and
alla breve. The eight movements with a common time meter signature (Kyrie 1,
Christe, Et in terra pax, Laudamus te, Domine Deus, Et in unum
Dominum, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei) seem to warrant a medium or common
tempo except for Agnus Dei, which, because of its clear and obvious Affekt, is
meant to be slow. Bach marks the Kyrie 1 fugue Largo to modify the general
meaning of the common time meter, and he marks Andante at the beginning of
Et in unum Dominum to indicate that the basso continuo line should be per-
formed evenly, not altered in the style of notes ingales.
The alla breve movements, as one might expect, are all in the Renaissance stile
antico. Bach specifically marks alla breve at the beginning of two of these move-
ments (Kyrie 2 and Gratias). Primary sources from the middle years of the
eighteenth century state that the tempo of alla breve should be fast, although fast
probably means that the speed of the half note in alla breve was to be approxi-
mately the same as the speed of the quarter note in common time. The following
explanations are excerpts from (1) Johann Gottfried Walthers music diction-
ary of 1732; (2) Johann Joachim Quantzs flute treatise of 1752; (3) Friedrich
Wilhelm Marpurgs clavier treatise of 1755; and (4)Johann Philipp Kirnbergers
composition treatise of1771.
(1) Alla breve, by which the Old Italians understood a time in which the breve [double
whole note], or a note with two beats, was executed by one beat down and one beat up,
or in its stead two semi-breves [whole notes] or four minims [half notes] were used.
This meter was indicated by a half circle with a stroke through it and was treated as a
very fasttime.
(2) In four-four time it is important to note that if a stroke goes through the C, the notes
receive a different value, so to speak, and must be played twice as fast as when the C
has no stroke through it. In this meter, called alla breve or alla cappella, the half notes
receive as much time as the quarter notes in commontime.
(3) The 2/2 meter consists of two divisions, each of which contains a half note. It is called
the Alla breve Meter and is indicated by a large 2 or a large C slashed through.
When one finds after the signature for this meter the words alla cappella or alla breve,
this means that the beats ought to pass very quickly.
(4) 2/2 meter, or rather alla breve is most frequently used in church pieces,
fugues, and elaborate choruses. It should be noted about this meter that it is
very serious and emphatic, yet it is to be performed twice as fast as its note
values indicate.
Two other meter signatures are used in the B Minor Mass6/8 and 2 |. The
6/8 meter (used in Qui sedes ad dexteram Patris of the Gloria and Et in
spiritum sanctum of the Credo) relates to 3/8 in that the 8 in the denomina-
tor of the metric fraction indicates a fast tempo. The dotted quarter note,
being the basic pulse of the meter, would be relatively the same in both
3/8 and 6/8. The 2 |(used in Patrem omnipotentem) is an uncommon meter
signature, one related to alla breve, but one signifying a faster tempo.
Rhythmic Alteration
Of the several different types of rhythmic alteration common during the
Baroque era, the only one that applies to the B Minor Mass is rhythmic
conformitythe practice of adapting the short note of dotted rhythms to a
prevailing rhythmic pattern of triplets. The need for the practice, or the rea-
son for the writing of duple-oriented dotted rhythms against triplets, was the
result of a notational shorthand. It was easier to write dotted rhythms than it
was to write two notes under a triplet bracket (a notational device that was not
yet devised). In addition, the alteration of dotted rhythms was common during
the Baroque, with the dotted note of the rhythmic pattern occasionally held
longer than printed (called over-dotting or double-dotting). Performers
during the era were not bound by or limited to mathematically proportioned
representations of rhythmic values as they were notated, but were free to vary
the values for expressive or typographical reasons. The initial Sanctus of the
B Minor Mass is replete with the simultaneity of dotted and triplet rhythmic
patterns. Shown here in Example 3.13, as an example, are the violin 1 and
soprano 1 parts of measure11.
Example3.13
In this measure and throughout the movement, the final note of the dotted
rhythms should be performed simultaneously with the final note of the triplets.
Ornamentation
There is a widespread, though unfounded, belief that no ornamentation should be
added to Bach scoresthat only notated trills and other single-note ornaments
should be observed and performed. The reasoning behind this belief stems from
the dense textures of Bachs music and other late-Baroque German composers;
adding anything extra seems unnecessary and unwarranted given the already
highly ornamental character of the music. There is also a quote from a 1737 letter
by Johann Adolph Scheibe (17081776), an organist who lived in Leipzig during
Bachs early yearsthere.
Since he [presumably Bach] judges according to his own fingers, his pieces
are extremely difficult to play, for he demands that singers and instrumental-
ists should be able to do with their throats and instruments whatever he can
play on the clavier. But this is impossible. Every ornament, every little grace,
and everything that one thinks of as belonging to the method of playing, he
expresses completely innotes.
This quote, often taken out of context, seems to suggest that Bach did not add
ornaments to his keyboard pieces. However, the sentence immediately before the
one quoted above suggests otherwise.
This great man would be the admiration of whole nations if he had more ame-
nity, if he did not take away the natural element in his pieces by giving them
a turgid and confused style, and if he did not darken their beauty by an excess
ofart.
Scheibe was objecting to Bachs practice of ornamentation, which he found to be

excessive. Others, however, found Bachs practice of ornamentation to be nor-
mal and acceptable. Johann Abraham Birnbaum (17021748), another Leipzig
resident, made mention of and refuted Scheibes claim the year after he made it,
stating that Scheibe errs mightily. The manner of [Bachs] singing or playing
is almost everywhere valued and considered desirable. There are also testaments
to the practice of enriching printed scores with added material in numerous
German sources throughout the Baroque era, including Ernst Gottlieb Barons
lute treatise of 1727, Johann Matthesons guide for the Kapellmeister of 1739,
Johann Joachim Quantzs flute treatise of 1752, and C.P. E.Bachs clavier treatise
of 1753. Mattheson writes, Embellishment depends more on the skillfulness and
sound judgment of a singer or player than on the actual prescription of the com-
poser, and C.P. E.Bach writes, No one disputes the need for embellishments.
This is evident from the great numbers of them everywhere to be found. They are,
in fact, indispensable.
Ornamentation was indeed a fact of performance in all countries and in all rep-
ertoire during the Baroque era, whether for singer or instrumentalist or whether in
sacred or secular music. One need only determine the type and frequency of orna-
ments appropriate for a particular scorehere, the B Minor Mass. It is probable
that short melodic passages (passaggi) were added by solo singers and solo instru-
mentalists in arias; this was a common practice and would have been evident in
compositions such as the B Minor Mass. (For a discussion of passaggi see Shrock,
Performance Practices in the Baroque Era.) It is certain that single-note ornaments
(mostly trills and appoggiaturas) were added by singers and instrumentalists in
both solo and ensemble situations. Bach notated most of the appoggiaturas and
trills within phrases. However, he almost never marked trills at cadences, most
likely knowing that performers would simply apply them as was the custom. Or,
as is the case in Kyrie 1, he marked a trill sign only at the initial major cadence
(measure 29), but not at the other cadences (measures 72, 112, and 126), which
are related to and just as important as the first. Similarly, Bach marked a trill sign
in the choral soprano 1 part in measure 42, but not in the next measure, when,
clearly, both measures should be treated similarly. Following, in Example 3.14, is
first, Bachs notation of this soprano 1 part in measures 42 and 43, and, second, in
Example 3.15, the two measures as they would likely have been performed.
Example3.14
Example3.15
The most common need for trills in the B Minor Mass (and many, many other
compositions in the Baroque era) is in music composed in the stile moderno and
within the cadential formula involving a descending third immediately prior to a
leading tone and tonic resolution. Instances of these numerous cadential formu-
las found throughout the B Minor Mass are shown in Examples3.16, 3.17, and
3.18, with the ornamented realization below the original notation.
Example3.16: Gloria in excelsis, measures 2325 (hemiola), flutes, oboes, and

violin1
Example3.17: Et incarnatus est, measures 3739 (hemiola), sopranos 1and2
Example3.18: Pleni sunt coeli, measures 5254 (hemiola),tenor
Other typical trills, as seen in Examples3.19 and 3.20, are at cadences involv-
ing stepwise motion.
Example3.19: Et in terra pax, measures 1213, soprano 1and2
Example3.20: Sanctus, measure 47, soprano
Note that all the trills are merely decorations of appoggiaturas. In the case
of trills in a descending third, an appoggiatura (the note filling in the gap in the
third) is applied and held for the major part of the notes duration; a short single
trill then decorates the note before its cadential resolution. In the case of trills in
stepwise motion patterns, the appoggiatura already exists. The trill, therefore,
begins on this note and decorates its ending. In all cases the trills are short. Long
trills were applied only by soloists (vocal and instrumental) and on long notes
within phrases.
Summary
All performance practices are style related; they contribute to the overall char-
acter of music and the expression of traits that give the music a specific iden-
tity. Some performance practices, however, are also notational and are, therefore,
embedded in the fabric of the music. If these notational practices are regarded
appropriately, the music has an opportunity to be revealed as it was intended; if
regarded inappropriately, either through ignorance of notational understanding
or neglect, the music is altered. The conveyance of tempo through meter signa-
tures and the conforming of duple rhythms to triplet patterns are both examples
of notational performance practices; they depend upon a knowledge of notation
as it was understood at the time of composition, and they need to be considered
along with other elements of notation such as clefs, pitches, key signatures, artic-
ulation markings, and scorings for particular voices and instruments. They are all
components of notation used by a composer to relay specific meanings.
Ornaments are also notational. Appoggiaturas, trills, and other musical embel-
lishments are major components of the Baroque sensibility and are like beads on
Baroque dresses, putti in Baroque paintings, or festoons on Baroque buildings.
Without an excess of beads, putti, and festoons, the dresses, paintings, and build-
ings lose fundamental and innate qualities of their being; they lose what makes
them essentially Baroque. Even more detrimental to Baroque character is the
removal or absence of major structural ornamentsbeads missing from the cen-
ter neckline of a dress, putti missing from clouds over an angels head, festoons
missing from above the main entrance of a building. So it is with ornaments in
music. Without an abundance of them, the scores are not fully Baroque; without
ornaments at cadences, the scores are less than Baroque. But scattered through-
out the texture of the score and applied at cadences, ornaments properly embel-
lish phrases and enhance the structural significance of cadences. Ornaments
make Baroque music Baroque.
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18th Centuries. Oxford University Press, 1931. Reprinted by Dover,1965.
Bach, Carl Philipp Emmanuel. Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments. Translated
and edited by William J. Mitchell. W. W.Norton,1949.
Brown, Howard Mayer and Sadie, Stanley. Performance Practice: Music after 1600. W.
W.Norton,1989.
Butt, John. Bach: Mass in B Minor. Cambridge Music Handbooks. Cambridge University
Press,1991.
Carse, Adam. The Orchestra in the XVIIIth Century. W. Heffer & Sons, 1940. Reprinted,1950.
David, Hans T. and Mendel, Arthur, editors. The Bach Reader:ALife of Johann Sebastian Bach in
Letters and Documents. W. W.Norton,1966.
Drr, Alfred. The Cantatas of J. S. Bach. Translated by Richard Jones. Oxford University
Press,2005.
Dreyfus, Laurence. Bachs Continuo Group: Players and Practices in His Vocal Works. Harvard
Elliott, Martha. Singing in Style:AGuide to Vocal Performance Practices. Yale University Press,2006.
Forkel, Johann Nikolaus. Johann Sebastian Bach:His Life, Art, and Work. Constable and Company,
1920. Reprinted by Da Capo Press,1970.
Geck, Martin. Johann Sebastian Bach:Life and Work. Translated by John Hargraves. Harcourt,2006.
MacClintock, Carol. Readings in the History of Music in Performance. Indiana University
Press,1979.
Mattheson, Johann. The Complete Music Director. Translated by Ernest C. Harris. UMI Research
Press,1981.
Quantz, Johann Joachim. On Playing the Flute. Translated by Edward R. Reilly. Schirmer
Books,1966.
Rowen, Ruth Halle. Music through Sources and Documents. Prentice-Hall,1979.
Shrock, Dennis. Performance Practices in the Baroque Era as Related by Primary Sources. GIA,2013.
Stauffer, George B. Bach:The Mass in B Minor:The Great Catholic Mass. Yale Music Masterworks
Series. Yale University Press,2003.
Steinberg, Michael. Choral Masterworks:AListeners Guide. Oxford University Press,2005.
Tomita, Yo, Robin A. Leaver, and Jan Smaczny, editors. Exploring Bachs B-minor Mass. Cambridge
Wolff, Christoph. Bach:Essays on His Life and Music. Harvard University Press,1994.
4
George Frideric Handel Messiah

The Sublime, the Grand, and the Tender, adapted to the most
elevated, majestic and moving Words, conspired to transport and
charm the ravished Heart and Ear.
Dublin Journal
(from a review of the premiere performance)
Genesis and Historical Perspective

Handel, whose name was spelled Georg Friederich Hndel until he was age forty-
two, was born on February 23, 1685, in Halle, Germany. This date is twenty-six
days before the birth of J.S. Bach on March 21, and the location is approximately
eighty miles away from Bachs place of birth in Eisenach. Like Bach, Handel became
a virtuoso keyboardist and was appointed to a church organist position when he
was a teenager; Handel became organist at the Calvinist Domkirche in Halle when
he was seventeen. Unlike Bach, however, Handel did not embrace church work but
instead was drawn to opera, which would be his main compositional interest for
most of his life. Also unlike Bach, Handel traveled widely and became cosmopoli-
tan in his musical tastes and in his compositional output; he spent considerable
time in Italy and then lived in England, where in 1727 he became a British subject
and formally changed his name to George Frideric Handel. For most of his life
he also conversed in combinations of German, Italian, English, and French (the
lingua franca or common language of thetime).
After only one year as organist in Halle and also as a student studying law at
the university, Handel moved to Hamburg. There he met and became friends with
Johann Mattheson (16811764), who in his 1740 biography of contemporary
musicians, Grundlage einer ehren-pforte,wrote,
Handel came to Hamburg in the summer of 1703, rich only in ability and good-
will. Iwas almost the first with whom he made acquaintance. Itook him round
to all the choirs here, and introduced him to operas and concerts. At first he
120
Hand el Mess ia h 121
played ripieno violin in the opera orchestra but once when the harpsichord
player failed to appear he allowed himself to be persuaded to take hisplace.
Less than two years after moving to Halle, Handel composed the first of his
forty-some operasAlmira, which premiered at the Gnsemarkt Theater on
January 8, 1705, when Handel was nineteen. Mattheson sang the principal
tenor role, and the opera was so successful it had a run of twenty performances.
Capitalizing on his success, Handel composed another opera, Nero, within several
months, but this opera was not so successful and was performed only three times.
Meanwhile, Handel had met Prince Ferdinand de Medici of Florence, who was
visiting Hamburg at the time and who encouraged the young composer to pursue
his career in Italy. Enticed by the opportunity to be at the center of opera activ-
ity, Handel traveled to Italy in 1706, stopping first in Florence, where he resided
briefly with Prince Ferdinand, and then in Rome, arriving there in January 1707.
He was immediately welcomed by several significant patrons of the artsCardinal
Benedetto Pamphili (16531730), Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni (16671740), and
Prince Francesco Maria Ruspoli (16721731), with whom Handel lived and for
whom he served as Kapellmeister.
Cardinal Ottoboni recognized and was so impressed by Handels virtuosic
keyboard skills, he staged a musical duel between him and the reigning key-
board virtuoso at the time, Domenico Scarlatti (also, like Handel and Bach,
born in 1685). Scarlatti was deemed better on harpsichord but Handel better
on the organa significant circumstance since the recognition and display of
his organ skills then became important to Handel, and he would later often
perform newly composed organ concertos between the acts or major sections
of his oratorios.
Prince Ruspoli encouraged Handel to compose his first oratorio, the genre of
oratorio being the Roman counterpart of opera (opera being banned in Rome
at the time by papal decree). Handel recognized the connection between opera
and oratorio, and within just four months he composed Il Trionfo del Tempo e del
Disinganno (The Triumph of Time and Disillusionment). The allegorical libretto
of the oratorio was written by Cardinal Pamphili, the oratorio was dedicated to
Prince Ruspoli, the orchestra for the performance was led by composer and vir-
tuoso violinist Arcangelo Corelli (16531713), and the work itself was modeled
after oratorios by Giovanni Legrenzi (16261690), Alessandro Scarlatti (1660
1725), and Antonio Caldara (16701736), with numerous recitatives and arias
and only a few ensemble pieces that were sung by the soloists. Handel maintained
his interest in opera, however, and composed Rodrigo for performance in Florence
in the fall of 1707. The opera was successful, but nevertheless, Handel returned to
Rome at the beginning of 1708 and composed his second oratorio (his first sacred
oratorio), La Resurrezione, which was performed on Easter Sunday and Monday
of1708.
In the years that followed, Handel continued his back-and-forth practice of

composing operas and oratorios, turning to oratorios only when operas failed to
be financially viable. In 1709 he had great success with his opera Agrippina, writ-
ten for the Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo in Venice and given twenty-seven
consecutive performances there. He was also invited to compose operas for the
famous Opernhaus in Hanover, Germany, and was offered a large salary by Georg
Ludwig, the Elector of Hanover, to do so. Handel agreed and accepted the posi-
tion of Kapellmeister on June 16, 1710, with the condition that he was first free
to travel for ayear.
He immediately set out for London, where opera was flourishing, and within
three months of his arrival at the end of 1710 his opera Rinaldo premiered at the
Queens Theatre (February 24, 1711). As with Agrippina in Venice, Rinaldo was a
huge success, running for fifteen consecutive performances and later revived for
a total of fifty-three performances during Handels life. He returned to Hanover
at the end of the opera season in 1712 (fifteen months after he had left), but he
soon requested another leave of absence. This was granted, with the expectation
that he return within a reasonable period of time, and Handel set out again for
London. His composition of opera resumed with Il pastor fido in 1712 (an under-
stated drama not met with public enthusiasm) and Teseo in 1713 (an extravagant
production that was received enthusiastically).
While focused on opera, Handel also composed in other genres. In Italy he
composed a number of secular solo cantatas and duets for the court of Prince
Ruspoli, and for Cardinals Pamphili and Ottoboni he composed several Latin
church pieces, including the multi-movement Psalm setting Dixit Dominus
in 1707. In England Handel composed ceremonial music for the royal court,
including the Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne (February 6, 1713) and the
Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate (performed at St. Pauls Cathedral on July 7,
1713). During the years 1717 and 1718 Handel was the resident composer
for James Brydges, the Earl of Carnarvon (later to be named the Duke of
Chandos), and for Brydges Handel composed eleven anthems (referred to as
the Chandos Anthems), the masque or pastoral opera Acis and Galatea (one
of Handels first dramatic works in English and one of the most popular of all
his vocal compositions), and the oratorio Esther (based on the English play
Esther, or Faith Triumphant, a Sacred Tragedy, written by Thomas Brereton and
published in1717).
Regarding the royalty in England, it should be mentioned that Parliament had
legislated the Act of Settlement in 1701, guaranteeing that the throne could only
pass to a Protestant. When Queen Anne died on August 1, 1714, with no chil-
dren as heirs and no closely related Protestant relatives, the throne passed to her
second cousin, Georg Ludwig, none other than Handels employer, the Elector of
Hanover, who was crowned King GeorgeI.
Handels involvement with opera in London expanded when, with the kings
support, he formed the Royal Academy of Music in 1719. As described by John
Mainwaring (17241807) in his Memoirs of the Life of the Late George Frederic
Handel, published in 1760, the new opera companywas
a project formed by the Nobility for erecting an academy at the Haymarket. The
intention of this musical Society, was to secure to themselves a constant sup-
ply of Operas to be composed by HANDEL, and performed under his direction.
The expectation of the nobility, and of the public in general, was for the new acad-
emy to present the most famous singers in Europe. To this end Handel traveled
abroad to make contacts, and he wrote numerous da capo arias in his operas so
that the singers could display their virtuoso abilities. The contralto castrato called
Senesino (16861758) was the main attraction, but also popular were the mezzo-
soprano Faustina Bordoni (17001781) and the soprano Francesca Cuzzoni
(16961778). London welcomed the Italian singers, and during the ten years after
the formation of the Royal Academy, Handel composed thirteen operas, among
which were Radamisto in 1720, Giulio Cesare in 1724, and Rodelinda in 1725. By
1729, public taste had changed, however, and the academy had to cease opera-
tion for lack of subscriptions. Nevertheless, Handel continued to compose Italian
operas for the next several years. But in 1732, facing continued disinterest by the
public, his attention turned to oratorio.
On his birthday in 1732 Handel attended a private staged performance of
Esther led by Master of the Children of the Chapel Royal Bernard Gates. Gates led
two more private performances, on March 1 and 3, and in April an announcement
for a public performance appeared in the London newspaper, the Daily Journal.
Sensing the oratorios appeal to the public and wanting to benefit from this him-
self, Handel preempted the public performance with his own. His announcement
in the Daily Journalread,
At the Kings Theatre in the Hay-Market, on Tuesday the 2nd Day of May, will
be performed, the Sacred Story of ESTHER: an Oratorio in English. Formerly
composd by Mr. Handel, and now revised by him, with several Additions, and
to be performed by the best Voices and Instruments. N.B. There will be no
Action on the Stage, but the House will be fitted up in a decent Manner, for
the Audience. The Musick to be disposed after the Manner of the Coronation
Service.
The oratorio was revised extensively for this performance. The first 1718 ver-
sion of Esther had numerous da capo arias and was scored for a small orchestra
composed of oboe, trumpet, two French horns, two violins, harp, and basso con-
tinuo (with unspecified instrumentation). The first version also had numerous
choruses (a feature well liked by the public). For the revised 1732 version of the
oratorio, Handel deleted many of the da capo arias, deleted one chorus but added
three more (one of which was borrowed from the first of the Coronation Anthems,
Zadok the Priest), and he expanded the orchestration to include two recorders, two
oboes, two bassoons, two horns, three trumpets, timpani, a full complement of
strings, and basso continuo (specified for theorbo, harp, two harpsichords, and
two organs). The new version of Esther, considerably more impressive than the
first, caught the publics attention and was performed six times between May 2
and20.
Emboldened by Esthers success, Handel composed two more oratorios the fol-
lowing yearDeborah and Athalia. As a substitute for opera, which was forbid-
den during Lent, Deborah premiered on Saturday evening before Easter, and to
capitalize on what he felt was extreme audience enthusiasm, Handel doubled the
price of what had been the cost of admission. This was a miscalculation and only
120 tickets were sold for the premiere. Handel reduced the ticket price for the
five remaining performances, but the public was still offended by Handels appar-
ent greed. Audience sizes continued to be modest, even though the oratorio had
numerous choruses (almost as many as arias) and a large orchestra. Athalia (with
short arias, eleven choruses, and scoring for a large orchestra) fared much better,
in part because it premiered in Oxford, not in London, and the Oxford perfor-
mance was part of the universitys Publick Act, a ceremony for the conferring of
degreesone of which, a doctorate, was to be bestowed on Handel. The ceremony
was held in the Sheldonian Theater, with reports of 3,700 people in attendance
(an impossible number since the theater seats only 800 people).
Given the financial challenges of opera and the successes of the oratorios, one
would expect that Handel would continue composing oratorios, but he did not. He
returned to the composition of Italian opera and worked with the Swiss impresa-
rio John James Heidegger (16661749) to make a go of a second Royal Academy.
The success of this new company could hardly have been projected, for not only
was the London public becoming less and less interested in Italian opera, but there
was also a new rival company, the Opera of the Nobility, formed in 1733 under the
direction of Italian singing teacher and composer Nicola Porpora (16861768).
Furthermore, Senesino and the new extremely popular castrato Farinelli (1705
1782) were singing for the Opera of Nobility. Nevertheless, Handel went forth
with his new venture, engaging two new castratos, Carlo Scalzi (c.1700after
1738)and Giovanni Carestini (c.1704c.1760), and composing at least one new
opera a year, including Sosarme in 1732, Orlando in 1733, and Arianna in Creta in
1734. But both his new opera company and the Opera of Nobility went bankrupt.
Remaining resolute and determined, the indefatigable Handel worked to estab-
lish yet a third opera company, this with the dancer and theater manager John
Rich (c.16911761), who had produced The Beggars Opera in 1728 (which had
an unprecedented run of sixty-two consecutive performances) and who in 1732
built the first theater in Covent Garden. Handel composed seven operas for pro-
ductions in the Covent Garden theater, beginning with Oreste in 1734 and ending
with Berenice in 1737. For the Covent Garden theater Handel also revived some
of his previously composed operas and oratorios. For example, in 1735 Esther was
performed six times, Deborah three times, and Athalia five times, and it was dur-
ing these performances that Handel began his practice, extremely popular with
audiences, of performing newly composed organ concertos between the acts of
the oratorios.
Perhaps as a result of increased public desire to hear works in English and
the many works in English performed at Richs Covent Garden theater, Handel
composed the ode Alexanders Feast in 1736. Written to a libretto by Newburgh
Hamilton (16911761) from John Drydens 1697 St. Cecilias Day ode Alexanders
Feast, or the Power of Music, Handels setting is like his oratorios, with recita-
tives, arias, and choruses. It is also like the oratorios in scoring and dramatic con-
tent. Indeed, Handels ode was often referred to and advertised as an oratorio,
although oratorios at the time, unlike odes, generally had librettos with dramatic
dialogue and were also generally settings of sacred texts. Alexanders Feast was
received well by the public and performed five times in 1736 and five times in
1737. Also in 1737 Handel revised his first oratorio of 1707, Il Trionfo del Tempo
e del Disinganno, and renamed it Il Trionfo del Tempo e della Verit (The Triumph
of Time and of Truth).
Handel composed two more non-oratorio works in English during the 1730s
the funeral anthem for Queen Caroline (The Ways of Zion do Mourn) in 1737 and
the Ode for St. Cecilias Day in 1739. The funeral anthem is a lengthy work (approx-
imately forty-five minutes) set to a variety of biblical texts and scored entirely
for chorus and orchestra. The ode is another setting of a Dryden text, like the
previous, constructed of arias and choruses and scored for large orchestra; it was
premiered on Saint Cecilias Day, November 22, 1739, along with its companion
work, AlexandersFeast.
While Handel continued to compose Italian operas (including Serse, which has
one of his most famous arias, Ombra mai f), the cancellation of the 1738
1739 opera season for lack of subscribers forced him to finally turn to oratorio
as his major compositional focus. Handel composed two oratorios in 1738Saul
between July 23 and September 27, and Israel in Egypt from October 1 (just five
days after completing Saul) to October20.
Saul, Handels sixth oratorio and his fourth in English, was set to a libretto by
Charles Jennens (17001773), who would also write the libretto for Messiah. The
text of Saul is highly dramatic and portrayed by an exceptionally large cast that
includes twelve characters, five lengthy and descriptive orchestral sinfonias, and
a large orchestra with a basso continuo section of theorbo, harpsichord, and two
organs. In addition, the oratorio is scored for harp and carillon. About the caril-
lon, Jennenswrote,
Mr. Handels head is more full of maggots than ever. Ifound yesterday in his
room a very queer instrument which he calls carillon (Anglice, a bell) and says
some call it a Tubalcain, I suppose because it is both in the make and tone
like a set of Hammers striking upon anvils. Tis played upon with keys like a
Harpsichord and with this Cyclopean instrument he designs to make poor Saul
starkmad.
Saul premiered at the Kings Theatre in the Haymarket on January 16, 1739, and
was performed five more times during the season. It was revived numerous times
in future seasons and went on to be the most frequently performed of Handels
oratorios during the nineteenth century (Messiah was more frequently performed
only in the twentieth century).
Israel in Egypt, with a libretto most likely by Jennens, premiered at the Kings
Theatre on April 4, 1739. This oratorio is very different from Saul. Instead of hav-
ing a libretto about an Old Testament character, Israel in Egypts libretto is about a
biblical event. Moreover, instead of a freely written libretto that refers to but does
not use biblical passages, the libretto of Israel in Egypt quotes actual biblical verses.
Furthermore, instead of a relatively equal balance of arias and choruses, Israel in
Egypt is almost entirely choral; there are twenty-eight choral movements and only
five arias, four short recitatives, and three duets. The audience reacted unfavor-
ably to these new features. Singing biblical verses from the stage of a public the-
ater was considered offensive, the plot of the oratorio lacked dramatic intrigue,
and there were too few arias for vocal display. Catering to public opinion, Handel
advertised that the second performance would be the last, that there would be
alterations and additions, and the oratorio would be shortned and Intermixd
with Songs. To accomplish this, he removed the entire first part of the oratorio,
The Lamentations of the Israelites for the Death of Joseph, and replaced it with
a new organ concerto (The Cuckoo). He also replaced some of the choruses with
Italian and English arias. Despite criticisms, the oratorio in both its original and
revised form contains some of Handels most inventive and expressive writing.
Especially noteworthy is the descriptive writing of the plaguesfrogs, flies and
lice, locusts, hailstones, andfire.
Even though Israel in Egypt was not completely successful, the positive recep-
tions of Esther, Athalia, and Saul, along with the publics growing disinterest in
Italian opera, should have been enough encouragement for Handel to continuo
composing oratorios. However, ever persistent, he composed yet two more Italian
operasImeneo in 1740 and Deidamia in 1741. He also composed a third ode
the pastoral LAllegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato in1740.
In July 1741 Jennens wrote to his friend Edward Holdsworth (16841746)
expressing his hopes that Handel would compose another oratorio.
Handel says he will do nothing next Winter, but Ihope Ishall perswade him to
set another Scripture Collection Ihave made for him, & perform it for his own
Benefit in Passion Week. Ihope he will lay out his whole Genius & Skill upon
it, that the Composition may excel all his former Compositions, as the Subject
excels every other Subject. The Subject is Messiah.
Also during the summer of 1741 Handel received an invitation from the Duke of
Devonshire and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland William Cavendish (16981755) to
present a series of subscription concerts during the upcoming season in Dublin.
These concerts, which Handel referred to as entertainments, were to include old
and new works, both sacred and secular. For one of the new works, Handel com-
posed Messiah, the libretto of which he had received from Jennens on July 10.
Handel began composing on August 22, completing sketches for Part Ion August
28, Part II on September 6, and Part III on September 12. He then spent two
days finalizing his work and wrote SDG (Soli Deo Gloria) at the end of the com-
pleted manuscript on September 14, having worked a total of twenty-four days
on the oratorio. Handel then composed another new oratorio, Samson, between
September 29 and October29.
Handel arrived in Dublin on November 18 and made his first public appear-
ance on December 10 at St. Andrews Church, where he played the organ and par-
ticipated in a performance of his Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate. His subscription
series of six concerts, all held at the Great Music Hall on Fishamble Street, began
on December 23 with a performance of LAllegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato, which,
according to Handel, was well received. As he wrote to Jennens on December29,
I am emboldened, Sir, by the generous Concern You please to take in relation to

my affairs, to give You an Account of the Success Ihave met here. The Nobility
did me the Honour to make amongst themselves a Subscription for 6 Nights,
which did fill a Room of 600 Persons, so that Ineeded not sell one single Ticket
at the door, and without Vanity the Performance was received with a general
Approbation.
The series continued with performances of LAllegro on January 13 (now 1742),

Acis and Galatea with the Ode for St. Cecilias Day on January 20 and 27, and Esther
on February 3 and10.
All the concerts were well attended and enthusiastically received and thus
Handel arranged for a second series of six concerts, with Alexanders Feast on
February 17 and March 2, another performance of LAllegro on March 17, the
opera Imeneo (in concert form) on March 24 and 31, and Esther on April 7.Note
that neither of the new oratoriosMessiah nor Samsonwas presented. Messiah
was given as a special benefit concert and Samson was not performed until the fol-
lowing year in London. The announcement for the premiere of Messiah appeared
in the Dublin Journal on March27.
For Relief of the Prisoners in the several Gaols, and for the Support of Mercers
Hospital in Stephens Street, and of the Charitable Infirmary on the Inns
Quay, on Monday the 12th of April, will be performed at the Musick Hall
in Fishamble Street, Mr. Handels new Grand Oratorio calld the MESSIAH, in
which the Gentlemen of the Choirs of both Cathedrals will assist, with some
Concertos on the Organ, by Mr. Handel.
There was an open rehearsal on April 8, and the next day the Dublin Journal pub-
lished the following review.
Yesterday Mr. Handells new Grand Sacred Oratorio, called, The Messiah, was
rehearsed to a most Grand, Polite and crouded Audience; and was performed
so well, that it gave universal Satisfaction to all present; and was allowed by the
greatest Judges to be the finest Composition of Musick that ever was heard,
and the sacred Words as properly adapted for the Occasion.
That same day the Dublin News-Letter published a similar review and the Dublin
Journal reported that the premiere originally scheduled for April 12 would be
delayed until the 13th. There was also the following announcement.
Many Ladies and Gentlemen who are well-wishers to the Noble and Grand
Charity for which this Oratorio was composed, request it as a Favour, that the
Ladies who honour this Performance with their Presence would be pleased to
come without Hoops, as it will greatly increase the Charity, by making room for
more company.
Then on April 17 the Dublin Journal published the following review of the premiere.
On Tuesday last Mr. Handels Sacred Grand Oratorio, the MESSIAH, was per-
formed at the New Musick Hall in Fishamble Street; the best judges allowed
it to be the most finished piece of Musick. Words are wanting to express the
exquisite Delight it afforded to the admiring crouded Audience. The Sublime,
the Grand, and the Tender, adapted to the most elevated, majestic and moving
Words, conspired to transport and charm the ravished Heart andEar.
The Dublin audiences apparently did not mind that Messiah, like Israel in Egypt, had
a libretto drawn directly from the Bible, with no characters and no dramaticplot.
Handel presented Messiah twice more in Dublin (in a public rehearsal on June
1 and in the final concert of the season on June 3). He scheduled it for perfor-
mance in London the following year as part of a Lenten subscription series at the
Covent Garden theater, but aware that the London audiences still objected to a
libretto with actual Bible verses, he avoided putting its title in advertisements and
simply called the work A new sacred oratorio. This stratagem did not have much
effect, for the polemics about sacred music being performed by opera singers in a
public theater continued and Messiah was presented only three times in 1743 (at
Covent Garden on March 23, 25, and 29), only once in 1744 (on February 16 at
a private performance by the Academy of Ancient Music), twice in 1745 (at the
Kings Theatre on April 9 and 11), and not again until 1749 and 1750, when single
performances on March 23 and April 12, respectively, closed the Lenten series at
Covent Garden.
In May 1750 the tide of public opinion finally turned when Messiah was per-
formed on May 1 and 15 at benefit concerts in the newly built chapel of the
Foundling Hospitalan institution for the reception, maintenance, and educa-
tion of exposed and deserted young children. Being performed in a sacred venue,
the public reacted favorably and Messiah continued to end the Covent Garden sea-
son and to be performed yearly at the Foundling Hospital.
Other performances occurred in Florence in 1768, New York City in 1770,
Hamburg in 1772, and Mannheim in 1777. In 1784 Messiah was a significant
part of a series of Handel commemoration concerts given in Westminster Abbey,
Messiah being presented in its entirety while other Handel works were only rep-
resented with excerpts. In 1786 and 1788 Johann Adam Hiller (17281804)
performed Messiah at the Berlin Cathedral, and in 1789 Mozart conducted the
oratorio, in German translation and in his own orchestration, for performances
arranged by Baron Gottfried van Swieten (17331803) for the Vienna Gesellschaft
der Associierten. In the years that followed, Messiah continued to gain in popular-
ity and to be performed with great frequency throughout theworld.
It should be noted that the tradition of standing during the singing of the
Hallelujah chorus from Messiah is believed, without any documentation, to
have originated during the first performance of the oratorio in London when
King George II apparently stood, thus causing the entire audience to stand as
well. It should also be noted that during the relative exile of Messiah, many
of Handels previously composed oratorios were revived, including perfor-
mances of Esther virtually every year until Handels death in 1759. In addi-
tion, Handel continued to compose new oratorios, including Semele and Joseph
and His Brethren in 1743, Hercules and Belshazzar in 1744, Occasional Oratorio
and Judas Maccabaeus in 1746, Alexander Balus and Joshua in 1747, Solomon
and Susanna in 1748, and Theodora in 1749. The Music for the Royal Fireworks,
composed to celebrate the end of the War of the Austrian Succession and the
signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-C hapelle, was composed in 1749, and Handels
final new oratorio, Jephtha, was composed in 1751 during periods of Handels
ill health and temporary blindness. Interestingly and most poignantly, while
writing the chorus that ends act two of the oratorio, How dark, O Lord, are thy
decrees! All hid from mortal sight! Handel wrote in the margin of his score,
Reached here on 13 Febr. 1751, unable to go on owing to weakening of the
sight of my lefteye.
Handels Compositional Process

Speed ofWriting, Parody Technique, and Revision ofWorks
Three factors are key to understanding Handels compositional processspeed
of writing, parody of previously composed works, and revision of works from
performance to performance. The first two factorsspeed and parodyare

interrelated in that one factor served to aid theother.
From the previous discussion about the genesis and historical perspective of
Messiah, it is evident that when Handel was devoted to oratorios he often com-
posed two each year. This is true for eight years (1733, 1738, 1741, 1743, 1744,
1746, 1747, and 1748). In addition, he generally began the second oratorio of
the year within just a few days after completing the first. For instance, Saul was
completed on September 27, 1738, and Israel in Egypt was begun four days later,
on October 1. Similarly, Belshazzar was begun six days after the completion of
Hercules, and Samson was begun fifteen days after the completion of Messiah.
Furthermore, Handel would often write each oratorio within the span of a month
or so. As examples, Israel in Egypt was composed between October 1 and November
1, 1738; Samson between September 29 and October 29, 1741; Semele between
June 3 and July 4, 1743; Judas Maccabaeus between July 8 or 9 and August 11,
1746; Alexander Balus between June 1 and July 4, 1747; Joshua between July 19
and August 19 of the same year (1747); and Theodora between June 28 and July
31, 1749. Some of the oratorios were written within an even shorter span of time.
Messiah was composed between August 22 and September 14, 1741 (twenty-four
days), and Joseph and His Brethren between August 26 and September 12, 1743
(seventeendays).
Handel could accomplish great speed of composition in part because he fre-
quently borrowed or parodied music from previously composed works. He most
frequently borrowed from himself, although he also borrowed from other com-
posers of the Baroque era, and most of the borrowings were taken from works
composed shortly before the oratorios. For instance, the original version of
Esther (1718) had parodies of nine movements from the Brockes Passion (1716 or
1717), and the revised version of Esther (1732) had parodies of two movements
from the Coronation Anthems (1727). More than half the music of Deborah
was parodied, without alteration, from earlier compositions, and the first large
section of Israel in Egypt (1738) was taken intact from the Funeral Anthem for
Queen Caroline (1737). Israel in Egypt also used material from other composers,
including Dionigi Erba (16921729) and Giacomo Carissimi (16051674). For
Saul, composed three years before Messiah, Handel borrowed music composed
by Francesco Antonio Urio (c.1631c.1719) and Johann Kuhnau (16601722),
and for Samson, composed immediately after Messiah, Handel parodied music
by seven different composers, including Georg Philipp Telemann (16811767),
Giovanni Legrenzi (16261690), Giovanni Porta (c.16751755), and Giacomo
Carissimi.
Of particular interest are four choruses from Messiah that Handel parodied
from two secular Italian duets he had composed just seven weeks before begin-
ning the oratorio. His yoke is easy and And he shall purify are borrowed from
the two allegro portions of the cantata for two sopranos Quel fior che all alba ride,
and For unto us a child is born and All we like sheep are, similarly, parodies of
the two allegro portions from No, di voi non vo fidarmi. Handel maintained much
of the original duet texture in all four choruses, transposing octaves when neces-
sary to accommodate alto and bass registers, and also developing the duet mate-
rial for expansion to four voice parts. Most of the choruses are clearly related
to the duets, with very little alteration of the original material. This is especially
evident in For unto us a child is born. Shown in Example4.1 is the initial phrase
of the first soprano entrance in the duet (top score) and the corresponding choral
soprano entrance in Messiah (bottom score).
Example4.1
Example4.2 shows the second phrase of text, begun by the second soprano of
the duet in measure 20 and the choral tenors in measure 26 of Messiah. Note that
in both Examples4.1 and 4.2 Handel altered the rhythms of the Italian duet only
slightly to fit the English text of Messiah.
Example4.2
In addition to the parodies from the duet, Handel created new material for
the string orchestration of the chorus (the Italian duet is scored for basso con-
tinuo only) and he added a six-measure orchestral introduction to the chorus.
Furthermore, he created new musical material in the chorus to fit the text and
his Name shall be called:Wonderful, Counselor, the Mighty God, the Everlasting
Father, the Prince of Peace.
The parody technique is not as obvious in the chorus All we like sheep. By
comparing the first three measures of the original Italian duet with measures
three to six of the chorus, it can be seen (in Example4.3) that Handel transposed
the key from G Major to F Major and retained only the basic shape of the original
melody.
Example4.3
A more obvious parody can be seen in Example4.4, which is Handels melismatic

setting of the second line of text (measures 712 of the Italian duet with mea-
sures 1114 of the chorus).
Example4.4
The most notable feature of the parodies is seen in a comparison of the strik-
ingly dissimilar secular Italian and sacred English texts. In the case of N, di voi
non vo fidarmi and For unto us a child is born, one text is about blind love and
cruel beauty and the other about the birth of Jesus. Shown here is the complete
secular Italian poem with translation.
N, di voi non vo fidarmi, cieco Amor, crudelbelt!

Troppo siete menzognere, lusinghiereDeit.
Altra volta incatenarmi gi poteste il fidocor.
So per prova i vostri inganni, due tiranni siete ognor.
No, Ido not want to trust you, blind Love, cruel beauty!
You lie too much, like flatteringGods.
Once before you managed to trap my trustingheart.
I know from experience your lies, you will always be two tyrants.
The third factor of Handels compositional process involves revision of music

from performance to performance. These revisions were almost always for cir-
cumstantial, not artistic, reasons; Handel would transpose arias or rewrite them
for new singers, write entirely new arias for new singers, or delete or add move-
ments to meet public expectations (i.e., Handel would revise works for future
performances based on audience reactions to past performances). There is not,
therefore, an authentic version of this or that work, but merely different versions
of it as it was presented by different singers and instrumentalists in different
performances.
Messiah was revised many times between its premiere in Dublin in 1742 and
its performance in the Foundling Hospital Chapel in 1750. Some of the revisions
are minor in that they involve changes in articulation or text underlay. Other revi-
sions are major, being replacements of solo movements or choruses and changes
to the substance of movements. All of the revisions can be seen and traced in two
scoresHandels autograph manuscript, which is housed in the British Museum
(catalogued R.M.20.f.2), and a fair copy of the original manuscript made by John
Christopher Smith Sr. (died 1763), Handels copyist until 1750, and formerly
housed at St. Michaels College, Tenbury Wells, Worchestershire (catalogued
as MSS 3467), and now at the Bodleian Library of Oxford University. Handel
used this second score throughout his life, making alterations and additions to
it for various performances. Both Handels original autograph score and Smiths
copy can be easily accessed online in the IMSLP Petrucci Music Library. Athird
score, in the hand of John Christopher Smith Jr. (17121795), Handels secretary
and amanuensis in the 1750s, was prepared for and left in Handels will to the
Foundling Hospital.
Examples of Handels revisions include a choral version in 1745 of Their sound
is gone out (originally a tenor aria); the change of meters in Rejoice greatly
from 12/8 to 4/4; a rewriting and reduction (from ninety-six to forty-five bars)
of the aria Why do the nations; and multiple versions of But who may abide
(originally for bass without the Prestissimo section, with the Prestissimo section
for the famous alto castrato Gaetano Guadagni in the Tenbury Wells score, and
also with the Prestissimo section, but for soprano in the Foundling Hospital score).
For a full discussion of Messiah revisions, see A Textual Companion to Handels
Messiah by Watkins Shaw.
The Libretto ofMessiah

As mentioned earlier in this study, the libretto for Messiah was compiled by
Charles Jennens, who had prepared librettos for Saul and LAllegro, il Penseroso ed il
Moderato, and also probably Israel in Egypt. Saul, the first of the Jennens librettos
for Handel, was typical of oratorios at the time; it was based on an Old Testament
figure, with identified characters engaged in a dramatic plot. LAllegro, il Penseroso
ed il Moderato, being an ode and not an oratorio, was different. It was secular, not
sacred, and it had no plot or character development; it was, instead, a moral alle-
gory. The librettos for Israel in Egypt and Messiah, while dealing with sacred subjects,
also had no plot or character development. Moreover, the texts of both oratorios
were related in actual biblical verses, not in newly created wording about biblical
actions. Jennens was, therefore, a compiler of the libretto, not an authorofit.
Jennens took his Bible verses from the Authorized Version of 1611 and the
Great Bible of 1539, and he structured the libretto, typical of most Baroque ora-
torios, in three parts. The first part deals with the birth of Christ, mostly through
Old Testament Prophesy. The second part comments on Christs crucifixion, res-
urrection, and ascension, and the third part is a reflection on general redemption.
PART ONE
Sinfony
Recitative (Isaiah 40:13) Comfort ye my people, saith your God. Speak ye
comfortably to Jerusalem, and cry unto her that her warfare is accomplishd,
that her iniquity is pardond. The voice of him that crieth in the wilder-
ness:Prepare ye the way of the Lord; make straight in the desert a highway
for our God.
Air (Isaiah 40:4) Evry valley shall be exalted, and evry mountain and hill
made low, the crooked straight and the rough places plain.
Chorus (Isaiah 40:5) And the glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh
shall see it together, for the mouth of the Lord hath spoken it.
Recitative (Haggai 2:67; Malachi 3:1) Thus saith the Lord of Hosts:Yet once
a little while, and Iwill shake the heavns and the earth, the sea and the dry
land, and Iwill shake all nations, and the desire of all nations shall come.
The Lord, whom ye seek, shall suddenly come to His temple, evn the mes-
senger of the Covenant, whom ye delight in; behold, He shall come, saith
the Lord of Hosts.
Air (Malachi 3:2) But who may abide the day of His coming, and who shall
stand when He appeareth? For He is like a refiners fire.
Chorus (Malachi 3:3) And He shall purify the sons of Levi, that they may offer
unto the Lord an offering in righteousness.
Recitative (Isaiah 7:14; Matthew 1:23) Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and
bear a son, and shall call his name Emmanuel, god with us.
Air and Chorus (Isaiah 40:9; 60:1) O thou that tellest good tidings to Zion,
get thee up into the high mountain; O thou that tellest good tidings to
Jerusalem, lift up thy voice with strength, lift it up, be not afraid; say unto
the cities of Judah:Behold your God! Arise, shine, for thy light is come, and
the glory of the Lord is risen upon thee.
Recitative (Isaiah 60:23) For, behold, darkness shall cover the earth, and
gross darkness the people; but the Lord shall arise upon thee, and his glory
shall be seen upon thee. And the Gentiles shall come to thy light, and kings
to the brightness of thy rising.
Air (Isaiah 9:2) The people that walked in darkness have seen a great light, and
they that dwell in the land of the shadow of death, upon them hath the light
shined.
Chorus (Isaiah 9:6) For unto us a Child is born, unto us a Son is given,
and the government shall be upon His shoulder, and His Name shall be
called:Wonderful, Counselor, the Mighty God, the Everlasting Father, the
Prince of Peace.
Pifa
Recitative (Luke 2:8) There were shepherds abiding in the field, keeping watch
over their flock by night.
Recitative (Luke 2:9) And lo, the angel of the Lord came upon them, and the
glory of the Lord shone round about them, and they were sore afraid.
Recitative (Luke 2:1011) And the angel said unto them:Fear not, for behold,
Ibring you good tidings of great joy, which shall be to all people. For unto
you is born this day in the city of David, a Saviour, which is Christ the Lord.
Recitative (Luke 2:13) And suddenly there was with the angel a multitude of
the heavenly host, praising God, and saying:
Chorus (Luke 2:14) Glory to God in the highest, and peace on earth, good will
toward men.
Air (Zechariah 9:910) Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion, shout, O daugh-
ter of Jerusalem; behold, thy King cometh unto thee. He is the righteous
Saviour, and he shall speak peace unto the heathen.
Recitative (Isaiah 35:56) Then shall the eyes of the blind be opend, and the
ears of the deaf unstopped. The shall the lame man leap as an hart, and the
tongue of the dumb shall sing.
Air (Isaiah 40:11; Matthew 11:2829) He shall feed his flock like a shepherd,
and He shall gather the lambs with His arm, and carry them in His bosom,
and gently lead those that are with young. Come unto Him, all ye that
labour, that are heavy laden, and He will give you rest. Take His yoke upon
you, and learn of Him, for He is meek and lowly of heart, and ye shall find
rest unto your souls.
Chorus (Matthew 11:30) His yoke is easy, and His burthen is light.
PART TWO
Chorus (John 1:29) Behold the Lamb of God, that taketh away the sin of the
world.
Air (Isaiah 53:3; 50:6) He was despised and rejected of men, a man of sorrows
and acquainted with grief. He gave his back to the smiters, and His cheeks to
them that plucked off the hair; He hid not his face from shame and spitting.
Chorus (Isaiah 53:45) Surely He hath borne our griefs and carried our sor-
rows; He was wounded for our transgressions; He was bruised for our iniq-
uities; the chastisement of our peace was upon Him.
Chorus (Isaiah 53:5) And with his stripes we are healed.
Chorus (Isaiah 53:6) All we like sheep have gone astray; we have turned every
one to his own way; and the Lord hath laid on him the iniquity of us all.
Recitative (Psalm 22:7) All they that see Him laugh Him to scorn; they shoot
out their lips, and shake their heads, saying:
Chorus (Psalm 22:8) He trusted in God that he would deliver Him; let Him
deliver Him, if he delight in Him.
Recitative (Psalm 69:20) Thy rebuke hath broken His heart; He is full of heavi-
ness; He looked for some to have pity on Him, but there was no man, nei-
ther found He any to comfort Him.
Air (Lamentations 1:12) Behold and see if there be any sorrow like unto His
sorrow.
Recitative (Isaiah 53:8) He was cut of out of the land of the living; for the
transgression of thy people was He stricken.
Air (Psalm 16:10) But thou didst not leave His soul in hell; nor didst thou suf-
fer thy Holy One to see corruption.
Chorus (Psalm 24:710) Lift up your heads, O ye gates, and be ye lift up, ye
everlasting doors, and the King of Glory shall come in. Who is this King of
Glory? The Lord strong and mighty, the Lord mighty in battle. The Lord of
Hosts, He is the King of Glory.
Recitative (Hebrews 1:5) Unto which of the angels said He at any time, Thou
art My Son, this day have Ibegotten Thee?
Chorus (Hebrews 1:6) Letall the angels of God worship Him.
Air (Psalm 68:18) Thou art gone up on high, thou hast led captivity captive,
and received gifts for men, yea, even for Thine enemies, that the Lord God
might dwell among them.
Chorus (Psalm 68:11) The Lord gave the word; great was the company of the
preachers.
Air (Romans 10:15) How beautiful are the feet of them that preach the gospel
of peace, and bring glad tidings of good things.
Chorus (Romans 10:18) Their sound is gone out into all lands, and their words
unto the ends of the world.
Air (Psalm 2:12) Why do the nations so furiously rage together, and why do
the people imagine a vain thing? The kings of the earth rise up, and the rul-
ers take counsel together against the Lord and against His anointed.
Chorus (Psalm 2:3) Let us break their bonds asunder, and cast away their
yokes from us.
Recitative (Psalm 2:4) He that dwelleth in heaven shall laugh them to scorn;
the Lord shall have them in derision.
Air (Psalm 2:9) Thou shalt break them with a rod of iron; thou shalt dash them
in pieces like a potters vessel.
Chorus (Revelation 19:6; 11:15; 19:16) Hallelujah, for the Lord God
Omnipotent reigneth. The Kingdom of this world is become the Kingdom
of our Lord and of His Christ; and he shall reign forever and ever. king of
kings, and lord of lords.
PART THREE
Air (Job 19:2526; Corinthians 15:20) Iknow that my Redeemer liveth, and
that He shall stand at the latter day upon the earth; and tho worms destroy
this body, yet in my flesh shall Isee God. For now is Christ risen from the
dead, the first fruits of them that sleep.
Chorus (I Corinthians 15:2122) Since by man came death, by man came also
the resurrection of the dead. For as in Adam all die, even so in Christ shall
all be made alive.
Recitative (I Corinthians 15:5152) Behold, Itell you a mystery:we shall not
all sleep, but we shall all be changed in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye,
at the last trumpet.
Air (I Corinthians 15:5253) The trumpet shall sound, and the dead shall be
raisd incorruptible, and we shall be changd. For this corruptible must put
on incorruption, and this mortal must put on immortality.
Recitative (I Corinthians 15:54) Then shall be brought to pass the saying that
is written, Death is swallowed up in victory.
Duet (I Corinthians 15:5556) O death, where is thy sting? O grave, where is
thy victory? The sting of death is sin, and the strength of sin is the law.
Chorus (I Corinthians 15:57) But thanks be to God who giveth us the victory
through our Lord Jesus Christ.
Air (Romans 8:31, 3334) If God be for us, who can be against us? Who shall
lay anything to the charge of Gods elect? It is God that justifieth. Who is he
that condemneth? It is Christ that died, yea rather, that is risen again, who
is at the right hand of God, who makes intercession for us.
Chorus (Revelation 5:12 13) Worthy is the Lamb that was slain, and hath
redeemed us to God by His blood, to receive power, and riches, and wisdom, and
strength, and honour, and glory, and blessing. Blessing and honour, glory, and
power be unto Him that sitteth upon the throne, and unto the Lamb, forever
and ever.Amen.

Typical of most Handel oratorios, Messiah is constructed of instrumental move-
ments, vocal recitatives, vocal solos, and choruses. Also typical, the instrumental
movements include an overture and a character piece, the recitatives are relatively
balanced between those that are secco and those that are accompanied, most of
the solo movements are preceded by a recitative, and there are numerous cho-
ruses. In addition, the oratorio is divided into three parts. Atypically, the three
parts are not equal in length, either in number of movements per part or in time
of duration; the first two parts each have twenty-three movements and are about
an hour in length while the third part has only nine movements that total about a
half hour. Also unbalanced is the distribution of choruses within the parts of the
oratoriosix, eleven, andthree.
Instrumental Movements
Of the instrumental movements, the overture, called by Handel a Sinfony, is
in the French Overture style (ouverture la franaise), with a slow beginning that
is repeated and that has a texture of dotted rhythms followed by a longer fugal
or imitative section. Handels treatment of the overture is akin to trio sonatas
of the time, with imitation and dialogue between the two violin parts and the
basso continuo line, the viola serving as harmonic filler. The character piece is
the Pifa, which is a short pastoral movement for strings that depicts shepherds
playing pan pipes in the fields as they watch over their sheep on the night of
Christsbirth.
Recitatives
Given that Messiah has no dialogue between characters, the secco recitatives are
all short and almost all objective in literary content; they serve the function of the
evangelist in Baroque-era passions, setting up commentary by the characters or
action in the choruses. An example is There were shepherds abiding in the field,
keeping watch over their flock by night, which precedes the action of And lo, the
angel of the Lord came upon them, and the glory of the Lord shone round about
them, and they were sore afraid. The only secco recitative that has an active voice
is the one that follows, And the angel said unto them:Fear not, for behold, Ibring
you good tidings of greatjoy.
Most of the nine accompanied recitatives are more like short ariosos than
recitatives in that they are somewhat lengthy and have regular metered textures
throughout. This is clearly obvious in For behold, darkness shall cover the earth,
during which the voice has no opportunity for free delivery of text. And lo, the
angel of the Lord came upon them and And suddenly there was with the angel
a multitude of the heavnly host are also metered throughout, although these
two pieces are quite short. Three other accompanied recitatives (Comfort ye my
people, Thus saith the Lord, the Lord of Hosts, and All they that see Him, laugh
Him to scorn) are substantial in length and have alternating passages of metri-
cally organized and free text. Only the final three accompanied recitatives in the
oratorio are metrically free throughout. Thy rebuke hath broken His heart and
He was cut off out of the land of the living (the two recitatives that surround the
arioso Behold, and see if there be any sorrow) have accompaniment of strings in
long notes that are obliged to follow the free delivery of text in performance, and
Behold, Itell you a mystery has a combination of long notes and short rhythmic
patterns.
Solo Vocal Movements

The seventeen solo movements are diverse in structure, length, and texture,
although most of the movements are relatively short (as compared to arias in
Italian operas of the time) and are called by Handel airs. One of the movements
(Behold and see) is generally called an arioso because of its brevity, and another
movement (O death, where is thy sting) is a duet. In addition, one movement
(O thou that tellest good tidings to Zion) is joined to a concluding chorus based
on the same melodic material as theair.
The diversity of the airs results from the expressive Affekt (from the doctrine
of affections, or Affektenlehrer) portrayed in most of the movements. That is, most
of the solo movements are clearly expressive of a particular characterization that
is reflective of the text. Examples include Evry valley with its crooked and plain
lines; But who may abide with its frenzied music depicting the refiners fire; the
walking from darkness to light in The people that walked in darkness; the pas-
toral quality of He shall feed his flock; the smiters section in He was despised;
the violent string figurations in Why do the nations so furiously rage together;
and the herald quality of the motifs in The trumpet shall sound. The solo move-
ments are not, therefore, a vehicle for the display of virtuoso abilities of the sing-
ers, as in Italian opera, but more a means of expressive delivery of textual content.
Also unlike solo movements in operas, the majority of the airs in Messiah are
not da capo; only two of the airs are so structured (He was despised and The
trumpet shall sound). These are by far the longest solo movements in the orato-
rio (about thirteen and nine minutes, respectively). Athird air (Rejoice greatly)
is da capo in essence, but its repeat of the opening section of music is written out
and the total air is only about four-and-a-half minutes long. All three of the da
capo airs have decidedly contrasting middle sections that vary in tempo, texture,
and dramatic expression.
The other solo movements are of one textual and musical character and range
in length between about two and four minutes. Exceptions are the duet O death,
where is thy sting of one minute and I know that my redeemer liveth of about six-
and-a half minutes. All of these solos except Behold and see and the duet O death,
where is thy sting have opening instrumental sections, which frequently supply the
melodic material for the vocal music that follows. This is the case in all the airs of Part
Iand in three of the four airs in Part II; the instrumental openings to the airs in Part
II are not exactly the same as the vocal lines except for How beautiful are thefeet.
Regardless of diversity of expression, length, or instrumental opening, the solo
movements generally consist of two lines of text that are treated as Aand B sec-
tions of music. This can be seen in the I-A-B-A-B-I structure of Evry valley, with
the instrumental opening serving as I, the text Evry valley shall be exalted serv-
ing as A, and and evry mountain and hill made low, the crooked straight, and the
rough places plain servingasB.
The structure of But who may abide is similar, but with two different instru-
mental openings preceding the Aand B sections and with the second of the instru-
mental passages closing the movement.
Other variations of this structure can be seen in The people that walked in
darkness and How beautiful are the feet, both of which can be labeled I-A-B-I.
Perhaps the most elaborate variation of the general solo movement structure is
in the lengthy I know that my redeemer liveth, which has three lines of text and
a corresponding third section of music. Here the structure might be labeled as
I-A-B-A-B-A-C-I.
Choruses
The choruses are the most significant component of Messiah, not only because
they are more numerous and take up more time than any other compositional
category but because much of the drama of the oratorio is relayed through the
choruses and also because their structural designs were greatly appreciated by
listeners of Handels time and were emulated by many composers in future gen-
erations. Mendelssohn, for instance, modeled many of the choruses in Elijah, St.
Paul, and Lobgesang on Handels structural designs.
All of the twenty choruses but one (Since by man came death) are imitative
in some fashion or another, and all the choruses are divided into sections based
on lines of text. The most common pattern of organization has each line of text
divided into two main sections (A and B), each of which is further divided into
two parts (1 and 2). This can be seen in the first chorus of the oratorio, And the
glory of theLord.
And the glory of the Lord(A-1)

shall be revealed(A-2)
and all flesh shall see it together(B-1)

for the mouth of the Lord hath spoken it(B-2)
The two parts of the A text are treated imitatively and concluded with a clear
homophonic cadence. The two parts of B are treated similarly and then followed
by imitative treatment of Aand B combined. The resulting overall structure of the
movement is as follows, with measure numbers in parentheses.
A-1 and A-2 (111) instrumental introduction

A-1 and A-2 (1138) choral exposition
A-2 (3843) instrumental interlude
B-1 and B-2 (4373) choral exposition
A-1 (7376) instrumental interlude
A-1, A-2, B-1, and B-2 (76102 and 102124) choral development
B-2 (124end) choral closing
The treatment of the Hallelujah chorus is similar, with the text and musical
divisions,
Hallelujah(A-1)
for the Lord God omnipotent reigneth(A-2)
The kingdom of this world is become the kingdom of the Lord and of his Christ(B-1)
and he shall reign for ever and ever. King of Kings and Lord of Lords(B-2)
and with the overallform,
A-1 (14) instrumental introduction

A-1 and A-2 (421 and 2233) choral exposition and development
B-1 and B-2 (3451 and 51.569 and 6981) choral exposition and development
B-1 and B-2 (81.5end) choral closing
Let us break their bonds asunder is similarly organized, but with only two
phrases of text:A(Let us break their bonds asunder) and B (and cast away their
yokes fromus).
A(19)
B (1023)
A (2334)
B (3544)
A and B (4554 and5459)
B (60end) instrumental closing
The final chorus of the oratorio is also similar, but here the Asection serves as an
introduction, which is separated completely from the B section.
Worthy is the Lamb that was slain, and hath redeemed us to God by His blood(A-1)
To receive power, and riches, and glory, and blessing(A-2)
Blessing and honour, glory and powr be unto Him(B-1)
That sitteth upon the throne and unto the Lamb(B-2)
In two of the choruses (The Lord gave the word and Since by man came
death) the duple division of text is highlighted with unusually dramatic musi-
cal treatment, and in three choruses (Glory to God, Surely He hath borne our
griefs, and Lift up your heads) the text is divided into three parts, each receiv-
ing decidedly different musical treatment.
Some of the choruses have only one section of text divided into two or more
parts. This is true of the four choruses that were borrowed from Italian duets and
that have extensive melismatic passages. Handels organization of these choruses
is given structure by repeating each Asection four times. In For unto us a child is
born, for example, the overall form of the movementis
A-1 (17) instrumental introduction

A-1 (726) choral exposition
A-2 (2637.5) choral exposition
A-1 and A-2 (37.553.5)
A-1 and A-2 (53.572.5)
A-1 and A-2 (72.591.5)
A-1 (92end) instrumental closing
In like manner, but with no instrumental introduction and with the text not
divided into two parts, the overall structure of His yoke is easyis
A (115.5)
A (15.523.5)
A (23.531)
A (3141)
A (41.5end) closing
In summary, Handel gives each phrase of text (whether divided into one, two,
or three parts) a musical Affekt that expresses its dramatic character. He then
generally treats the text parts imitatively, combining the parts into sections, and
repeating those sections in a developmental fashion to provide increasing fullness
of texture and coherent structure to the movement.

Performing Forces and StageSet-up
Messiah is scored for SATB soloists, SATB mixed chorus (except for SSATB in Lift
up your heads), and small orchestra. The number of vocal soloists, as well as their
type (i.e., boy, castrato, adult male, or adult female), varied from performance to
performance during Handels life. For the premiere of Messiah in Dublin, Handel
used a total of nine vocal soloistsone boy (singing the four recitatives beginning
with There were shepherds abiding in the field), one female soprano (Christina
Maria Avolio, whom Handel had brought with him to Dublin), one female alto
(Susanna Maria Cibber, who was the best known of the soloists and whom Handel
had also brought with him to Dublin), two male altos (Joseph Ward and William
Lambe), two tenors (James Bailey and John Church), and two basses (John
Mason and John Hill). For the 1743 performances of Messiah at Covent Garden
in London, Handel used seven soloiststhree sopranos (Avolio, Catherine Clive,
and Miss Edwards), one alto (Mrs. Cibber), two tenors (John Beard and Thomas
Lowe), and one bass (Henry Theodore Reinhold). The number and type of soloists
varied again for the 1750 Foundling Hospital performances. For these there were
five soloiststhe soprano Giulia Frasi, the castrato Gaetano Guadagni, the alto
Caterina Galli, the tenor Thomas Lowe, and the bass Henry Theodore Reinhold.
And for the 1752 Foundling Hospital performances the soloists were Giulia Frasi
(soprano), a boy, Caterina Galli (alto), John Beard (tenor), and Robert Wass (bass).
Performing with multiple soloists per voice part was common during the
Baroque era and was often a matter of characterization. This is true, of course,
in the many Handel oratorios in which the soloists represent characters that are
an integral part of a dramatic presentation. Multiple soloists, as well as multiple
basso continuo instruments, also provide variety and interesta factor of perfor-
mance that should be considered in presentationstoday.
The chorus for the Dublin premiere of Messiah consisted of the combined
choirs of St. Patricks Cathedral and Christ Church Cathedral, each choir having
approximately eight boys and twelve men. However, since the choirs shared a
number of singers, the number of choristers for the Messiah premiere and sub-
sequent Dublin performance was approximately eight boys and sixteen men.
The Foundling Hospital performances had a similar number and distribution of
choristers (six boys and twelve men). The total number of choral singers in both
Dublin and London was larger, however, for joining the choristers were the solo-
ists, who, following performance traditions in the Baroque era, sang both the solo
and the choral parts. Thus, the total size of the choral forces for performances of
Messiah during Handels life was from about twenty-three to thirty-two singers
(soloists and choristers combined).
The original instrumental scoring of Messiah was for strings, two trumpets,
timpani, harpsichord, and organ. The number and distribution of strings is
unknown, although it can be estimated from the resources available in Dublin

and from performances throughout Handels life that there were probably six first
and six second violins, three violas and three cellos, and two basses (this being the
string distribution for the Foundling Hospital performances in 1758 and 1759).
Added to the London performances were two oboes (doubling the violins in fully
scored movements), two bassoons (one playing basso continuo in solo move-
ments and both playing in the choruses), and two horns (doubling the ensemble
trumpet parts).
Handel always had multiple keyboard and melodic bass instruments playing
the basso continuo parts in his oratorios. This was standard procedure through-
out the Baroque era. Bach, for example, used both organ and harpsichord and
both cello and bassoon in performances of his St. John Passion (which is classified
as an oratorio). Handel often had even more chord producing and melodic bass
instruments realizing his basso continuo parts, especially in elaborately scored
oratorios. Note, for example, that he specifically called for theorbo (a large lute),
harp, two harpsichords, and two organs in his 1732 revision of Esther, and for
the premiere of Saul in 1739 he had a theorbo, harpsichord, two organs, and
harp. For the small orchestra performing Messiah in Dublin, the basso continuo
was realized by harpsichord and organ; Handel played the harpsichord while a
Mr. Maclaine played a chamber organ, which Handel had brought with him from
London.
For later performances of Messiahafter it began to become more and more
popularall the performing forces increased in number. For the 1758 and 1759
Foundling Hospital performances the oboes and bassoons numbered four each,
and for the 1784 commemoration performances in Westminster Abbey, the cho-
rus consisted of sixty sopranos, forty-eight altos (counter tenors), eighty-three
tenors, and eighty-four basses, for a total of 275 singers. The orchestra for these
performances included six flutes, twenty-six oboes, twenty-six bassoons, one
double bassoon, twelve horns and twelve trumpets, six trombones, three pairs
of timpani, and a string component of forty-eight first violins, forty-seven sec-
ond violins, twenty-six violas, twenty-one cellos, and fifteen basses. Added to
this were a chamber and a grand organ, the latter of which was built specifically
for the commemoration concerts. Asimilar distribution of instruments was used
in the 1786 performance of Messiah conducted by Johann Adam Hiller in Berlin
Cathedral. The choir consisted of 119 singers (thirty-eight sopranos, twenty-four
altos, twenty-six tenors, and thirty-one basses), and the orchestra consisted of
twelve flutes and twelve oboes, ten bassoons, eight horns, six trumpets, four
trombones, two sets of timpani, thirty-eight first violins, thirty-nine second vio-
lins, eighteen violas, twenty-three cellos, fifteen basses, a harpsichord, and an
organ. The 1787 Westminster Abbey performances were advertised to include 800
performers, and the 1788 Berlin Cathedral performances were to have a choir of
259 singers.
The disposition of the singers and instrumentalists in the performances of the

1740s and 1750s is unknown, although we can assume with relative certainty from
documents about other performances and standard arrangements that a harpsi-
chord, chamber organ, and basso continuo cello were positioned front and center.
Soloists came and went from their positions in the choir, which was divided into
two equal ensembles (firsts and seconds) on either side of the performing area.
The violins were also divided left and right, with the remaining instrumentalists
behind them. Depicted in Diagram 4.A is a projected arrangement of forces for
the Dublin premiere.
The arrangement of performers in the Westminster Abbey performances of
1784 is illustrated both in drawing and graph form in An Account of the Musical
Performances in Westminster Abbey by Charles Burney and is represented in
Diagram 4.B. All performers were on platforms that were steeply raked, with the
chorus between the pillars of the Abbey rising to great heights on the left and
right, and with the orchestra, also rising high above the floor, between the pillars
in the center.
The 1786 performance of Messiah in Berlin Cathedral, with a similar disposi-
tion of forces as in Westminster Abbey, is represented in Diagram 4.C, which is
from a seating plan made by Johann Adam Hiller.
Following in Diagram 4.D is a depiction, based on the model shown in
Diagram 4.A, that might be used by modern ensembles in present-day concert
and recital halls. The chorus is arranged so that the SATB sections are equally
divided on both the sides and front of the stage (i.e., SATB on both sides of the
stage and also at both the front and back of the stage). The lines for the four
soloists beside the conductors podium are not for chairs, but only for positions.
It is assumed that the soloists will be a part of the chorus, as they were during
the Baroqueera.
3 Vla. 2 Tpt. Timp. 2 St. B 3 Vlc.

3 3
4 4
T1 T2
B1 6 Vln. I 6 Vln. II B2
Org.
5 Vlc. 5
4 4
S1 S2
A1 A2
Soloists Soloists
Diagram 4.A: Likely Arrangement of Performers for the Dublin Premiere

Timp. Timp.
Tpt. Hn.
Org.
Vla. Vla.
Ob. Bsn.
Vln. I Vln. II
B1 T1 A1 Bass Bass A2 T2 B2
Vlc. Org. Vlc.
S1 S2
Diagram 4.B: Arrangement of Performers in Westminster Abbey,1784
Timp. Organ Timp.
15 Bass
4 Tmb.
6 Tpt.
23 Vlc.
10 Bsn. 8 Hn.
26 T
12 Fl. 12 Ob.
31 B
18 Vla.
38 Vln. I 39 Vln. II
38 S
Vlc. Bass 24 A
Vln. I Hps.
Soloists Soloists
Diagram 4.C: Arrangement of Performers in the Berlin Cathedral,1786

6 St. Bass
Timp. 2 Ob. Bsn. 2 Tpt. Org.

T A S B
6 Vla. 6 Vlc.
8 Vln. I 8 Vln. II
B S A T
Diagram 4.D: Proposed Modern-Day Arrangement of Performers
Volume, Timbre, Pitch, and Vibrato

The volume of sound produced in performances of Messiah by the original comple-
ment of thirty-two singers and twenty-six instrumentalists was relatively soft for
a number of reasons:the boy sopranos sang with a head-tone production, the male
altos sang in falsetto, the adult females also employed a kind of falsetto or head
tone and their timbre was consistently described as sweet, the string instru-
ments all had gut strings that were played with pre-Tourte bows, the valve-less
trumpets produced a dulcet timbre, and the harpsichord and organ were by nature
limited in the volume of sound they could produce. The volume of performances
increased dramatically, of course, as numbers of performers increased, and there
is no doubt that the 1784 Westminster Abbey and 1786 Berlin Cathedral perfor-
mances of Messiah created great sonic effect. However, the timbre of the singers
and instruments remained unchanged, and the overall appreciation of elegance
and its related characteristics still prevailed.
A lightness of vocal production was consistently recommended and admired
throughout the Baroque era. Pier Francesco Tosi (c.16531732) makes many
comments to this effect in his famous singing treatise, Observations on the Florid
Song; or Sentiments on the Ancient and Modern Singers, written in Italian in 1723
and translated into English and published in London in 1743. Two comments
from Chapter One are quotedhere.
Let him [the singer] endeavor to gain by Degrees the high notes, that by the
Help of this Exercise he may acquire as much Compass of the Voice as possible.
Let him take care, however, that the higher the notes, the more it is necessary
to touch them with Softness.
A diligent Master [teacher], knowing that a Soprano, without the Falsetto, is

constrained to sing within the narrow Compass of a few Notes, ought not only
to endeavor to help him to it, but also to leave no Means untried, so to unite
the feigned and the naturalVoice.
Handels friend when he lived in Germany, Johann Mattheson (16811764),

comments similarly in his treatise Der vollkommene Capellmeister (The Complete
Music Director) of1739.
One simply must be amazed by the clever rule that has already served for two
hundred years, that each singing voice, the higher it goes, should be produced
increasingly temperately and lightly.
And this sentiment is confirmed by Giovanni Battista Mancini (17141800) in

his singing treatise Pensieri, e riflessioni pratiche sopra il canto figurato (Practical
thoughts and reflections on the figurative art of singing) of1774.
The high voice is more difficult to master [than the low voice] because it is often
strident by nature. Consequently, the student ought not to neglect to treat the
high portion of the voice with due sweetness.
Charles Burney (17261814), the diarist who traveled throughout Europe, com-
mented on many singers, instrumentalists, and performances in three books:The
Present State of Music in France and Italy (1771); The Present State of Music in
Germany, the Netherlands and United Provinces (1773); and An Account of the Musical
Performances in Westminster Abbey (1785). Related to the volume and timbre of
singers are the following comments from the Westminster Abbey account.
Madame Mara [Gertrud Elizabeth Mara (17491833)] had the power of con-
veying to the remotest corner of this immense building [Westminster Abbey],
the softest and most artificial inflexions of her sweet and brilliantvoice.
Mr. Harrison [Samuel Harrison (17601812)], with his sweet and well-toned
voice, did this Recitative and the following Air [Comfort ye and Evry val-
ley] great justice, by delivering them with propriety and the utmost purity and
truth of intonation.
This brilliant and difficult air [Rejoice greatly] afforded Madame Mara an
opportunity of displaying some of her wonderful powers of execution, and
shewed her in a very different light from any thing she had hitherto sung at
the Commemoration; but so firm, sweet, and judicious, was her performance of
every kind, and so delightful to the audience, that she never breathed a sound
without effect.
Similar comments are made about instrumental timbre and volume. Most espe-
cially, the sound produced by instrumentalists was to emulate and be modeled
on the sound of the voice. The following quotes are from (1)An Essay on Musical
Expression of 1753 by Charles Avison (17091770) and (2)Versuch einer grndli-
chen Violinschule (violin treatise) of 1756 by Leopold Mozart (17191787).
(1) As the finest instrumental Music may be considered as an Imitation of the

vocal, so do these Instruments [the organ and harpsichord], with their
expressive Tone and the minutest changes they are capable of in the
Progression of Melody, show their nearest Approaches to the Perfection
of the humanVoice.
(2) Who is not aware that singing is at all times the aim of every instrumental-
ist, because one must always approximate to nature as nearly as possible.
The general pitch level of musical performance also contributed to the softer
volume and sweet timbre of the time. While there was no standardization of pitch
in the Baroque era, data collected by Alexander Ellis in On the History of Musical
Pitch of 1800 asserts that the pitch Awas generally between 415 Hz and 430 Hz,
and that the mean of these, 422.5 Hz was the most common during the latter
years of the Baroque era. As evidence, for example, Ellis notes that Gottfried
Silbermanns famous 1754 organ in Dresden was A=415 Hz and that Handels
tuning fork was A=422.5 Hz. This puts the pitch of the time approximately a
quarter to a half step lower than A=440 generally employed in moderntimes.
Vibrato, or tremolo, as it was also called, was not discussed much during the
Baroque era. When it was, however, it was acknowledged as an element of perfor-
mance, albeit with limitations as to the degree and frequency of its application.
The range of oscillation in pitch was considerably narrower than that generally
in evidence today, and vibrated tones were not omnipresent. Vibrato was not an
attribute of every sound produced; it was utilized sparingly as an ornament.
Metric Accentuation
Variability of notational emphasis and duration in performance prevailed
throughout the Baroque era and was applicable in all compositions of the time,
both vocal and instrumental. The determination of emphasis and duration was
derived from the meter of the music, or stated another way, the meter of a compo-
sition was a prescription for varied patterns of emphasis and durationthe two
terms emphasis and duration being collectively referred to as accentuation.
The variability of accentuation was complex and nuanced, but derived from sim-
ple formulas: in triple meters (e.g., 3/4 or 3/2) notes on beat one were emphasized
and held for their full durational value while notes on or between beats two and
three were de-emphasized and shortened; the notes in duple meters (e.g., 4/4 or
2/4) had an alternating scheme of emphasis and duration (emphasis on beats one
and three, de-emphasis on beats two and four). Degrees of accentuation depended
upon the relative importance of notes and their placement in phrases. In vocal
music, accentuation was equivalent to natural speech; in instrumental music, it

was determined by harmonic structure and phrase shape.
The practice of metric accentuation was defined and discussed in many
treatises of the time, including A Musical Dictionary by James Grassineau
(17151769), published in London in1740.
Every bar or measure is divided into accented and unaccented parts. The
beginning and the middle, or the beginning of the first half of the bar, and
the beginning of the latter half thereof in common time, and the beginning,
or first of three notes in triple time, are always the accented parts of the
measure.
William Tansur (17061783) provides a definition of metric accentuation by way

of a poem in his A musical grammar and dictionary of1746.
In Common Time, remember well byHeart,

The first and third is the accentedpart;
And if your Music Tripla-Time shouldbe,
Your Accent is the first of evrythree.
Several passages of normal metric accentuation from Messiah are presented in

Examples4.5, 4.6, and 4.7, with the poetic sign for weak syllabic stress marked
on notes that are to be de-emphasized and to be performed shorter than their
notation indicates.
Example4.5
Example4.6
Example4.7
For a complete presentation of metric accentuation in Messiah, see Shrock,

Handels Messiah:APerformance Practice Handbook.
Rhythmic Alteration
The notation of rhythmic patterns during the Baroque era allowed for consider-
able flexibility in performance. Performers were not bound by or limited to math-
ematically proportioned representations of the rhythmic values as they were
notated but were free to vary the values according to perceived innate expressive
characteristics of the rhythms. The notation of the rhythms merely showed the
general outline or rough proportion of notes one to another.
Three types of rhythmic alteration were common during the Baroque and
are relatable to or applicable in Messiah. The first type, notes ingales (unequal
notes), is the transformation of two eighth notes into a dotted- eighth-
sixteenth-note pattern or other relationship with the first note being longer
than the second (as, perhaps, in a triplet configuration). This practice began as a
consideration in French music. However, it became universal to the extent that
composers had to advise against it, and to do so they used the term andante as
an instruction to performers, especially basso continuo players, to leave the
rhythms unalteredto let them walk as they stand, as defined and described
in a number of Baroque-era treatises. Handel used andante in Messiah nine
times for this purpose. In two of the movements (For unto us a child is born
and The Lord gave the word) he paired andante with allegro, meaning that
the notes are not to be altered and that the tempo should be allegro. In two
other movements (For, behold, darkness shall cover the earth and But Thou
didst not leave His soul in hell) Handel paired andante with larghetto, and in
two further movements (Evry valley and Thou shalt break them) Handel
used only the term andante. In all instances the tempo of the movement is
other than that suggested by the common meaning of andante today; the term
andante generally meant that no eighth notes should be transformed into dot-
ted patterns as a treatment of notes ingales.
The second type of rhythmic alteration, over-dotting, refers to the practice of
altering dotted rhythms by making the value of a dotted note or rest longer than
printed, with the following or preceding note or rest proportionally shorter.
The practice is also referred to as double-dotting. However, since the actual
alteration of a rhythm might be less or more than a double-dotted valuation

which was often the case during the Baroque erathe term double-dotting is
limiting and even erroneous. The term over-dotting allows for the unnotated
flexibility of length and corresponding shortness. The degree of alteration is
determined by the sentiment of the music. If expressive characteristics are ten-
der, for instance, the dotted rhythmic pattern might be in a triplet configura-
tion. If, on the other hand, the character of the music is majestic, the dotted
note might become double-dotted or even triple-dotted. The pattern could also
remain unaltered. Decisions depend entirely upon the expressive context of
the music. The overture (Sinfony) to Messiah (the beginning of the first violin
part of which is shown in Example 4.8) is a classic example of notation that
would have been over-dotted in the Baroque era. Shown in the example here
is a sixteenth-note rest in place of the note extension, this practice being an
example of silences darticulation (silences of articulation), which refers to the
commonplace tradition of performing the dots of dotted-note rhythms asrests.
Example4.8
Another example of over-dotting can be seen in Lift up your heads. Here,

shown in the choral alto part (Example 4.9), the lengthening and correspond-
ing shortening process takes place at the beginning and also at the end of some
rhythms. For instance, in measures 5 and 6 the shortening of the notated rhythm
takes place at the beginning of the pattern.
Example4.9
The third type of rhythmic alteration involves conforming one part to the pre-
vailing rhythmic texture of the movement. This practice occurs frequently with
initial anacrusis notes of dotted patterns, which are normally notated as eighth
notes but with the presumption that they would be performed as sixteenths and
that the initial note would conform to the dotted pattern that follows. Such is the
case in the opening measures of Thus saith the Lord. Observe in Example4.10
that in addition to altering the anacrusis notes, the ends of each phrase pattern
have also been shortened, this shortening done for dramatic effect.
Example4.10
Similar situations occur in Behold the Lamb of God, in measures 50 to 53 of

Rejoice greatly, and throughout The trumpet shall sound. In addition, the solo
vocal part in the middle section of He was despised should conform to the dot-
ted rhythmic patterns of the orchestra.
Recitative
Recitativethe musical style of setting or singing text in the rhythm of natural
speechwas a hallmark of the Baroque. The style began at the very beginning of
the era as a means by which text could be communicated clearly, and it remained
a primary form of musical expression through the very ending years of the era. To
render recitative in a natural speech-like manner, the meter and tempo of scoring
are only outlines and are not to be observed strictly in performance; the meter is
used to notate important words or syllables on strong beats, and the tempo is to
be determined by the character of the text as it would be spoken with its Affekt in
natural dialogue.
In secco recitative (that accompanied only by basso continuo instruments), the
meter and tempo are completely free. There should be no sense of metric regular-
ity, and the tempo should vary as it would in common speech. Also, the rests in the
vocal part should not be interpreted literally but should be varied as if one were
speaking. In addition, the rests should be connected and separated, eliminated or
shortened, to reveal common-sense phrases. The accompanying instrumental play-

ers, who have the vocal part notated in their scores, follow the singer. In specific,
the melodic instrumentalist (usually playing a cello in modern times) plays each
note briefly, generally with rests between the notes. However, if the printed notes
are short in duration, in close proximity to each other, and in a dominant/tonic or
other common leading/resolution relationship, the notes are connected. The chord-
producing instrumentalists (playing a harpsichord, organ, theorbo, or harp) play at
will. For instance, chords of various textures (arpeggiated, high, low, thick, thin) can
be played in some measures or in all of them, chords can be repeated, or there can be
only one chord as notated. The choice of playing should match the texts character
but should not distract from a clear delivery of the text; in no case should an organ-
ist sustain a note of long duration. Beyond this, the two final cadential notes of secco
recitative are customarily played after the singer has finished singing, with the final
note of the cadence sounding on a strong beat. Playing the cadence chords simul-
taneously with the ending of the vocal part (called telescoping) was only done in
opera and as a demarcation in the midst of long recitatives with multiple phrases.
Asample secco recitative, And the angel said unto them from Messiah, is shown in
Example4.11 in its original notation with long notes in the basso continuo.
Example4.11
Example 4.12 shows the recitative as it would likely have been performed
during Handels time. Note that both the internal and final cadences have been
delayed and that the vocal part has been adjusted to emulate natural speech.
Afew passages have also been ornamented to increase the Affekt of thetext.
Example4.12
A similar secco recitative, Then shall the eyes of the blind, is shown in
Example4.13.
In accompanied recitative (that scored for orchestral instruments), perfor-
mance depends upon the nature of the orchestral music. If the music is rhythmi-
cally organized, as in For, behold, darkness shall cover the earth, the meter is to
be observed and the tempo is to be steady. However, if the orchestral music has
no rhythmic organization but consists only of short chords (as in the final eight
measures of Comfort ye) or long chords with no rhythmic pattern (as in Thy
rebuke hath broken His heart), the accompaniment is free as in secco recitative.
The orchestra (conductor) follows the singer. There is also a style of accompanied
recitative that alternates regular and free meter and tempo. In Thus saith the
Lord, for example, the rhythmic orchestral passages are to be performed strictly,
but the time between them, during the vocal recitatives, isfree.
Ornamentation
The practice of enriching a printed score in performance with added melodic mate-
rial was well established and prevalent throughout the Baroque era. From simple
ornaments such as appoggiaturas and trills that decorated single notes to complex
long passages that added to or altered notated melodies, the involvement of the per-
former in decisions of melodic design was a recognized, expected, and valued factor
of performance. Ornamentation was considered an inherent creative duty of the
performer and a complement to the printed score. With Handel, who was by nature
an Italian opera composer and whose oratorios were performed in public theaters
with soloists who were almost always professionals, extemporaneous ornamenta-
tion in performance was commonplace and significant. Added melodic passages in
solo movements, appoggiaturas in recitatives, and trills in ensemble movements
were all routine and should be customary in modern-day performances.
Appoggiaturas were the most common and frequently added single-note orna-
ment during the latter years of the Baroque era in Germany and England. They
were added most frequently in recitatives, where they often replaced the initial
note of a two-note group at the end of textual phrases (see measures 5 and 9 in
Example4.12 and measures 2 and 4 in Example4.13). Appoggiaturas were also
often added to phrase endings with single notes (see measure 10 in Example4.12
and measures 6 and 8 in Example4.13).
Example4.13
Appoggiaturas were also common additions in solo airs, where their purpose
was the same as in recitativesto highlight or emphasize important syllables of
text, especially a text that expressed pathos (generally referred to as pathetic
during the Baroque). Several of these ornamental appoggiaturas can be seen in
He was despised (Example4.20 at the end of this discussion), especially in the
da capo recommendations. Note that the appoggiaturas are from above (e.g.,
measure 5)and from below (e.g., measure10).
In ensemble music for chorus and orchestra, appoggiaturas decorated with
simple trills were frequently inserted at cadences. In these instances, the appog-
giatura begins with the note above that printed, and a simple two-note trill is
added before the resolution to the printed note on the following beat. This type of
appoggiatura is especially important in cadential formulas involving the interval
of a third, the appoggiatura note filling in the melodic gap of the third. (See the
discussion of cadential appoggiaturas in the ornamentation portion of the Bach B
Minor Mass in this study.) The first violin part in the penultimate measure of the
Sinfony from Messiah seen here in Example4.14 is typical.
Example4.14
Another typical cadential example can be found at the end of For unto us a
child is born, where both the sopranos and altos, doubled by the violins, can be
enhanced by an appoggiatura trill. In Example4.15 the original notation is fol-
lowed, after a double bar, by the suggested embellishment.
Example4.15
An interesting appoggiatura with a closing trill occurs at the end of the phrase
And He shall reign forever and ever in the Hallelujah chorus. The first bass
phrase is marked with a tr sign, but the later identical phrases are all marked
with an appoggiatura instead and also with a closing at the end of the note (often
referred to as an anticipation to the following cadence note). Logically, the first

bass phrase should also incorporate an appoggiatura, and all the phrases should
be treated with a simple trill at the end of the appoggiatura; they are all classic
appoggiatura trills. Shown here in Example4.16 are the bass and tenor lines orna-
mented appropriately.
Example4.16
Trills, whether with appoggiaturas or alone, are usually short in duration

in the oratorios of Handel. In Messiah, the only opportunity for an extended
trill is on the long trumpet notes in The trumpet shall sound (e.g., measures
5054 and 7880). Trills in the midst of a melodic phrase are often marked by
the composer, although not consistently. Handel, like other composers of the
Baroque, put tr signs in some melodic passages, expecting performers to apply
them in other similar passages. For example, Handel marked a trill in measure
2 of the violin parts in O thou that tellest good tidings to Zion, but he did not
mark trills in later statements of the same melodic theme. Similarly, Handel
only marked trills at the beginning of Behold the Lamb of God and He was
despised.
All trills generally begin on the note above that which is printed unless that
note serves as an appoggiatura. For example, the trill at the beginning of O thou
that tellest good tidings to Zion (shown in Example4.17) begins on the printed
note (shown after the doublebar).
Example4.17
The practice of adding melodic passages to ornament a score was common-

place for soloists performing Handels operas and oratorios. From the Italian
passaggi, also sometimes called passagework, vocalists and instrumentalists
routinely embellished the printed score with elaborate extra melodies. These
additions generally took the form of turns and short turn-like figures and also
scalar passages that were used to connect intervallic leaps. Other reasons for
passaggi involve the display of virtuosity, the illustration of dramatic words or
phrases, and the emphasis of important words. Shown in Example4.18 are sug-
gested passaggi and other ornaments that might be appropriate in All they that
see him. Other commonplace ornamental passages can be seen in the recita-
tives And the angel said unto them (Example4.12 measure 9)and Then shall
the eyes of the blind be opend (Example 4.13 measure 6). (For suggestions
about passages and single-note ornaments that might be applied to all the rec-
itatives and airs in Messiah, see Shrock, Handels Messiah, APerformance Practice
Handbook.)
Example4.18
Cadenzas the application of extensive ornamental passagework at the

cadences of arias or instrumental soloswere an inherent part of performance
during the Baroque. Every notable singer or player was expected to demonstrate
this type of embellishment, and audiences were disappointed if the performers
did not deliver an appropriate virtuosic display. Handel is known to have com-
mented on especially elaborate cadenzas in performances of his oratorios. For
example, as related by Charles Burney,
One night, while Handel was in Dublin, Dubourg [the bass soloist in Messiah],
having a close [cadenza] to make, wandered about in different keys a great
while, at length coming to the shake [trill], when Handel, to the great delight
of the audience, cried out loud You are welcome home, Mr. Dubourg!
Not all compositions lend themselves to the incorporation of cadenzas,

however. In Messiah, cadenzas seem to be appropriate only at the end of Evry
valley, But who may abide, Rejoice greatly, and The trumpet shall sound.
Opportunity for extended ornamentation also occurs at the end of Why do the
nations. Shown here in Example4.19 is a suggested possible cadenza at the end
of Evry valley.
Example4.19
Significant in the application of ornamentation is the expectation that

repeated melodic material should be varied; that is, recurring statements of the
same melody should be treated differently, especially in da capo arias. Shown in
Example4.20, with added appoggiaturas and passages, are suggested varied treat-
ments of repeated motivic material in He was despised. Note that repetitions
are treated differently in the first part of the air, and then with further varia-
tion in the da capo. The resolution of the appoggiatura at the end of measure 5
(da capo) into the printed rest of the original notation was a standard practice
recommended in many treatises of the time. Appoggiaturas approached from
below (measures 10 and 12)were particularly common in music with sorrowful
(pathetic)texts.
Example4.20
Summary
Messiah has endured and survived many manifestations of execution and inter-
pretation since its premiere in 1742. As noted earlier in this study, Handel fash-
ioned some of the movements from previously composed unrelated music and
made changes to the content and performing forces as the oratorio was per-
formed at different times and in different cities and venues. In the years that
followed his death, the numbers of performers increased exponentially and the
orchestration was refashioned dramatically. Mozart rescored the oratorio in
1789, adding flutes, piccolo (in the Pifa), clarinets, and trombones, and in 1959
Sir Thomas Beecham recorded it in an orchestration by Eugene Goossens that
included flutes, piccolo, oboes, English horn, clarinets, bass clarinet, bassoons,
contrabassoon, horns, trumpets, trombones, tuba, timpani, cymbals, harp, and
strings. In 1857 at the Great Handel Festival in Londons Crystal Palace, Messiah
was performed with two thousand singers and an orchestra of five hundred, and
beginning in the 1980s it became popular to present the oratorio in staged ver-
sions and also in sing-along performances, with the entire audience singing the
choruses and sometimes even the airs as well. In the 1990s Messiah was trans-
formed into A Soulful Celebration, with the incorporation of ragtime, gospel,
blues, and jazz elements performed with numerous electronically produced
sounds.
No one of these versions or interpretations can be assumed to be more right or

wrong than another; each has attempted to communicate Handels score within
the cultural fabric and particular ethos of its time. Yet there remains a distinction
between serving the music (while clothing it in this or that attire) and abusing it
by altering its innate anatomy. Re-orchestrations and varied interpretations only
change the outward appearance of the oratorio.
However, there also remains a desire to understand and appreciate the work
in its original contextual environmenta desire not to bring or transform the
work to a new milieu but to reveal it in an innate form with relevant performance
practices. By doing so, the music (as with restorations of art or architecture) has a
greater opportunity to enrich those who experienceit.
Arnold, Frank Thomas. The Art of Accompaniment from a Thorough-Bass as Practiced in the 17th and
18th Centuries. Oxford University Press, 1931. Reprinted by Dover,1965.
Avison, Charles. An Essay on Musical Expression. London,1753.
Brown, Howard Mayer and Sadie, Stanley. Performance Practice: Music after 1600. W.
W.Norton,1989.
Burney, Charles. An Account of the Musical Performances in Commemoration of Handel. London,
1785. Reprinted by Da Capo Press,1979.
Burney, Charles. The Present State of Music in Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Provinces.
London, 1773 and1775.
Carse, Adam. The Orchestra in the XVIIIth Century. W. Heffer & Sons, 1940. Reprinted,1950.
Ellis, Alexander. On the History of Musical Pitch. Journal of the Society of Arts, 38,1980.
Hogwood, Christopher. Handel. Thames and Hudson,1984.
Kelly, Thomas Forrest. First Nights:Five Musical Premiers. Yale University Press,2000.
Larsen, Jens Peter. Handels Messiah:Origins, Composition, Sources. W. W.Norton,1972.
MacClintock, Carol. Readings in the History of Music in Performance. Indiana University
Press,1979.
Mainwaring, John. Memoirs of the Life of the Late George Frederic Handel. R.and J.Dodsley, 1760.
Reprinted by Da Capo Press,1980.
Mattheson, Johann. Der vollkommene Capellmeister (The Complete Music Director). Hamburg,
1739. Translated by Ernest C. Harris, UMI Research Press,1981.
Mattheson, Johann. Grundlage einer ehren-pforte (biography of musicians). Hamburg,1740.
Mozart, Leopold. Versuch einer grndlichen Violinschule. Augsburg, 1756. Translated by Editha
Knocker as A Treatise on the Fundamental Principles of Violin Playing. Oxford University
Press,1985.
Rogers, Patrick J. Continuo Realization in Handels Vocal Music. UMI Research Press,1989.
Rowen, Ruth Halle. Music through Sources and Documents. Prentice-Hall,1979.
Shaw, Watkins. A Textual and Historical Companion to Handels Messiah. Novello, 1965. Paperback
edition with corrections,1982.
Shrock, Dennis. Handels Messiah:APerformance Practice Handbook. GIA,2013.
Shrock, Dennis. Performance Practices in the Baroque Era as Related by Primary Sources. GIA,2013.
Smither, Howard. E. A History of the Oratorio, Volume 2: The Oratorio in the Baroque
Era:Protestant Germany and England. University of North Carolina Press,1977.

Tansur, William. A Musical Grammar and Dictionary: or a General Introduction to the Whole of
Music. London,1746.
Tosi, Pier. Francesco. Observations on the Florid Song; or Sentiments on the Ancient and Modern
Singers. Bologna, 1723. Translated by J. E. Galliard. J. Wilcox, 1743. Reprinted by William
Reeves Bookseller,1926.
5
Joseph Haydn The Creation

In the moment when light broke out for the firsttime,
one would have said that rays darted from the composers
burningeyes.
Frederick Samuel Silverstolpe
(a Swedish diplomat who attended
the first rehearsal of The Creation)
Introduction
For most of his adult life Haydn was employed by the Esterhzy family, who lived
variously in their two large palaces south of Vienna, one palace in Eisenstadt,
Austria, and the other in Fertd, Hungary. Haydn served four of the Esterhzy
patriarchs:Paul Anton for one year (1761 to 1762), Paul Antons brother Nikolaus
Ifor almost thirty years (1762 to 1790), Nikolauss son Anton for four years (1790
to 1794), and Antons son Nikolaus II for fifteen years (1794 until Haydns death
in 1809). Each of these Esterhzy princes had an important role in Haydns musi-
cal development and in the establishment of hisfame.
Paul Anton (17111762) played the violin, flute, and lute, and he reorganized
the musical establishment of the court the year before he died. He hired the
twenty-eight-year-old Haydn as Vice-Kapellmeister, with responsibilities for all
secular music; the duties of the aging Kapellmeister Gregor Werner (16931766)
were limited to church music. According to Haydns contract,
Gregorius Werner, in consideration of his service over many years, will remain
Ober-Kapellmeister, whereas he, Joseph Heyden, as Vice-Kapellmeister in
Eisenstadt, will be subordinate to and dependent upon Gregorius Werner
in choral music; on all other occasions, however, whenever there has to be a
musical performance, everything pertaining to music will be assigned in genre
and specie to him as Vice-Kapellmeister.
165
Paul Anton increased the size of the orchestra and hired several virtuoso players,
giving Haydn the opportunity to compose concertos (e.g., for violin and horn)
and symphonies (including numbers 6 through 8, called Le matin, Le midi, and
Le soir), as well as other instrumental music necessary for regularly scheduled
court concerts, called academies, which occurred twice eachweek.
Nikolaus I (17141790) expanded the musical activity at the court, adding
numerous occasions for Tafelmusik (table music) in addition to the more for-
mal academies. Like his brother Paul Anton, Nikolaus Iwas also a performer; he
played the cello, viola da gamba, and, beginning in 1765, the baryton (a relative
of the bass viol, with two sets of strings, one set bowed and one set plucked). In
1766 he began building a large palace in Fertd, Hungary (about twenty-five miles
south of Eisenstadt), and also in 1766, with the death of Werner, he promoted
Haydn to Kapellmeister. Haydn, now responsible for all musical activity at the
court, became exceptionally prolific. During the ten years between 1765 and 1775
he composed approximately two hundred works for the baryton, including 126
trios, as well as a vast number of other instrumental chamber pieces. He also com-
posed from two to five symphonies a year and several large choral works, includ-
ing the Missa Cellenis in honorem BVM (called the Ccilienmesse) in 1766, the
Stabat Mater in 1767, the cantata Applausus in 1768, and the oratorio Il ritorno di
Tobia in 1775. Also in 1775 Nikolaus developed an interest in opera and added to
Haydns responsibilities the management of an opera company and the composi-
tion of a number of dramatic works forit.
Haydns extraordinary productivity during the reign of Nikolaus Iwas possible,
in large part, because Nikolaus did not travel and was in constant need of musi-
cal activity. He spent most of the year at the new palace in Hungary and thus
provided almost no opportunity for the musicians, including Haydn, to return
to their families in Eisenstadt or Vienna. Drawing attention to this circumstance
and the need for the musicians to have a break, Haydn composed his famous
Symphony no.45 (the Farewell) in 1772. While performing the end of the final
movement, the instrumentalists, one by one, stopped playing, snuffed out their
candles, and left the stage, leaving only Haydn and the concertmaster to finish
the music. Nikolaus responded by moving the court to Eisenstadt the following
day and by recognizing the need for Haydn to have some independenceto travel
and to accept commissions. As a result, Haydn composed the six Paris symphonies
(numbers 82 through 87)of 1785 and 1786 and the original orchestral version of
The Seven Last Words of Christ, commissioned in 1783 by the city of Cadiz,Spain.
Anton (17381794), who was not interested in music, released many of the
musicians and reduced the courts musical activity. Haydn was retained, but he
was free to travel extensively, continue to accept commissions, and otherwise
compose as he pleased. He spent most of his time in Vienna, living in Eisenstadt
only during the summers, and in 1791, arranged by the concert manager Johann
Peter Salomon (17451815), he made an extended trip to London, where, among
other works, he performed his symphonies 93 through 98 (the initial set of the
Haydn The Creat i o n 167
London symphonies). Sir Charles Burney (17261814) reviewed the first of the
London concerts, writing,
Haydn himself presided at the piano-forte, and the sight of that renowned
composer so electrified the audience, as to excite an attention and a pleasure
superior to any that had ever been caused by instrumental music in England.
William Thomas Parke also commented on Haydns London concerts. In his musi-
cal memoirs of 1830 Parkewrote,
Salomon gave twelve subscription concerts in Hanover Square, which began on

the 12th of March. These concerts had the powerful aid of the celebrated com-
poser Haydn, who was engaged by Salomon to come to London and compose
twelve new symphonies, one for each night, and to preside at the pianoforte
during the performance ofthem.
While in London Haydn also attended and was greatly impressed by the Handel
oratorios Messiah and Israel in Egypt, which he heard in May at the grand Handel
commemoration concerts in Westminster Abbey. In addition, Haydn traveled to
Oxford in July to receive an honorary doctorate.
Nikolaus II (17651833) shared his grandfathers interest in music and asked
Haydn to re-establish the orchestra. However, respecting Haydns great fame at
the time, he required very little of Haydn except a Mass each year to be performed
on the Sunday following the princesss name day (September 8). These are the
last six Masses:the Missa Sancti Bernardi von Offida (also called the Heiligmesse),
the Missa in tempore belli (also called the Paukenmesse), the Missa in angustiis
(also called the Nelsonmesse), the Theresienmesse, the Schpfungsmesse, and the
Harmoniemesse.
Each of the four Esterhzy princes was important to Haydn in a different way.
Paul Anton, by having a resident orchestra with highly accomplished players, gave
Haydn the opportunity to develop advanced compositional skills. Nikolaus I, by
keeping Haydn busy and isolated, was responsible for Haydns development of an
individual style. According to Georg August Griesinger (17691845), Haydnsaid,
My prince was content with all my works, Ireceived approval, Icould, as head
of an orchestra, make experiments, observe what created an impression and
what weakened it, thus improving, adding to, cutting away, and running risks.
Iwas set apart from the world, there was no one in my vicinity to confuse or
annoy me in my course, and so Ihad to become original.
By contrast, Antons disinterest in music gave Haydn the opportunity to travel

and expand both the nature and style of his output. Finally, Nikolaus II, by rec-
ognizing Haydns fame and giving him freedom, allowed him to compose some
of his most important works as well as some of the most important works of the
Classical era. During the final fifteen years of Haydns lifefrom age sixty-two to
seventy-sevenhe composed his last six Masses, the Te Deum for Marie Theresa,
the cantata Gott erhalte Franz den Kasiser, the secular part songs, the last of the
London symphonies, the six string quartets of opus 76, and the oratorios The
Creation and The Seasons.

Haydn composed three oratoriosIl ritorno di Tobia (the Return of Tobias), Die
Schpfung (The Creation), and Die Jahreszeiten (The Seasons). There are claims that
Die sieben letzten Worte unseres Erlsers am Kreuze (The Seven Last Words of our
Lord on the Cross) is also an oratorio, but it is not. It was originally composed as
a purely orchestral work; the text that was applied in later years has no dramatic
plot with interaction of characters, and the work has no recitatives or arias. While
there are solo sections in the scoring, these are almost always as solo ensembles,
mainly quartets as in Haydns Masses, with only an occasional single solo passage
of six to ten measures in length. No genre category is appropriate for the work,
not even cantata; it is solely a succession of meditative movements.
Haydns first oratorio, Il ritorno di Tobia, was commissioned by the Tonknstler-
Societt of Vienna, an organization that raised funds for the widows and orphans
of deceased musicians. Scoring of the oratorio is for five soloists (specific sing-
ers with whom Haydn had worked at Esterhzy), mixed chorus, and large orches-
tra, and the structure of the work consists mostly of recitatives and arias (as was
the case with opera seria at the time). Furthermore, the writing for solo voices
is characterized by Baroque-like virtuoso passages meant to display the techni-
cal capabilities of the singers. All these characteristics appealed to the tastes of
Viennese audiences, who reveled in the vocal displays of soloists and who were
accustomed to hearing operas and oratorios in Italian (Haydns operas composed
for the Esterhzy court are all in Italian).
Haydn composed Il ritorno di Tobia during the end of 1774 and the beginning
of 1775, and conducted the first two performances during Lent on April 2 and 4,
1775, at the Krtnertor Theater (where Beethovens Symphony no.9 would have
its premiere in 1824). The libretto, written by Giovanni Gastone Boccherini (1742
1798), the Vienna court theater poet and brother of composer Luigi Boccherini
(17431805), is based on the story of Tobias from chapters five through twelve in
the Vulgate Bible (i.e., the Apocrypha). In the first part of the oratorio, the blind
Tobit and his wife Anna await the return of their son Tobias. His traveling com-
panion Asaria returns instead, telling Tobit and Anna that when Tobias returns
he will bring with him his new wife Sarah and will restore his fathers sight. In
the second part of the oratorio Tobias returns and cures his father of blindness.
Then Asaria, who is the archangel Raphael in disguise, ascends to heaven, and the
chorus gives praise to God. The advertisement for the premiere of the oratorio is
as follows:
On this day, Tuesday 4th of April 1775, in the privileged theater next to the
Krtnertor, will be held for the benefit of the privileged Tonknstlergesellschaft,
established for the purpose of the upkeep of the widows and orphans of the
society, a grand musical academy at which will be sung for the first time an
oratorio for five voices by Mr Johann Gastone Boccherini, poet to the Imperial
Theater Royal, called: The Return of Tobias. The music of voices and instru-
ments, which are estimated to consist of more than 180 persons, is quite new
and has been composed by Mr Joseph Haydn, Kapellmesiter to His Serene
Highness, Prince Esterhzy von Galantha.
The performance was received well. Areview published on April 6, 1775, in the
Vienna Realzeitung commented,
The famous Kapellmeister Haydn showed the ability for which he is famous
and for which he advanced once more. Expression, Nature, and Art were so
skillfully and finely combined throughout this work that the audience was com-
pelled to enjoy and wonder at all of these. His choruses in particular glowed
with a flame that could only be compared to Handel.
The comment in the review about Haydns choruses is curious in that there were
only three of them in the oratorio. Also, it is unlikely that Haydn modeled his
writing on that of Handel; in the 1770s, Haydn would have had limited knowl-
edge of Handels oratorios. The comparison between the two composers is most
likely due to the colorful portrayal of text, which was a hallmark of both Handel
andHaydn.
A repeat performance of Il ritorno di Tobia was planned for the concert series
in 1781 but did not occur because capable soloists could not be found. While
received well in 1775, the oratorio, at almost three hours in duration, was too
long and the Tonknstler-Societt requested that Haydn make revisions. Haydn
heeded the request by omitting numerous coloratura vocal passages and deleting
some recitatives and arias. In addition, to make the work more accessible, he also
added two choruses, the second of which was to the text beginning Svanisce in un
momento. At some point later in time, these words were changed to Insanae et
vanae curae and the chorus was extracted and published separately; it is now per-
formed as a motet. The new version of the oratorio was presented at the Hofburg
Theater in Vienna on March 28 and 30, 1784. Although the revised oratorio was
more palatable, the Viennese tastes had changed by this time and the oratorio was
not received well. There were no more performances in Vienna until 1801, and
only a few performances in cities outside Vienna, including Lisbon in 1784 and
Leipzig in 1802. Afterwards the work fell into relative obscurity.
Haydn would perhaps have written no more oratorios except for the encour-
agement and support of two important peopleJohann Peter Salomon, who
arranged for Haydn to hear the oratorios of Handel and who is credited with giv-
ing Haydn the English text libretto for The Creation, and Gottfried van Swieten
(17331803), who translated the libretto to German, worked with Haydn dur-
ing the compositional process, and then re-translated the libretto back to English
after Haydn completed the oratorio.
Salomon was a violinist, composer, and impresario. He was born in Bonn,
where he became a violinist in the court orchestra and composed a number of
operas. In the early 1780s he moved to London, playing violin in a string quartet
and becoming an important concert organizer. In 1791, as mentioned earlier, he
brought Haydn to London for a series of concerts involving the performance of
six symphonies and a number of chamber works. While in London, Salomon took
Haydn to performances of the Handel Festival in Westminster Abbey between
May 23 and June 1.There, Haydn heard complete performances of Messiah and
Israel in Egypt plus excerpts from Esther, Saul, Deborah, and Judas Maccabaeus.
Haydn was apparently impressed with Handels music. According to Giuseppe
Carpani (17511825), a composer and literary editor who wrote aboutHaydn,
[Haydn] confessed that when he heard the music of Hendl [sic] in London, he
was struck as if he had been put back to the beginning of his studies and had
known nothing up to that moment. He meditated on every note and drew from
these most learned scores the essence of true musical grandeur.
Haydns other biographer at the time, Albert Christoph Dies (17551822),wrote,
The first suggestion for this work [The Creation] came from Salomon in London.
Since he [Salomon] had been fortunate in so many musical undertakings up to
then, and Haydn had contributed so much to his fortune, he always had cour-
age for new undertakings. Salomon resolved to have a great oratorio written
byHaydn.
While it may be true that Salomon was the first person to suggest that Haydn
compose an oratorio to a text about the creation of the world, and while it is
certainly true that Salomon gave Haydn the original libretto of The Creation,
there is a long-established belief that the idea first came from Franois Hippolyte
Barthlemon (17411808), a violinist who was living in London. According to
Charles H.Purday in the magazine The LeisureHour,
During Haydns stay in London he was so much struck with the performance
of Handels Messiah that he intimated to his friend Barthelemon his great
desire to compose a work of a similar kind. He asked Barthelemon what subject

he would advise for such a purpose. Barthelemon took up his Bible and said,
There, take that, and begin at the beginning! Barthelemon assured my father
that this was the origin of the idea of the composition of The Creation.
At some point during Haydns second visit to London (17941795) he was

given a libretto in English based on material from John Miltons seventeenth-
century epic poem Paradise Lost. Van Swieten then became involved as a transla-
tor since Haydn was not fluent in English.
Van Swieten was a diplomat, librarian, and musical enthusiast, who took
a particular interest in sponsoring composers, including Haydn, Mozart, and
Beethoven. Van Swieten was born in Holland but moved to Vienna as a child
when his father was appointed librarian of the Imperial Library and personal
physician to Empress Maria Theresa, ruler of the Habsburg Empire from 1740
until her death in 1780. The young van Swieten became fluent in a number of
languages and had diplomatic posts in Brussels, Paris, Warsaw, and Berlin. In
1777 he succeeded his father as librarian of the Imperial Library, introducing
there the first card catalog system, and in 1786 he organized the Gesellschaft der
Associierten, a concert series for the noble elite in Vienna, with private perfor-
mances (mainly of Baroque-era works) in palaces, the Imperial Library, and even-
tually the Burgtheater. Notable among these performances (unknown to Haydn)
were Handels Acis and Galatea in 1788, Messiah in 1789, and Alexanders Feast
in 1790all the performances in German translation, re-orchestrated, and con-
ducted by Mozart.
In 1793 van Swieten suggested that Haydn compose an oratorio to a text
by Johann Baptist von Alxinger (17551797), who became secretary of the
Burgtheater in 1796. This oratorio never came to be. However, van Swieten main-
tained his interest in Haydn and wrote the text for Haydns vocal version of Die
sieben letzten Worte, the original version of which was composed for orchestra in
1783, with a subsequent arrangement for string quartet in 1787. In 1794 Haydn
had heard a choral arrangement of the work in Passau, with pietistic poetry by
Joseph Friebert (17241799), Kapellmeister of Passaus St. Stephens Cathedral.
Haydn liked the idea of a choral version and thus made his own arrangement,
with a new text by van Swieten, who organized a private performance in the
Schwarzenberg Palace on March 26, 1796, for the Gesellschaft der Associierten.
Apublic performance was given on April 1, 1798, by the Tonknstler-Societt.
Meanwhile, van Swieten had become aware of the Creation text and Haydns
interestinit.
At first sight the material seemed to him [Haydn] indeed well chosen, and well
suited to musical effects, but he nevertheless did not accept the proposal imme-
diately; he was just on the point of leaving for Vienna [which he did on August
15, 1795], and he reserved the right to announce his decision from there,
where he wanted to take a look at the poem. [When he returned to London]

he showed it to me and Irecognized at once that such an exalted subject would
give Haydn the opportunity Ihad long desired, to show the whole compass of
his profound accomplishments and to express the full power of his inexhaust-
ible genius; Itherefore encouraged him to take the work inhand.
Haydn did accept the proposal, and he began composition sometime during 1796.
Mention of Haydns work on the oratorio was made by the Viennese court organ-
ist Johann Georg Albrechtsberger (17361809) in a letter to Beethoven written
December 15,1796.
Yesterday Haydn came to me. He is carrying around in his head the idea of a big
oratorio which he intends to call The Creation and hopes to finish it soon. He
improvised some of it for me and Ithink it will be verygood.
The first draft of the oratorio was finished in the autumn of 1797, and by April
of 1798 vocal and instrumental parts were completed. An open rehearsal took
place at the Schwarzenberg Palace on April 29, and the first performance was
presented there, for the members of van Swietens Gesellschaft der Associierten,
the following day. Haydn conducted and Antonio Salieri was the keyboardist. The
following is a recollection of the rehearsal by Frederik Samuel Silverstolpe (1769
1851), a Swedish diplomat who was a member of the Gesellschaft.
I was among the audience at the first performance on April 29, 1798, and a few
days beforehand Ihad attended the first rehearsal. After this rehearsal Haydn
was surprised by a present. Prince Schwarzenberg, in whose rooms the work
was prepared and later also performed, was so utterly enchanted by the many
beauties of the work, he presented the composer with a roll containing one
hundred ducats, over and above the five hundred that were part of the agree-
ment.No one, not even Baron van Swieten, had seen the page of the score
wherein the birth of light is described. This was the only passage of the work
Haydn had kept hidden. Ithink Isee his face even now, as this part sounded in
the orchestra. Haydn had the expression of someone who is thinking of biting
his lips, either to hide his embarrassment or to conceal a secret. In the moment
when light broke out for the first time, one would have said that rays darted
from the composers burning eyes. The enchantment of the electrified Viennese
was so general, the orchestra could not proceed for some minutes.
The oratorio was so well received that two other performances, also private,
took place on May 7 and 10, and yet two more performances were given at the
Schwarzenberg Palace on March 2 and 4,1799.
The first public performance, sponsored by the Tonknstler-Societt and con-
ducted by Haydn, was at the Burgtheater on March 19, 1799 (during Lent), with
subsequent performances on December 22 and 23 (during Advent). During the

following year there were a reported eight performances in and around Austria,
including one at the Royal Palace in Budapest on March 8, at the Burgtheater on
April 6 and 7, at the Schwarzenberg Palace on April 12 and 13, and at the Esterhzy
Palace at the beginning of September. In the course of the following ten years, it
is estimated that there were forty-five performances in Vienna alone. Haydn con-
ducted many of these performances, his last being on March 27, 1808, during a
concert at the University of Vienna in honor of his seventy-sixth birthday.
Salomon planned to have the first British performance of The Creation in
London. However, a rival impresario, John Ashley, preempted Salomons plans
and presented the oratorio at Covent Garden on March 28, 1800. Three other
performances followed before Salomon gave his performance on April 21. The
London audiences were not as enthusiastic as those in Vienna, and subsequent
performances of The Creation were frequently limited to part one or parts one and
two of the oratorio. By the second decade of the nineteenth century, however, the
entire oratorio began to be performed throughout England, including Norwich in
1813, Edinburgh in 1815, and York in 1823. William Gardner, writing in defense
of modern music in The Monthly Magazine, issued on March 1, 1811, said about
The Creation,
Here we find every voice and instrument conspiring to raise the mind of man to
contemplate the wonderful work of God. The exquisite feeling in the songs,
and the taste displayed in the accompaniment, exceeds in beauty every thing we
have hitherto felt or conceived. The collision of the trumpets and trombones,
and the awful motion of the bass, render the chorusses terrific and grand. The
concluding movement of The heavens are telling the glory of God is penned
with a majesty of thought that transcends the powers of musical expression.
Beyond Austria and England, Haydns oratorio received its first performances
in Paris on December 24, 1800, and January 1, 1801 (in French translation, with
some deletions of music and also some transpositions of arias to accommodate
French singers). The first performance in the United States was an abridged ver-
sion in German presented by the Moravians in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in 1810.
The Handel and Haydn Society of Boston, founded in 1815, presented selections
from part one in English on Christmas Day of 1815. Acomplete performance was
given on February 16,1819.
The Creation continued to be popular in Europe and the United States, and over
the years, many historians, composers, theorists, and critics have expressed opin-
ions about the libretto and Haydns music. Hector Berlioz seems to have been the
only negative voice, writing in a letter on February 8,1859,
I have always felt a profound antipathy for [The Creation]. Its lowing oxen, its
buzzing insects, its light in C which dazzles one like a Carcel lamp, and then its
Adam, Uriel, Gabriel, and the flute solos and all the amiabilities really shrivel me
upthey make me want to murder somebody. The English love a pudding sur-
rounded with a layer of suet; Idetest it. Suet is exactly what surrounds the musical
pudding of papa Haydn. Navet is all very fine, but too much of it we dontneed!
On the other hand, Hugo Wolf, while acknowledging Haydns penchant for exces-
sive tone painting, pays homage to what he feels are effective and tasteful musi-
cal gestures. The following is excerpted from a review published in the Vienna
Salonblatt on November 15,1885.
What a spirit of childlike faith speaks from the heavenly pure tones of Haydns
music! It is the mark of his greatness as an artist that when we hear his music
we are utterly unaware of the art, and yet what a variety of musical structures
encloses his charming tonal pictures!
Instances of tone painting were even more numerous and obvious in Haydns
next oratorio, The Seasons, which he began composing within a year of the first
performance of The Creation. Haydn is said to have finished the first of The
Seasons four parts in March of 1800, and by the end of the year the entire work
was completed. As with the premiere of The Creation, the first performance of
The Seasons, on April 24, 1801, was for a private audience of the Gesellschaft der
Associierten at the Schwarzenberg Palace. The first public performance was on
May 19, 1801, in the Redoutensaal. Van Swieten was again involved with the
libretto, which is based on the English poem The Seasons by James Thomson
(17001748). Van Swieten freely adapted the four sections of the poem (Spring,
Summer, Autumn, and Winter), created a libretto in German for Haydn, and then
translated the German into English. The end result was an English libretto that,
filled with numerous instances for Haydn to tone paint, is quite different from
and inferior to the original English poem. Many people have complained about
the libretto, even Haydn, who commented about the croaking of frogs: This
whole passage with its imitation of frogs was not my idea. Iwas forced to write
this Frenchified trash. Many people, on the other hand, have praised Haydns
music. Nevertheless, the oratorio achieved only a brief period of popularity and
continued to be eclipsed by the success of The Creation.
The Text ofThe Creation

It is beyond question that the libretto of The Creation is based on an English
source, although that source has never been identified with certainty. According
to Gottfried van Swieten in 1798, thetext
was originally in English. It was far from being such that I could regard
it as my own. Neither is it by Dryden but by an unnamed author who
had compiled it largely from Miltons Paradise Lost, and had intended it for
Handel.
Haydns first biographer, Georg August Griesinger, attributed the original text
to a person named Lidley, who may have been Thomas Linley (17331795).
According to Griesinger,
The first idea for the oratorio The Creation belongs to an Englishman, Lidley
by name, and Haydn was to have composed Lidleys text for Salomon. [Haydn]
soon saw, however, that his understanding of the English language was insuf-
ficient for this undertaking; also the text was so long that the oratorio would
have lasted close to four hours. Haydn meanwhile took the text with him to
Germany [i.e., Austria]. He showed it to Baron van Swieten, the royal librarian
in Vienna, who arranged it as it now stands.
It is unlikely that Lidley (Linley) wrote the original libretto, although he may have
given a copy of it to Haydn since Linley had inherited Handel manuscripts and,
therefore, may have been in possession of the libretto intended for Handel. In any
event, the libretto was given to Haydn by Salomon just before Haydn left London
in August 1795. When he returned to Vienna, Haydn sought the advice of van
Swieten, who, as has already been mentioned, wrote the text for Haydns choral
version of The Seven Last Words and who encouraged Haydn to use the Creation
libretto for an oratorio. Van Swieten wrote (in the same letter of 1798 quoted
above),
I resolved to clothe the English poem in German garb. In this way my transla-
tion came about. It is true that I followed the plan of the original faithfully
as a whole, but Idiverged from it in details as often as musical progress and
expression, of which Ialready had an ideal conception in my mind, seemed to
demand. Guided by these sentiments, I often judged it necessary that much
should be shortened or even omitted, on the one hand, and on the other that
much should be made more prominent or brought into greater relief, and much
placed more in theshade.
Van Swietens involvement in revising the original English libretto and in adapt-
ing it for Haydn seems to have been extensive. The poet and playwright Franz
Grillparzer (17911872) wrote that van Swieten
had each piece, as soon as it was ready, copied and pre-rehearsed with a
small orchestra. Much he discarded as too trivial for the grand subject.
Haydn gladly submitted, and thus that astonishing work came into being
which would be admired by coming generations. I have all this from the
lips of a well-informed contemporary who himself took part in these
pre-rehearsals.
A similar recollection of van Swietens involvement in the writing of the oratorio

comes from Frederik Samuel Silverstolpe, who, as mentioned previously, was a
member of the Gesellschaft and who attended the rehearsal and first performance
of The Creation.
[Haydn] lived in the Krger-Strasse No. 1075 to be near Baron van Swieten.
I find it necessary, said Haydn, to confer often with the Baron, to make
changes in the text, and moreover, it is a pleasure for me to show him vari-
ous numbers in it, for he is a profound connoisseur, who himself has written
goodmusic.
The libretto, originally called The Creation of the World by van Swieten, is in
three large parts (a common structure for Handel oratorios) and is in the form of
narrative and reflective texts similar in design and concept to the arrangement
of librettos in passion oratorios of the Baroque era. In both the passion oratorios
and the Creation libretto, a biblical passage narrating an event is followed by a
poetic passage reflecting on the event; included are other biblical passages that
relate to or confirm the message of the story. In the Creation libretto, the biblical
passages are replaced by prose adaptations recounting the creation of the world
as described in the first two books of Genesis. These are followed by poetic pas-
sages generally based on material from book seven of Paradise Lost. Paraphrases of
Psalms are used as elements of praise to close and comment on the glory of each
days creation.
Following an orchestral overture that describes the formlessness of the world,
part one of the oratorio is devoted to the first four days of creation:day one, light;
day two, the division of waters under and above the firmament; day three, seas, dry
land, grass, and trees; and day four, the sun, moon, and stars. Part two describes
days five and sixfive being devoted to fish and birds; six to animals, man, and
woman. Part three is basically a paean of thanks by Adam and Eve. The entire text
from the first published edition of the oratorio is given below. The numbering of
movements (used throughout this study) is not based on any present-day publica-
tion of the oratorio but instead on the original 1800 score prepared and published
by Haydn. In this score, the opening Overture and Recitatives are one movement,
the Trio and Chorus at the end of day five is one movement, and the Chorus and
Trio at the end of part two is one movement. Haydns titles for the movements
are in parentheses.
PART ONE
The First Day
1. Introduction: The Representation of Chaos (Die Vorstellung des Chaos Enlietung)
Recitatives and Chorus (Recitativo)
Raphael:In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth; and the earth
was without form and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep.
Chorus:And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters; and God
said:Let there be light, and there was light.
Uriel: And God saw the light, that it was good; and God divided the light from
the darkness.
2. Aria and Chorus (Aria)
Uriel:Now vanish before the holy beams the gloomy dismal shades of dark; the
first of days appears. Disorder yields to order fair the place. Affrighted fled hells
spirits black in throngs; down they sink in the deep abyss to endless night.
Chorus:Despairing cursing rage attends their rapid fall. Anew created world
springs up at Gods command.
The Second Day

3. Recitative (Recitativo)
Raphael:And God made the firmament, and divided the waters, which were
under the firmament, from the waters, which were above the firmament, and
it was so. Outrageous storms now dreadful arose; as chaff by the winds are
impelled the clouds. By heavens fire the sky is enflamed, and awful rolled the
thunders on high. Now from the floods in steams ascend reviving showers of
rain, the dreary wasteful hail, the light and flaky snow.
4. Solo with Chorus (Chor)
Gabriel: The marvlous work beholds amazd the glorious hierarchy of heavn,
and from th ethereal vaults resound the praise of God and of the second day.
Chorus:and from th ethereal vaults resound the praise of God and of the sec-
ond day.
The Third Day

Raphael: And God said: Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto
one place, and let the dry land appear; and it was so. And God called the dry land
earth, and the gathering of waters called he seas; and God saw that it was good.
6. Aria (Aria)
Raphael:Rolling in foaming billows uplifted roars the boistrous sea. Mountains
and rocks now emerge, their tops into the clouds ascend. Thro th open plains
outstretching wide in serpent error rivers flow. Softly purling glides on thro
silent vales the limpid brook.
Gabriel:And God said:Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed,
and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself upon the
earth; and it was so.
8. Aria (Aria)
Gabriel:With verdure clad the fields appear delightful to the ravishd sense; by
flowers sweet and gay enhanced is the charming sight. Here vent their fumes
the fragrant herbs, here shoots the healing plant. By loads of fruit th expanded
boughs are pressd; to shady vaults are bent the tufty groves; the mountains
brow is crownd with closed wood.
Uriel:And the heavenly host proclaimed the third day, praising God and saying:
10. Chorus (Chor)
Chorus:Awake the harp, the lyre awake! In shout and joy your voices raise! In
triumph sing the mighty Lord! For he the heavens and earth has cloathed in
stately dress.
The Fourth Day

Uriel: And God said: Let there be lights in the firmament of heaven to divide the
day from the night, and to give light upon the earth; and let them be for signs
and for seasons, and for days, and for years. He made the stars also.
Uriel: In splendor bright is rising now the sun and darts his rays; an amrous
joyful happy spouse, a giant proud and glad to run his measurd course. With
softer beams and milder light steps on the silver moon thro silent night. The
space immense of th azure sky in numrous hosts of radiant orbs adorns, and
the sons of God announced the fourth day in song divine, proclaiming thus his
power:
13. Trio and Chorus (Chor)
The heavens are telling the glory of God. The wonder of his works displays the
firmament. To day, that is coming, speaks it the day; the night, that is gone,
to following night. In all the land resounds the word, never unperceived, ever
understood.
PART TWO
The Fifth Day
Gabriel:And God said:Let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving crea-
ture that hath life, and fowl that may fly above the earth in the open firmament
of heaven.
15. Aria (Aria)
Gabriel:On mighty pens uplifted soars the eagle aloft, and cleaves the sky in
swiftest flight to the blazing sun. His welcome bids to morn the merry lark, and
cooing, calls the tender dove his mate. From evry bush and grove resound the
nightingales delightful notes. No grief affected yet her breast, nor to a mourn-
ful tale were tund her soft enchanting lays.
Raphael:And God created great whales, and evry living creature that moveth.
And God blessed them, saying:Be fruitful all, and multiply! Ye winged tribes, be
multiplyd, and sing on evry tree! Multiply, ye finny tribes, and fill each watry
deep! Be fruitful, grow, and multiply! And in your God and Lord rejoice!
17. Recitative (no title given by Haydn)
Raphael: And the angels struck their immortal harps, and the wonders of the
fifth day sang.
18. Trio and Chorus (Terzetto)
Gabriel:Most beautiful appear, with verdure young adornd, the gently sloping
hills. Their narrow,sinuous veins distill in crystal drops the fountain fresh and
bright.
Uriel:In lofty circles plays and hovers thro the sky the cheerful host of birds.
And in the flying whirl, the glittring plumes are dyed, as rainbows by the
sun.
Raphael:See flashing thro the wet in thronged swarms the fry on thousand
ways around. Upheaved from the deep, th immense Leviathan sports on the
foaming wave.
Trio:How many are thy works, O God! Who may their numbers tell? Who, O
God? Who may their numbers tell?
Trio and Chorus:The Lord is great, and great his might. His glory lasts for ever
and for evermore.
The Sixth Day

Raphael:And God said:Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his
kind; cattle and creeping thing, and beasts of the earth after their kind.
Raphael:Straight opening her fertile womb, the earth obeyd the word, and
teemd creatures numberless, in perfect forms and fully grown. Cheerful, roar-
ing, stands the tawny lion. In sudden leaps the flexible tiger appears. The nimble
stag bears up his branching head. With flying mane and fiery look, impatient
neighs the sprightly steed. The cattle in herds already seeks his food on fields
and meadows green. And oer the ground, as plants, are spread the fleecy, meek
and bleating flock. Unnumberd as the sands in whirl arose the host of insects.
In long dimensions creeps with sinuous trace the worm.
21. Aria (Aria)
Raphael:Now heavn in fullest glory shone; earth smiles in all her rich attire.
The room of air with fowl is filld; the water swelld by shoals of fish; by heavy
beasts the ground is trod. But all the work was not complete. There wanted yet
that wondrous being, that grateful should Gods powr admire, with heart and
voice his goodliness praise.
Uriel:And God created man in his own image. In the image of God created he
him. Male and female created he them. He breathed into his nostrils the breath
of life, and man became a living soul.
23. Aria (Aria)
Uriel:In native worth and honour clad, with beauty, courage, strength adornd,
to heavn erect and tall, he stands a man, the Lord and King of nature all. The
large and arched front sublime of wisdom deep declares the seat, and in his eyes
with brightness shines the soul, the breath and image of God. With fondness
leans upon his breast the partner for him formd, a woman fair and graceful
spouse. Her softly smiling virgin looks, of flowry spring the mirror, bespeak
him love, and joy, and bliss.
Raphael:And God saw evry thing, that he had made; and behold, it was very
good; and the heavenly choir in song divine thus closed the sixth day.
25. Chorus and Trio (Chor)
Chorus:Achieved is the glorious work; the Lord beholds it and is pleasd. In
lofty strains let us rejoice! Our song let be the praise of God.
Trio:On thee each living soul awaits; from thee, O Lord, they beg their meat. Thou
openest thy hand, and sated all they are. But as to them thy face is hid, with sud-
den terror they are struck. Thou takst their breath away; they vanish into dust.
Thou lettst thy breath go forth again, and life with vigour fresh returns. Revived
earth unfolds new force and new delights.
Chorus: Achieved is the glorious work. Our song let be the praise of God. Glory
to his name for ever; he sole on high exalted reigns, alleluia.
PART THREE
Adam and Eve in Eden
Uriel:In rosy mantle appears, by tunes sweet awakd, the morning young and
fair. From the celestial vaults pure harmony descends on ravished earth. Behold
the blissful pair, where hand in hand they go! Their flaming looks express what
feels the grateful heart. Alouder praise of God their lips shall utter soon. Then
let our voices ring, united with their song!
27. Duet with Chorus (No title given by Haydn)
Adam and Eve:By thee with bliss, O bounteous Lord, the heavn and earth are
stord. This world, so great, so wonderful, thy mighty hand has framd.
Chorus:For ever blessed be his powr! His name be ever magnifyd!
Adam:Of stars the fairest, O how sweet thy smile at dawning morn! How
brightenst thou, O sun, the day, thou eye and soul of all!
Chorus:Proclaim in your extended course th almighty powr and praise of
God!
Eve:And thou, that rules the silent night, and all ye starry host, spread wide
and evry where his praise in choral songs about!
Adam:Ye strong and cumbrous elements, who ceaseless changes make, ye
dusky mists and dewy steams, who rise and fall thro th air:
Chorus:Resound the praise of God our Lord! Great is his name, and great his
might.
Eve:Ye purling fountains, tune his praise, and wave your tops, ye pines! Ye
plants, exhale, ye flowers breathe at him your balmy scent!
Adam:Ye, that on mountains stately tread, and ye, that lowly creep, ye birds
that sing at heavens gate, and ye, that swim the stream,
Adam, Eve, and Chorus: Ye living souls, extol the Lord! Him celebrate, him
magnify!
Adam and Eve:Ye valleys, hills, and shady woods, our rapturd notes ye heard;
from morn to evn you shall repeat our grateful hymns of praise.
Adam, Eve, and Chorus:Hail, bounteous Lord! Almighty, hail! Thy word calld
forth this wondrous frame. Thy powr adore the heavn and earth; we praise
thee now and evermore.
Adam:Our duty we performed now, in offring up to God our thanks. Now
follow me, dear partner of my life! Thy guide Ill be, and evry step pours new
delights into our breast, shews wonders evry where. Then mayst thou feel and
know the high degree of bliss the Lord allotted us, and with devoted heart his
bounty celebrate. Come, follow me! Thy guide Ill be.
Eve:O thou, for whom Iam! My help, my shield, my all! Thy will is law to me. So
God, our Lord, ordains, and from obedience grows my pride and happiness.
29. Duet (Duetto)
Adam:Graceful consort! At thy side softly fly the golden hours. Evry moment
brings new rapture, evry care is put to rest.
Eve:Spouse adored! At thy side purest joys oerflow the heart. Life and all Iam
is thine; my reward thy love shall be.
Adam:The dew-dropping morn, O how she quickens all!
Eve:The coolness of evn, O how she all restores!
Adam:How grateful is of fruits the savour sweet!
Eve:How pleasing is of fragrant bloom the smell!
Adam and Eve:But without thee, what is to me the morning dew, the breath of
evn, the savry fruit, the fragrant bloom? With thee is evry joy enhanced, with
thee delight is ever new; with thee is life incessant bliss; thine it whole shall be.

Uriel: O happy pair, and always happy yet, if not, misled by false conceit, ye
strive at more, as granted is, and more to know, as know ye should!
31. Chorus (Chor)
Sing the Lord, ye voices all! Utter thanks ye all his works! Celebrate his powr
and glory! Let his name resound on high! The Lord is great, his praise shall last
for aye.Amen.
Musical Expression
Both Haydn and van Swieten were clearly of one mind concerning musical
expression, and they both aided each others musical ideals in the fashioning
of The Creation. Van Swieten knew what literary aspects of the libretto would
appeal to Haydn and the Viennese audiences of the time, and Haydn saw in
the libretto a vehicle for him to compose music that was central to his aes-
thetic concepts. Indeed, it seems as if van Swietens libretto, with all its color-
ful imagery, was tailor-made for the talents and particular musical proclivities
ofHaydn.
The textual imagery was relayed in musical tone painting, sometimes called
musical pictorialism and in German Tonmalerei (tone painting). This aspect of
composition was certainly not new to Haydn or to composers before him. It can be
seen in many madrigals of the Renaissance (especially English madrigals), in the
sacred works of J. S. Bach and his German Lutheran colleagues, and in the orato-
rios of Handel. Haydns tone painting is more pronounced, transparent, and more
frequent in occurrence, however; it is also more realistic in describing the text.
To underscore van Swietens involvement in the tone painting aspect of Haydns
writing, following here are three excerpts from van Swietens personal copy of the
libretto.
(1) In the chorus [of number 1, And the spirit of God], the darkness could
gradually disappear; but enough of the darkness should remain to make
the momentary transition to light very effective. And there was light,
etc. must only be saidonce.
(2) In [the recitative of number 16 at Be fruitful all] it seems that the bare
accompaniment of the bass moving solemnly in a straight rhythm would
create a good effect.
(3) For the strophes [in the Terzetto number18] a simple and syllabic mel-
ody would probably be the best thing to have, so that the words can be
understood clearly; but the accompaniment could paint the course of the
brook, the flight of the bird, and the quick movement of the fishes.
And as evidence of Haydns enthusiasm for tone painting, Silverstolpe reports

the following three incidents (the third of which is repeated from a quote
above):
(1) [Haydn] showed me the D major aria from The Creation [number 6,
Raphaels aria Rolling in foaming billows], which describes the sea mov-
ing and the waves breaking on the shores. You see, he said in a joking
tone, you see how the notes run up and down like the waves:see there,
too, the mountains that come from the depths of thesea?
(2) Haydn let me hear the introduction of his oratorio describing Chaos. He
asked me to come and sit beside him, so as to follow the score. When the
piece was ended, he said, You have certainly noticed how Iavoided the
resolutions that you would most readily expect. The reason is, that there is
no form in anythingyet.
(3) [During the first rehearsal of The Creation] no one, not even Baron van
Swieten, had seen the page of the score wherein the birth of light is
described. This was the only passage of the work Haydn had kept hidden.
Ithink Isee his face even now, as this part sounded in the orchestra. Haydn
had the expression of someone who is thinking of biting his lips, either to
hide his embarrassment or to conceal a secret. And in that moment when
light broke out for the first time, one would have said that rays darted from
the composers burningeyes.
Other particularly striking and overtly dramatic examples of tone paint-

ing in The Creation include Raphaels recitative number 3 describing various
weather phenomena in day two of creation, and his recitative number 20 in
day six describing various animals. In both of these recitatives, the orchestra
tone paints a phrase that is then described by Raphael in wordsin day one,
for example, outrageous storms, chaff by the winds, thunders on high,
showers of rain, dreary wasteful hail, and light and flaky snow. In day six
the tone-painted phrases are the tawny lion, the flexible tiger, the nim-
ble stag, the sprightly steed, the host of insects, and in long dimensions
creeps with sinuous trace the worm. Further, more subtle, yet highly descrip-
tive and engaging examples of tone painting include the depiction of day and
night, sun and moon in Uriels recitative number 12; hells spirits sinking in
the deep abyss in the second part of Uriels aria number 2; the cooing of the
dove in Gabriels aria number 15; and the characterization of man and woman
in Uriels aria number23.
These examples of text expression not only demonstrate Haydns clever-
ness in tone painting but also his wit and humor. He was well known through-
out his career for his wit and for clever musical twists and turns that made
his compositions unpredictable and interesting to audiences of the time.
There are, of course, examples in Haydns first two London symphonies: In

Symphony no. 93, toward the end of a lengthy soft passage in the second
movement, Haydn scores a loud bassoon note, commonly referred to as the
bassoon fart, and in Symphony no.94 (nicknamed The Surprise) there is
a sudden fortissimo chord after the pianissimo statement of the main theme
in the second movement (to the tune that resembles Twinkle, twinkle, little
star). In addition, there are humorous moments in Symphony no. 45 and
Symphony no.60. At the end of Symphony no.45 (nicknamed The Farewell),
the musicians stop playing, snuff out the candles on their music stands, and
exit the stage, leaving only the concertmaster and Haydn. In the final move-
ment of Symphony no. 60, nicknamed Il Distratto (The Distracted) from
incidental music for a play of the same name, the players stop and retune their
instruments. There is also the ending of the string quartet op.33 no.2, one of
the so-called Russian quartets. Here, at the end of the final movement, Haydn
writes a grand pause, tricking the audience into thinking that the quartet is
finished. He then scores a sudden loud chord followed by statements of the
movements major theme interrupted by progressively longer rests, thus con-
fusing the audience evenmore.
Haydn continues this practice of musical cleverness with instances of unpre-
dictability in The Creation. Most obvious is the sudden full choral and orchestral
scoring of the word light in the phrase and there was light following the
very soft and hesitant phrase And the spirit of God moved upon the face of
the waters; and God said:Let there be light. Another example can be seen in
the Trio and Chorus of number 19 that ends day six of creation. Here, the three
soloists ask the questions How many are thy works, O God! Who may their
numbers tell? Who, O God? These phrases are scored mostly in a soft and
suspenseful manner, followed by the sudden loud answer, The Lord is great.
There are also the sudden loud chords in the Overture, The Representation of
Chaos.

The oratorio is made up of recitatives (both secco and accompanied), arias, and
choruses, plus several duets and an orchestral overture. Of the recitatives, nine
are secco (numbers 5, 7, 9, 11, 17, 19, 22, 24, and 30), five are accompanied
(numbers 1, 12, 14, 20, and 26), and two begin secco but continue accompanied
(numbers 3 and 16). Number 1 also has chorus. Except for number 28 in part
three of the oratorio, all the secco recitatives and a couple of the accompa-
nied recitatives are given over to the narrative derived from the Biblemost
of the recitatives beginning And God said, And God made, or And God cre-
ated. The recitatives used for this purpose are all followed by reflective arias,
accompanied recitatives, or choruses. For example, Raphaels secco recitative

number 5And God said:Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together
unto one place is followed by his aria Roaming in foaming billows. Similarly,
Gabriels secco recitative number 7 And God said: Let the earth bring forth
grass is followed by her aria With verdure clad the fields appear, and Uriels
recitative number 11 And God said: Let there be lights in the firmament of
heaven to divide the day from the night is followed by his accompanied recita-
tive In splendor bright is rising now the sun and darts his rays. The use of
narrative secco recitative to precede reflective commentary in the form of aria,
accompanied recitative, or chorus is a common element of oratorio construc-
tion. It is also common to have a number of accompanied recitatives used sepa-
rately for reflective purposes. Somewhat uncommon is Haydns distribution of
recitatives among the soloists:Raphael is assigned eight of them, Uriel seven,
and Gabriel onlytwo.
All the secco recitatives except one (number 28)are short in duration and
accompanied only by a melodic bass instrument (cello) and a keyboard instru-
ment to realize harmonies (fortepiano). Number 28 is a lengthy exchange
between Adam and Eve and is a combination of metrically free and metrically
organized passages. The accompanied recitatives vary in length and instru-
mentation. As to be expected, the accompanied recitatives that are narrative
(numbers 1 and 14) are short; they are also accompanied simply by strings.
The reflective accompanied recitatives (numbers 3, 12, 16, 20, and 26) are
lengthier and often scored for full orchestra. None of the recitatives are struc-
turally organized; they are through-composed with virtually no repetition of
text. Only the reflective accompanied recitatives number 16 Be fruitful all,
and multiply and number 28Our duty we performed have text repetition,
and this is minimal.
There are seven ariasthree for Gabriel (numbers 4, 8, and 15)and two each
for Raphael (numbers 6 and 21)and Uriel (numbers 2 and 23). Five of the arias
stand alone as separate movements (numbers 6, 8, 15, 21, and 23), while two
others have closing choruses (numbers 2 and 4). All the arias have structural
elements that involve repeats of melodic material. Most obviously, they all
begin with an orchestral introduction that states the melodic content of the aria
and that is followed by a repeat of this material either by the orchestra again or
by the voice. The arias also have a number of other organizational consisten-
cies:they are all divided into different key sections; they all have very brief inter-
nal orchestral passages of modulatory transition; they are all built from either
one or two themes; and the themes, like those of Handel and Mendelssohn in
their oratorios, are often divided into two parts (e.g., A-1 andA-2).
The key sections are logically related to each other in tonal terms and also
related to the character of the text. In other words, keys are used as tone-painting
devices. For example, in Gabriels aria number 8, the keys of B-flat Major and F
Major are used to express the delightful fields and the sweet and gay flowers. By
contrast, the key of B-flat Minor is used to characterize the overloaded trees and
bent boughs. Similarly, but more dramatically, in Uriels aria number 2, the keys
of AMajor and E Major portray the order of the first day of creation; the key of C
Minor portrays the sinking of hells spirits to endless night. In the trio section of
number 13, The heavens are telling, C Major is used for the text about the day
and C Minor for the text about the night, and in Raphaels aria number 6, Rolling
in foaming billows, the keys of D Minor and F Major depict the boisterous sea
and craggy mountains; the key of D Major us used for the softly purlingbrook.
Very short modulatory orchestral transitions, relatively unique to Haydn and
quite common in many of his compositions, are found in most of the arias in The
Creation. In Uriels aria number 2, for example, there is a five-measure transition
(4953) from E Major to C Minor; in Gabriels aria number 4, the transition from
G Major to C Major is only two full measures in length (3031); in Gabriels aria
number 8, there is a transition from F Major to B-flat Minor that spans only three
measures (3638); and in Uriels aria number 23In native worth and honor clad,
the orchestral modulation of five measures (5155) moves from A-flat Major to
CMajor.
Also somewhat unique to Haydn is the separation of text from the motivic
material that accompanies it. In normal aria construction, text and motivic mate-
rial are inextricably combined; a repeat of text is also a repeat of music, while an
introduction of new text is treated with new motivic material. This is especially
true in ABA forms. But in several of the arias in The Creation, Haydn separates text
and music. At measure 8182 of On mighty pens uplifted soars the eagle aloft
Haydn returns to the opening text of the aria, but the music here is repeated from
measure 5354, not from measure 3435 when the text was first introduced. In
Now heavn in fullest glory shone Haydn gives the introductory motivic mate-
rial from measure 11 a new text at measure 59, and similarly, the introductory
motivic material at measure 1112 of In native worth and honor clad is given
new text at measure5556.
Regarding the structure of themes, those that are divided into two parts and
designated as A-1 and A-2 have text phrases that are of a unified character but
divided by Haydn into two component parts. The same is true for contrasting
phrases. For example:
Uriels aria number2

A-1 (134) AMajor
Now vanish before the holy beams the gloomy distant shades ofdark
A-2 (3449) EMajor
Disorder yields to order, to order fair theplace
B (5477) CMinor
Affrighted fled hells spirits black in throngs
Raphaels aria number6

A-1 (126) DMinor
Rolling in foaming billows uplifted roars the boistroussea
A-2 (2749) FMajor
Mountains and rocks now emerge, their tops into the cloudsascend
B-1 (5072) FMajor
Thro th open plains outstretching wide in serpent error riversflow
B-2 (73121) DMajor
Softly purling glides on thro silent vales the limpidbrook
Since the characterization of text is such an important element of The Creation,

and since the text is often a continuous or unfolding series of descriptive phrases,
there are no typical ABA forms in the arias. Several of the arias have only one text
character and, therefore, only one theme. This is true of number 4The marvlous
work beholds amazd, number 8With verdure clad, and number 23In native
worth. The other arias have two text characterizations, first one and then
theother.
There are nine movements that involve chorus:three with solo trio (numbers
13, 18, and 25), two with chorus alone (numbers 10 and 31), two that begin with
solos (numbers 2 and 4), one that begins with a duet (number 27), and one that
is part of an accompanied recitative (number 1). Almost all of the choruses are
structured like the arias, with two contrasting sections of text and music. Given
Haydns predilection for continuous text flow, the second section usually ends the
movement. This is the case in four of the choruses (numbers 2, 10, 18, and 31). As
an additional means of contrast, one of the sections is generally homophonic and
the other imitative orfugal.
Number 2, Now vanish before the holybeams

A (7794) imitativeto characterize the despairing, cursing rage of hells spirits
B (97113) homophonicto characterize the new createdworld
A (121125) imitative
B (128150) homophonic
Number 10, Awake theharp

A (19) homophonic
B (1142)fugal
A (4347) homophonic
B' (4856) homophonic and melismatic closing
Number 18, Most beautifulappear

A (124) orchestra
A (2550) Gabriel
A (5277)Uriel
A' (77128) Raphael, then the trioimitative
B (133145)trio basically homophonic

B (145197) trio and chorushomophonic and imitative
Number 31, Sing the Lord, ye voicesall

A (19) chorushomophonic
B (1067) solo quartet and chorusfugal
B' (6883) solo quartet and chorushomophonic closing
Two of the choruses differ from the above in that they return to an Asection at
the end of the movement.
Number 13, The heavens are telling

A (118) chorus homophonic
B (1838) trio homophonic
A (3854) chorus some imitation
B' (5495) trio basically homophonic
A (95105) chorus some imitation
A' (110196) chorus imitative
Number 25, Achieved is the gloriouswork

A-1 (113) chorus mostly homophonic
A-2 (1433) chorus imitative
B (38131) trio mostly homophonic
A-1 (132139) chorus homophonic
A-2 (140207) chorus imitative
The chorus in number 4, The marvlous work beholds amazd, has only
one thematic section, the chorus in number 1 is a homophonic part of the
textual narrative, and the chorus in number 27, By thee with bliss, has five
sections (each different) that alternate between homophonic and imitative
textures.

Performance practice considerations for The Creation include discussion of pub-
lished editions of the work, performing forces and their dispositions on stage,
meter and tempo, metric accentuation, recitative, and ornamentation.
Editions
Shortly after the premiere of The Creation, Haydn decided to publish the orato-
rio himself and offer it in a special limited edition to subscribers. He announced
this decision in several journals, including the June 1799 edition of the Leipzig
Allgemeine musicalische Zeitung.
The work is to appear, neatly and correctly engraved and printed on good paper,
with German and English texts, and in full score so that on the one hand, the
public may have the work in its entirety and so that the connoisseur may see it
in toto and thus better judge it, while on the other, it will be easier to prepare
the parts, should one wish to perform it anywhere.
This score was issued in February 1800, with English words above the vocal
lines and German words below, and then offered to the publishers Breitkopf &
Hrtel, who began selling the work in 1803. Asubsequent edition by Breitkopf &
Hrtel, edited by Eusebius Mandyczewski, was published in 1922 as part of the
Haydn Gesamtausgabe. Mandyczewski, conductor of the Vienna Singakademie
and later librarian and archivist for the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, made
some corrections to the previous edition and limited the new edition to
German text only. Yet later, in 1989, Breitkopf & Hrtel published the orato-
rio with German, English, and French texts. Other German editions have also
been published, including those by C.F. Peters in 1871 and 2003, Eulenberg in
1907, Brenreiter (in association with G.Henle) in 2008, and Carus-Verlag in
2011. Both the Brenreiter and Carus scores, edited respectively by Annette
Oppermann and Wolfgang Gersthofer, are based on Haydns original 1800
score and contain extensive historical notes; they also include both German and
English texts (the English being from van Swietens original libretto). British
publications include various versions by Novello, first published in 1847 with a
revised English text, and in 1991 by Oxford University Press, edited by A.Peter
Brown, with both German and van Swietens original English.
The basic differences between the various editions deal with the English text
and the numbering of movements. From shortly after the oratorios first publi-
cation until the end of the twentieth century, it was presumed that van Swieten
translated the English to German for Haydn and then re-translated it back to
English so that the English would fit the German syllabification. Since some of
the English syllabification and wording was awkward, editors (from Haydns
student Sigismond Neukomm to twentieth-century conductor Robert Shaw)
felt that the text could be improved. For example, in the 1847 Novello edition,
the phrase By loads of fruit th expanded boughs are pressd in Gabriels aria
With verdure clad was changed to With copious fruit th expanded boughs
are hung. The change doesnt seem to be much of an improvement.
Current researchbased on comparisons between van Swietens libretto, the
wordbook used for early nineteenth-century performances, and Miltons Paradise
Losthas found that van Swieten basically kept to the original English. In addi-
tion, primary source materials have revealed that van Swieten had a significant
role in shaping Haydns German during the compositional process. Accordingly, the
modern Carus and Oxford editions use van Swietens original Englishawkward
in places, to be sure, but of historical value and worthy of respect. Just as we today
wouldnt think of updating Lutheran Baroque pietistic poetry or Schillers Ode to
Joy, even though those texts have artistic flaws, and just as we wouldnt correct
the capitalization and punctuation of poetry by e e cummings, we shouldnt tam-
per with van Swietens Creation libretto. We should accept and appreciate it asitis.
As for the numbering of movements, Haydns original 1800 publication (avail-
able on IMSLP) is of considerable aid. While the score numbers seven movements
in part one of the oratorio (this being the result of combining several recitatives
and arias into one movement), there are no movement numbers in parts two
and three. However, Haydn provides titles (i.e., recitativo, aria, or chor) to
movements he considers one entity, and he marks thick double bars at the ends
of movements he considers final. At the ends of other movements or sections
he marks thin double bars (as he does at key changes within movements) or no
double bars at all. For example, there is no division between the end of the over-
ture and the following recitative; the end of one is in the same measure as the
beginning of the other. Thus, the overture and recitative should be considered one
movement, not two movements as in the Oxford score. Similarly, in the Terzetto
that ends the fifth day, Haydn has no final double bar before the entrance of the
chorus with the text The Lord is great. Nor does he mark Chor as he does else-
where. He considers the Terzetto one movement, not two movements as in the
Breitkopf & Hrtel editions. Haydn also considers the Chor that ends part two
of the oratorio one movement, not three movements as indicated by Breitkopf &
Hrtel (but marked as only one movement in the Oxford and Carus scores).
As a result of these and other inconsistencies, all of the current publications
are different from each other and none match Haydns original (and, therefore,
the numbering used in this chapter). The current Breitkopf & Hrtel edition has
thirty-two movements, the Oxford edition has thirty-two different movements,
the Peters edition has thirty-four movements, and the Carus edition has thirty-
three movements. Most oddly, the Henle edition has only fourteen movements,
all of them divided into sub-movements to connect narrative recitatives with
their reflective arias and/or choruses. The Carus edition is the most logical in
that it does not divide the overture from its following recitative (as in the Oxford
edition) and that it also does not divide the chorus and trio at the end of part
one (as in the Breitkopf & Hrtel editions). On the other hand, the Oxford edi-
tion is probably the most practical musically. Brown based this edition on sev-
eral sets of original performing material:Haydns personal conducting score and
accompanying instrumental parts; a different score and set of parts prepared by
Haydns copyist Johann Elssler that contain corrections made by Haydn and that
were in his library at the time of his death; the score used for the engraving of
the first published edition; the first published edition itself; and several sets of
parts used by Haydn in various performances. These materials contain valuable
markings, many of which show ornamentation used in performances conducted

by Haydn. Brown carefully annotates all the markings, giving modern-day per-
formers options. Whatever editions are used today, however, the conductor must
be vigilant in making sure that the full score, orchestral parts, and choral scores
allmatch.

For the early performances of The Creation, especially those conducted by Haydn,
there were three soloists (STB), a mixed choir (SATB, with boys singing the
soprano and alto parts), and an orchestra representing the scoring for three flutes
(the third flute scored only in number 26, the recitative that begins part three of
the oratorio), two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons, one contrabassoon, two
horns, two trumpets, two trombones, timpani, strings, and keyboard (the key-
board instrument being a pianoforte with no specific notated part, but played, or
realized, from the string basspart).
Regarding the soloists, Haydn had the same soprano sing the roles of Gabriel
and Eve, and the same baritone sing Raphael and Adam. All three soloists, plus an
alto from the chorus, sang the solo parts in the final movement of the oratorio.
The soloists likely sang with the chorus as well since their scores contained both
solo and choral parts; it was also a tradition until the mid-nineteenth century
for soloists to sing with the chorus. Participation of soloists with chorus today
is unheard of, although it clearly makes sense that the soloists in The Creation
should sing all of the oratorios final movement, not just the sections marked solo.
The dramatic impact of the closing chorus calls for participation of all perform-
ers. For similar dramatic impact, the soloists could join the chorus in number 10
(Awake the harp), at the end of number 13 (The heavens are telling), and also
at the end of number 25 (Achieved is the glorious work). The participation of the
soloists in these choruses would balance the impact of their notated participation
at the end of number 18 (The Lord is great).
During the latter part of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the
1800s, the chorus for performances of oratorios was made up of boys and men
boys singing soprano, a mixture of boys and men singing alto, and men singing
tenor and bass. Except for special circumstances, female singers were not mem-
bers of choruses until the establishment of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in
1812. There was, of course, a female sound with the boys when the soloists sang
along with them. However, it must be kept in mind that the adult female vocal
production at the time was not as it is today, with lowered larynx, notable vibrato,
and rich overtones. The female sound was more akin to the head tones ofboys.
The orchestral instruments, almost all of which were different in some form
of construction from the instruments of today, were also purer in timbre and
softer in volume. In addition, there was a preference for a wind band timbre,
called Harmonie at the time. With small numbers of strings and choristers, the
scoring for wind and brass instruments was sufficient to produce the Harmonie
timbre. But with large numbers of strings and choristers (e.g., forty-eight strings
and thirty-eight choristers), the wind and brass parts were doubled. For very large
numbers of strings and choristers the winds were tripled; each flute and oboe
part, for example, was played by three instrumentalists.
Haydn conducted the oratorio with both small and large numbers of
performersfrom approximately twenty-four instruments and eight singers in
a performance at the Esterhzy estate in September of 1800 for a visit of Lord
Nelson, to performances at the Schwarzenberg Palace and Burgtheater with 120
instrumentalists and from sixty to eighty choristers. For the large performances,
the strings would have numbered eighteen first and eighteen second violins and
twelve each of the violas, cellos, and basses. To balance this size, the wind instru-
ments were tripled and the brass instruments doubled, with an additional set of
timpani as well. The extra wind and brass instrumentalists did not play all the
time, however. They only played during the choruses and other full-scored pas-
sages; the orchestral parts were marked solo or tutti to indicatethis.
As was common in all performances of choral/orchestral works during the
late Baroque, Classical, and early Romantic eras, the performers were arranged
with the choristers at the front of the performing area, the soloists and a con-
tinuo group at the front center, between the choristers, and the instruments at
the rear. Such an arrangement is described by Johan Fredrik Berwald, a Swedish
violinist who attended the March 19, 1799, performance of The Creation at the
Burgtheater.
When we entered, we saw that the stage proper was set up in the form of an
amphitheater. Down below at the fortepiano sat Kapellmeister Weigl, sur-
rounded by the vocal soloists, the chorus, a cello, and a double bass. At one
level higher stood Haydn himself with his conductors baton. Still a level higher
on one side were the first violins, led by Paul Wranitzky, and on the other the
second violins, led by his brother Anton Wranitzky. In the center:violas and
cellos. In the wings, double basses; on higher levels the wind instruments, and
at the very top:trumpets, kettledrums, and trombones.
This arrangement is also depicted in a famous painting by Balthasar Wigand of

a performance given at Old University Hall in Vienna on March 27, 1808. The
following diagram (5.A) is an approximation of the disposition described above
by Berwald and depicted in Wigands painting.Diagram 5.B is a modified version,
suggested to accommodate performances with modern-day expectations and in
modern-day concerthalls.
The historical number and positioning of performers depicted in Diagram
5.A and representing the Harmonie (wind) timbre was used for a recording of
The Creation conducted by Christopher Hogwood and issued in 1990 on the
LOiseau-Lyre label. The proposed disposition of performers depicted in Diagram
5 Trb. 4 Tpt.
Timp. 2 CI. Timp.
2 Hn. 2 Ob.
2 Bsn. 2 FI.
2 Hn. 2 CI. 2 Ob.
2 Bsn. 2 FI.
2 CI.
2 Hn. 2 Ob.
2 Bsn. 2 FI.
Cbsn. Pic.
12 Vlc. 12 Vla.
6 St. Bass
6 St. Bass
s
st
Chorus Pf. Chorus

loi
So
Diagram 5.A: Disposition of Performers during HaydnsLife
4 Tpt. 5 Trb.
Timp. Timp.
6 2 FI. 2 Ob. 2 Hn. 2 CI. 2 Bsn. 6
St. St.
B 2 FI. 2 Ob. 2 Hn. 2 CI. 2 Bsn. B
Pic. 2 FI. 2 Ob. 2 Hn. 2 CI. 2 Bsn. Cbsn.
12 Vla. 12 Vlc.
B T A S
Pf.
S A T B
Diagram 5.B: Proposed Disposition of PerformersToday
5.B, positioning the chorus on both sides of the strings, was common from the
Baroque through the Romantic eras. In particular, it was the arrangement for
performances of Handels Messiah and Mendelssohns St. Paul, and also Bachs B
Minor Mass when it was performed during the nineteenth century. It was also
common to have the string basses divided and positioned on both sides of the
performing area. Note that in the diagram for modern-day performances, there is,
for convenience and balance, a component of sopranos, altos, tenors, and basses
at the front and on both sides of thestage.
Meter andTempo
Meter signatures were an important compositional element during the Classical
era. In addition to conveying metric organization, they also conveyed basic tempo.
This is especially so regarding the use of common time (4/4 or ) and alla breve
(2/2 or ). In common time, the unit of pulse to which an Italian superscription of
tempo would apply is the quarter note, while in alla breve, the unit of pulse is the
half note, with the implication of a faster tempo. This understanding of the meter
signatures and tempo is confirmed in numerous treatises, including the following
quotations from (1) Johann Joachim Quantz in 1752, (2) Daniel Gottlob Trk in
1789, (3) Johann Georg Tromlitz in 1791, and (4) Carl Czerny in 1839.
(1) In the alla breve meter the half notes receive as much time as the quarter
notes in commontime.
(2) Compositions in alla breve, or in what is called the tempo maggiore, are
played once again as fast [as compositions in commontime].
(3) The time alla breve goes as fast again as the normal quarter-note beat, and
is divided in two as in two-fourtime.
(4) The alla breve measure being indicated [in the Beethoven piano sonata op.
27 no. 1 first movement, with an Adagio tempo marking], the whole must
be played in a moderate Andante time. Also, as the time is alla breve
[in the piano sonata op. 30 no. 3, second movement], this Adagio must be
performed as a moderate Andante.
Haydn notated the alla breve signature seven times in The Creation, and with
each of these instances it is the expectation that the Italian tempo term be applied
to the half note, not the quarter note. In the movements with slow Italian terms,
such as the Largo in the Overture and the Adagio in Adam and Eves duet num-
ber 27, the tempo should be measured by the pulse of the half note even though
the meter may be subdivided in performance into four quarter-note pulsestwo
down and two up. The result of the half note being taken at a Largo or Adagio
tempo thus results in a faster tempo than is customary today. Similar is the Adagio
in Mozarts motet Ave verum and the Andante in the Tuba mirum of Mozarts
Requiem, both of which are normally performed in common time rather than the
alla breve marked by Mozart. As a result, the tempos are too slow for the scansion
of text, harmonic motion (Ave verum), and dramatic content (Tuba mirum), and
in addition, the four-four time gives undue stress to unaccented syllables of text.
Haydns other uses of the alla breve meter signature, those with medium tempo
terms in The Creation (the Andante in numbers 2, 12, and 23, and the Moderato in
number 15)should, also according to the primary source prescriptions, move at

what would seem to be fast tempos. The alla breve meter with a fast tempo term
(the Allegro of number 13)should be quitefast.
Several other factors of meter and tempo are also important in The Creation.
First, Haydn assigned Italian tempo terms to all the movements of the oratorio
except the secco recitatives, which, as is discussed below, should be performed
metrically free and in flexible, natural speech tempos. Second, the term pi is a
modifier and is used in relation to the tempo it precedes. For example, the Pi
Adagio at measure 26 in number 12 means that the tempo should be slower than
the preceding Andante, not literally Adagio, and the Pi Allegro at measure 95 in
number 13 should just be somewhat faster than Allegro. Third, the term Vivace
(used in numbers 10, 18, and 25)simply meant vivacious during the Classical era;
it did not imply a very fast tempo. Indeed, several primary sources describe Vivace
as being close to and perhaps slower than Allegro. Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg in
his 1755 clavier treatise classified Vivace as a medium-fast tempo; Leopold Mozart
in his 1756 violin treatise listed Vivace between Allegretto and Moderato; John
Holden in his musical essay of 1770 commented that Vivace should be in a lively
and spirited manner, near the same, but not quite so brisk as allegro; and Johann
Georg Tromlitz in his 1791 flute treatise lists Vivace with Allegro and Poco presto in
a category below very rapid tempos.
Metric Accentuation
The practice of emphasizing certain notes and de-emphasizing others according to
the placement of the notes in measures was a noteworthy and pervasive aspect of
performance practice throughout the entire Classical era (and even beyond). Metric
accentuation was defined, discussed, and endorsed in more than thirty major pri-
mary sources between 1700 and 1870, these sources from Germany, Austria, Italy,
France, England, and the United States. The meter signatures, being the determi-
nant of emphasis and de-emphasis (strong and weak), were chosen carefully by
composers. Common time, for example, indicated emphasis on beats one and three
and de-emphasis on beats two and four; alla breve indicated emphasis on beat one
and de-emphasis on beat two (the upbeat). In other words, there were two beats of
emphasis in common time, but only one in alla breve. This factor, more than that
regarding tempo, is the reason for Haydns seven alla breve meters in The Creation.
In the Overture, for example, there should be no emphasis on the upbeat, which, if
the movement is conducted in four, would be the case; the mere sideward motion
of the conducting pattern from beat two to three causes an emphasis that is unin-
tended by Haydn. Conducting in a subdivided two pattern, however, is entirely
different and appropriate, since the upbeat has an anacrusis function.
In the alla breve movements with text, the rationale for only one emphasized
beat per measure is more obvious:Haydn places accented words and syllables on
the downbeats and unaccented words and syllables on the upbeats. Clear instances
of this can be seen in Examples5.1 through5.4.
Example5.1: Number 2, measures1719
Although the rules of text emphasis hold true in these examples, there are
some mitigating circumstances. Later on in number 2, beginning at measure 77,
the text Despairing, cursing rage seems to call for an emphasis on the first syl-
lable of cursing, which occurs on an upbeat. The leap up of an octave to this
syllable certainly gives the syllable impact (see Example5.5). But instead of an
emphasis here, the more appropriate treatment would be an aspect of messa di
voce, which was also a very important performance practice during the Classical
era, one to be applied to all notes of length, especially those tied across bar lines.
The appropriate treatment of the passage in question, therefore, would not be a
stress or accent on the beginning of cursing, but instead, a crescendo on the half
note of cur- until its tie on the downbeat of the following measure. Having a
messa di voce here in place of an accent would help ensure that the second syllable
of attends is not accented.
Example5.5
Two other instances of metric accentuation in The Creation merit attention. In

number 13, the orchestral accompaniment to the words the wonder of his work
almost always has wedge staccato marks on each quarter note, thereby seeming
to indicate a stress on each note. However, though the wedges are heavy staccatos
(as opposed to the dot staccatos, which were lighter), they are not all to be equally
stressed. The second quarter note of each measure would be decidedly softer than
the first, with growing stresses until the following downbeat. In number 23, one
might think that each of the words beauty, courage, strength, and adornd in
measures 14 and 15 should be stressed. That thought would be logical if Haydn had
written the aria in four-four. But he didnt, and we should respect his allabreve.
The manifestation of metric accentuation is not only accomplished by varying
degrees of emphasis and de-emphasis but also by varying degrees of note lengths.
Called quantitas intrinseca (intrinsic quantity or length), the durational value of
notes during the Classical era was determined by the metric placement of the
notes. Those notes to be stressed, especially those on the downbeats, received their
full notational value. However, those notes that were unstressed were shorter in
duration than notated. As examples, in the phrase A new created world, the three
syllables in created would be shorter than quarter notes. A similar treatment
would affect the three syllables -der of his in the phrase The wonder of hiswork.
Detailed discussion of both metric accentuation and quantitas intrinseca, includ-
ing numerous primary source quotations and musical examples from Haydn and
Mozart works, can be found in Shrock, Performance Practices in the ClassicalEra.
Recitative
Before the twentieth century there was a long-standing and consistent concep-
tion about the performance of recitative, a conception that began in the very early
years of the Baroque and that continued until the end of the Romantic era. Also,
like metric accentuation, recitative was defined, discussed, and endorsed in many
and varied primary sources. These sources all consistently state that recitative
is to be performed as natural spoken declamation. In secco recitative (with only

basso continuo accompaniment), the delivery of text should be free from metri-
cal, rhythmic, and tempo constraints. In accompanied recitative with instrumen-
tal scoring between phrases of text, the vocal delivery should also be free. The
vocalist is bound by meter, rhythm, and tempo only when the recitative is simul-
taneous with an accompaniment that has a specifically given tempo designation
and metric organization. In all other cases, the scored meter is only a formality
of notation; the rhythms merely align stressed syllables or words on metrically
emphasized beats, and the tempo is to be an approximation of natural speech
within a determined character. Performers are expected to convey the text as an
orator from a pulpit or an actor on the stage, with no regard for meter and rhythm.
It is assumed that, historically, this flexible understanding of recitative was
manifested in performance; there is no evidence that it was not. However, flexible
performance of recitative is clearly not the norm today. Most modern-day perfor-
mances are characterized by adherence to strict meter and rhythm, with little if
any variation in tempo and with virtually no drama; only in professional opera pro-
ductions do we occasionally hear text-driven recitative with dramatic implications.
In performances of The Creation, free delivery of recitative is imperative to mak-
ing the text, in either German or English, sound naturalwithout awkwardness
or misalignment of syllabic stress. This is especially the case with van Swietens
English libretto. The baritone singing Raphael in recitative number 3, for example,
faces several problems with the English text as it is scored, including stresses on the
final syllable of firmament in both measures 2 and 4 (see Example5.6). However,
with flexible performance of the recitative as seen in Example5.7, these awkward
stresses and other problems can be avoided, and the text can sound natural. The
realignment of rhythm to suit the language being performed is entirely reasonable,
for Haydn, being aware of recitatives flexibility, was no doubt conscious of and
confident that the English would be transmitted easily, without awkwardness
that the word firmament, could be aligned so that the final syllable was empha-
sized in German and the first syllable emphasized in English.
Example5.6
Example 5.7
Singing the rhythms of recitative in a free manner means varying the treat-
ment of the rests as well. For example, each of the eighth-note rests in Raphaels
recitative number 3 should be different from one another. The first rest might be
observed slightly, but the second and fourth rests not at all, rendered instead as a
catch breath or in German, a luftpause.
In the continuation of this recitative (beginning in measure 7), the orchestral
interludes introduce the text that follows. That is, measures 711, for example,
depict the phrase Outrageous storms now dreadful arose. Raphael is, therefore,
obliged to enter immediately after the orchestra, and the orchestra is obliged to
wait somewhat before beginning the next interlude. This is so that the listener
can clearly connect the correct text to its orchestral depiction. An incorrect
understanding of text and orchestral depiction occurs if, as in measures 22, 27,
and 38, the orchestra enters as notated and as regularly performed today. Such
a strict adherence to the score as it looks might seem to honor Haydns wishes,
while deviating from the notation by delaying orchestral entrances until after
Raphael has finished his previous phrases might seem sacrilegious. However,
this deviation is exactly what Haydn prescribes in the preface to his cantata
Applausus.
In the accompanied Recitatives notice that the accompaniment should not

enter until after the singer has finished singing the text completely, even
though the score often shows the contrary. For example, in the beginning, each
time the word metamorphosis appears, the voice has an appoggiatura on -phosis.
There one must be careful to allow the last syllable of the Recitative to be heard
completely before the accompaniment comes in. It would be ludicrous if one
were to fiddle the word away from the mouth of the singer so that nothing but
quae metamo was intelligible.
A similar treatment is expected in Raphaels recitative that follows the Overture

(seen in Example5.8). Here, the orchestras entrance should be delayed until after
Raphael finishes singing the phrase and the earth was without form and void. If
the orchestral entrance is not delayed, a cross relation (most unusual for Haydn)
occurs between Raphaels G-natural and the orchestras G-flatsomething quite
unintended byHaydn.
Example5.8
Further examples of delayed orchestral entrances occur in Raphaels recita-

tive number 20, which corresponds to number 3. In this recitative, however,
the orchestra, which has some sustained and punctuating chords while Raphael
is singing, must coordinate with the flexible tempo of his text delivery. This is
the case as well in Uriels recitatives numbers 12 and 26, and Gabriels recitative
number14.
The basso continuo accompaniment in the secco recitatives is also expected to
be flexible. The cellist, in every published edition of The Creation and all other ora-
torios, has the text notated in his or her part so that coordination with the singer
is possible. The keyboardist (who would be playing a pianoforte or perhaps a harp-

sichord, but not an organ) most often has a realized part, with chords spelled out.
However, the original keyboard part was printed with just the bass line and fig-
ured bass numbers as seen in Example5.9. The keyboardist would realize chords
in an improvised manner, to best give subtle support to the singer, and the cellist,
as indicated on the bottom staff of Example5.9, would play some notes their full
duration (those of small value and those that lead harmonically to a succeeding
note) and other notes shorter than printed.
Example5.9
Ornamentation
There are two aspects of ornamentation to consider in The Creation:the addition
of un-notated melodic material by soloists and the execution of notated appog-
giaturas, trills, and other single-note embellishments. Haydn did not approve of
the excessive singer improvisations that were common at the time in opera; he
expected and appreciated only simple melodic additions at fermatas and selected
cadential points. After one of the performances of The Creation, he is said to have
remarked that the soprano soloist sang her part with the greatest delicacy and so
accurately that she did not permit herself the least unsuitable addition. The vocal
parts Haydn used in performances he conducted show what the soprano and the
other two soloists added and what he apparently found suitable. These melodic
embellishments are all annotated in the Oxford edition of the oratorio. Two from
Gabriels aria number 8 are shown in Examples5.10 and 5.11, the first example
beginning in measure 32 and the second in measure84.
Example5.10
Example5.11
These or similar embellishments should definitely be added to modern-day

performances. It would be historically inappropriate and musically unsatisfying
to leave fermatas and cadences bare and undecorated.
The main single-note ornaments in The Creation consist of the trill, appoggia-
tura, acciaccatura (grace note), slide, andturn.
Most of the trills are affixed to short notes and, therefore, simply consist of
two notesthe pitch of the note followed by the step abovethe trill beginning
on (not above) the pitch of the note and before the beat on which the note occurs.
Examples can be seen in number 2, measure 15 (flute, violin 1, and violin 2);
number 8, measure 52 (clarinet and bassoon), and measure 54 (Gabriel, shown in
Example5.10); number 10, measures 6, 7, and 8 (winds and strings) and measure
12 (violin 1); number 15, measures 68, 70, and following similarly (Gabriel); and
number 25, measure 4 (flutes and violin 1). The only long trills, those involving
continuous alternation of pitches, occur in numbers 15 and 20:number 15, mea-
sures 193 and 194 (Gabriel) and measure 194 (flutes); and number 20, measure 9
(violin 1)and measure 12 (all the strings). The trill in number 18, measure 59 can
be either short or medium in length.
The appoggiaturas are the most frequent ornament in The Creation, and are
generally performed beginning on and taking half the value of the note before
which they appear. Selected examples are found in number 2, measure 35 (flutes
and violin 1); number 4, measure 9 (violin 1); number 6, measures 66 and 67
(violin 1); number 8, measures 6, 10, 55, and 57 (Gabriel, the latter two shown in
Example5.10); number 13, measures 11 and 17 (viola, cello, and bass); and num-
ber 23, measures 33 and 44 (Uriel).
Examples of short trills, short appoggiaturas, a turn, and a slide, as well as an
ornamented melodic passage are also shown in Example5.12 from Gabriels aria
number 8, measures5469.
Example5.12
Several of the appoggiaturas in The Creation appear before notes divisible by

three (e.g., a dotted eighth or dotted quarter note) and, therefore, should take two-
thirds of the value of the note. This lengthening of the appoggiatura was a common
practice during the Classical era and was mentioned in many treatises of the time.
Johann Friedrich Agricola writes in his singing treatise of 1757, If the main note
is dotted, the appoggiatura takes the time of the main note, which itself in turn will
receive the value of the dot. Trk in his clavier treatise of 1789 says, Before dot-
ted (compound) notes, the appoggiatura receives two-thirds of the complete value
of the note and consequently, the main note itself receives only one-third of its full
value (or the value of the dot). And in his flute treatise of 1791, Tromlitz writes, If
there is a dot after the note, the appoggiatura takes up the value of thenote.
Examples of the two-thirds variety of appoggiatura in The Creation can be seen
in number 12, measure 39 (Uriel); number 15, measures 79 and 108 (Gabriel); and
number 23, measures 50, 63, 78, and 93 (Uriel). While perhaps sounding odd to
musicians of today who are accustomed to short grace notes, the long appoggia-
tura makes sense in that its purpose is to give emphasis and length to the note it
decorates. This is especially the case with cadential appoggiaturas, such as shown
here (Example5.13) in the passage from measures 48 to 51 in Uriels aria number
23In native worth.
Example5.13
The acciaccatura (grace note) looks and is notated like an appoggiatura, but is
short in duration and executed before the time of the note it decorates. There are
several examples in The Creation, including number 1, measure 71 (violin 1); num-
ber 10, measures 3 and 4 (viola, cello, and bass); and number 18, measures 19 and
21 (violin 1)and measures 53, 55, and 57 (flute and violin1).
The slide, called in German Schliefer, is like the acciaccatura in being per-
formed before the note it decorates, but the slide is made up of two or three notes,
not just one. Examples of the two-note slide are found in number 8, measures 18
(flutes, clarinets, and bassoons) and 20 (Gabriel), and also the repeat of this mate-
rial in measures 67 and 69 (shown in Example5.10); and number 20, measures
40, 41, 47, and 48 (flute). Examples of the three-note slide are found scattered
throughout numbers 8, 13, 15, 20, 21, and 23. Notable are those in number 8,
measures 11, 12, and 13 (clarinet); number 13, measures 1, 5, and 5459 (various
instruments); number 15, measures 19, 20, and 21 (flute); and number 20, mea-
sures 28, 30, and 32 (strings).
Turns are marked by a backward S on its side and consist of four notesthe
pitch one step above the note it decorates, the note itself, the note one step below
it, and a return to the original note. Examples can be found in number 8, mea-
sures 7, 8, and 57 (Gabriel); number 13, measure 20 (violin 1); number 15, mea-
sures 76, 100, and 105 (Gabriel), and measures 165 and 169 (flute); and number
25, measures 4 and 5 (violin 1). Examples of a two-note slide and a turn are shown
in the passage from Gabriels aria number 8 (shown in Example5.12), the slide in
measure 69 and the turn in measure57.
Summary
The performance practices discussed here are not all of equal importance in
terms of concept and applicability. Some of the practices deal mostly with style
and are, therefore, subjective; other practices deal with notation and are thus
integral to the basic fabric of the music. Style-related practices include text lan-
guage, performing forces, and ornamentation; the music of The Creation will not
be altered appreciably if texts are in English or in German, if winds and brass are
not doubled, or if melodic passages are not ornamented. Haydn, after all, did not
appreciate the addition of many ornaments. This is not to say that these style
performance practices are unimportant; text, timbre, and cadential ornamenta-
tion are all of significant historical, musical, and aesthetic value. The notational
practicesmeter and tempo, metric accentuation, and the flexible performance
of recitativeare all, however, consequential to the manifestation of the scores
notation. Haydns meters with their tempo implications, the schematic system of
emphasis and durational value of notes, and the declamatory delivery of text are
all as important as the pitches Haydn chose. The score of The Creation will be made
different from its essential being if these notational practices are not observed.
In this regard, integration of performance practices is vital to the appreciation of

Haydns great scoreto the aesthetic quality that makes the score a masterpiece.
Brown, A. Peter, editor. Franz Joseph Haydn Die Schpfung /The Creation. Full Score. Oxford
Carpani, Giuseppe. Le Haydine. Milan,1812.
Corri, Domenico. The Singers Preceptor. Edinburgh:J. Johnson,1810.
Dies, Albert Christoph. Biographische Nachrichten von Joseph Haydn nach mndlichen Erzhlungen
desselben entworfen und herausgegeben. Vienna, 1810. Translated by Vernon Gotwals as
Biographical Accounts of Joseph Haydn Written and Edited from His Own Spoken Narratives.
University of Wisconsin Press,1968.
Geiringer, Karl. Haydn:ACreative Life in Music. W. W.Norton,1946.
Griesinger, Georg August von. Biographische Notizen ber Joseph Haydn. Leipzig,1810.
Haydn, Joseph. Applausus (1768). Verlag Doblinger,1966.
Hogwood, Christopher, conductor, with the New College Choir, Oxford, and the Academy of
Ancient Music Orchestra and Chorus. Haydn:The Creation. Loiseau-Lyre,1990.
Jones, David Wyn. Haydn. Oxford Composer Companions. Oxford University Press,2009.
Landon, H. C. Robbins. Haydn: Chronicle and Works, Volume V: The Late Years (18011809).
Indiana University Press,1977.
Landon, H. C. Robbins. Haydn: The Years of the Creation, 17961800. Indiana University
Press,1977.
Parke, William Thomas. Musical Memoirs: An Account of the General State of Music in England
from the First Commemoration of Handel in 1784 to the Year 1830. London, 1830. Da Capo
Press,1970.
Quantz, Johann Joachim. Versuch einer Anweisung die Flte traversiere zu spielen. Berlin, 1752.
Translated by Edward R. Reilly as On Playing the Flute. Schirmer Books,1966.
Schenbeck, Lawrence. Joseph Haydn and the Classical Choral Tradition. Hinshaw Music,1996.
Shrock, Dennis. Performance Practices in the Classical Era as Related by Primary Sources and as
Illustrated in the Music of W.A. Mozart and Joseph Haydn. GIA,2011.
Smither, Howard E. A History of the Oratorio, Volume 3:The Oratorio in the Classical Era. University
of North Carolina Press,1977.
Temperly, Nicholas. Haydn:The Creation. Cambridge University Press,1991.
Tromlitz, Johann Georg. Ausfhrlicher und grndlicher Unterrict die Flte zu spielen. Leipzig, 1791.
Translated by Ardal Powell as The Keyed Flute. Oxford University Press,1996.
Trk, Daniel Gottlob. Clavierschule, oder Anweisung zum Clavierspielen fr Lehrer und Lernende.
Leipzig and Halle,1789.
6
Ludwig van Beethoven Symphony no. 9

The final symphony of Beethoven is the redemption of Music from
herown peculiar element into the realm of universalart.
RichardWagner
Introduction
Beethovens Symphony no. 9 is unquestionably the best-known and most fre-
quently performed choral/orchestral work in the canon of classical music. Since
its premiere in 1824 it has been and is recurrently on concert programs across
the world, audiences consistently fill performance venues to capacity and receive
the work with rapturous applause, choruses singing in the final movement num-
ber in the thousands, and the symphony has become an iconic emblem for social
causes and cultural initiatives. The reason for the Ninths great popularity has
as much (and perhaps more) to do with the message of the music conveyed in
the fourth movement as with Beethovens masterful score. The opening words
Alle Menschen werden Brder (All men become brothers) of Friedrich von
Schillers celebrated poem An die Freude have resonated with individuals and
societies across the globe, and Beethovens setting of these words in a simple and
accessible hymn-like melody, has become familiar to many millions of people.
Beethovens setting has also become familiar in English-speaking countries with
the words Joyful, joyful, we adore thee that were set to the melody of the ode
in 1907 by Henry van Dyke (18521933), an American clergyman and educa-
tor, and that were incorporated into the Hymn to Joy found in most Christian
hymnalstoday.
Beyond the words and the melody, the extraordinary conception and struc-
ture of the symphony affected virtually every composer after Beethoven.
Richard Wagner, for instance, who conducted the symphony many times, who
made a piano transcription of the work, and who wrote an entire essay in 1873
207
entitled The Rendering of Beethovens Ninth Symphony, commented in his

1849 essay Der Kunstwerk der Zukunft (The Artwork of the Future),
The final symphony of Beethoven is the redemption of Music from her own
peculiar element into the realm of universal art. It is the human evangel of the
art of the future. Beyond it no forward step is possible, for upon it the perfect
artwork of the future alone can follow, the universal drama to which Beethoven
has forged for us thekey.
And in the first volume of his autobiography Mein Leben (My Life), published in
1870, Wagnerwrote,
Beethovens Ninth Symphony became the mystical goal of all my strange

thoughts and desires about music. At the very first glance at the score, of
which Iobtained possession with much difficulty, Ifelt irresistibly attracted by
the long-sustained pure fifths with which the first phrase opens:these chords
seemed to form the spiritual keynote of my life. This, Ithought, must surely
contain the secret of all secrets.
Felix Mendelssohn conducted the Ninth at the Lower Rhine Music Festival
in Dsseldorf and at the Leipzig Gewandhaus, the theorist Heinrich Schenker
analyzed the symphony in his monograph Neunte Sinfonie, Gustav Mahler con-
ducted the work with the Vienna Philharmonic and the newly created New York
Philharmonic, and Beethovens Ninth became the favorite work of such conduc-
tors as Wilhelm Furtwngler and Arturo Toscanini. Furthermore, Franz Liszt
made two transcriptions of the Ninth, one for two pianos in 1850 and another for
single piano in 1865, and yet other composers paid homage to Beethovens mas-
terpiece in their own compositions: the finale of Brahms Symphony no. 1 (often
referred to as Beethovens Tenth when it was written) is based on the Ode to
Joy theme; Bruckner used themes from the Ninth in his third and seventh sym-
phonies; and Anton Dvok, in his Symphony no. 9 (The New World Symphony)
made a number of allusions to Beethovens Ninth.
The Ninth became an emblem of German national pride during the nineteenth
century and was performed at important ceremonies, both musical and politi-
cal. On May 22, 1872, Wagners fifty-ninth birthday, he conducted the symphony
at a ceremony laying the foundation stone for his Festspielhaus in Bayreuth,
Germany, and it was performed there again on July 29, 1951, at the reopening
of the Festspielhaus after its closure during World War II. (As a point of inter-
est, Beethovens Ninth, by decree of the Wagner family, is the only non-Wagner
work that can ever be performed in the Festspielhaus.) Wilhelm Furtwngler is
estimated to have conducted the Ninth more than one hundred times, including
a performance by the Berlin Philharmonic on April 20, 1942, to celebrate Hitlers
birthday.
B eethoven Sy mphony no. 9 209
The Ninth has also been used to commemorate occasions against political
oppression. For example, in one of the most famous performances in modern
times, on December 25, 1989, Leonard Bernstein conducted the symphony at the
Brandenburg Gate to celebrate the tearing down of the Berlin Wall. For this concert,
to highlight the message of the event, Bernstein changed the word Freude (Joy)
in Schillers poem to Freiheit (Freedom). And on May 7, 2000, Simon Rattle con-
ducted the Ninth with the Vienna Philharmonic at the Mauthausen Concentration
Camp. Televised nationally by the Austrian Broadcasting Corporation, the audi-
ence members did not applaud after the concert, but remained silent, holding
candles to commemorate the horrific past of thesite.
Beethovens Ninth symphony has perhaps become most popular in Japan.
Atradition of performing it during the month of December began in the 1960s
and has grown to such proportions that the work is now performed at the end of
each year hundreds of times by thousands of performers. In December 1983 the
symphony was performed in Osakas Castle Hall with six thousand choristers, and
in 1990 there were a reported 170 performances throughout the country, includ-
ing five performances by the NHK Symphony Orchestra, eleven performances
by the Japan Philharmonic Symphony Orchestra, and thirteen performances by
the Tokyo Symphony Orchestra. The year-end performance tradition even has a
name:Ichiman-nin Daiku (10,000 person Big 9)or simply Daiku (Big9).
As further testament to the Ninths popularity and importance, in May 1980
the executives of Philips and Sony decided that the new technology of the audio
compact disc (CD) would hold seventy-four minutes of music, presumably to
include the entire Beethoven Ninth, which happened to be the favorite musical
work of Sony president, Norio Ohga. And in 2001, the autograph manuscript
of the symphony, housed in the Berlin State Library, was placed on the United
Nations World Heritage List (the first musical score to be so honored).
In addition to the symphonys popularity, the Ode to Joy music from the
fourth movement has been extracted and performed separately many times
in many different situations. It was performed at the 1936 Olympic Games in
Berlin, organized by Joseph Goebbels, Reich Minister of Propaganda for Adolf
Hitler and Nazi Germany, as a proclamation of the Nazi Volksgemeinschaft (peo-
ples culture). Then, after a period of absence, it was performed again at the
Olympic Games in 1956 and has been performed at every one of the games since.
At the 1998 Winter Olympic Games in Nagano, Japan, Seiji Ozawa conducted
the ode sung simultaneously (electronically synchronized) by six choirs in six
different cities around the world (NewYork, Berlin, Cape Town, Sydney, Beijing,
and Nagano).
In 1971 the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe proposed that
the ode be adopted as the European anthem. This was made official on June 19,
1972, and in 1985 the ode was adopted by the European Union heads of state as
the official anthem of the European Community. In 1974 the ode was also adopted
as the national anthem of Rhodesia, and in June 1989 the ode was used as a
message by the protesters in Tiananmen Square in Beijing. From the Associated

Press on June 3,1989,
Soldiers advanced down Changan Avenue but tens of thousands of students

and others poured out into the street to stop them in front of the Beijing Hotel,
several hundred yards east of [Tiananmen] Square. The middle of the square
remained calm, with the Ode to Joy from Beethovens Ninth Symphony blar-
ing over the students loudspeakers.
In popular culture, Beethovens ode has been used in Stanley Kubricks

1971 film A Clockwork Orange, and also in the film HELP by the Beatles. Most
common in modern times, the ode has become a fashionable vehicle in flash
mobs across the world. Some of the more popular of these, posted on YouTube
and receiving hundreds of thousands of viewers, include renditions at the
Hauptbahnhof (Central Train Station) in Leipzig, Germany, on November 8,
2009, to commemorate the twentieth anniversary of the falling of the Berlin
Wall; the Plaa de Sant Roc in Sabadell, Spain, on May 19, 2012; the Blue Back
Square in West Hartford, Connecticut, on October 20, 2012, with performers
from the Hartt School of Music; the Sha Tin New Town Plaza Shopping Mall
in Hong Kong on July 28, 2013, with student performers; and the Privoz
Fish Market in Odessa, Ukraine, on March 25, 2014, with performers from
the Odessa Philharmonic and the Odessa Opera Chorus. Finally, the ode is
the subject of a 2013 documentary, Following the Ninth, directed by Kerry
Candaele.

Like a number of composers both before and after him (e.g., Mozart,
Mendelssohn, and Brahms), Beethovens youth was focused on keyboard music
and performance. He studied and played keyboard pieces (including those by
J.S. Bach), his first compositions were written for the piano, and he developed
into a highly skilled keyboard performer. These factors are all mentioned in the
following excerpt from an article in Carl Friedrich Cramers Magazin der Musik
on March 2,1783.
A boy of eleven years and of most promising talent, he plays the piano very
skillfully and with power, reads at sight very well, and Ineed say no more than
that the chief piece he plays is Das wohltemperirte Clavier of Sebastian Bach.
He has also composed nine variations for piano, which have been published
in Mannheim. This youthful genius will surely become a second Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart if he were to continue as he hasbegun.
During his teenage years in the 1780s Beethoven composed a large number of
piano trios, quartets, sonatas, variations, and rondosall without opus numbers,
and during his twenties he became known as a virtuoso pianist, playing concerts
in the major private houses of Vienna and also touring to London, Prague, and
Dresden. His first public performance in Vienna, in March 1795, featured one of
his piano concertos, and later that year his three piano trios were published as
opus 1, the first of his publications to received an opus number. His Piano Sonata
no.4 in E-flat Major op.7 (the Grand Sonata) was composed in 1797 and one
of his most popular piano works, the Piano Sonata no.8 in C Minor op.13 (the
Sonate pathtique), was completed in1798.
During the 1790s Beethoven also began composing works scored for strings
and for chorus. The string works include the two cello sonatas op. 5 in 1796,
three violin sonatas op.12 in 1798, and the string quartets op.18 between 1798
and 1800. The works for chorus include the Cantate auf den Tod Kaiser Joseph des
Zweiten (Cantata on the death of Emperor Joseph II) and Cantate auf die Erhebung
Leopold des Zeiten zur Kaiserwrde (Cantata on the accession of Emperor Leopold
II), both composed in1790.
In 1801, at age thirty, Beethoven began to acknowledge his increasing deafness
and wrote to his friend Franz Gerhard Wegeler,
For almost two years I have ceased to attend any social functions because I find
it impossible to say to people: I am deaf. You can scarcely believe what an
empty, sad life I have had. My poor hearing has haunted me everywhere
like a ghost, and I have had to avoid all human society, being forced to appear a
misanthrope, and yet I am far from being one.
In 1802, during a hoped-for therapeutic trip to the small town of Heiligenstadt,

he came to terms with the severity of his deafness and wrote an anguished decla-
ration to that effect, known as the Heiligenstadt Testament. It seemed as if his
career was coming to an end. However, when he returned to Vienna he engaged
in an intense period of compositional activity, composing his oratorio Christus
am Oelberge (Christ on the Mount of Olives) op.85 in two weeks. Other choral
works followed, including the Missa in C Major op.86 in 1807 and the Fantasie
fr Klavier, Chor und Orchester c-moll op.80 (called the Choral Fantasy) in1808.
Meanwhile, Beethoven had composed two symphonies at the beginning of the
decade. The first, in C Major op.21, was composed in 1800 (which was five years
after Haydns last symphony, the London, and twelve years after Mozarts final
symphony, the Jupiter), and the second, in D Major op.36, composed between
1801 and 1802. The Symphony no.1, while basically traditional, exhibits signs of
eccentricity and inventiveness that characterize many of Beethovens later works,
including the Ninth. For example, the first movement of the first symphony opens
not with a traditional tonic chord or even a chord in the key of C Major, but with
a dominant seventh chord of the subdominant (IV) of C Major. This is followed

by a dominant seventh chord of the tonic, which does not resolve to C Major as
expected but deceptively to the submediant (vi) of C Major. Following this is a
dominant seventh of the dominant (V), with resolution to the tonic C Major not
occurring until measure 13. The Symphony no.2 is more conservative, although
the third movement is a scherzo rather than the traditional minuet.
The Symphony no.3 op.55 in E-flat Major was composed in 1803 and is note-
worthy for its titleSinfonia Eroica (Heroic Symphony)and its programmatic
Marcia funebre (Funeral march) second movement. This was not the first sym-
phony with a descriptive title and with extra-musical characteristics. Quite a few
of Haydns symphonies are programmatic and have names, including Symphony
no.45 in F-sharp Minor of 1772 called the The Farewell, Symphony no.94 in G
Major of 1791 called The Surprise, and Symphony no.101 in D Major of 1793
1794 called The Clock. Beethovens third symphony is different, however, in
having been composed to explicitly represent a person (Napoleon Bonaparte) and
in having a program described by the composer:composta per festeggiare il sov-
venire di un grand Uomo (composed to celebrate the memory of a great man).
Beethovens third symphony is also unique in having a new theme introduced
in the development section of movement 1 and, at about forty-five minutes in
length, the work is about twice as long as symphonies by Haydn and Mozart.
Symphony no. 4 op. 60 in B-flat Major was composed in 1806 and, like
Symphony no.2, is conservative in structure and content. Symphony no.5 op.67
in C Minor, mostly composed between 1807 and 1808, supposedly has a fate
motif that pervades the first movement. According to Anton Schindler in his book
Beethoven as IKnew Him, Beethoven pointed to the beginning of the first move-
ment and expressed in these words the fundamental idea of the work:Thus Fate
knocks at thedoor!
Symphony no.6 op.68 in F Major of 1808, called the Pastoral Symphony,
is unique in its total programmatic content. Composers before Beethoven had
written programmatic symphonies, for example, the six symphonies after Ovids
Metamorphoses by Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf (17391764). However, Dittersdorf
provided only generally characteristic titles to each symphony, while Beethoven
gave pictorially descriptive titles to each movement of his symphony: move-
ment 1, Erwachen heiterer Empfindungen bei der Ankunft auf dem Lande
(Awakening of cheerful feelings upon arrival in the countryside); movement 2,
Szene am Bach (Scene by the brook); movement 3, Lustiges Zusammensein
der Landleute (Merry gathering of country folk); movement 4, Gewitter, Sturm
(Thunder, storm); and movement 5, Hirtengesang. Frohe und dankbare Gefhle
nach dem Sturm (Shepherds song. Cheerful and thankful feelings after the
storm). Also unique, movements 3, 4, and 5 are linked and are to be performed
without abreak.
Symphony no. 7 op. 92 in A Major composed between 1811 and 1812, and
Symphony no.8 op.93 in F Major of 1812 are again conservative and traditional,
although the seventh symphony has no slow movement (movement 2 is marked

Allegretto and movement 3Presto), and the second movement of the eighth
symphony supposedly portrays a metronome.
Symphony no. 9 in D Minor, the full title of which is Sinfonie Nr. 9 mit
Schluchor ber Schillers Lied An die Freude fr Orchester, vier Solostimmen und
Chor, op.125, did not follow the compositional time progression of the earlier
symphonies. The first eight symphonies were composed within a span of twelve
years, while it would be another twelve years before Beethoven would finish his
ninth symphony. The first sketches of music that would be material for move-
ments 1 to 3 occurred as early as 1815. But Beethoven did not consider writing
a new symphony until 1817, when he received a request from the Philharmonic
Society of London for such. However, nothing much was done about this until a
commission from London was offered to Beethoven in April 1822 and Beethoven
officially accepted the commission in December. Schindler writes that in June
of1823,
Beethoven plunged into the ninth symphony, for which he had already made
some sketches. He would walk over hill and dale, sketchbook in hand, never
thinking of regular mealtimes. Over and over again he would return without
his hat, something that had never happened before, even at the height of
creative impulse. By the middle of August there were thick notebooks full of
sketches for the newwork.
In July Beethoven commented on his work in a letter to Archduke Rudolf, I

am now writing a new symphony for England for the Philharmonic Society, and
Ihope to complete it within a fortnight. By the end of October, as reported by
Schindler, the first three movements were completed.
The new symphony was finished up to the fourth movement; that is, he had
[the fourth movement] all in his head and the main ideas were fixed in the
sketchbooks, but he could not decide which verses to choose from Schillers
ode, An die Freude. The problem was to find a suitable introduction to
Schillers ode. One day he burst into the room and shouted at me:I have it!
Ihave it! He held his sketchbook out to me so that Icould read:Let us sing
the song of the immortal Schiller; then a solo voice begins the Hymn to Joy.
Yet this introduction later gave way to another, undeniably more appropriate
one:O friends, not these strains! Let us sing still more beautifully, still more
joyfully.
The idea of setting Schillers poem had occurred to Beethoven as early as 1795,
when he wrote to friends about the possibility, and in 1798 he made a preliminary
musical sketch for the words Mu ein lieber Vater wohnen (A dear father must
dwell) from the second strophe of Schillers poem. Quite separately, Beethoven
began thinking of adding voices to a symphony in 1817 or 1818 and presumably

wrote the following in his sketchbook.
Adagio CantiqueSolemn song in a symphony in the old modesLord God

we praise youallelujaheither as an independent piece or an introduction
to a fugue. Perhaps the entire symphony will be characterized in this manner,
whereby singing voices will enter in the finale, or even in the Adagio.
By 1823 this idea was transformed into the use of Schillers An die Freude,
and Schindler reports that the entire symphony was completed by February of
1824. On March 10 Beethoven wrote to his publisher that the finale of the Ninth
was in the style of my fantasia for piano with chorus but on a far grander scale,
with vocal solos and choruses based on the words of Schillers immortal and
famous song An die Freude. On April 27 a manuscript copy of the symphony with
the dedication Geschrieben fr die Philharmonische Gesellschaft in London was
given to an agent of the society. This does not mean, however, that Beethoven
planned for the symphonys premiere to be in London. Two months before pre-
senting the manuscript to the London agent, Beethoven had written to Carl von
Brhl (17721837), intendant-general of the Prussian royal theaters, about the
possibility of the premiere of the ninth symphony in Berlin. Hearing word of
this, a group of Viennese patrons of music wrote Beethoven a long letter plead-
ing with him to have the premiere in Vienna. Beethoven acquiesced to the plea
and in March began negotiations with concert venues in Vienna for the premiere,
settling on the Krtnertor Theater, where the final version of Beethovens opera
Fidelio had been premiered. The premiere of the Ninth symphony was scheduled
for 7 pm on May 7, 1824, and was to be performed at a concert, called an Academie
at the time, with the Overture to Die Weihe des Hauses (The Consecration of the
House), composed in 1822, and three movements (the Kyrie, Credo, and Agnus
Dei) from the Missa solemnis, which Beethoven had completed in1823.
News of the impending performance was met with excitement since Beethoven
had not had a concert in Vienna devoted entirely to his music since 1812. On May 1,
1824, the following notice was published in the Wiener Theater-Zeitung,
An Academie will offer friends of German music one of the most beautiful fes-
tivities and will bring recognition to the national master. France and England
certainly will envy the pleasure of having the opportunity to offer homage
to Beethoven himself, who is acknowledged throughout the world to be the
most ingenious composer. Anyone whose heart beats warmly for greatness and
beauty will surely not be absent on this evening.
Before the scheduled concert on May 7, there were a number of sectional

rehearsals. Ignaz Dirzka (17791827), the chorus master of the Krtnertor
Theater, had five or six choral rehearsals, beginning on April 28; Ignaz
Schuppanzigh (1776 1830), founder of Count Razumovskys string quartet

that premiered many of Beethovens string quartets, rehearsed the strings; and
Beethoven along with Michael Umlauf (17811842), one of the Kapellmeisters of
the Krtnertor Theater and conductor of Beethovens opera Fidelio, rehearsed the
vocal soloists. Three full rehearsals in the Krtnertor Theater were planned, but
only two of these actually tookplace.
The vocal soloists for the premiere included some of the most successful and
well-known singers of the time. Eighteen-year-old soprano Henriette Sontag had
already sung a number of leading operatic roles in Vienna, including Euryanthe
in the premiere of Webers opera of the same name at the Krtnertor Theater in
October of 1823. Alto Caroline Unger, who was twenty-one, had recently been
acclaimed for her singing of Dorabella in Mozarts Cos fan tutte and would go on
to have roles written for her by both Donizetti and Bellini. She would also sing
the alto solos in the first performance of Beethovens Missa solemnis. The tenor
was twenty-eight-year-old Anton Haizinger, who had sung the leading tenor role
in Euryanthe with Henriette Sontag and also the leading role in the premiere of
Beethovens opera Fidelio. The bass, thirty-seven-year-old Joseph Seipelt, was the
least well known of the soloists and was a last minute replacement for Joseph
Preisinger, who had not been able to sing the high notes Beethoven wrote in
theNinth.
The orchestra and chorus of the Krtnertor Theater were augmented by mem-
bers of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde. Schuppanzigh led the orchestra from
his seat at the head of the first violins, Umlauf conducted from a podium at the
center of the stage, and Beethoven stood at Umlaufs side. According to Joseph
Bhm, one of the violinists in the orchestra,
Beethoven himself conducted, that is, he stood in front of a conductors stand

and threw himself back and forth like a madman. At one moment he stretched
to his full height, at the next he crouched down to the floor; he flailed about
with his hands and feet as though he wanted to play all the instruments and
sing all the chorus parts. Beethoven was so excited he saw nothing that was
going on about him; he paid no heed whatsoever to the bursts of applause,
which his deafness prevented him from hearing in any case. He had to be told
[by soloist Caroline Unger] when it was time to acknowledge the applause.
Another account of Beethoven at the premiere was given by one of the young
soprano choristers to conductor Felix Weingartner (18631942); the account,
years after the event, was published in Weingartners book Akkorde.
One had the tragic impression that he was incapable of following the music.
Although he appeared to be reading along, he would continue to turn pages
when the movement in question had already come to an end. At the perfor-
mance a man went up to him at the end of each movement, tapped him on the
shoulder and pointed to the audience. The motions of the clapping hands and
the waving handkerchiefs caused him to bow, which always gave rise to great
jubilation.
The premiere was reviewed enthusiastically. Carl Czerny (17911857) wrote

to the German composer and pianist Johann Peter Pixis (17881874) that
Beethovens new Symphony breathes such a fresh, lively, indeed youthful spirit;
so much power, innovation, and beauty as ever was from the head of this inge-
nious man. Published reviews of the premiere were also positive. Following are
excerpts from three of the reviews:(1)the Wiener Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung
on May 12; (2) the Wiener allgemeine Theater-Zeitung on May 13; and (3) the
Leipziger Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung on July1.
(1) Beethovens genius seemed to us to be entirely in its youth and original

strength again in these grand, gigantic compositions. His rich, powerful
fantasy rules with lofty freedom in its familiar realm of tones and raises
the listeners on its wings into a new world that excites amazement.
(2) Beethoven has long shown through his symphonies so high a level of
artistic creation in this branch of composition, that since then it has
become difficult for any composer to succeed in the wake of this helicon.
The newest symphony however is certainly the greatest work of art that
Beethoven, with his full Titans strength has brought into existence.
(3) The effect [of the music] was indescribably great and magnificent, jubilant
applause from full hearts was enthusiastically given the master, whose
inexhaustible genius revealed a new world to us and unveiled never-
before-heard, never-imagined magical secrets of the holyart!
Due to the great success of the premiere, a second performance was scheduled
for May 23. The Krtnertor Theater was unavailable, so the concert took place in
the Groer Redoutensaal, beginning at half past noon. The program was changed
somewhat from that of the premiere; the Credo and Agnus Dei from the Missa
solemnis were deleted, and in their place were Beethovens terzetto Tremate,
empi, tremate, composed between 1801 and 1802, and Rossinis Di tanti palpiti
from his opera Tancredi.
The performance in London took place on March 21, 1825. Prior to thaton
February 1the Philharmonic Society held a public rehearsal, and two days later
the following notice was published in TheTimes.
A new symphony by the celebrated Beethoven was tried for the first time on
Tuesday evening, at a rehearsal of the Philharmonic Society. In grandeur of
conception, and in originality of style, it will be found, we think, to equal the
greatest works of this composer.
Performances in other cities followed, including Frankfurt on April 1, 1825;

Aachen on May 23, 1825; Leipzig on March 6, 1825 (then again on March 2 and
30, 1826, and October 19, 1826); Berlin on November 27, 1826; Prague on March
9, 1827; Paris on March 27, 1831; St. Petersburg on March 7, 1836; Dresden on
November 7, 1838; Hamburg on August 11, 1845; and NewYork (the American
premiere) on May 20,1846.
Schillers An die Freude

Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller was born near Stuttgart, Germany,
in 1759. During his youth his education was focused first on preparation for
the clergy, with studies in Greek and Latin, and then for a career in medicine.
However, he was most interested in literature, especially drama, and wrote his
first play, Die Ruber (The Robbers), in 1782 while still a student. The subject mat-
ter of the play, about social corruption and revolutionary ideals, appealed to a
wide readership, and the play became somewhat of a popular sensation. With the
success of Die Ruber, Schiller continued writing plays, many of which were not
only popular in their own right but were also adapted as librettos for important
operas. For example, Don Karlos, Infant von Spanien, which was first produced in
1787, was the basis for Verdis opera Don Carlos (premiered in 1867, then revised
for performances in 1872 and 1884); Maria Stuart of 1800 (about Mary, Queen of
Scots) was used for Donizettis Maria Stuarda of 1835; Die Jungfrau von Orleans of
1801, which was perhaps Schillers most frequently performed play, became the
libretto for Tchaikovskys 1881 opera The Maid of Orleans; and Schillers 1804 play
Wilhelm Tell was adapted for Rossinis final opera, Guillaume Tell, in1829.
In 1789 Schiller began serving as professor of history and philosophy at the
University of Jena (now named the Friedrich Schiller University of Jena), where
he wrote a number of philosophical papers on ethics and aesthetics, and in 1799
he moved to Weimar, becoming a friend of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749
1832), with whom he founded the Weimar Theater. During his relatively short
career (he died in 1805 at the age of forty-five) he wrote ten plays and nine poems.
Of the poems, Nnie was used by Johannes Brahms for his choral/orchestral
work of the samename.
An die Freude was written in 1785 and published the following year in the
magazine Thalia, which Schiller had established in 1784. The poem became imme-
diately popular, although Schiller himself found it inferior, writing in 1800 to his
close friend and patron Christian Gottfried Krner (17561831) that it was of
value maybe for the two of us, but not for the world, nor for the art of poetry.
Schiller revised the poem in 1803 when it was republished, and both the original
and revised versions became the source of many musical settingsfrom an early
one by Krner in 1786 to later ones by Franz Schubert (D189) in 1815 and Pyotr
Tchaikovsky in 1865. The Schubert setting is of Schillers 1803 revision, with all
eight verses and choruses set in simple repeated strophes and with a lebhaft (lively)
tempo. Other musical settings include another simple lied in 1792 by Goethes
friend and lieder composer Carl Friedrich Zelter (17581832) and a large choral/
orchestral work in 1796 by Ludwig-Wilhelm Tepper de Ferguson (17681838),
a Polish-born composer who spent time in Vienna and who met both Haydn
and Beethoven. In 1799, to celebrate Schillers fortieth birthday, Johann Carl
Friedrich Rellstab (17591813) published six settings of the ode, including one by
Rellstab himself, one by Johann Friedrich Reichardt (17521814), and one (seen
in Example6.1) by an anonymous composer. Note that this anonymous setting,
which became quite popular and which Beethoven likely knew, is of the original
first verse and chorus of Schillers ode. The line Bettler werden Frstenbrder
was later changed to Alle Menschen werden Brder when Schiller revised the
poem in1803.
Example6.1
Schillers original 1785 poem consisted of nine verses, each followed by a cho-
rus. The final verse was deleted in the 1803 revision, and the two lines of text
mentioned earlier were amended. Shown here are the first four of the verses (in
their 1803 revision) and their respective choruses.
Verse1
Freude, schner Gtterfunken, Tochter aus Elysium,
Joy, beautiful spark of the gods, daughter from Elysium,
Wir betreten feuertrunken, Himmlische, dein Heiligtum.
We enter fire-drunk, heavenly one, your sanctuary.
Deine Zauber binden wieder, was die Mode streng geteilt,
Your magic power reunites what strict custom has divided,
Alle Menschen werden Brder, wo dein sanfter Flgelweilt.
All men become brothers where your gentle wingrests.
Chorus1
Seid umschlungen, Millionen! Diesen Ku der ganzenWelt!
Be embraced, you millions! This kiss is for all theworld!
Brderberm Sternenzelt mu ein lieber Vater wohnen.
Brothersabove the canopy of the stars there must dwell a loving father.
Verse2
Wem der groe Wurf gelungen, eines Freundes Freund zusein,
Whoever has the great good fortune to be a friends friend,
Wer ein holdes Weib errungen, mische seinen Jubelein!
Whoever has taken a loving wife, let him join us in celebration!
Jawer auch nur eine Seele sein nennt auf dem Erdenrund!
Yeseven he who has nothing to call his own but hissoul!
Und wers nie gekonnt, der stehle weinend sich aus diesemBund!
And he who cannot rejoice, let him steal weeping from thisunion!
Chorus2
Was den groen Ring bewohnet huldige der Sympathe!
He who in the great ring dwells, homage pays to sympathy!
Zu den Sternen leitet sie, wo der Unbekannte thronet.
To the stars above she leads, where on high the unknown reigns.
Verse3
Freude trinken alle Wesen an den Brsten derNatur,
All creatures partake of joy at the breast of Nature,
Alle Guten, alle Bsen folgen ihrer Rosenspur.
All that is good, all evil follows its rosetrail.
Ke gab sie uns und Reben, eine Freund, geprft imTod,
Joy has given us kisses and grapes, a friend, tested indeath,
Wollust ward dem Wurm gegeben, und der Cherub steht vorGott.
The worm is in ecstasy, and the cherub stands beforeGod.
Chorus3
Ihr strzt nieder, Millionen? Ahnest du den Schpfer,Welt?
Do you fall down, you millions? Do you sense your maker,world?
Such ihn berm Sternenzelt! ber Sternen mu er wohnen.
Seek him above the canopy of stars! Above the stars he mustdwell.
Verse4
Freude heit die starke Feder in der ewigenNatur,
Joy commands the hardy mainspring of the eternal universe,
Freude, freude treibt die Rder in der groen Weltenuhr.
Joy, joy is driving the wheel of the worlds greatclock.
Blumen lockt sie aus den Keimen, sonnen aus dem Firmament,
Flowers from the buds she coaxes, suns from out of the firmament,
Sphren nollt sie aus den Rumen, die des Sehers Rohr nichtkennt.
Spheres she rotates through the expanses, which the seer cannot divine.
Chorus4
Froh, wie seine Sonnen fliegen durch des Himmels prchtgenPlan,
Glad, like his suns, fly through the heavens splendidplane,
Laufet Brder, eure Bahn, freudig, wie ein Held zum Siegen.
Go, brothers, on your way, joyously, like a hero to victory.
For the Ninth symphony, Beethoven chose only from these four verses and
choruses (omitting verse 4 and chorus 3), and he reordered them as follows.
Verse1
Verse2
Verse3
Chorus4
Repeat of verse1
Chorus1
Chorus3
Repeat of verses 1 and chorus 1 (combined)

The design of the Ode to Joy melody is the first important consideration of struc-
ture in Beethovens Symphony no.9.The odes highly organized form, with mini-
mal melodic material and repetitive patterns, makes it accessible to the ordinary
listener, an accessibility that no doubt contributes to its popularity and appeal.
In overall design, as seen in Example6.2, the form is in four-measure groupings,
easily labeled AABA and similar to the stollen and abgesang structure of Lutheran
chorales.
Example6.2
Within the AABA, six a patterns are alike in rhythm and melodic shape, three
b patterns are completely identical, three c patterns are the same except for the
dominant chord implication in measure 8, and two of the three d patterns are the
same. Only the e pattern in measure 12 stands alone as unique. Beyond this highly
repetitive design and organization, it is important to note that virtually every time
the ode is stated its second half is repeated, thus making the form AABABA.
As for the symphony as a whole, the four movements are traditional in that
one is slow and lyric, one is a fast scherzo, and two are imposing bookends. Also,
the movements have basic structural designs that were well established and cus-
tomary during the early years of the nineteenth century. Beethovens symphony
is not like Berliozs Symphonie fantastique, for instance, which was mostly com-
posed shortly after Beethovens Ninth, and which, with its free-flowing forms and
story (An episode in the life of an artist), is more like an extended tone poem
than a symphony. Berliozs symphony is truly Romantic in that it follows few com-
positional procedures typical at the time of its writing. Beethovens symphony, on
the other hand, can be called Romantic because of its epic concept. However, it is
more a transitional work, especially when one considers its formal and musical
structures. The first movement (Allegro, ma non troppo, un poco maestoso) is in
sonata or sonata-allegro form, the second movement (Molto vivace/Presto/
Molto vivace) is based on the minuet-trio form, the third movement (Adagio
molto e cantabile) has a double variation structure, and the fourth movement
(with many tempo indications) is in a large AAB design, with a fugue based on the
A and B themes and an extended coda. Within these basic structures Beethoven
manipulated and extended their component parts significantly to create a work
that seemed new for its time and that set new standards and possibilities for all
symphonies that were to follow.
The constituent parts of the sonata form in movement 1 include an Exposition

(measures 1160), Development (160300), Recapitulation (301426), and Coda
(427547). In a traditional manner, the Exposition is in two main parts, the first
in D Minor and the second in B-flat Major, with a transition in between and a
Closing at the end. Not traditional, however, are the following:the opening of the
Exposition on the pitches Aand E (the dominant of D, the key of the movement);
the motivic-like two major themes of the movement; an abundance of subsidiary
motifs; the non-repeat of the Exposition; a fugato in the development section
(218254); the abundance of pedal points (which create harmonic tension); and
the proliferation of sforzando marks throughout the movement.
Movement 2 is in a relatively standard binary form, quite normal for scher-
zos of the Classical and early Romantic eras. Some theorists have speculated that
this movement is in a modified sonata form, but such an analysis is untenable
and perplexing. The clear outlines of the movement show an Asection (which is
repeated); a slightly varied Asection (which is also repeated); a B section (marked
a Trio and with an internal repeat structure); a repeat of both Asections; and a
brief closing that has both Aand B motifs.
A (1150)
A (repeated from the previousA)
Transition (151176)
A' (177395)
A' (repeated from the previous A' until395)
Transition (396411 and 412415)
B (416491)
a (416423)
a (repeated from the previousa)
b (423491)
b (repeated from the previousb)
Pedal point closing (491530)
A (1150) with Transition (151176)
A' (177395)
Coda (531559)
While common in overall structure and meter, with the Asections in three-four
time and the B section in a duple alla breve, it is quite unusual for Beethoven to
choose a three-four meter signature for a Molto vivace tempo to be conducted
one beat per measure. It would have been normal for Beethoven to write a meter
signature of twelve-eight, and later, nine-eight. Also unusual is Beethovens con-
ducting instruction in the A' sections, Ritmo di tre battute (the rhythm in three
beats), which is a change from the four-measure groupings of the A sections.
During Beethovens time it was a general practice to observe the repeat signs in
the reprise of the Aand A' sections. However, in his autograph manuscript of the
symphony, Beethoven wrote at the end of the Trio, from here without further
repeats.
The two theme sections of movement 3 are clearly delineated by their meter
signatures and tempo indications:the Atheme section is in common time, marked
Adagio molto e cantabile, and the B theme section is in three-four time, marked
Andante. The organization of the double variations is as follows:
Introduction(12)
A(325)
B (2542)
A (4364) VariationI
B (6582) VariationI
A (8398) VariationII
A (99123) VariationIII
A (123138) VariationIV
A (138157) VariationV
It can be seen from this that there is only one variation (for a total of two state-
ments) of the B section, while there are five variations (or a total of six statements)
of the Asection. Also of interest is the twelve-eight meter of the third variation of
A(beginning in measure 99), which is marked by Beethoven Lo stesso tempo (in
the same tempo), and the Introduction that begins the movement, which acts as
a sort of transition from movement2.
As mentioned above, movement 4 is in a large AAB design, with a fugue based
on the Aand B themes and an extended coda. The first Asection is purely orches-
tral; the second Asection uses much of the music from the previous A, but now
with voices; the B section is clearly new and different by nature of its slower
tempo and melodic content; the double fugue that follows is entirely based on the
Aand B themes; and the movement ends with a lengthy Coda that incorporates
Amaterial.
A (1207)
Introduction strife chords(17)
Recitatives and motifs from movements 1, 2, and 3(891)
Ode to Joy theme (92115)
Variation I(116139)
Variation II (140163)
Variation III (164187)
Transition (188207)
A' (208594)
Introductionstrife chords (208215)
Recitative and Transition (216240)
Ode to Joy verse one (241268)
Ode to Joy verse two (269296)

Ode to Joy verse three (297320) Extension (321330)
Ode to Joy chorus four (331431)
Transition (431542)
B (595654)
Ode to Joy chorus one (595626)
Ode to Joy chorus three (627654)
A and B (655762)
Double fugue to verse one and chorus one (655729)
Closing to the text of chorus one (730762)
Coda (763940)
Ode to Joy chorus one followed by the first line of verse one (843940)
A more detailed analysis and description reveal the character of the movement
and a better understanding of the symphony as a whole. Given that Beethoven
states motifs from movements 1, 2, and 3 during the Aportion of movement 4,
and that these restatements are separated by recitatives that seem to comment on
the character of the motifs, it is logical to assume that movement 4 relates to the
previous movements and that the entire symphony is unified by some concept;
the symphony is not merely a collection of disparate movements. Apostulation of
a likely concept is discussed later under the subheading Expression. What follows
here is an accounting of the musical events of movement 4 that lay the foundation
for Beethovens concept.
The opening chords of Aand A' (plus the chord at the end of measure 17)are
termed strife, or in German Schreckensfanfare (horror fanfare), because of
their harmonic dissonances. The strife chord at the beginning of the movement
is a D Minor triad in first inversion with an added B-flat; the chord at the end of
measure 17 is an F-sharp diminished seventh over the pitch D in the bass; and the
chord at the beginning of the A' section is even more dissonant, being a combina-
tion of a D Minor triad in first inversion and a fully diminished seventh chord
based on C-sharp. After the dissonant chords at the beginning of the movement
the cellos and string basses have a recitative that seems to seek or ask for resolu-
tion or consonance. An excerpt from the beginning of movement 1 provides an
answer that is strongly rejected. Excerpts from movements 2 and 3 follow and are
also rejected, although the rejection of movement 3 is mollified. The cellos and
string basses then decide to provide their own solution, which they do by stating
the Ode to Joy theme simply, in unison, without elaboration. Variations of the
theme follow, each one more fully orchestrated than the next until a transition
leads to the repeat of the strifechord.
The beginning of the A' section is an abbreviated version of the original A, with
the solo vocal bass dismissing the dissonances with the words O Freunde, nicht
diese Tne! (Oh friends, not these sounds) and singing the Ode to Joy theme
to the text of Schillers verse 1 followed by a choral closing. Variations continue
as follows:the solo quartet with choral closing sings Schillers verse 2; the solo
quartet with choral closing sings verse 3; after a transition, the tenor soloist sings
chorus 4 (the Alla Marcia) with a closing sung by the male choristers; and a transi-
tion leads to the restatement of verse 1 sung exclusively by the chorus.
The B section of the movement begins with chorus 1 of Schillers poem, which
is the second half of Schillers first strophe. As such, the beginning of the B section
represents the second half of a whole unit; Aand B are two parts of one entity.
With this in mind it is easy to understand why Beethoven combines Aand B for
the double fugue, even though he inserts chorus 3 (Ihr strzt nieder, Millionen)
both before and after the fugue. About chorus 3, Beethovens setting incorporates
all twelve tones of the chromatic scale in the passage between measures 730 and
762; all twelve tones except for G-sharp are incorporated in the passage from 627
to654.
In order for Beethoven to make the central idea of the symphonyAlle
Menschen werden Brderas clear as possible, the Coda is based on the complete
first strophe of Schillers poem. For emphasis and dramatic effect, this final sec-
tion of the symphony is divided into eight tempo sections:Allegro ma non tanto
(763809); Poco adagio (810813); Tempo I(814831); Poco adagio (832842);
Poco allegro, stringendo il tempo, sempre pi allegro (843851); Prestissimo
(851915); Moderato (916920); and Prestissimo (920940).
The Aand B divisions of movement 4 as described illustrate its structure and
formal layout most logically. However, there is another view that has been posited
by a few theorists, a view in which movement 4 is designed as a complete sym-
phony in itself:the Introduction and Auntil measure 331 are a first movement;
the Alla Marcia is a scherzo; the Andante maestoso beginning in measure 595 (the
B above) is a slow movement 3; and the concluding section of music, beginning at
the double fugue, is the finale of the symphony.
Expression
As a prelude to considerations of performance practice (i.e., examining modes of
execution in performance that would have been common in the early nineteenth
century and expected in a work such as Beethovens Symphony no.9), it is impor-
tant to discuss the underlying central concept of expression held by composers
and performers of the time. This concept, one that considered expression a vital
part of composition and performance, was prevalent throughout the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries. Composers were expected to identify extra-musical
attributes or characteristics of their musicfor every work or section of a work
they were writingand performers were expected to identify the characteristics
and communicate them in performance. As articulated by Johann Georg Sulzer
(17201779) in his Allgemeine Theorie der schnen Knste (general theory of music)
of 17711774,
Every composition, whether it is vocal or instrumental, should possess a defi-

nite character and be able to arouse specific sentiments in the minds of listen-
ers. It would be foolish of the composer to begin composing without having
established the character of his work. Even if he stumbles upon his theme
by chance or he arbitrarily selects it, he must still examine its character care-
fully so that he can sustain it while composing.
Several years later, Augustus Frederic Christopher Kollmann (17561829) con-

firmed this stance in the first and third chapters of his 1799 An Essay on Practical
Musical Composition.
A piece may be composed either in a certain prescribed character or its charac-

ter may be optional. But in both cases it ought to have some general character,
which receives its shades and lights from particular characteristics.
In regard to their particular character, Symphonies may be either characteristic

or free. By characteristic Symphonies Imean those which are to express a cer-
tain prescribed character. Of Free Symphonies Icomprehend all those that
have no prescribed Character, though Ihave said before that every Musical Piece
ought to have some general character.
Also in 1799, a review in the Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung of Beethovens Piano

Sonata op.13, the Sonate pathtique, alludes to the recognition of character.
The admirable sonata is well named pathtique, for it is indeed deeply emo-
tional. Anoble melancholy is introduced with the smoothly modulated Grave
in C Minor that recurs from time to time to interrupt the strongly expressive,
fiery mood of the Allegro.
E. T. A. Hoffmann (17761822), who was a composer and music critic as well

as author of numerous stories that served as a basis for musical works, includ-
ing Nussknacker und Mauseknig (The Nutcracker and the Mouse King) for
Tchaikovskys ballet, wrote about extra-musical expressivity in his 1813 essay
Beethovens Instrumental Music.
A simple but fruitful theme, songlike, susceptible to the most varied contra-
puntal treatments, curtailments, and so forth, forms the basis of each move-
ment; all remaining subsidiary themes and figures are intimately related to the
main idea in such a way that the details all interweave, arranging themselves
among the instruments in highest unity. Such is the structure of the whole,
yet in this artful structure there alternate in restless flight the most marvelous
pictures in which joy and grief, melancholy and ecstasy, come side by side or
intermingled to thefore.
Alexander Wheelock Thayer (18171897), who wrote the first scholarly biography
of Beethoven, relates the following recollection of Beethovens student Ferdinand
Ries (17841838) during the period between 1801 and1805.
When Imade a mistake in a passage, or struck wrongly notes or leaps that he

often wanted specially emphasized, Beethoven seldom said anything. But if my
fault was in expression, or a crescendo, etc., or in the character of the piece, he
became angry, because, as he said, the former was accidental, while the latter
showed a lack of knowledge, feeling, or attention.
In his 1840 biography of Beethoven, Anton Felix Schindler (17951864) men-

tions expressive characteristics of music many times. Following are three excerpts
related to Beethovens instrumentalmusic.
(1) The admiration that Beethoven had felt for Napoleon was no more; it had
changed into hatred, and not until the emperor met his tragic end on St.
Helena was the composer able to forgive him. He pointed out that
he had already composed the music appropriate to such a catastrophe,
namely the Funeral March in the Eroica. He went even further in describ-
ing the symbolism of this movement, for the theme of the middle section
in C Major was supposed to represent a new star of hope in Napoleons
reversed fortunes (his return to the political stage in 1815), and finally the
great heros powerful decision to withstand fate until, at the moment of
surrender, he sinks to the ground and allows himself to be buried like any
other mortal.
(2) Why in some catalogues, including the Breitkopf & Hrtel Thematic Index,
is [the piano sonata op. 81a Les Adieus, lAbsence, et le Retour] desig-
nated by the term characteristic. Are we to suppose that all the other
Beethoven sonatas are not characteristic simply because they bear no title
by which the emotions of the hearer are led in a certain direction? One day
this author heard the master lament that he had ever added the designa-
tion pathtique to the opus 13 sonata. The whole world, he complained,
seizes upon a single sonata because it has a name that the pianists can
exploit. When we look at the general meaning of this word:That which is
truly pathetic expresses a strong emotion earnestly and with dignity, we
realize that it is a word that summarizes the fundamental character of all
Beethovensmusic.
(3) When we consider the medium and nature of the compositions directly
preceding the 7th and 8th symphonies, the Battle symphony opus 136,
and the cantata Der glorreiche Augenblick, we are seized with amazement
at the deep tenderness and intimacy of this newest composition [Piano
Sonata opus 90 in E Minor] in contrast to its predecessors energy and
power. The sensitivity of Count Lichnowsky, to whom this sonata was
dedicated, made it possible for him to know the work and grasp its partic-
ular significance. When he asked the composer about it, Beethoven replied
that he had set the Counts love-story to music, and if he wished to have
names for the movements, the first would be, Conflict between Head and
Heart, and the second, Conversation with the Beloved.
Robert Schumann (18101856) mentions the subject of expressiveness in terms

of extra-
musical characteristics as they apply directly to Beethovens Ninth
Symphony. The following is from Schumanns 1835 essay Florestans Shrove
Tuesday Address Delivered after a Performance of Beethovens Last Symphony.
It seems as though all forms of poetry are combined in the work:in the first
movement the epic, in the second the humorous, in the third the lyric, in the
fourththe blend of them allthe drama. Its a gigantic work, colossal,
comparable to the pyramids of Egypt. The symphony tells the story of mans
creation:first chaos, then the divine command Let there be light, then the
sun rising on the first man, who is delighted with such splendorin short, it is
the whole first chapter of the Pentateuch.
Carl Czerny, who premiered Beethovens Piano Concerto no.1 and Piano Concerto
no. 5, wrote extensively about the importance of expression. In his pianoforte
treatise of 1839, Vollstndige theoretisch-praktische Pianoforte-Schule, under the
subheading On the Proper Performance of All Beethovens Works for the Piano,
Czerny wrote the following about the Piano Sonata no. 23 in F Minor op. 57
(called the Appassionata).
If Beethoven, who was so fond of portraying scenes from nature, was perhaps
thinking of ocean waves on a stormy night when from the distance a cry for
help is heard, then such a picture will give the pianist a guide to the correct
playing of this great tonal painting. There is no doubt that in many of his most
beautiful works Beethoven was inspired by similar visions or pictures from his
reading or from his own lively imagination. It is equally certain that if it were
always possible to know the idea behind the composition, we would have the
key to the music and its performance.
Richard Wagner (18131883) also wrote about the presence of extra-musical

characteristics in Beethovens music. The following is from a letter Wagner wrote
to the music critic and viola player Theodor Uhlig (18221853) on February
15,1852.
The great compositions of Beethoven are veritable poems that require their
real subjects to be represented. Beethoven was completely possessed by a
subject; his most significant tone pictures are indebted almost solely to the
individuality of the subject that filled him. The consciousness of this made it
seem to him superfluous to indicate his subject otherwise than in the tone pic-
ture itself.
Six years before this letter, Wagner had written an essay about performing
Beethovens Symphony no.9 in Dresden, an essay, not unlike Schumanns sub-
jective commentary, that describes Wagners ideas about what Beethoven was
attempting to communicate in the separate movements of his symphony.
The First Movement appears to be founded on a titanic struggle of the soul,

athirst for Joy against the veto of that hostile power which rears itself between
us and earthly happiness. The great chief theme, which steps before us at one
stride as if disrobing from a spectral shroud, might perhaps be translated, with-
out violence to the spirit of the whole tone poem, by Goethes words:Entbehren
sollst du! Sollst entbehren! (Go wanting, shalt thou! Shalt thou go wanting!).
With the very first rhythms of the Second Movement a wild excitement seizes
us; we enter a new world wherein we are swept into a frenzied orgy. It is as if,
in our flight from despair, we rushed in breathless haste to snatch a new and
unknown happiness, for the previous order, that lit us with its distant smiles,
now seems to have vanished. Goethe depicts a stress not unlike this, as fol-
lows:Von Freude sei nicht die Rede, dem Taumel weih ich mich, dem schmer-
zlichsten Genuss! (Speak to me no more of joy, Iwill plunge to riot, to raging
pleasures!).
How differently the tones [in the Third Movement] address our heart! How
pure, how heavenly the strain wherewith they calm our wrath, allay the
souls despairing anguish, and turn its turbulence to gentle melancholy! It is
as if a memory were awakened, the memory of purest happiness from early
days: Sonst strzte sich der Himmelsliebe Kuss aufmich herab, in ernster
Sabbathstille (In days long since, before the kiss of heaven rained on me in the
Sabbaths solemn quiet).
With the opening of the last movement Beethovens music takes on a more
definitely speaking character; it quits the mold of purely instrumental music,
observed in all the three preceding movements. The musical poem is urg-
ing toward a crisis, a crisis to be voiced only in human speech. It is wonder-
ful how the Master makes the arrival of mans voice and tongue a positive
necessity, by the awe-inspiring recitatives of the bass strings. It insists
on decision, and passes at last into a song-like theme whose simple, stately
flow bears with it, one by one, the other instruments until it swells into a
mightyflood.
Wagners descriptions are extremely important, not because they come from a
composer of his stature or because they express an insight more acute than that
of someone else. Wagners descriptions are valuable because they represent a
thought process common in the mid-nineteenth century and because they give
voice to a veritable truth: the music of the Ninth Symphonythe entire sym-
phony, including the first three movementsportrays extra-musical character-
istics, and, in particular, each movement of the symphony stands for something
specific that is related to the whole. We do not know the precise meanings of the
movements; nor does it matter that we do. We can, however, determine the over-
all expressive scheme and message of the symphony.
First, as with most symphonies of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
each movement of the Ninth conveys a mood or characteristic in contrast to
the other. We can be sure of this because the cellos and string basses in their
recitatives at the beginning of the fourth movement separately reject whatever
it is that movements one through three stand for. Second, we can be relatively
sure that the cellos and string basses are asking a question in their recitatives,
the answers provided by the excerpts from movements one through three not
being acceptable. Confirmation of the rejections comes in Beethovens own
words (not Schillers) that begin the vocal section of movement 4: O Freunde,
nicht diese Tne (Oh friends, not these sounds). Furthermore, since we know
the text later added to the answer the lower strings provide themselvesAlle
Menschen werden Brder (All men become brothers)we can assume that the
question relates to the search for peace and harmony among people, a search,
as already mentioned, not found in the messages of the symphonys first three
movements. The search for peace is certainly a reasonable assumption since
movement 4 begins with the dissonance of the Schrekensfanfare chords. Also,
Beethoven had been in the midst of war and, during the years immediately after
his Symphony no. 8 when he was contemplating writing another symphony,
the Congress of Vienna (18141815) was striving to create peace. In addition,
Beethoven had represented war and the desire for peace in the Agnus Dei of his
Missa solemnis.
With these circumstances in mind, let us postulate that diese Tne of the first
three movements represent customary approaches to symphonic writingtypical
symphonic movements in typical forms (sonata, scherzo, and variation), forms
that were no longer adequate in the Ninth Symphony; something new was needed
(which Beethoven certainly provides in movement 4). Let us further postulate
that the forms of the first three movements represent extra-musical characteris-
tics that do not support the central ideal of Alle Menschen werden Brder. We
know the verity of this assumption since that text of Schillers first verse states
Deine Zauber binden wieder, was die Mode streng geteilt (Your magic power
reunites what strict custom has divided). The lower strings at the beginning of
movement 4 ask questions seeking peace, reject the responses of movements 1, 2,
and 3, and then provide their own answer in the form of the Ode to Joy melody
and the message its text eventually delivers.

Tempo
Beethoven had a notable concern about tempo, especially about composers indi-
cating intended tempos in their compositions and performers identifying and
manifesting appropriate tempos in their performances. Early in his career he
went to considerable lengths to communicate tempos. For example, at the begin-
ning of the Kyrie in his Missa in C Major op.86 of 1807, he prescribed Andante
con moto assai vivace quasi allegretto ma non troppo (Walking with motion very
vivaciously as in an allegretto but not too much). Later, in a letter to the publisher
Breitkopf, Beethoven wrote about the Gloria in the same Missa, I have changed
the common time meter signature to alla breve, thus altering the tempo, and that
is the way the time was indicated at first. Abad performance at which the tempo
was too fast induced me to dothis.
In another attempt to convey accurate tempos, Beethoven wrote German
prescriptions in his Piano Sonata no.28 op.101 of 1816:movement 1, Etwas
lebhaft, und mit der innigsten Empfindung (somewhat lively, and with the
deepest feeling); movement 2, Lebhaft, marschmssig (Lively, like a march);
movement 3, Langsam und sehnsuchtsvoll (slow and full of longing); and move-
ment 4, Geschwind, doch nicht zu sehr und mit Entschlossenheit (fast, yet not
very much, and with decision). These indications were not received well by non-
German-speaking performers and thus Beethoven discontinued the practice. He
did, however, maintain his interest in descriptive terms and he became interested
in the metronome. From a letter c.1813 to Ignaz von Mosel (17721844), conduc-
tor of the first music festivals of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna,
Beethovenwrote,
I heartily rejoice in the same opinion that you share with me regarding the
tempo indications that have been handed down from the days of musical
barbarism, for what (to take an example) can be more absurd than alle-
gro, which means no more nor less than merry, and how far removed we
often are from this meaning. It is quite another matter with words that
indicate the character of the piece. These we cannot give up, for the tempo
is more the body, while these refer to the soul of the piece itself. As for
me, Ihave long thought of giving up the meaningless designations:allegro,
andante, adagio, presto. Maelzels metronome gives us the best opportunity
for doingthis.
Beethovens interest in the metronome continued to the extent that he provided

metronome markings for his first eight symphonies, listed and published in the
December 17, 1817, issue of the Leipziger Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung under
the title Die Tempos Smmtlicher Stze aller Sinfonien des Hrn. L.v. Beethoven,
von Verf. selbst nach Maelzels Metronom bestimmt (The tempos for each move-
ment of all of Mr. Ludwig van Beethovens symphonies written by the composer
himself according to Maelzels metronome). Following this and similar published
listings, Beethoven and Antonio Salieri issued the following endorsement of
Maelzels metronome in the February 14, 1818, issue of the Wiener Allgemeine
Musikalische Zietung.
Maelzels Metronome is here! The usefulness of this invention will prove itself
more and more. We recommend it as useful, even indispensable, to all
beginners and to pupils, whether in singing, in piano playing, or in any other
instrument.
In the fall of 1826 Beethoven wrote to Schott, the publisher of the Ninth
Symphony,
Metronome markings will be sent to you soon. Do wait for them. In our cen-
tury such indications are certainly necessary. Moreover, Ihave received letters
from Berlin informing me that the first performance of the symphony was
received with enthusiastic applause, which Iascribe largely to the metronome
markings.
A listing of these metronome indications, shown below, was then sent to Schott
in a letter on October 13,1826.
[Movement1]
Allegro ma non troppo 88=quarter note
[Movement2]
Molto vivace 116=dotted half note
Presto 116=half note
[Movement3]
Adagio molto 60=quarter note
Andante moderato 63=quarter note
[Movement4]
Finale Presto 66=dotted half note
Allegro ma non troppo 88=quarter note
Allegro assai 80=half note
Alla Marcia 84=dotted quarter note
Andante Maestoso 72=half note
Adagio divoto 60=half note
Allegro energico 84=dotted half note

Allegro ma non tanto 120=half note
Prestissimo 132=half note
Maestoso 60=quarter note
Except for a discrepancy in the Finale Presto (Schott published it as 96 to the

dotted half note, which is obviously a mistake), this list corresponds to the met-
ronome markings indicated in a September 1826 conversation book and in the
dedication copy of the symphony for King Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia. Note,
however, that certain tempo markings in movement 4, most of which are attached
to the excerpts from previous movements, are missing (e.g., Poco adagio in mea-
sure 45, Vivace in measure 48, Adagio cantabile in measure 63, and Allegro mod-
erato in measure 77). Note also that the Alla Marcia indication (measure 331)is
missing an adjoining Allegro assai vivace.
Schindlers oft-quoted description below of Beethovens frustration with the
metronome is undoubtedly erroneous. It is a known fact that Schindler fabricated
numerous encounters with Beethoven and that Beethoven was often unhappy
with Schindlers representation ofhim.
Beethoven asked me to make a copy for London of the metronome notations

he had a few days before made for Mainz [Schott], but the list had been mislaid
and we could not find it. London was waiting and there was no time to lose,
so the master had to undertake the unpleasant task all over again. But lo! no
sooner had he finished than Ifound the first version. Acomparison between
the two showed a difference in all the movements. Then the master, losing
patience, exclaimed:No more metronome! Anyone who can feel the music right
does not need it, and for anyone who cant, nothing is of anyuse.
Whether or not Beethovens metronome markings accurately represent his

tempo intentions, and whether or not he was consistent in his metronome mark-
ings, there are some conflicts between the markings and his Italian tempo super-
scriptions. For example, the metronome marking of 60 to the quarter note at
the beginning of movement 3 does not represent a normal tempo for an Adagio
molto, which would typically be considerably slower and in a subdivided beat
(perhaps as slow as 60 to the eighth note). Moreover, a tempo of 60 to the quarter
note is almost impossible to maintain in the fourth variation of the Atheme sec-
tion (measures 99123). Furthermore, the difference between metronome mark-
ing 60 for Adagio molto and 63 for the succeeding Andante is unusually slight;
just three beats between Adagio molto and Andante is illogical and not at all
typical.
Another tempo conflict can be seen in movement 4, where the metronome
marking of 84 to the dotted quarter note in the Alla Marcia section does not
align with Beethovens indication of Allegro assai vivace. Eighty-four is inordi-

nately slow for a tempo supposedly characterized by Allegro assai vivace. And
yet another conflict relates to the common time meter of the Ode to Joy music,
which is odd since Beethoven requests that it be performed at an Allegro assai
tempo at 80 to the half note. Since the music is clearly to be conducted as an alla
breve, it is curious that Beethoven did not mark the meter assuch.
As a result of these mismatches between meters, metronome markings, and
Italian tempo terms, conductors throughout most of the twentieth century have
performed movement 3 much slower than 60 to the quarter note and the Alla
Marcia of movement 4 much faster than Beethovens metronome marking. In
contrast to this, a number of more recent conductors have been outspoken in
their commitment to observing Beethovens metronome markings, although,
when checking their actual tempos in performances and recordings, it becomes
apparent that the fourth variation in movement 3 is slower than they say it is; the
Alla Marcia is also faster.
The problems with these two tempos are also exacerbated by their rhythmic
densities, harmonic designs, and expressive characters. At the beginning of move-
ment 3 the rhythmic density is particularly sparse and the harmonic motion is
quite slow; it is easy here to assume a tempo of 60 to the quarter note. But in
the fourth variation the rhythmic texture is exceedingly dense, so much so that
maintaining the earlier tempo is quite difficult. It is clear, nonetheless, that varia-
tion four is intended to be more active and emotionally overt than the others.
However, performing this density at 60 to the quarter note is somewhat farcical
and not in the character of an Adagio molto e cantabile. Similarly, the Alla Marcia
in movement 4 is hardly a march at 84 to the dotted quarter note. It seems, then,
that the character markings are a more reasonable guide to tempo than a slavish
adherence to the metronome markings, especially since character was so impor-
tant to Beethoven.
Setting character as the chief guide for tempo is all the more logical since
metronome markings during Beethovens time did not imply a strict adher-
ence to the prescribed tempo. The markings were only an indication of a basic
tempo, one that fluctuated according to various changes in musical content
and expressive characterization. Beethoven inherited a long-standing tra-
dition of tempo flexibility, a tradition summarized by Daniel Gottlob Trk
(17501813) as he discusses the need for personal and genuine feeling for all
emotions and passions which can be expressed in music in his 1789 clavier
treatise.
Even when the composer has indicated the proper manner of expression as well
as he canin general and for specific parts, there still remains special cases for
which the expression can be heightened by extraordinary means. Among these,
I particularly include the following: 1) playing without keeping steady time;
2)quickening and hesitating; 3)the so-called tempo rubato.
The composer Carl Maria von Weber (17861826) expresses the opinion of musi-
cians at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Writing in 1824 in the Berliner
Musik-Zeitung in reference to his opera Euryanthe,
The tempo must not be a controlling tyrant nor a mechanical, driving ham-
mer. There is no slow movement without places that demand a quicker
motion in order to avoid a sense of dragging. In the same way, there is no
Presto that does not require a contrasting, more tranquil execution of many
passages, for otherwise the expressiveness would be lost in excessive speed.
We have no way of indicating all this. It resides only in feelings of the human
heart, and if the feelings are not there, nothing is of any avail, neither the met-
ronome, which serves only to prevent the grossest misunderstandings, nor the
expressionmarks.
Directly related to Beethoven, Ignaz von Seyfried (17761841) wrote in his

Beeethovens Studien of1832,
Beethoven demanded great exactitude in the matter of expression, minute

nuances, the balance between light and shade, as well as an effective tempo
rubato, and would gladly speak to each member of the orchestra individually
about these points without showing the least impatience.
Carl Czerny, cited earlier under the discussion of expression from his piano-
forte treatise of 1839, makes innumerable comments on character as affects
tempo, advising performers of Beethovens piano compositions to quicken or
retard tempo and to add crescendos and decrescendos and other expressive lib-
erties so as to capture and communicate the character of the music. Following
are excerpts from On the Proper Performance of All Beethovens Works for
the Piano.
Of the third movement from the Piano Concerto no. 4 op.58,

the Presto very quick and, in the concluding bars, accelerando
Of the first movement from the Piano Concerto no. 3 op.37,

The style and character of this Concerto are much more grand and fervent
than the two former. After the long pause at the end of the tutti, begins the
solo in a steady, but not too rapid time, with energy and decision. The chords
in the following piano are to be played arpeggio, with expression and rather
rallentando
Of the third movement from the Piano Concerto no. 1 op.15,

the concluding passages with great ardour; the following piano, gradually ral-
lentando; and the little cadence with extreme delicacy
And from Schindlers 1840 biography of Beethoven,
Everything Ihave ever heard Beethoven perform was, with very few exceptions,
entirely free from constraint in the matter of tempo; it was Tempo Rubato in
the truest meaning of the word, induced by the content and context of the music,
and it never had the least resemblance to a caricature.
Finally, in Beethovens own words from the autograph of his song Nord oder
Sd, he wrote, 100 according to Maelzel, but this applies only to the first mea-
sures, as feeling has its own tempo.
Metric Accentuation
In addition to considerations of tempo, metric accentuation was a critical com-
ponent of performance practice during the first half of the nineteenth cen-
tury. As mentioned in Chapter5 of this book on Haydns The Creation, there
is substantive discussion of the subject in more than thirty major primary
sources between 1700 and 1870. Those sources in German that Beethoven
might have known and that are pertinent to the performance of his music
include treatises by Johann Joachim Quantz in 1752, C.P. E.Bach in 1753,
Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg in 1755, Leopold Mozart in 1756, Johann Philipp
Kirnberger in 1771, Heinrich Christoph Koch in 1787, Daniel Gottlob Trk
in 1789, Johann Georg Tromlitz in 1791, and Johann Nepomuk Hummel
in1829.
Whether in purely instrumental music or in compositions with voice, all notes
of a composition were executed with varying degrees of stress or emphasis as
dictated by time signatures and referred to as metric accentuation. At its most
basic, notes occurring on beats in duple meters were in an alternating pattern
of strong and weak, or emphasis and de-emphasis; the pattern was strong-weak-
weak for notes on beats in triple meters. Notes within beats (e.g., four sixteenth
notes in beat one or two) were also subject to patterns of metric accentuation,
with the notes between beats generally softer than the others. Concurrent with
this and as a manifestation of accentuation, upbeats or up-bows on stringed
instruments were decidedly weaker and softer than downbeats and down-bows,
and anacrusis notes were also decidedly weaker in emphasis than the notes they
ledto.
The terminology of accentuation, emphasis, and strong did not imply
that notes were literally accented or emphasized; the notes were merely perceived
as louder because of their relationship to the notes that were in comparison to
them. The de-emphasized or weak beats gave the other notes qualities of rela-
tive loudness and strength, although these notes were often not actually loud or
emphasized as they would be with an accent mark. Moreover, metric accentuation
was much more than basic alternations of loud and soft. Based on the harmonic
structure of phrases, degrees of strength and weakness varied considerably, with

the strongest notes generally occurring at the peaks of phrases (i.e., at their har-
monic arrival points), and with the weakest notes being those on the second beats
of measures early in phrases or on unaccented syllables at the ends of phrases. If
composers desired something different from these situations or regular patterns,
as Beethoven did with frequency in the Ninth Symphony, the composers applied
accent, tenuto, or sforzando marks, which in addition to indicating increased
emphasis, often indicated preferences of variability or alterations to the normal
scheme of metric accentuation.
In vocal music, the patterns of accentuation normally coincided with a natural
oratory of the text; composers were keenly aware of this and, as a result, meters
were chosen and rhythms notated so that notes would be stressed or unstressed
according to how the words would be spoken in general speech. Such is the case
with the Ode to Joy seen in Example6.3. The first notable strong stress would
be at the downbeat of measure 4, a stronger stress would occur at the downbeat
of measure 8, and the strongest stress would be at the downbeat of measure 16.
In between these stressed notes/syllables would be varying degrees of emphasis
on the first and third beats of the measures. In no case would there be a stress
on beats two or four of any measure except for the syncopation on beat four of
measure 12, which is simply an anticipation of the normal strong beat on the
downbeat of the following measure. The weakening of beats two and four also
ensures that no two consecutive notes are equally emphasized. The modern-day
practice of emphasizing weak beats and their corresponding unaccented syllables
of speech would have been unthinkable in the nineteenth century; the all-too-
common practice of singing with vigorous strong accents on every beat/syllable
destroys the essence of the Ode to Joy poem and its message.
Example6.3
Metric accentuation is also an important consideration in movements one

through three of the Ninth Symphony. In movement 1, for instance, the four
eighth notes in measure 20 as seen in the Violin Ipart in Example6.4 (and in suc-
ceeding measures with the same four-eighth-note pattern) would not be equally
stressed as they frequently are in modern-day performances. Even though all four
notes are marked staccato, they would have varying degrees of stress or loudness.
Being in a duple meter, only the first note would be stressed; the second note
would be the weakest, the third a little stronger, and the fourth louder still as it
approached the magnetic pull of the sforzando on the downbeat of the following
measure. The effect would be as a subtle crescendo through the measure.
Example6.4
The same crescendo effect would characterize the three sixteenth notes in
measure 19. However, the notes/chords in measures 21 and 22 would be equally
stressed in that they are all marked sforzando.
In the second movement, given its fast tempo and harmonic structure, met-
ric accentuation operates mostly on the level of phrase groups. This is to say
that, without any articulation markings to the contrary, there would only be a
discernible stressand this slighton the downbeat of every fourth measure
(e.g., measures 9, 13, 17, etc.) in the main opening thematic section shown here
in the Violin II part (Example6.5). The downbeat of the second measure of each
group (measures 10, 14, and 18)would be the weakest, with a slight and subtle
crescendo effect through the succeeding measures similar to that in the first
movement.
Example6.5
Later in the movement when Beethoven indicates Ritmo di tre battute

in measure 177, only notes on the downbeat of every third measure would be
emphasized. Here, however, even more than at the beginning of the movement,
accentuation is governed by phrase structure, with the result of no discernible
accent on measures 180, 186, and 192, but only a slight emphasis at the begin-
ning of the phrase (measures 177, 183, and 189 of Example6.6).
Example6.6
Except for the forte markings on the downbeat of some measures, which
Beethoven obviously indicated for variation, it would have been inconceivable
during the entire nineteenth century to have equal stresses on the downbeat of
every measure of movement 2 (which is common today), or, moreover, on each
note of the measure (which is equally common and distasteful in twentieth-
and twenty-first-century performances). Equanimity of stress, an anathema to
Beethoven, was only practiced and is only applicable in music composed after the
second decade of the twentieth century.
In the two main themes of movement 3, metric accentuation would also be
most apparent at the level of the phrase. In the Violin Ipart of the first theme at
the beginning of the movement, shown in Example6.7, notable stress would only
occur at the ends of the phrasesat their harmonic arrival points occurring in
measures 6 and11.
Example6.7
In movement 4, apart from the Ode to Joy melody described previously, exam-
ples of passages in which metric accentuation is important but often not consid-
ered and, therefore, contrary to the intended phrasing of the music, include the
tenor solo Alla Marcia (shown in Example6.8, beginning in measure 375)during
which all the upbeats should be less emphasized than the downbeats. Note that
most of the upbeats have unaccented syllables oftext.
Example6.8
At the beginning of the B section (measure 595 of Example 6.9), when

Beethoven states Chorus 1 of Schillers ode, the final, unaccented syllables of the
words umschlungen and wohnen should be weak, even though all syllables of
the words have staccato markings. (A similar treatment should be given to nie-
der and Millionen in measures 631634, and the second syllable of wohnen
in measures 618 and 626 should also be de-emphasized.)
Example6.9
At the beginning of the Coda (measure 763), the four quarter notes that appear
in measures 768, 770, 778, and 780 should be performed with the downbeat
emphasized, beat two considerably weaker, beat three louder than beat two but
not as loud as the downbeat, and beat four with a crescendo to the downbeat of
the next measure. In no case should each note of measure 768 be equally stressed.
Shown in Example6.10 is the opening tenor sololine.
Example6.10
Orchestration
The first three movements of Beethovens Symphony no. 9 are scored for two
flutes, two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons, four horns, two trumpets, three
trombones, timpani, and strings. The fourth movement is scored for the same
instruments plus piccolo, contrabassoon, triangle, cymbals, and bass drum, as

well as solo vocal quartet (SATB) and mixed chorus (SATB). Except for the vocal
forces, this orchestration seems relatively standard. However, for the premiere
of the Ninth Symphony and for many performances of it during the early nine-
teenth century, the wind instruments were doubled; two instrumentalists played
each of the flute, oboe, clarinet, and bassoon parts. During the later years of the
nineteenth century the brass and timpani parts were occasionally doubled as well.
This is unlike modern-day performances, during which it is common to have only
one wind instrumentalist play from each part, but doubling (and sometimes tri-
pling) wind and brass parts was common during the nineteenth century in perfor-
mances of large choral/orchestral works, the doubling contributing to the sound
ideal of the early nineteenth century, called Harmonie, which became popular at
the end of the Classical era. For example, Haydns final mass, composed in 1802,
is called the Harmoniemesse because of its scoring for wind instruments, and his
oratorio The Creation was often performed with doubled and even tripled wind
parts. When Wagner first conducted Beethovens Ninth Symphony in 1846 at the
Dresden Court, he carefully marked the wind and brass parts for either single or
double performance (the extra wind and brass players did not play every note
written in the score; they generally played only on the loud or tutti passages).
Beethoven makes reference to doubled winds in a letter he wrote about the
offer the Philharmonic Society of London had made for a new symphony. The
letter is addressed to his friend and former pupil Ferdinand Ries, who had been
living in London since1813.
I can assure the Philharmonic Society that I will use all my powers to show
myself worthy of such an honorable offer from such a distinguished society of
artists. What is the strength of your orchestra? How many violins, etc., etc.,
with single or double winds? Is the hall big, good forsound?
The Philharmonic Society, like most orchestras of the time, had only single
wind players on its roster, and single winds were generally used for performances
of purely instrumental works and for performances with a limited number of
strings (e.g., six to eight first violins, six to eight second violins, four violas, four
cellos, and four basses). But for major choral/orchestral works and for other reper-
toire performed with large numbers of strings, extra wind players were employed
as they could be found from local sources. For instance, the Krtnertor Theater
orchestra employed for the premiere of Beethovens Ninth Symphony had players
for only two flute, oboe, clarinet, and bassoon parts. Additional players were hired
from around Vienna by Ferdinand Piringer, director of the Concerts Spirituels.
Piringer also augmented the strings and brass instruments. To the eight first vio-
lins, six second violins, four violas, four cellos, four basses, four horns, two trum-
pets, and two trombones of the Krtnertor Theater orchestra, Piringer added four
first violins, six second violins, four violas, six cellos, four basses, as well as extra
players to double the winds andbrass.
There was also, very likely, one more instrument on stage:a fortepiano, with
its lid opened away from the audience and towards the performers. Throughout
the Classical era and into the beginning of the nineteenth century, it was common
to have a keyboard instrument participate in orchestral performance. William
Thomas Parke (17621847) comments in his Musical Memoirs of 1830 that in 1791
Haydn presided at the pianoforte during the performance of [the] twelve sub-
scription concerts in Hannover Square [London] and at a grand concert [for] his
royal Highness the Duke of York in 1795. For the premiere of Beethovens Ninth
Symphony, reports state that Conradin Kreutzer (17801849), the Kapellmeister
of the Krtnertor Theater, played the pianoforte. There was no specific part for
the pianoforte; its part was realized, as in the Baroque and Classical eras, from the
string basspart.
The total orchestra for the premiere of Beethovens Ninth Symphony, including
piccolo, contrabassoon, timpani, percussion, and pianoforte, numbered ninety-
one instrumentalists.
12 first violins
12 second violins
8violas
10cellos
8 stringbasses
1 piccolo
4flutes
4oboes
4 clarinets
4 bassoons
1 contrabassoon
8 Frenchhorns
4 trumpets
6 trombones
4 percussion (timpani, triangle, cymbals, and bassdrum)
1 pianoforte
To balance this exceptionally large orchestra, one would expect that the chorus
for the Ninths premiere numbered hundreds of singersthat to compensate for
the extra wind and brass players as well as the large number of strings, the chorus
would need to have between 150 and 200 singers, as is common today. However,
since choruses were placed in front of or beside orchestras during Beethovens
time (see the discussion below under Stage Set-up) and since the wind and brass
instruments were softer than those of today, choruses often had about the same
number of singers as orchestras had players; the ratio was generally1:1.
The precise number of choristers for the premiere of the Ninth is not known.
However, from the quantity of choral parts prepared for the performance, it is
estimated that the total number of choristers was between eighty and one hun-
dred. The soprano and alto parts were sung by a combination of boys and adult
female singersthirty-two boys who were students at the singing school of the
Krtnertor Theater and an unknown number of females from the Gesellschaft der
Musikfreunde. The tenor and bass parts were sung by the thirty-four men from
the Krtnertor Theater chorus and other men recruited from the Gesellschaft.
As the nineteenth century progressed the choruses became larger and they
were placed behind the orchestra. The doubling of winds and brass continued
to the end of the century. In addition, conductors began making changes to
Beethovens score by expanding the range of the dynamic marks and by altering
Beethovens orchestrations. Wagner, for example, rewrote flute and oboe parts,
added French horns to the wind parts, and rescored melodies for the capabilities
of the then more modern instruments. Later conductors, most famously Gustav
Mahler, extended Beethovens dynamic markings from pp to pppp and ff to
ffff, and he also added an extra set of timpani and wrote occasional new melo-
dies to fill out the sound of the orchestra.
By the middle of the twentieth century, these Retuschen (re-touchings),
as they were called, were abandoned along with the doubling of the wind parts
and the inclusion of a keyboard instrument. Dispensing with the alterations to
Beethovens score was, of course, ethical and appropriate, but doubled winds in
orchestras with fifty or more strings should be restored to accomplish the ideal-
ized Harmonie timbre. Apianoforte, if one can be obtained, should also be added
to the orchestral texture, even though its participation is less practical now than it
was during the early nineteenth century when the chorus was positioned in front
of the orchestra.
StageSet-up
The exact disposition of performers on stage for the premiere of the Ninth is
unknown. However, it is assumed from comments about the premiere and from
the common practice of the time that the chorus was placed in front of the orches-
tra. As for comments, one of the soprano choristers in the premiere reminisced to
Felix Weingartner that she stood just a few steps away from Beethoven, who was
positioned at the front of the performing forces. And as for common stage set-
ups of the time, we know the seating plan for the 1812 performance of Handels
Alexanders Feast (as orchestrated by Mozart) in the Vienna Winter Riding School,
which shows soloists and a keyboard instrument at the front of stage, then rows
of choristers (sopranos on the right with tenors behind them and altos on the left
with basses behind them), followed by violins (divided on the left and right of the
stage), violas, and winds and brass at the back. Eight groups of cellos and basses
were placed around the stagetwo flanking the women choristers, two on the
sides of the stage in back of the tenors and basses, two in back of the violins, and
two at the rear of thestage.
Another seating plan (depicted in Diagram 6.A) shows the stage disposition of
performers for the Concerts Spirituels, a series of concerts in Vienna. This plan,
which is an engraving by F.S. Gassner representing the normal stage layout of
concerts in the 1820s, shows the conductor, solo voices, and keyboard instru-
ment at the center front of the stage. On either side of this grouping occupy-
ing the remainder front of the stage are the choristers (sopranos and tenors on
the left, altos and basses on the right). Violins and violas are behind the sopra-
nos and tenors on the left side of the stage as seen from the audience point of
view, with winds and brass on the right behind the altos and tenors. The cellos
and string basses are in the center. Arepresentation of this set-up, likely that of
the Ninths premiere, is shown here with estimated numbers of choristers and
instrumentalists.
While this orchestral arrangement, with the strings on one side of the stage
and the winds and brass on the other, may seem strange, it was and still is a com-
mon arrangement for opera pit orchestras. Perhaps with the orchestra on stage for
the premiere of the Ninth, the arrangement of performers was more like the 1812
performance of Handels Alexanders Feast in the Vienna Winter Riding School
described earlier or like the 1800 performance of Haydns The Creation illustrated
in Chapter5. Either of these, or something similar, should be the model for per-
formance today. It seems irrational, however, to position the chorus in front of
the orchestra when the chorus does not participate until more than two hun-
dred measures into the final movement of the symphony. Moreover, with choral
Percussion Timp.
8 Vla.
8 Basses 2 Tpt. 3 Tmb.
2 Tpt. 3 Tmb.
12 Vln. II
2 CI. 4 Hn.
2 FI. 2 Ob. 2 Bsn.
10 Vlc.
12 Vln. I 2 CI. 4 Hn. Cbsn.
Pic. 2 FI. 2 Ob. 2 Bsn.
Pf.
20 Tenors 20 Basses
24 Sopranos 24 Altos
Diagram 6.A: Projected Disposition of Performing Forces for the Premiere of the
Ninth Symphony
ensembles numbering hundreds of singers, as is standard today, positioning the

chorus behind the orchestra is advantageous in terms of balance. There is no aes-
thetic or practical need to have the chorus either in front of or beside the orches-
tra. However, it is entirely rational and desirable to represent other performance
practices integral to the musicto approach the sound ideal of the orchestration
by doubling the wind and brass instruments, to perform tempos that align with
Beethovens character markings, and to vary degrees of rhythmic stress according
to the metric accentuation principles of the nineteenth century. These elements
are the colors and textures of the music, as important to the essence of the score
as colors and textures are to paintings and buildings. Representing the elements,
restoring them to their original hues and qualities, reveals a deeper essence of
Beethovens masterpiece.
Albrecht, Theodore, editor and translator. Letters to Beethoven and Other Correspondence.
University of Nebraska Press,1996.
Arnold, Denis and Fortune, Nigel, editors. The Beethoven Reader. W. W.Norton,1971.
Clive, Peter. Beethoven and His World:ABiographical Dictionary. Oxford University Press,2001.
Cook, Nicholas. Beethoven Symphony No. 9. Cambridge University Press,1993.
Cooper, Barry. Beethoven. Oxford University Press,2008.
Czerny, Carl. On the Proper Performance of All Beethovens Works for the Piano (with Reminiscences
of Beethoven). Universal Edition,1970.
Di Grazia, Donna M., editor. Nineteenth-Century Choral Music. Routledge,2013.
Kalischer, A. C., editor. Beethovens Letters. J. M.Dent & Sons, 1926. Translated by J. S. Shedlock,
Dover,1972.
Kelly, Thomas Forrest. First Nights:Five Musical Premiers. Yale University Press,2000.
Kirnberger, Johann Philipp. Die Kunst des reinen Satzes in der Musik, aus sicheren Grundstzen
hergeleitet und mit deutlichen Beyspielen erlutert. Berlin,1771.
Koch, Heinrich Christoph. Versuch einer Anleitung zur Composition. Rudolstadt and Leipzig,
17821793. Translated by Nancy Kovaleff Baker as Introductory Essay on Composition:The
Mechanical Rules of Melody, Sections 3 and 4. Yale University Press,1983.
Landon, H. C. Robbins. Beethoven: A Documentary Study. Translated by Richard Wadleigh and
Eugene Hartzell. Macmillan,1974.
Marpurg, Friedrich Wilhelm. Anleitung zum Clavierspielen der schnen Ausbung der heutigen Zeit
gemss. Berlin,1755.
Parke, William Thomas. Musical Memoirs: An Account of the General State of Music in England
from the First Commemoration of Handel in 1784 to the Year 1830. London, 1830. Da Capo
Press,1970.
Quantz, Johann Joachim. Versuch einer Anweisung die Flte traversiere zu spielen. Berlin, 1752.
Translated by Edward R. Reilly as On Playing the Flute. Schirmer Books,1966.
Schindler, Anton Felix. Biographie von Ludwig van Beethoven. Mnster, 1840. Edited by Donald
W. MacArdle and translated by Constance S. Jolly as Beethoven As I Knew Him. Dover, 1996.
Shrock, Dennis. Performance Practices in the Classical Era as Related by Primary Sources and as
Illustrated in the Music of W.A. Mozart and Joseph Haydn. GIA,2011.
Thayer, Alexander Wheelock. Thayers Life of Beethoven. Revised and edited by Elliot Forbes.
Princeton University Press,1973.
Tromlitz, Johann Georg. Ausfhrlicher und grndlicher Unterrict die Flte zu spielen. Leipzig, 1791.
Translated by Ardal Powell as The Keyed Flute. Oxford University Press,1996.
Trk, Daniel Gottlob. Clavierschule, oder Anweisung zum Clavierspielen fr Lehrer und Lernende.
Leipzig and Halle,1789.
Wagner, Richard. Das Kunstwerk der Zukunft. Leipzig, 1849. Translated by Emma Warner as The
Artwork of the Future. London,2013.
Wagner, Richard. Mein Leben. Wagner, 1870, later by Dodd, Mead, 1911. Translated by Andrew
Gray as My Life. Da Capo Press,1992.
Weingartner, Felix. On the Performance of Beethovens Symphonies. Translated by Jessie Crosland.
W. Reeves, 1906. Reprint by Kalmus.
7
Felix Mendelssohn St. Paul

Here you are tuned to faith and hope, and you learn once more
to love mankind. St. Paul, a work of the purest kind, breathes
peace and security.
Robert Schumann

Mendelssohn was born in Hamburg, Germany, on February 3, 1809, into an
intellectual and cultured Jewish family. His grandfather Moses (17291786)
was a noted philosopher and advocate of the German Enlightenment, his father
Abraham (17761835) was a successful banker and prominent social figure, and
his mother Lea (17771842) came from a prosperous Jewish family in whose
lives music was important. The family did not adhere to Jewish doctrines, how-
ever. Felix, for instance, was not circumcised (as decreed by Jewish law), and the
Mendelssohn children did not attend synagogue services; nor were they given reli-
gious education at home. As advocates of the German Enlightenment, the family
subscribed to tenets of personal freedomfreedom from the strictures of control
by church or state and freedom to pursue intellectual education and individual
convictions. Social equality and religious tolerance were also important principles
in their lives. Nevertheless, the family desired a Christian association and thus,
beginning in 1812, they adopted the name Bartholdy, which was added to the
surname Mendelssohn. Then, in 1816 the children were baptized by a Reformed
Lutheran minister and Felix was given the additional names Jakob Ludwig. The
parents Abraham and Lea were baptized in 1822, and in 1825 Felix was confirmed
in the Lutheran Church. Thereafter, when he was in Berlin, he attended services
at the Dreifaltigkeitskirche (Holy Trinity Church).
Meanwhile, Abraham and Lea had moved to Berlin when Felix was two. He was
educated in such subjects as mathematics, French, German literature, and piano,
and in the rich sophisticated and artistic environment of Berlin and in the many
cities the family visited, Felix studied with a wide range of teachers and developed
skills in an equally wide range of disciplines, including art (drawings) and poetry.
247
His musical abilities were especially advanced; he played his first piano recital at
nine and composed his first piece, Recitativo for piano, when he was eleven. His
first noteworthy compositions, Octet in E-flat op.20 and Ein Sommernachtstraum
(the Overture in E Major op. 21 to Shakespeares A Midsummer Nights Dream)
were composed when he was sixteen and seventeen, respectively.
When he was twenty he began traveling extensively and performing as both
pianist and conductor. In 1829 he went to London and Edinburgh, in 1830 and
1831 he spent a great deal of time in Italy (Venice, Florence, Rome, Naples, and
Milan), and in 1832 he returned to London. During his travels Mendelssohn also
composed, writing such works as Die Hebriden (Fingals Cave overture) in 1830,
the Reformation Symphony and the cantata Die erste Walpurgisnacht in 1832,
and the Italian Symphony in 1833. Also in 1833 he made his first appearance
as a conductor at the Lower Rhine Music Festival in Dsseldorf, where he was
appointed director of music for the city. He held this position for two seasons,
conducting a wide variety of repertoire that included opera, large-scale choral
pieces, and symphonic works, and in 1835 he was appointed music director of
the Gewandhaus Orchestra in Leipzig, a position he held for the remainder of his
life. He continued, however, to conduct at the Lower Rhine Music Festival and at
other festivals in Germany (e.g., the Brunswick Music Festival in 1839, the Leipzig
Festival and the North German Festival at Schwerin in 1840, and the German-
Flemish Festival in Cologne in 1846), and he also conducted at the Birmingham
Festival in England in 1837 for performances of St. Paul, in 1843 for the British
premiere of Lobgesang, and in 1846 for the world premiere of Elijah.
Throughout his life, Felix was liberal in his beliefs in terms of musical activ-
ity. He composed both sacred and secular choral works, and of the sacred works,
he wrote Latin pieces for the Catholic Church (as part of his responsibilities in
Dsseldorf) as well as music for the Lutheran Church. In total, he composed two
oratorios plus a portion of a third, eight secular cantatas, twenty-six sacred can-
tatas and other large-scale sacred works, forty small-scale sacred pieces, and sixty
secular part songs before his death on November 4, 1847, at the age of thirty-
seven. Following is a chronological listing of the most popular choralworks.
O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden(1830)

Verleih uns Frieden(1831)
Die erste Walpurgisnacht (18311832; revised in1843)
St. Paul (18341836)
Der 42, PsalmWie der Hirsch schreit(1837)
LobgesangSymphony no.2(1840)
Ein Sommernachtstraum(1843)
Abschied vom Walde op.59 no.3(1843)
Der deutsche Liturgie(1846)
Lauda Sion(1846)
Elijah(1846)
Christus(1847)
Mend el s s ohn S t. Pau l 249
For comparison and perspective, following is a listing of the well-known instru-

mental works, many of which were composed before the choral works. The sym-
phonies were numbered according to their dates of publication, not composition
(e.g., Symphony no.5 was composed before Symphony no.3).
String Octet in E-flat Major op.20(1825)

Overture to A Midsummer Nights Dream op.21(1826)
Symphony no.5Reformation(1830)
Hebrides OvertureFingals Cave (18301832)
Symphony no.4Italian(1833)
Symphony no.3Scottish (18411842)
Mendelssohns catholic interest and liberalism in composition was reflected

in his personal religious beliefs. He considered himself a Jew by heritage and a
Christian by upbringing and conviction; philosophically, he declared himself a
follower of Friedrich Schleiermacher (17681834), a German theologian called
the Father of Modern Liberal Theology and known for his attempt to recon-
cile Enlightenment thought with Protestantism. Practically, Mendelssohn felt a
strong desire to promote the Lutheran reforms that were being advocated during
his lifetime, reforms that were historical in nature (returning the church to prac-
tices of earlier times), and it is historicism (basing composition on past models)
that most influenced and characterizes hismusic.
When he was a child Mendelssohn was introduced to the music of Bach by
his mother, who often played The Well Tempered Clavier, and when he was ten he
studied works of Bach and Handel as part of lessons in theory and composition
with Carl Friedrich Zelter (17581832), director of the Berlin Singakademie. For
his eleventh birthday on February 3, 1820, he was given an edition of Handels
ode Alexanders Feast, and later that year he began singing in the Singakademie,
rehearsing Bach motets and parts of the B Minor Mass and also performing Handel
oratorios. At age fourteen Mendelssohn received a manuscript copy of the Bach
St. Matthew Passion as a present, and at age twenty (on March 11, 1829), to cele-
brate the one-hundredth anniversary of its composition, Mendelssohn conducted
an abridged performance of the St. Matthew Passion with the Singakademie
(Mendelssohn deleted some of the music, including chorales not found in Berlin
hymnals at the time, and he also changed the words of some chorales to conform
to the texts in contemporary hymnals). The performance was attended by many
luminaries, including the poet Heinrich Heine, the philosopher Georg Wilhelm
Friedrich Hegel, and King Friedrich Wilhelm III, and was so well received it initi-
ated a revival of the Passion. Two performances in Berlin immediately followed
the March 11 presentation, one conducted by Mendelssohn and one by Zelter on
Bachs birthday (March 21). Performances in other cities soon followed, including
Frankfurt am Main in 1829, Breslau in 1830, Stettin in 1831, Knigsberg and
Kassel in 1832, and Dresden in 1833. It is estimated that Bachs Passion was per-
formed a total of sixty times between 1829 and1891.
Many of Mendelssohns compositions bear witness to his interest in Bachs

music. For example, Mendelssohn frequently incorporated into his own works the
chorale O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden, which Bach set five times in the St. Matthew
Passion. The chorale is in Mendelssohns Fugue in C Minor for string quartet and
the String Sinfonia in E-flat Major, both composed in 1821, and in 1830 he used
the chorale in his cantata Aus tiefer Not op.23 no.1, which has a Bachian mirror
structure of movements:the first and fifth movements are homophonic settings
of the chorale, the second and fourth movements are contrapuntal, and the third
(central) movement is a tenor aria that also quotes the chorale melody.
Mendelssohns interest in Handel is evident by the many performances of the
Baroque masters works he conducted. In the space of six years (those years he was
composing and revising St. Paul), Mendelssohn conducted performances of eleven
Handel choral works. While employed in Dsseldorf, for instance, Mendelssohn
conducted Israel in Egypt four times (May 26 and 28, 1833, October 22, 1833, and
May 3, 1834), Alexanders Feast (November 22, 1833, St. Cecilias Day), Samson
(October 23, 1834), and Judas Maccabaeus (December 18, 1834)all these works
in Mendelssohns own editions based on autograph manuscripts. Mendelssohn
also conducted Handel works in Leipzig. Oratorios there include Messiah (March
17, 1836, and November 16, 1837), Israel in Egypt (November 7 and 17, 1836),
Judas Maccabaeus (December 4 and 14, 1837), Jephtha (January 8, 1838), and
Joshua (June 3,1838).
Mendelssohns considerable involvement with the music of Bach and Handel
was not evidenced in oratorios by other composers of the time, including those
German composers who also showed an interest in the music of Bach and/or
Handel and who wrote oratorios. Many of these new oratorios were popular and
had a degree of notoriety when composed, but most were limited in their lasting
appeal. For example, Beethovens single oratorio, Christus am Oelberge (Christ on
the Mount of Olives) op.85, was composed in 1803 and enjoyed a brief period
of popularity, but was rarely performed after that. Carl Loewe (17961869),
music director for the city of Stettin who conducted performances of both Bachs
St. Matthew and St. John Passions (1831 and 1841, respectively), composed fifteen
oratorios during his lifetime, none of which was performed with any frequency.
Several of the oratorios are about non-biblical figures (Gutenberg composed in
1836, Palestrina in 1841, and Johann Hus in 1842), and several oratorios are about
non-traditional religious subjects (e.g., Die Zerstrung Jerusalems in 1829 about
the destruction of Jerusalem by Emperor Titus, and Polus von Atella in 1860 about
the third-century pagan actor Genesius who converted to Christianity and was
martyred). Loewes most popular oratorio, Das Shnopfer des neuen Bundes (The
expiatory sacrifice of the new covenant), was composed in 1847 to a text gathered
from the four Gospels that relates the Passionstory.
Two other contemporaries of MendelssohnLouis Spohr (17841859) and
Friedrich Schneider (17861853)wrote oratorios that achieved a brief degree
of popularity, especially in festivals across Germany. Spohr, the famous violin
virtuoso, composed four oratorios. The most popular of these, Die letzten Dinge (The
last things), was premiered on March 25, 1826 (Good Friday), in Kassell and later
that year also performed at the Lower Rhine Music Festival in Dsseldorf, where
Mendelssohn would conduct beginning in 1833. Like Mendelssohn, Spohr was
interested in the music of Bach and conducted the St. Matthew Passion five times
between 1832 and 1851. Schneider, who was director of the Leipzig Singakademie
and therefore aware of Bachs music, composed fifteen oratorios. Das Weltgericht
(The last judgment) was premiered on March 6, 1820, in the Gewandhaus, where
Mendelssohn would lead music beginning in 1835. The librettos of both the Spohr
and Schneider oratorios are based on the book of Revelation, although the Spohr
text does not use biblical verses.
Finally, mention should be made of oratorios composed by Fanny Hensel (1805
1847) and Robert Schumann (18101856). Hensel, who was Mendelssohns sister,
composed one oratorio, Oratorium nach den Bildern der Bibel (Oratorio on Scenes
from the Bible), which was written in 1831 and structured of recitatives, arias,
and choruses similar to the oratorios of Handel. Schumanns works (including Das
Paradies und die Peri of 1843, Szenen aus Goethes Faust from 1844 to 1853, and Der
Rose Pilgerfahrt of 1849)are through-composed; in place of individual recitatives,
arias, and choruses, Schumann composed what he called Rezitativischer Gesang
(recitative-like song). In addition, the texts of Schumanns works are secular.
Mendelssohn had been thinking of composing an oratorio as early as 1822
but took no action on this thought until 1831 when he received a commis-
sion from Johann Nepomuk Schelble (17891837), music director of the
Frankfurt Ccilienverein. Mendelssohn immediately decided that the subject
of the oratorio would be St. Paul and solicited the aid of two people to help
him write the librettohis friend and fellow composer Adolf Bernhard Marx
(17951866) and the theologian Julius Schubring (18061889). These col-
laborations took some time, and Mendelssohn did not begin musical composi-
tion until the spring of 1834. Furthermore, during the process of composition
that followed, he spent so much time revising his work that two years passed
before the oratorio was completed and ready for performance. Even then,
Mendelssohn was hesitant to consider it finished. He wanted to hear it per-
formed and then make further adjustments, if he felt they were necessary,
before he would approve of the work for publication. As he wrote to his father
on April 3,1835,
My oratorio is to be performed in Frankfurt in November, so Schelble writes to

me, and as much as Iwould like you to hear it then, Iwould prefer that you hear
it first next year at the [Lower Rhine] Music Festival [in Dsseldorf]. Before
accepting the proposal [commission], Istipulated that Iwould wait until after
the Frankfurt performance before deciding whether the work would be suitable
for the [Lower Rhine] festival. If this proves to be the case, as Ihope and wish
it will, it will have a much finer effectthere.
As it turned out, Mendelssohn did not complete the oratorio in time for the
November premiere in Frankfurt. He was not even completely satisfied with the
work at the time of the scheduled performance in Dsseldorf on May 23, 1836. As
this performance approached, he wrote to his sister Fanny (on January 30,1836),
You do not say one word about St. Paul [in your most recent letter], as one
colleague should write to anotherthat is, remarks of fifths, rhythm and
motion of the parts, on conception, counterpoint, et coetera animalia. You
ought to have done so and should do so still, for you know the value Iattach to
[your opinions], and as St. Paul is shortly to be sent to the publisher, a few
strictures from you would come just at the right moment.
About one month later (on February 27, 1836)he wrote to his publisher express-
ing further concerns about the oratorios state of completion and about his desire
to have heard the work performed so that he could make changes if he desired
todoso.
Since it is important to me to have heard the oratorio before the engraving

of the piano-vocal score, I wish to wait with it until after the performance
since I will probably want to change more things, which would be too late
otherwise. Iask you, therefore, to make for now only engravings of the choral
parts, which Iwill definitely not change. The engravings of the solo parts, if
you intend to make them, I would also like to postpone until after the first
performance. While Ifear that you do not like this, and that you would prefer
to have the piano-vocal score finished for the first performance, it is also in
your interest to publish the work in as polished and complete form as Iam able
to make it, and Ihave to admit that it is too important to me to have heard the
work first, rather than handing it to the public in a definitive form with some
things that are hurried.
Mendelssohns wishes were apparently honored, and he spent the summer revis-
ing the oratorio. On August 2 he wrote to his sister Rebecca expressing further
thoughts about his compositional process.
I must thank you for your kind expressions about St. Paul. Such words from
you are the dearest and best Ican ever hear, and what you and Fanny say on the
subject are also what the public says. Ionly wish you would write to me several
times more about it. The whole time Ihave been here [in Frankfurt] Ihave
worked at St. Paul, because Iwish to publish it in as perfect a form as pos-
sible, and moreover, Iam quite convinced that the beginning of the first and
the end of the second part are now nearly three times as good as they were
thus it was my duty [to continually revise my work]. In many ways, especially
subordinate ones in so large a composition, Ionly succeed by degrees in real-

izing my thoughts more closely and in expressing them clearly. In the principal
movements and melodies Ican no longer make alterations because they occur
suddenly in my mind just as they are. But I am not sufficiently advanced to
say this about the whole work. Ihave now been working for rather more than
two years at this one oratorio; this is certainly a long time, and Iam looking
forward to the moment when Iwill have completed the proofreading and can
begin somethingelse.
Evidently, the oratorio was still not in a fully completed form by the time of its
second premiere at the Liverpool Festival on October 7 (sung in an English trans-
lation by William Ball, with no involvement by Mendelssohn). As the bass soloist
Henry Phillips (18011876) recalled,
In the performance of St. Paul Isang my part, which was rendered extremely
difficult in being in manuscript and in a very cramped, illegible script, with a
few printed sheets interspersed with English words written over the German.
Altogether the part was anything agreeable to take into the orchestra.
The completed final version of the oratorio was first presented in a semi-private
performance with a small chorus and chamber orchestra led by Mendelssohns
sister Fanny in Berlin on January 19, 1837. Mendelssohn conducted this final
version of St. Paulthe official premiere of the oratorio as we know it todaytwo
months later, on March 16, at the Paulinerkirche in Leipzig. This performance,
interestingly, was less than two weeks before Mendelssohns marriage to Ccile
Charlotte Sophie Jeanrenaud (18171853), the daughter of a French Protestant
minister in Frankfurt.
With publication of St. Paul, the oratorio was soon performed throughout
Europe (Germany, England, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Denmark, and Russia),
with an estimated fifty performances in 1837 and 1838. The oratorio was espe-
cially popular in England, performed in London on March 7 and September 12,
1837, and at the Birmingham Festival on September 20, 1837, with Mendelssohn
conducting. By the end of the decade St. Paul had been performed in Hereford,
Worchester, Gloucester, York, Edinburgh, Chester, Hull, Manchester, and London
again. Early performances in the United States were in Boston in 1837, NewYork
in 1838, and Baltimore in1839.
Some of the European performances added elements of staging to the orato-
rio. In an April 2, 1870, performance in Dsseldorf conducted by Julius Tausch,
the soloists were costumed on a platform behind the chorus and orchestra, and
added spoken dialogue was inserted into the oratorio. In an 1873 performance
in Dsseldorf, Christ was dressed in a white robe, standing on a cloud, while
Stephen, Paul, and other soloists were on their knees, gazing up athim.
Reception ofSt.Paul
With so many performances of St. Paul in such a short period of time, it is to
be expected that written commentary about and reviews of the oratorio were
not only positive but also effusive in their praise of Mendelssohn and his work.
Mendelssohn had become a relatively well-known and respected composer before
his first oratorio, but it was this work that created his widespread fame and that
catapulted him to celebrity status. In the Zeitschrift fr Deutschlands Musik-Verein
und Dilettanten in 1841, the reviewer H.E. Rhesa stated,
Seldom has a musical work been greeted everywhere with such general enthusi-
asm as Mendelssohn-Bartholdys St. Paul. Even more seldom has a similar work
equally filled the connoisseurs with deep respect for its technical mastery, the
artists with an appreciation of its great skill and effortlessness of form, the
amateurs with admiration for its dignity and grandeur, and, finally, the laymen
with astonishment at the wonderful and indescribable impression itmakes.
Several years earlier, Mendelssohns oratorio had received the stamp of approval
from Robert Schumann, whose opinion of composers and their works was held in
high esteem throughout Germany. In the Neue Zeitschrift fr Musik of September
5, 1837, Schumann paid the following tribute to St.Paul.
Here you are tuned to faith and hope, and you learn once more to love man-
kind; here, after a wearying search, you may find rest under palm trees, where a
verdant landscape lies at your feet. St. Paul, a work of the purest kind, breathes
peace and security. Let us honor and love Mendelssohns Paul. He is the
prophet of a glorious future, in which his works, and not the narrow applause
of his contemporaries, shall ennoble him. His road leads to happiness, the
other toevil.
Perhaps the best testament to the positive reception and popularity of St. Paul
came from Mendelssohn himself. In a letter of August 1, 1839, to his friend, the
poet Karl Klingemann (17981862), Mendelssohnwrote,
The number of friends that St. Paul has gained me is quite remarkable. Icould
never have anticipated it. It was performed twice in Vienna in the spring, and
they want to perform it in a festival there in November with one thousand
performers, which I will probably conduct. This has surprised me the more
because no other work of mine has ever made its way to Vienna. Otherwise,
Imust be in Brunswick for the Musical Festival the end of this month to con-
duct St. Paul. It is always a source of twofold pleasure to me when Ihave no
personal acquaintances in a place, which will be the casethere.
Klingemann, who was living in London and acting as a promoter of Mendelssohn

and his music, wrote the following review of the oratorio in Musical World, June
17, 1836. (This date was shortly after the premiere of St. Paul in Dsseldorf and
before any performances in England.)
[St. Paul] bears the stamp of calm grandeur and pure beauty. Hence, it is always
healthy in character, never difficult or complicated, but always flowing, clear,
and intelligible. The mastery over all the means is unequalled and the art-
ists pure and beautiful conception in its genuine vigour and freshness, is con-
veyed direct to the mind of the hearer.
After the first performance of the oratorio in England (in Liverpool on October 7,
1836), a review in the Liverpool Times on October 11 commentedthat,
St. Pauls reputation, and that of its interesting author, are now firmly estab-
lished in England.
The reception of the oratorio in England was not completely positive, however.
While audiences in Germany had become familiar with, and had developed an
appreciation of, the works of Bach and other Baroque-era Lutheran composers
who had incorporated chorales into their compositions, British audiences had
little experience with and appreciation of this Lutheran practice. British audi-
ences were, of course, very familiar with Handel oratorios, which were either
fully dramatic (as in Saul and Solomon), with no break in the librettos action,
or fully biblical (as in Messiah). Mendelssohns St. Paul was a fusion of the
Handelian dramatic and the Bachian reflective, which confounded many people
in England. This dichotomy was expressed in a review of the second perfor-
mance of Mendelssohns oratorio in England (the performance in Birmingham
on September 20, 1837). The reviewer in the London Times of September 22
stated,
An oratorio should be either entirely narrative, like the Messiah and Israel in
Egypt, or dramatic, like Joshua, Jephtha, and most of Handels other oratorios.
St. Paul combines both; it is sometimes narrative, and sometimes dramatic.
[The bass soloist] Mr. Bennett, for example, according to the libretto, was the
representative of Stephen, and delivered his address to the Jews, but his
dying words, which are here versified, beginning To thee, O Lord, Iyield my
spirit, are not sung by the martyr, but by the entire chorus. So [too] in the
conversion scene, after the words He heard a voice saying unto him, Saul,
Saul, why persecutest thou me? the reply is not given by a single voice, but
by the chorus. These and such like anomalies, which are altogether gratuitous,
weaken the interest and destroy the illusion of thescene.
Nonetheless, as affirmed by the great number of performances throughout

England, the British audiences became increasingly enthusiastic about St. Paul,
and with greater familiarity and experience hearing the work came greater appre-
ciation of the works artistic stature. The following is from a review in Musical
World July 4, 1844, after a performance Mendelssohn conducted in ExeterHall.
St. Paul is decidedly the noblest choral work, after Messiah and the Israel [in
Egypt] of Handel. Its profusion of melodies, its magnificent instrumentation,
its picturesque and dramatic choruses, its solemn and impressive chorales, its
passionate and appealing songsone and all stamp it a work of inspiration
that must live as long as mankind is capable of a musical impression.
Compositional Historicism
Given Mendelssohns fondness for Bach and Handel, it is understandable that
when he received the commission to compose an oratorio, he would desire his
composition to be traditional and to be modeled on the Baroque-era works with
which he was so familiar and that he held in such high esteem. The commissioner
of the oratorio, Johann Nepomuk Schelble, was also a lover of Baroque works,
having conducted Bach motets and the Credo from the B Minor Mass and also hav-
ing conducted a performance of the St. Matthew Passion on May 29, 1829. In addi-
tion, as was mentioned earlier in this study, Mendelssohn had already composed
a number of works based on music and structures of the Baroque.
The compositional features of St. Paul that resemble Bach and Handel (the so-
called older stylistic elements) are seen in the overall design of the work and in the
choral writing. The oratorio is constructed of movements that directly relate the
story of St. Pauls life interspersed with movements that are reflective of the storys
actionthat, in Baroque terms, make the story relevant to the contemporary per-
son, just as was common in the Passion oratorios of Bach. In addition, the compo-
sitional procedures of the choral movements, described below, are similar to those
used by Handel. In contrast to these historical elements of composition are the
so-called new, nineteenth-century stylistic elementsdramatic writing for solo-
ists (especially in the accompanied recitatives) and the overall harmonic language.
The decision to combine both old and new styles in his oratorio was made
well before the compositional process began, and this fact was well known to
Mendelssohns family and friends. In a letter of March 10, 1835, Mendelssohns
fatherwrote,
I look forward to your oratorio, which will, Itrust, solve the problem of com-
bining ancient conceptions with modern appliances.
Mendelssohn replied,
No one can prohibit me from delighting in and continuing to develop what the
great masters have bequeathed me, because not everyone should be expected
to start from the beginning again. Composition to me is a continuation, to the
best of my abilities, not a dead repetition of what already exists.
Mendelssohns friend Karl Klingemann was also well aware of the historic nature
of the new oratorio, and while he was in England before the oratorio was com-
pleted and premiered, he disseminated information about the oratorio through-
out London. In an article about Mendelssohn in the Musical World of March 1836,
Klingemannwrote,
This great musician is putting the last touches to his sacred Oratorio of The
Conversion of St. Paul. His treatment of his subject is said to be in the severe,
Handelian school of that class of composition, which he considers the exemplar
for Oratorio writing.
After the premiere of St. Paul, numerous reviewers recognized the connec-
tion between Mendelssohns oratorio and those of Bach and Handel and com-
mented on this compositional feature, almost always in a complimentary manner.
Following are two reviews in Ccilia, one in 1837 and the other in1838.
(1) Just as there have been recent attempts to have paintings and churches
approach their pious rootsto conjure up the spirit of better days, so to
speakso too has the musician the undisputed right to take those styles
from the past that most faithfully correspond to his deepest feelings and
thoughts.
(2) If, as it is thought, Mozart really said, as he wrote his Requiem, he felt he
was Catholic, Icould similarly declare about St Paul:that was evidently
created by a Protestant! Or if Iwere French:voil bien de la bonne et belle
musique puritaine! So completely unmistakably does one feel the serious,
strict northern type, which does not penetrate the soul so much by imagi-
nation and sense as by spirit and intellect, yet nevertheless in the end
touches the soul just as well as the moving southern church style of the
Sistine Chapel. One sees that the work is born out of the conscientious,
respectable, but at the same time somewhat stiff and dusty faith of Bach
and Handel; only for that reason is it also thoroughly dignified, noble, sub-
limely restrained; it does not violate pure ecclesiastical principle at all; it is
at once sacred and spiritual, truly Christian music;there is no profane
note in it! Therefore it must and certainly will always and everywhere
make an effect on all pious souls of all faiths.
In the decade after the oratorios first performances there were many articles
and reviews that mentioned the historical nature of Mendelssohns writing.
Following are two commentaries that seem to summarize and eloquently describe
the overall perception of St. Paul. The first commentary is from the Allgemeine
Musikalisches Zeitung, written by Gottfried Wilhelm Fink (17831846), who was
the magazines editor beginning in 1827 and a noted theoretician and teacher.
The second commentary is from the November 1846 issue of the Wiener allgeme-
ine Musik-Zeitung.
(1) Wherever this oratorio has been performed, in Dsseldorf, Leipzig,

Zwickau, England, everywhere it has been worthily honored by the lively
participation of a large audience. The oratorio is the most attractive
and important work of our most recent period of music with one foot
in the old period, with the other in the new, which is now. The oratorios
eyes, however, look to the past, so that the past may becomenew.
(2) Wandering, with inquiring eye, into the temple of art, I become aware
simultaneously of two noble columns, both conjured into existence in dif-
ferent epochs of artistic consciousness, and yet both, while not really alike
or even resembling one another, are nonetheless closely related in their
spiritual essence. Istand there as if thunderstruck, and on the one [col-
umn], which Ihad already recognized to be the older, Ifind the inscription
The Great Passion Music of Seb. Bach, while the other [column] boasts
the names Paulus and Mendelssohn.
The Text ofSt.Paul

Mendelssohn never expressed a reason for choosing the subject of St. Paul,
although it is likely that he wanted to contribute to the traditional practice of
oratorios based on biblical individuals. This was certainly the case with Handel,
who composed thirteen of his twenty-one oratorios about and named for Old
Testament men and women (another three oratorios are about historic non-
biblical figures). Many historians have speculated that the character of St. Paul
appealed to Mendelssohn because of Pauls conversion to Christianity, and that
this circumstance resonated with Mendelssohn inasmuch as he, his family, and
a number of associates had converted to Christianity. Whether correct or not,
Mendelssohn would certainly have been attracted to the drama of the St. Paul
storythe stoning to death of Stephen, Sauls blindness by a bright light on the
road to Damascus, his conversion and taking of the name Paul, his missionary
works, and his own eventual persecution. Drama was important to Mendelssohn
in all his compositionsthose with and withouttext.
As Mendelssohn was considering his subject and the writing of a libretto, he

asked his friend and fellow composer Adolf Bernhard Marx for help with the text,
proposing that each of the two composers write a libretto for the other. The result
was that Marx drafted a libretto about St. Paul, while Mendelssohn wrote a libretto
about Moses, which Marx set as the oratorio Mose. Mendelssohn was dissatis-
fied with Marxs St. Paul libretto, however, in part because Marx didnt want to
include chorales, as Mendelssohn desired. So, Mendelssohn asked for assistance
from another friend, the theologian Julius Schubring. In a letter to Schubring
written on December 22, 1832, Mendelssohn stated, I wish for the ordering [of
the chorales] to be completely in the manner of Bach Passions. Mendelssohn and
Schubring corresponded, and in the fall of the following year a basic libretto had
been established. On September 6, 1833, Mendelssohn wrote to Schubring,
Just as Iwas beginning to arrange the sheets of my oratorio and was meditat-
ing on the music Iintend to write for it this winter, your letter enclosing your
extracts came into my hands. All of it seemed to me to be so good that Icopied
the whole text as far as it has gone, and now return it to you with the same
request as at first: that you will kindly send me your remarks and additions.
You will notice various annotations on the margin as to what Imiss and as to
what passages Iwould like to have from the Bible or the Hymn Book. Above all,
Iam anxious to have your opinion:1)as to the form of the whole, especially the
narrative part, and whether you think that the general arrangement may be
retainedthe blending of the narrative and the dramatic representation. Idare
not adopt the Bach form along with this personified recital; so this combination
seems to me the most natural, and not very difficult, except in such passages,
for example, as that of Ananias, owing to the length of the continuous narra-
tion. 2)Whether you are of the opinion that any of the principal features in the
history of the acts, and also in the character and teaching of St. Paul, have been
either omitted or falsified. 3)Where you would mark the divisions of the first
and second part. 4)Whether you approve of my using chorales. From this Ihave
been strongly dissuaded by various people and yet Icannot decide to give them
up entirely, for Ithink they must be in character in any oratorio founded on the
New Testament. If this be also your opinion, then you ought to supply me with
all the hymns and passages. You see that Irequire much from you, but Iwish
first to enter fully into the spirit of the words, and then the music will follow.
It is apparent from the following letter (written to Schubring on December 6,

1835, just shortly after Mendelssohns father had died) that Schubring did sug-
gest texts to Mendelssohn.
One passage for St. Paul was excellent, Der du der rechte Vater bist. Acho-
rus for it came forthwith into my head, which I shall very soon write down.
Ishall now work with doubled zeal at the completion of St. Paul, for my father
urged me to it in the very last letter he wrote to me, and he looked forward very
impatiently to the completion of my work. Ifeel as if Imust exert all my ener-
gies to finish it and to make it as good as possible.
The completed libretto is based on the story of St. Paul as primarily told in the
Acts of the Apostles, chapters six through twenty-one. Part One of the oratorio
relates the stoning of Stephen, Sauls persecution of the Christians, and Sauls
conversion and baptism. Part Two recounts the work of Paul and Barnabas, Pauls
rejection by the Jews, Pauls missionary work, and his farewell. To amplify the
story, as was done in the Bach Passions, the libretto includes numerous other
biblical passages and five chorales. Except for quite a few quotations from Psalms,
most of the extra biblical passages are from the New Testament. The chorale
Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme is used twice in the oratorio, once without text
in the Overture and once with text in the center of the work. Other chorales are
Allein Gott in der Hh, Dir, Herr, dir will ich mich ergeben, O Jesu Christe,
wahres licht, and Wir glauben all an einenGott.
The action of the story is set by Mendelssohn in recitatives, arias and duets
portrayed by biblical characters, and choruses that represent crowds of peo-
ple, called turba (singular) or turbae (plural). The other texts are reflective
of the story and are set as chorales, non-character arias, and choruses. The
following listing shows the various functions of the text passages, their loca-
tions in the oratorio, their sources, and their basic meanings to the story (in
synopsisform).
PART ONE
Introduction (2. Chorus) Acts 4:24, 26, 29
The heathen rage against Christ; but grant your servants to speak your word
Reflection (3. Chorale) Allein Gott in der Hh
Praise be to God on high; thanks for his mercy; let no harm come to us
Action (46. Recitatives, Turba Choruses, False Witnesses Duet) from Acts 4, 6, and 7
Stephen is accused of blasphemy
Reflection (7. Aria) Matthew 23:37
Jerusalem! You who stone the prophets, but should not
Action (8First half of 9.Recitative and Chorus) from Acts 7 and Leviticus 24
Stephen is stoned to death
Reflection (Second half of 9.Chorale) Dir, Herr, dir will ich mich ergeben
I live and die for the Lord, and this is enough for me
Action (10. Recitative) from Acts 7 and 8
Saul is confronted as Stephen is buried
Reflection (11. Chorus) James 1:12a
Though the body dies, the soul will receive the crown of life
Action (1214. Recitative / Arioso) from Acts 8 and 9 / from Psalm 59, 83, and 69
Saul makes havoc with the church; he denounces the disciples of Christ
Action (13a. Recitative) Acts 9:2
Saul goes to Damascus bearing letters from the high priests
Reflection (13b. Arioso) Psalm 115:12a, 2 Timothy 2:19, and Philippians 4:5b
The Lord is mindful of his own and remembers his children
Action (14. Recitative with Chorus) Acts 9:36
Saul is blinded on his way to Damascus
Reflection (15. Chorus and 16. Chorale) Isaiah 60:12 and Wachet auf, ruft uns die
Stimme
Arise, shine, for your light is come; darkness covers the earth, but the Lord will
arise
Awake, cries the voice of the watchers; prepare for the bridegroom
Action (17. Recitative) Acts 9:79
Saul is led, blinded, to Damascus
Reflection (18. Aria) Psalm 51:1, 11, 17, 13, 15
Have mercy on me; cast me not away; open my lips
Action (19. Recitative) Acts 9:10, 11, 15, 16
The Lord sends his servant Ananias to Saul
Reflection (20. Aria with Chorus) Psalm 86:1213/Isaiah 25:8, Revelation 21:4, and
Matthew 24:35
I will praise the Lord with all my heart
The Lord will wipe away all tears
Action (21. Recitative) Acts 9:18, 20 and Romans 7:25
Ananias returns sight to Saul; Saul is baptized, named Paul, and preaches of
Christ
Reflection (22. Chorus) Romans 11:33
Gods wisdom and knowledge are great; to him glory forever.
PART TWO
Reflection (23. Chorus) Revelation 11:15 and 15:4
The kingdoms of this world are of the Lord; his judgments are made manifest
Action (2425. Recitative and DuetBarnabas and Paul) Acts 9:27 and 2
Corinthians 5:20
Paul speaks boldly; Paul and Barnabas are sent away
We are ambassadors for Christ
Reflection (26. Chorus) Romans 10:15, 18
How beautiful are the feet of them; their sound went out to all the earth
Action and Reflection (27. Recitative and Arioso) Acts 13:14 and Psalm 89:1
They departed and preached the word of God
Let us sing of the mercies of the Lord and make known his faithfulness
Action (28. Recitative and Turba Chorus) Acts 13:45

When the Jews saw the multitudes they spoke against Paul
The Lord said:Iam the Lord and beside me is no savior
Action and Reflection (29. Chorus and Chorale) Acts 9:21 and O Jesu Christe, wahres
Licht
Is this not he from Jerusalem; may all deceivers be confounded
Oh Jesus Christ, true light, enlighten those who know you not
Action (3031. Recitative and DuetBarnabas and Paul) Acts 13:4647
Paul and Barnabas waxed bold and turn to the Gentiles
The Lord commanded:whosoever calls on the name of the Lord will be saved
Action (3234. Recitatives and Turba Chorus) Acts 13:47, 14:8, 1113
Paul cures a man from Lystra; they call Barnabas Jupiter, and
Paul Mercurius
Reflection (35. Chorus) 1 Corinthians 3:1617
Oh be gracious, ye Gods. Heed our sacrifice with favor
Action (36a. Recitative and Aria) Acts 14:1415, Jeremiah 10:1415, 1 Corinthians
3:1617, Acts 17:24
The apostles rend their clothes; your idols are false; you are the temple of God
Reflection (36b. Chorus and Chorale) Psalm 115:3 and Wir glauben all an einen Gott
But our God is in the heavens; has done whatsoever he has pleased
We believe in one God, maker of heaven and earth
Action (38. Chorus of Jews and Gentiles) Acts 21:28
This is Gods temple; men of Israel, stone him [Paul] to death
Action (39. Recitative) 2 Timothy 4:17
And they all persecuted Paul, but the Lord stood with him
Reflection (40. Cavatina) Revelation 2:10 and Jeremiah 1:18
Be faithful unto death; be not afraid, for Iam with you
Action (4142. Recitatives and Turba Chorus) from Acts 20 and 21
Paul said to the elders that they would see him no more
Reflection (43. Chorus) 1 John 3:1
Behold, what manner of love the father has bestowed on us
Action (44. Recitative) 2 Timothy 4:68
Though he was sacrificed, he fought a good fight and he kept the faith
Reflection (45. Chorus) 2 Timothy 4:8 and Psalm 103:1, 20
The Lord cares for and blesses us; bless the Lord and bless his holyname

The design of St. Paul is similar to that of the Bach St. Matthew Passion:both works
are divided into two distinct parts; each part is further divided into separate
numbers or movements; many of the movements are independent and end with
final double bar lines; other movements are open-ended, with the expectation
that they will be joined to following movements; the majority of movements are
devoted to a single compositional genre (e.g., recitative, aria, or chorus), although
several movements combine genres; the oratorios begin with an introductory
chorus, called Eingang (Entrance), and end with a closing chorus, called Beschlu
(Conclusion); biblical texts that relate a dramatic story are alternated with texts
that reflect on the story; most of the storys drama or action is related in solo rec-
itatives, with occasional turba (crowd) choruses; and most of the reflection texts
are related in arias and choruses, including Lutheran chorales.
As seen in the above listing of movements based on their functions, the action
texts are in almost constant alternation with the reflection texts. The listener is
told a certain aspect of the story and then given an opportunity for reflection,
always from the viewpoint of the faithful Lutheran believer. In the Bach Passion,
the reflection texts are not biblical, but instead, pietistic poetry generally written
by Lutheran clergy. In St. Paul, the reflection texts are mostly biblical; only the
chorales are in the realm of pietistic poetry. In addition, none of the St. Paul texts
are contemporary to the nineteenth century.
Yet another organizational feature of St. Paul different from that of Bachs St.
Matthew Passion, Bach assigns each soloist a specific role, and that role is specific
to its assigned soloist. For example, Jesus only sings the words of Jesus, Pilate
is a distinct character, and the third-person action parts of the story are always
related by a single Evangelist. In St. Paul, the roles are fluid. The Evangelist is vari-
ously given to a soprano I, tenor, and soprano II, but all three soloists also sing
reflective passages. In addition, the chorus, which is normally limited to crowd
interjections and reflective commentary, sings the voice of God in movements 14
and 28. Otherwise, Mendelssohn scores two False Witnesses for basses, Stephen
for tenor, Paul for bass, Ananias for tenor, and Barnabas also for tenor. One might
assume, then, that there are nine soloists (two sopranos, four tenors, and three
basses), including the three who portray the Evangelist.
Recitatives
The recitatives in Bachs St. Matthew Passion are divided into distinct categories
of scoring. All those sung by the Evangelist are metrically free and secco (accom-
panied only by basso continuo); those sung by Jesus are still metrically free, for
the most part, but are accompanied by strings (generally referred to as a halo
in effect). The recitatives sung by non-character soloists, which all have reflective
texts and which all precede arias, are metrically and rhythmically organized and
accompanied by various instrumental groups. The recitatives in St. Paul, on the
other hand, are all metrically free and accompanied by various instruments of the
orchestra, generally strings. In a number of the recitatives, there is alternation
between brief metrically organized passages for instruments alone and metrically
free passages for voice. Mendelssohn always indicates an Italian tempo term for
the metrically organized passages and Recit. for the free passages.
Turba Choruses
The turba choruses in both the Bach and Mendelssohn works, although they are a
part of the recitatives, are always metrically organized. Of the six turba choruses in
St. Paul, those in movements 6, 14, and 28 are of medium length (approximately
two dozen measures each); those in movements 8 and 42 are a bit longer (46 and
34 measures, respectively); and the turba chorus in movement 5 is quite long (104
measures). As seen in the following chart, the first of the turba choruses in St. Paul
is structured in a manner similar to many of the reflective choruses in the orato-
rio. Most basically, there are two main motivic sections (A and B), each of which
is divided into two portions (1 and 2). Specific to the movement here is the mirror
effect of the orchestral introductory material and the recurring ritornellos. Note
that three of the four ritornellos are to the same text (Dieser Mensch hrt nichtauf).
Introduction (measures13)
Ritornello (37) Dieser Mensch hrt nichtauf
A-1 (720) Haben wir euch nicht mit Ernst geboten
Ritornello (2124) da ihr nicht solltet lehren in diesemNamen
A-2 (2538) Und sehet, ihr habt Jerusalem
Introduction (4245)
B-1 (4559) Denn wir haben ihn hrensagen
B-2 (6071) und ndern die Sitten, die uns Mose gegebenhat
Introduction (7173)
B-1 (7885) Denn wir haben ihn hrensagen
B-2 (85101) wird ndern die Sitten, die uns Mose gegebenhat
Introduction (101104)
Arias
The arias in St. Paul are not nearly as lengthy, independent, or structurally
designed as the arias in Bachs St. Matthew Passion. Mendelssohns eight arias are
all relatively short, especially as compared to the length of the choruses, and are
only structured around recurring melodic motifs. Four of the arias are sung by the
soprano or tenor soloists, and four are sung by Saul/Paul. These latter arias are the
most involved and complex; movement 12 is the longest of the arias, movement
18 contains a recitative within its structure, and movements 20 and 36 both end
with a chorus.
Chorales
In considering the chorales in the Bach and Mendelssohn works, it is important
to realize that the St. Matthew Passion was composed for a church worship service
whereas St. Paul was composed for a concert hall performance. Chorales were a sig-
nificant component of Lutheran services, and the congregation, who would have
been familiar with the music and text of the chorales, would have likely sung them
with the chorus as they were being performed. This partly explains why there are
thirteen chorales in the St. Matthew Passion, while only five chorales in St.Paul.
Of the chorales that Mendelssohn used, which were all well known to the
Lutherans in Germany during the nineteenth century, the two in movements 3
(Allein Gott in der Hh) and 9 (Dir, Herr, dir will ich mich ergeben) are pre-
sented in simple hymn form, with instrumental accompaniment colla parte. The
chorales in movement 16 (Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme) and at the end of
movement 29 (O Jesu Christe, wahres Licht) are scored in four-part homoph-
ony, but with independent instrumental parts that adorn and that separate the
chorale phrases. In addition, Wachet auf, without text, is a substantive part of
the Overture. The fifth chorale (Wir glauben all an einen Gott), which is not
listed at the front of the score in the Contents but which occurs at the end of
movement 36, is presented as a cantus firmus in the second soprano choral part.
All the chorales have only one verse of text except for Wir glauben all an einen
Gott, which has two verses.
Mendelssohn presents the first two chorales in their traditional form, with
the first phrase group (called the stollen) repeated and then followed by the final
phrase group (called the abgesang). This structure can be seen in Example 7.1
(Allein Gott in der Hh). Typical of a number of Lutheran chorales, the final
phrase of the abgesang (measures 1314) is the same as the final phrases of the
stollen (measures 34 and78).
Example7.1
The similar closing phrases of the stollen and abgesang and the repetition of the
stollen are integral parts of Wachet auf. However, Mendelssohn eliminates the
repetition, along with its normal text (Mitternacht heit diese Stunde, sie rufen
uns mit hellem Munde, wo seid ihr klugen Jungfrauen). Example7.2 shows the
chorale melody as Mendelssohn scores it in movement 16. The stollen ends in
measure 18; the abgesang begins in measure20.
Example7.2
Mendelssohn uses only the stollen of Wachet auf in the Overture, repeat-
ing the stollen in the traditional manner. He then introduces a fugal subject
based on new melodic material, bringing back the first phrase of the chorale
three times during the development of the fugue (measures 90, 98, and 106).
During stretto and episodic segments of the fugue, Mendelssohn again inserts
the first phrase of the chorale (measures 139 and 156), this latter statement
continuing with the chorales second phrase (measure 162). The third phrase
of the stollen is stated three times (measures 175, 186, and 199)to bring the
overture to aclose.
Choruses
While Bach includes thirteen chorales in the St. Matthew Passion, he has only
seven reflective choruses. This balance is reversed with Mendelssohn, who has
only five chorales, but thirteen reflective choruses in St. Paul. Not one of these
choruses is structured exactly like another. Indeed, Mendelssohns structural vari-
ety and creativity are striking. However, some procedures are common to many
of the choruses, the most frequent of which is imitative writing in a fugal fash-
ion. This can be seen in numerous Handel oratorio choruses, and it is the similar-
ity between the Handel and Mendelssohn choruses that was most recognizable
by nineteenth-century listeners and that was the cause for observers to relate
Mendelssohn to Handel. Examples of the imitative writing in Handel oratorios
can be seen in How excellent thy name, O Lord from Saul, Come, mighty father
from Theodora, and He trusted in him, Letall the angels of God, Their sound
is gone out, Let us break their bonds asunder, and Hallelujah from Messiah.
Mendelssohns structuring of imitative writing is also similar to that employed
by Handel, with the text of the chorus often divided into two main sections
(A and B), each of which is further divided into two parts (1 and 2). In the first chorus
from Messiah (And the glory of the Lord) the text and its treatment can be seenhere.
And the glory of the Lord (A-1)
shall be revealed (A-2)
and all flesh shall see it together (B-1)
for the mouth of the Lord hath spoken it(B-2)
The treatment of the Hallelujah chorus from Messiah is similar.
Hallelujah (A-1)
for the Lord God omnipotent reigneth (A-2)
The kingdom of this world . . . and of his Christ (B-1)
and he shall reign for ever and ever(B-2)
Mendelssohns division of text in movement 5 of St. Paul was shown above in the
discussion of turba choruses. This structural devise is also evident in movement
2 of St.Paul.
A-1 (117) Herr, der du bist derGott

A-2 (1825) der Himmel und Erde und das Meer gemachthat
A-1 (2533) Herr, der du bist derGott
A-2 (3445) der Himmel und Erde und das Meer gemachthat
B-1 (4583) Die Heiden lehnen sichauf
B-2 (84103) Und nun, Herr, siehe an ihrDrohn
A-1 (103119) Herr, gib deinen Knechten mit aller Freudigkeit
B-1 (119136) Die Heiden lehnen sichauf
A similar treatment can be seen in movement 15, the chorus following the dra-
matic blinding of Saul on the road to Damascus and the chorus that immediately
precedes the chorale Wachet auf. The resulting large structure of the oratorio
thus far is in a mirror construction:Wachet auf in the Overture is followed by
a large fugal chorus to begin the scene, and a large fugal chorus is followed by
Wachet auf to end thescene.
Introduction (130) Orchestra

A-1 (3048) Mache dich auf, werdelicht
A-2 (4960) Denn dein Lichtkommt
B-1 (78161) Denn siehe, Finsternis bedeckt das Erdreich
(123161) stretto fugal subjects and episodic treatment
B-2 (161181) Aber ber dir gehet auf derHerr
The reflective choruses that frame the oratoriothat begin and end Part One
(movements 2 and 22)and that begin and end Part Two (movements 23 and 45)
are all substantive in length and in the Handelian imitative mold. Movement
2 has been analyzed earlier. Movement 22 has a ritornello that appears in the
beginning, middle, and end of the movement; movement 23 has only two sec-
tions, each of which is not divided further; and movement 45 consists of a homo-
phonic opening followed by an extended fugue that is divided into two portions.
Three reflective choruses use some of the same construction techniques,
although they are only partially imitative and they are of a lyric and meditative
character. Because of their innate melodic beauty, they are occasionally extracted
and performed alone (as is frequently done with He watching over Israel and
Blessed are the men who fear him from Elijah). Movement 11 from St. Paul has
two themes and an orchestral introduction that returns in the middle and at the
end of the movement.
A (111) Orchestra
A (1132) Siehe, wir preisen selig, die erduldethaben
A (3238) Orchestra
B (3850) Denn ob der Leib gleichstirbt
A (5170) Siehe, wir preisen selig, die erduldethaben
B (7178) Denn ob der Leib gleichstirbt
A (7891) Orchestra
Movement 26, which follows the duet by Barnabas and Paul as they declare them-
selves ambassadors for Christ and which is often sung to the English text How
lovely are the messengers that preach us the gospel of peace, seems to have only one
melodic theme divided into two portions. Like movement 11, it is in a return form,
with the first part of the theme at the beginning, middle, and end of the movement.
A-1 (120) Wie lieblich sind die Boten, die den Frieden verkndigen
A-2 (2029) In alle Lande ist ausgegangen ihrSchall
A-1 (3040) Wie lieblich

A-2 (4162) In alle Lande
A-1 (6378) Wie lieblich
Movement 35 also has only one melodic theme, and this theme pervades the
entire movement.
A-1 (123) Seid uns gndig, hoheGtter

A-2 (2435) Seht herab auf unser Opfer (combined withA-1)
A-1 (3655) Seid uns gndig
The remaining five reflective choruses are similar to the ones discussed above
with the exception that movement 20 incorporates a solo voice (which acts as
Awhile the chorus acts as B), and movement 29, which begins with three state-
ments of an Asection and concludes with a chorale.

Introduction
Performance practices directly related to St. Paul include the language (German
or English) used in performance; numbers and logistical dispositions of the per-
formers; fermatas in chorales; and freedom of tempo in recitatives. Before these
are discussed, however, it is interesting to examine some of the nineteenth-
century practices affecting performances of Bach and Handelpractices observed
by Mendelssohn. For one, it was common during the nineteenth century to re-
orchestrate works from the Baroque era. Most frequent was the addition of wind
parts, as Mozart previously had done in his arrangement of forces for Handels
Messiah. Mendelssohn comments on this practice in a January 16, 1833, letter he
wrote to his friend and fellow composer William Horsley (17741858).
We had last year [Handels] Solomon and Joshua performed in public, and tomor-
row there is Samson; but Ido not know whether Iwill go. Fancy that they put wind
instruments to it, during or after the rehearsal, whenever the harmony appears to
them not rich enough. Athing Mozart did with the utmost delicacy and careful-
ness after much study is now done in a thoughtless hurry. Handel is improved by
a set of tedious imitations and sentimental dissonances, with flutes and clarinets
that make me shudder. And yet the public cannot be alleged as the reason for this
practice, for they truly like what they hear and call old music, and the concert hall
is always crowded when there is something of Handels to beheard.
The addition of the wind parts did, however, have a practical purpose in that
they produced essential harmonies that would have been realized by continuo
keyboard instruments, a realization that was absent when, as usual, keyboard

instruments were not used in nineteenth-century performances. The harmonies
of the continuo are critical and absolutely necessary. All the secco recitatives, many
of the arias, and even some of the choruses (e.g., the beginning of And he shall
purify from Handels Messiah) must have realized harmonies, which are logically
produced by wind instruments if not by an organ or harpsichord. Mendelssohn,
himself, added wind instruments to Handel works for the purpose of realizing
harmonies and also for the purpose of accommodating the musical tastes of his
time. He mentions his practice in a letter of June 9, 1834, to his friend Eduard
Devrient (18011877), who sang the role of Christ in Mendelssohns revival of
Bachs St. Matthew Passion in1829.
In the score of [Handels] Acis [and Galatea] Ihave found, among many good
things, several which Iwould not now endorse and want to correct before they
pass to other hands, because I consider this matter of re-instrumenting as
requiring the utmost conscientiousness. Now it happens that Irecollect having
done some still more arbitrary things in the [Dettingen] Te Deum than in Acis,
and Imust expunge these faults (as Inow regard them), as Icannot validate
thescore.
Whether Mendelssohn expunged his faults or not, he conducted the Dettingen

Te Deum in 1834 and 1835 with an expanded orchestra that included flutes,
clarinets, horns, and contrabassoon. He occasionally exchanged trumpet parts
for oboes, he rewrote some of the trumpet parts to make them easier to play,
and he re-scored the aria Thou art the king of glory, originally for trumpet and
basso continuo, for pairs of flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, horns, and three
trumpets. Nevertheless, Mendelssohn held a conviction for historical accuracy. As
revealed in a March 27, 1835, letter to the organist of the Chapel Royal, George
Smart (17761867), about an upcoming performance of Solomon in Cologne,
Mendelssohn made attempts to restore the continuo parts and have an organ in
Handel performances.
I must ask you a musical question, which no one can answer as well as you
and which is of much interest to me and to the amateurs of this country. You
know that all the oratorios of Handel have been performed in Germany with-
out organthe want of harmony being made up by wind instruments, addi-
tional accompaniments, etc. and very badly sometimes. Ihave now succeeded
for the next festival in Cologne, when Solomon is to be performed, to have an
organ in the orchestra, and Ihope to see this custom adopted afterwards in all
other performances of Handel in this country. Now, Iwould like to know how
the organist plays it in England, whether there exists a written part for him
or whether he plays only the chords of the thorough-bass that are marked in
the score. Iknow that the full organ always comes in towards the end of the
choruses, and this produces a good effect, but I would like to know whether
such places are marked or are entirely left to the choice of the organist, and
whether there are any other rules followed by the organists in the oratorios.
Mendelssohn created an organ part for the performance of Solomon, and he later
attempted to have published editions of Handel oratorios with his organ realiza-
tions. This is detailed in a letter of July 10, 1838, to the publisher Peter Joseph
Simrock (17921868).
I would like to write organ parts, which need to appear in smaller print or in
a different color, in the full score with the goal of 1)preserving Handel in its
original, if wanted, 2)providing my organ part if wanted and an organ is avail-
able, and 3)including in an appendix a modern arrangement of the organ part
for clarinets, bassoons, and other wind instruments in the event that no organ
is available. Such a score could be used for all performance settings of oratorios,
and the authentic Handel would be brought to Germany.
In addition to adapting or rearranging the scoring of Bach and Handel works, it was
common for Mendelssohn to alter the content of the works by deleting some move-
ments, rearranging the order of the movements, and changing some of the texts. In
his revival of the Bach St. Matthew Passion in 1829, for example, Mendelssohn (as
mentioned earlier) deleted some of the music, including chorales not found in Berlin
hymnals at the time, and he also changed the words of some chorales to conform to
the texts in contemporary hymnals. For a planned performance of Handels Solomon
with the Berlin Singakademie, Mendelssohn changed the order of the movements,
eliminated some of the recitatives, arias, and choruses, and rewrote some of the text.
He explained this to his friend Karl Klingemann in a letter of August 15,1832.
There are places where the words must not only be translated, but rewritten, as
some of them are stupid, including Solomons and the queens recitatives in the
first part [of the oratorio]. These are too philistine for my stomach.
Considering all aspects of Mendelssohns practices in performing Baroque

works, it is important to realize that although he tampered with the music, he set
the standard for modern-day faithfulness to early scores, especially in published
editions. Toward the end of his life, while preparing an edition of Handels Israel in
Egypt for the Handel Society, Mendelssohn took exception to the societys desire
for Mendelssohn to indicate tempo and dynamic markings. On March 7, 1845, he
wrote to the composer and piano virtuoso, Ignaz Moscheles (17941870), who
succeeded him as head of the Leipzig conservatory,
I regret the difficulty with the Handel Society, but Icannot alter my views on
the subject. On less important points Iam ready to give way, but Icannot
possibly introduce my marks of expression into a score of Handels, nor my

tempos or anything else unless it is made perfectly clear what is mine and what
is Handels.
Mendelssohn prevailed with the Handel Society, and in the preface to its publica-
tion of Israel in Egypt, Mendelssohn gave a lengthy explanation of editorial proce-
dures that clearly identified what was original and what was editorial.
Performance inGerman or English

The text of St. Paul was conceived and first performed in German. However, the
second performance, just a little more than four months after the first, was in
English. The oratorio then went on to be performed frequently in both languages.
In addition, the score was published in both German and English editions, and
Mendelssohn himself, who traveled extensively in England, conducted perfor-
mances in both languages. With such an early history of performance in German
and English, especially with the involvement of the composer, it is reasonable to
justify modern-day performances in either language. Nevertheless, since St. Paul
is so thoroughly Lutheran and, with its incorporation of chorales, so clearly mod-
eled on Bachs St. Matthew Passion, performance in German seems more tenable;
performance in German is closer to the aesthetic heart of the oratorio. In addi-
tion, the wedding of text with music is better in German than in English since
Mendelssohn composed the oratorio in German and had no part in its English
translation.
This is not the same situation with Mendelssohns second oratorio, Elijah,
which was commissioned by the Birmingham Festival and premiered there in
English, with Mendelssohn conducting. Mendelssohn took part in the English
translation of Elijah, which he wanted to correspond as closely as possible to the
King James version of the text. He even changed rhythms in the music to accom-
modate English. Elijah is also not Lutheran in conception, nor does it contain
traditional chorales. But given that both Elijah and St. Paul had extensive perfor-
mance lives in English and German, and given that translation was common dur-
ing the nineteenth century, historical performance practice gives little support to
only the original language of composition.

St. Paul is scored for nine named vocal soloists (SS, TTTT, and BBB), mixed cho-
rus (SATB), and orchestra of two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons,
serpent, contrabassoon, four horns, two trumpets, three trombones, timpani,
strings, andorgan.
Most of the solo vocal parts are given specific names: Paul (bass), Stephen
(tenor), Ananias (tenor), Barnabas (tenor), and Two False Witnesses (two
basses). However, the role of the Evangelist is scored variously for two sopranos
and tenor. It is unlikely that there were nine separate soloists for performances
of St. Paul during the nineteenth century (unless some of the solo parts were
sung by members of the chorus). It is also unnecessary to have nine separate
soloists today. Since some of the solo parts are quite short, these parts can be
sung by one soloist or by members of the chorus. Consequently, only three solo-
ists are required:soprano (Evangelist), tenor (Evangelist, Stephen, Ananias, and
Barnabas), and bass (Paul). The Two False Witnesses can be sung by members of
the chorus.
Regarding the orchestra, the serpent is a bass instrument, considered part of
the woodwind family, but played with a brass mouthpiece. Atuba is often sub-
stituted in modern times, although Mendelssohn equated the serpent with a
contrabassoon, with which it alternates and doubles several times in St. Paul. As
such, there is only a need for the contrabassoon. The organ is an important and
integral instrument in St. Paul. Mendelssohn scored a separate part for it, a part
that appears frequently throughout the oratorio.
Many oratorios of the nineteenth century were composed for festivals and,
therefore, performed with large choruses and orchestras. This was certainly
the case with Mendelssohns St. Paul. One account of the oratorios premiere
in Dsseldorf, for instance, reported that the chorus consisted of 356 singers
and the orchestra of 172 players. The printed program for this performance is
similar in reporting the number of choral singers, but not exactly the same (the
printed program listing 106 sopranos, 60 altos, 90 tenors, and 108 basses, for
a total of 364 singers). The orchestra (totaling 172 in both accounts, excluding
the timpani and organ, the organ having a specific part scored by Mendelssohn)
consisted of 73 violins, 24 violas, 24 cellos, 12 basses, 6 flutes, 4 oboes, 6 clari-
nets, 4 bassoons, 1 contrabassoon, 8 horns, 4 trumpets, and 6 trombones. For
the October 7, 1836, performance in Liverpool it is estimated that the chorus
numbered 1,200 singers and the orchestra 200 players, and for the March 13,
1837, performance in the Paulinerkirche in Leipzig, there were 310 choristers
(190 sopranos and altos, and 120 tenors and basses) and an orchestra of 65
players.
The ratio of chorus to orchestra (2:1 in Dsseldorf, 6:1 in Liverpool, and 5:1
in Leipzig) was not a circumstance of necessity; a large chorus was not needed
to balance the volume of an orchestra. The choruses in the festivals were large
because they were often combinations of preexisting choral ensembles and also
because it was desirable and fashionable to sing in the festival choruses. In
non-festival performances, the ratio during the nineteenth century was often
1:1, the choruses and orchestras having approximately equal numbers of per-
formers. By comparison, the ratio during the eighteenth century was often
approximately 1:2, the chorus being about half the size of the orchestra. This
1:1 or 1:2 ratio is logical given that the choruses sang in front of or beside the
orchestras.
As for the makeup of the orchestra, it was common practice for the wind and
brass parts to be doubled (with two players per part) when performing with large
numbers of strings. As early as the mid-eighteenth century, Johann Joachim
Quantz (16971773) recommended doubling the wind parts with a string comple-
ment of twenty-one players, and tripling the wind and brass parts with very large
numbers of strings. It was standard practice to double the winds in performances
of choral/orchestral works during the nineteenth century; this was certainly the
case, as discussed earlier, with Haydns The Creation and Beethovens Symphony
no.9.For the St. Paul performance in Dsseldorf described above, note that the
oboe, bassoon, horn, trumpet, and trombone parts were doubled, while the flute
and clarinet parts were tripled.
For modern-day performances, it is impractical and too expensive to assemble
an orchestra with more than a hundred strings, thus necessitating doubling wind
and brass parts. However, it is not impractical, nor is it expensive to arrange the
chorus and orchestra side by side. During the early nineteenth century in public
performances of choral/orchestral works, it was common to place the chorus in
front of the orchestra, either on a platform on the floor in front of the stage, as was
the case with Haydns The Creation, or at the front of the stage, with the orchestra
behind on raised platforms, as was the case with the Beethoven Symphony no. 9
and with many other early nineteenth-century choral/orchestral performances. By
the mid-nineteenth century, however, it was common to place the chorus beside
the orchestra (this side-by-side disposition of choral and instrumental forces being
frequently employed in church performances during the Baroque era). Two ver-
sions of the side-by-side logistical set-up of forces were standard during the nine-
teenth century and can be accomplished with relative ease today. In both versions
the chorus is divided into equal SATB groups on either side of the orchestra. The
flank design (seen in stage set-up diagrams for the Bach B Minor Mass, Handel
Messiah, and Brahms Ein deutsches Requiem) has the orchestra in the center and
the chorus on the sides of the performing area, flanking the orchestra. The wedge
design, most common for performances with very large choruses and, therefore,
most likely used in performances of St. Paul, has the chorus arranged in two tri-
angle formations on either side of the performing area, with the orchestra filling
in the central triangle, wedged between the chorus. This wedge set-up, shown in
Diagram 7.A, is from a nineteenth-century drawing representing performances
at the Lower Rhine Music Festival in Aachen. To approximate performances on
modern-day concert hall stages and with conventional forces, none of the wind
or brass parts in the layout drawing have been doubled. However, note that the
orchestra contains an organ, which Mendelssohn scored and felt was a necessary
component of the orchestra. Note also that the string basses are in the center
rear of the orchestra, as was common during the nineteenth century and is still
common in performances of the Vienna Philharmonic when they perform in the
Musikverein.
n. String Basses Timp.

. Cbs
2 Bsn
I. O rg
2 Ob. 4 Hn. 2 Tpt. .
2C 3T
I. mb
2F .
T&B Vlc. T&B
. Vln
Vln .
I II
Vla.
S&A S&A
Soloists
Diagram 7.A: Wedge Disposition of PerformingForces
Fermatas
The question regarding the observance of fermatas in choraleswhether to hold
them or nothas no definitive answer. Some early music practitioners believe
that all fermatas should be held, some affirm that none of them should be held, and
others are of the opinion that the observance of fermatas is varied. Regardless of
these diverse opinions, it is known that during the eighteenth century the mark-
ing of fermatas in chorales did not always indicate holds or suspensions of time;
the fermatas only indicated ends of phrases. In Bachs Orgelbchlein, for example,
chorales such as Da Jesus an dem Kreuze stund were incorporated into a con-
trapuntal texture; Bach wrote fermatas over the final notes of chorale phrases
when, simultaneously, the contrapuntal texture proceeded without a break. In
these instances there is no possibility of holding the fermatas. But, another Bach
notational practice seems to suggest that, in general, the ends of chorale phrases
were or might have been held. In the first movement of the St. Matthew Passion,
Bach notates the chorale O Lamm Gottes unschuldig with rests of a measure or
more between the phrases, thus indicating spaces and suspensions of time where
the fermatas were placed in the original hymn-like setting of the chorale. Bach
follows the same procedure in the setting of the chorale O Mensch, bewein dein
Snde gro in the closing chorus of the Passions first part; every short phrase of
the chorale is isolated and separated.
Mendelssohn scores two of the five chorales in St. Paul in the same man-
ner. At the end of movement 29, he quotes two verses of the chorale O Jesu
Christe, wahres Licht (set to the tune Breslau), each with separations of rests
where fermatas occurred in the original setting. Shown here in Example7.3 is

the first verse of this original chorale followed in Example7.4 by Mendelssohns
setting.
Example7.3
Example7.4
In a similar manner, Mendelssohn separates the first two phrases (the stollen)
of the chorale Wir glauben all an einen Gott, used as a cantus firmus three times
in a newly created second soprano part at the end of movement36.
Mendelssohns treatment of Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme in move-
ment 16 is, perhaps, even more telling in regard to the treatment of fermatas,
for here, some of the phrases are separated by rests while others have ferma-
tas (seen in Example7.2). In Mendelssohns setting, rests separate the phrases
ending in measures 56, 1213, 1819, and 3334, where fermatas existed in
the original chorale. Mendelssohn then changes procedures and continues the
chorale with fermatas, not with rests, seemingly indicating that these ferma-
tas should be observed. Asimilar treatment is found in Mendelssohns setting
of the chorale Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott at the beginning of the final
movement of his Symphony no.5 op.107, the Reformation Symphony. Here
Mendelssohn puts a fermata at the end of the first phrase, but then extends
the rhythms of each successive phrase is if fermatas were placed at their end-
ings. As a consequence of this general treatment of chorales by Mendelssohn,
it is logical to assume that the fermatas in movements 3 (Allein Gott in der
Hh) and 9 (Dir, Herr, dir will ich mich ergeben) of St. Paul should be held
and thus conform to the treatment of the fermatas in movements 1, 16, 29,
and36.
Recitatives
Prior to the twentieth century, there was a long and continuous history of per-
forming recitatives free of metric and rhythmic strictures, with a delivery of text
in a manner corresponding to natural declamation. As expressed by Giulio Caccini
in 1602, recitative is a kind of music in which one could almost speak in tones.
Later writers on the subject confirm this definition and practice.
Sbastien de Brossard, dictionary of music (1703):
Recitative is a way of singing that derives as much from declamation as from

singing, as if one speaks while singing or sings while speaking; hence more
attention is given to expressing emotions than following a regular measure
precisely. This does not prevent this kind of singing from being notated in a
regular meter, but one is given liberty to alter the length of the measure and to
make some measures longer or shorter than others.
Georg Philipp Telemann, preface to Der Harmonische Gottesdienst (1725/26):
One must remember in the recitative that it need not be sung in the same
tempo, but rather according to the content of the poetry, here more slowly,
there faster. Singers must, therefore, be sure that they do not always sing
according to how the notes areset.
C. P.E. Bach, clavier treatise (1753):
It can be seen in accompanied recitative that tempo and meter must be fre-
quently changed in order to rouse and still the rapidly alternating affects.
Hence, the metric signature is in many cases more a convention of notation
than a binding factor in performance.
Heinrich Christoph Koch, composition treatise (1793):
Recitative has neither a definite meter nor a definite relationship between the
lengths of its sections. Its larger and smaller resting points are subject to no
other rules than those which ordinary declamation also follows.
Thomas Busby, A Grammar of Music (1818):
Accompanied recitatives, in which the band [orchestra] merely preserves a sus-

tained harmony, without aiming at a melodial effect, are not delivered accord-
ing to any stated time, or measure; but the instrumental performers attend to,
and follow the progression of the singer.
Manuel Garcia, singing treatise (18401847):
Recitative is a free musical declamation. One can distinguish two kinds of

it:the spoken [secco] recitative and the sung [accompanied] recitative. In both
cases, it has for its base grammatical prosody, the laws of which it vigorously
follows. Thus, it subordinates the values of the notes, those of the rests, the
rate of delivery, and the accents to the prosodic length or brevity of the syl-
lables, to the punctuation, in short, to the movement of the discourse. The
application of this precept is absolute.
The Busby and Garcia references to accompanied recitative are particularly

important in that all of the recitatives in St. Paul are of this type. In a number
of instances (e.g., the beginning of movement 4 seen in Example7.5, beginning
in measure 24)the recitatives are accompanied by strings in punctuated chords,
which, according to primary source recommendations, would follow the flow
of time delivered freely by the singer. That is, the conductor would follow the
singer, who would connect short text passages as in ordinary speech, and indicate
chords or chord changes without consideration of rests between the instrumental
passages.
Example7.5
Example7.5Continued
In other instances, such as at the beginning of movement 6, there is an alterna-

tion of metrically measured instrumental passages and recitative. Mendelssohn
clearly identifies the type of treatment, measured or free, by marking a tempo
term over every instrumental metric passage and Recit. over every passage,
however short, that is to be free. This alternation of terms occurs at the begin-
ning of movement 6 five times within the space of thirty-seven measures. We
are left with no doubt that recitatives should be treated differently from other
notated music and that, appropriately, the recitatives should be free of metrical
and rhythmic constraints and delivered according to natural declamation.
Recommendations
If German is the language of performance in English-speaking countries (or other
countries where German is clearly not common), the text of St. Paul should be
projected on stage as supertitles are projected today in opera halls. Audience

members can then be engaged in the story of the oratorio as it unfolds and be
visually drawn to the stage and the performers instead of to their programs where
a translation might be printed. In addition, the soloists might have their recita-
tives memorized (or their scores might be on stands instead of in their hands) so
that they can relate to each other in the manner of actors in a play. St. Paul is a
highly dramatic oratorio, and the conveyance of the drama should be a priority
of performance. If the vocal soloists are committed to the communication of the
oratorios drama and if the audience members can witness this, the experience
will likely be more enjoyable and the appreciation of Mendelssohns masterpiece
greater.
The text of the oratorio is also enhanced with the chorus at the front of the
stage on either side of the orchestra. Most important, the text can have an imme-
diacy of impact when the chorus is at the front of the stage and, therefore, close to
the audience. Since the chorus plays a large and significant role in St. Paul, the text
that it conveys should have prominence in both sight and sound. Just as impor-
tant, with the chorus placed beside instead of behind the orchestra, the chorus
has the opportunity to influence the playing of the orchestral musicians. With
the chorus behind the orchestra as is common today, the orchestra is not part of
the total ensemble; many members of the orchestra cannot even hear the chorus
yetalone comprehend any subtleties of text that may be transmitted. But with the
chorus positioned so that the orchestra can hear details of text transmission, the
orchestra members can enter into the drama; their playing can be enhanced and
the performance can have the possibility of expressive unity between orchestra
and chorus.
Finally, with recitatives treated as spoken dialogue instead of measured musi-
cal passages, especially if the soloists have their parts memorized (or partly mem-
orized), the dramatic aspect of the performance can be intensified, thus making
the musical experience a better one for the performers as well as for the audience
members.
With the text presented in a comprehensible and expressive manner, there
is opportunity for the audience (as well as the performers) to be engaged in
the complete story of the oratorio; everyone can be drawn into Mendelssohns
dramatic composition from beginning to end, and there would be no need
to make cuts in the oratorio, as is frequently done today in Elijah as well as
in St. Paul. This is not to say that musical deletions are unacceptable. Given
Mendelssohns practice of deleting and reordering material in works he con-
ducted, there is historical precedence for altering large-scale choral works.
However, presented with supporting performance practices, the entirety of
St. Paul as Mendelssohn conceived it can be received and appreciated as the
masterpieceitis.
Brown, Clive. Classical & Romantic Performing Practice:17501900. Oxford University Press,1999.
Brown, Clive. A Portrait of Mendelssohn. Yale University Press,2003.
Busby, Thomas. A Grammar of Music. London,1818.
Devrient, Eduard. My Recollections of Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy. London, 1869. Translated by
Natalia Macfarren. Cambridge University Press,2013.
Garcia, Manuel. Trait complet de lart du chant. Paris, 1840 (part one) and 1847 (part two).
Translated by Donald V. Paschke as A Complete Treatise on the Art of Singing. Da Capo
Press,1975.
Hiller, Ferdinand. Mendelssohn:Briefe und Erinnerungen. London, 1874. Translated by M. E. Von
Glehn as Mendelssohn:Letters and Recollections. Nabu Press,2010.
Masur, Kurt, conductor. Felix Mendelssohn:Paulus. Recording with the Rundfunkchor Leipzig and
Gewandhausorchester Leipzig. Philips,1986.
Mendelssohn Bartholdy, Felix. Paulus op. 36, Oratorium nach Worten der Heiligen Schrift. Full
Score. Carus,1997.
Mercer Taylor, Peter. The Life of Mendelssohn. Cambridge University Press,2000.
Selden-Goth, editor. Felix Mendelssohn:Letters. Vienna House,1973.
Smither, Howard E. A History of the Oratorio, Volume 4: The Oratorio in the Nineteenth and
Twentieth Centuries. University of North Carolina Press,2000.
Strimple, Nick. Choral Music in the Nineteenth Century. Amadeus Press,2005.
Todd, R. Larry, editor. Mendelssohn and His World. Princeton University Press,1991.
Todd, R. Larry. Mendelssohn:ALife in Music. Oxford University Press,2005.
8
Johannes Brahms Ein deutsches

Requiem
What we have heard today is a great and beautiful work, deep and
intense in feeling, ideal and lofty in conception. Yes, one may well
call it an epoch-makingwork.
Karl Reinthaler
(chorus master for the 1868 premiere of the Requiem)

The idea of composing a work based on a variety of Bible verses in German to
serve as a Requiem was not new to Brahms. There were several such earlier com-
positions, two of which Brahms likely knew: Musicalische Exequien by Heinrich
Schtz (15851672) and Cantata BWV 106, Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit by
J. S. Bach (16851750). During his youth Brahms was an enthusiastic student
of early music and was especially fond of both Schtz and Bach. The Musicalische
Exequien, a score that Brahms owned later in his life, was considered to be an
important historical work, and Brahms performed Bach cantatas during his ten-
ures as conductor of the Detmold Court Choir and the Vienna Singakademie, the
time frame when Brahms was composing most of the movements of his Requiem.
Moreover, the biblical verses of Bachs Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit are quite
similar in focus to the texts Brahms chose for his Requiem.
The impetus for Brahms to compose a Requiem undoubtedly resulted from
a mixture of circumstances, including his knowledge and admiration of choral
works by Schtz, Bach, and other historic master composers; the death of his
mentor, Robert Schumann; Schumanns stated desire for Brahms to write a cho-
ral/orchestral work; Schumanns unfulfilled plans to write a German Requiem; the
experiences Brahms had conducting choirs in Winsen, Detmold, Hamburg, and
Vienna; and the death of his mother.
Brahms first met Robert Schumann on September 30, 1853, when Brahms was
twenty years old and Schumann was forty-three. At the time, Schumann was a
282
B rahms Ein deu tsches R equ i em 283
well-known and respected composer, conductor, and spokesperson for the current
state of music in Germany, and his wife, Clara, was equally well known as a virtu-
oso concert pianist. After the September 30 meeting with the Schumanns, during
which Brahms played a number of his own compositions, Clara wrote in her diary,
Here is one who comes as if sent from God! He played us sonatas and scherzos of
his own, all of them rich in fantasy, depth of feeling, and mastery of form. Robert
could see no reason to suggest any changes. Agreat future lies before him.
Robert wrote in his diary, Visit from Brahms (a genius), and in an article in the
Neue Zeitschrift fr Musik published on October 28, 1853, Robertwrote,
A fresh musical energy has seemed to announce itself destined to give ideal
presentation to the highest expression of the time springing forth like
Minerva fully armed from the head of Jove. And he has come, a young blood by
whose cradle graces and heroes kept watch. He is called Johannes Brahms. If
he will sink his magic staff in the region where the capacity of masses in chorus
and orchestra can lend him its powers, still more wonderful glimpses into the
mysteries of the spirit-world will be beforeus.
Brahms and the Schumanns subsequently spent much time together. Robert
gave Brahms access to his extensive library and Clara, who served as a sounding
board to Brahms, regularly welcomed him into the Schumann home. Robert was
showing signs of mental illness, however, and the following year, on February
27, 1854, he leaped into the Rhine in an effort to kill himself. He was rescued
and sent to an asylum, where Brahms visited frequently over the next two years,
including July 29, 1856, the day Robert died at the age of forty-six. Brahms was
twenty-three.
The loss of such a significant mentor and friend must have been overwhelm-
ing for the young Brahms, and the statement that Schumann made in the Neue
Zeitschrift article regarding Brahms composing for chorus and orchestra could
likely have been a prophetic challenge. In addition, since Brahms had access to
Schumanns diary, it is likely that he read of Schumanns desire to write a German
Requiem. Furthermore, in 1873, after the Requiem had been composed and
performed a number of times, Brahms wrote to his friend, the famous violinist
Joseph Joachim, You ought to know how much a work like the Requiem belongs
to Schumann. Thus, Ifeel it quite natural in my inmost heart that it should be
sung forhim.
During the several years after Roberts death, while continuing to visit Clara
frequently, Brahms was employed during the fall months as conductor of the
court choir in Detmold. There, he conducted such choral/orchestral works as
Handels Messiah and J.S. Bachs cantata BWV 4, Christ lag in Todesbanden (both
performed on September 30, 1858). Previous to and after his employment in
Detmold, Brahms also had other conducting responsibilities. In 1847, when he
was fourteen, he began conducting a male choral society in the small village of
Hoopte, near Winsen, and in 1859 he founded the Hamburger Frauenchor, con-
ducting his own Begrbnisgesang op.13 with an augmented ensemble (including
men) on December 2.Yet later, Brahms was appointed conductor of the Vienna
Singakademie, performing on his first concert with this ensemble, November 15,
1863, Bachs cantata BWV 21, Ich hatte viel Bekmmernis, and Robert Schumanns
Requiem fr Mignon op. 98b. Works by Schtz and Bach were performed on
January 6, 1864, and four cantatas from Bachs Christmas Oratorio were on the
program March 20, 1864. Brahms was, therefore, engaged in conducting choirs
almost steadily from 1847 until1865.
Considering his conducting activity, it is notable that the majority of choral/
orchestral works Brahms programmed during these years deal with the subject of
death:Bachs Christ lag in Todesbanden and Ich hatte viel Bekmmernis, Schumanns
Requiem fr Mignon, and Brahmss own Begrbnisgesang. That another major cho-
ral/orchestral work about death would follow soon seems only logical. This is
an especially compelling consideration given the death of Brahmss mother on
January 31,1865.
Brahms undoubtedly began working on the Requiem prior to 1865 and the
death of his mother. There is evidence that the music of movement 2, the funeral
march Denn alles Fleisch es ist wie Gras, was first intended as a movement for a
proposed sonata or symphony begun in 1854. Brahms could easily have adapted
this music for the Requiem in 1865, at which time there was the first conclusive
evidence of compositional activity on the Requiem. This evidence is in the form of
a letter written to Clara. Amonth or so before the letter Brahms had sent Clara a
copy of movement 4.Then, on April 24, 1865, he wrote toher,
If it is not already too late, let me beg you not to show the choral piece [move-
ment4] to Joachim. In any case it is probably the weakest part in the Deutsches
Requiem. But as it may have vanished into thin air before you come to Baden,
just have a look at the beautiful words with which it [the Requiem, move-
ment1] begins. It is a chorus in F major without violins, but accompanied by
a harp and other beautiful things. Icompiled the text from passages in the
Bible; the chorus I sent you is number four. The second [movement] is in C
minor [later transposed to B-flat minor] and is in march time. I hope that a
German text of this sort will please you as much as the usual Latin one. Iam
hoping to produce a sort of unity out of the thing and trust that Ishall retain
enough courage and zest to carry it through.
Claras immediate response, written on May 1, was positive and encouraging.

Shewrote,
The chorus from the Requiem pleases me very much, it must sound beautiful.
Ilike it particularly up to the figured passage, but not so much where this goes
on andon
But this is a small matter. Ihope you will not let the Requiem vanish into thin
air. You surely could not after so beautiful a beginning. Of course I like the
lovely German words better than the Latin. Many thanks for itall.
It can be deduced from Brahmss letter that he had composed at least four move-
ments or was in the process of composition, but that the entire Requiem was not yet
completed or planned. The beginning of movement 3 was finished April 18, 1866, and
the fugue that ends the movement was completed in June. Two other movements
(those that eventually became 6 and 7)were completed by the middle of August. At
this time Brahms wrote at the end of the score, Baden Baden summer 1866. This
kind of ascription, with place and ending date of composition, is a common practice
for composers and usually indicates the completion of a work. Thus, it is assumed that
Brahms considered the Requiem to be finalized as a six-movement composition. This
assumption is confirmed by Brahmss activity during the following months editing
the full score and preparing a vocal score, which he sent to Clara on December30.
Nothing more is heard about the Requiem until the middle and end of the
following year (1867). On December 1, movements 1, 2, and 3 were performed
by the Vienna Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, conducted by Johann Herbeck
(18311877), who had conducted the premiere of Franz Schuberts Unfinished
Symphony in 1865 and who conducted the three movements of the Brahms
Requiem in memory of Schubert. Prior to this December performance, on July
30, 1867, Brahms sent the six-movement Requiem to his good friend Albert
Dietrich (18291908), with a letter asking for Dietrichs advice about the work
and, hopefully, for Dietrichs help in arranging a performance. Brahmswrote,
Keep the enclosed Requiem until Iwrite to you. Do not let it out of your hands,
and write to me very seriously by and by what you think of it. An offer [for per-
formance] from Bremen [at the Protestant Cathedral] would be very acceptable
to me. In short, Reinthaler [Karl Reinthaler, the music director of Bremen
and organist of the cathedral] must probably be sufficiently pleased with the
thing to do something forit.
Brahms also sent the score with letters to Eduard Marxsen (18061887), his for-
mer teacher and a trusted friend and advisor, and Karl Reinthaler (18221896),
who arranged for a performance of the Requiem in Bremen and who would prepare
the chorus for Brahms. Reinthaler responded to Brahms about the text, writing,
Forgive me, but Iwondered if it might not be possible to extend the work in some
way that it would bring it closer to a Good Friday service. In this composition
you stand not only on religious but also certainly on Christian ground. The sec-
ond movement, for example, touches on the prophecy of the Lords return, and in
the penultimate movement the mystery of the resurrection of the dead. But
what is lacking, at least for a Christian consciousness, is the pivotal point:the
salvation in the death of ourLord.
Brahms responded, defending his personal agnostic views and reinforcing the fact
that the Requiem was not meant to be liturgical.
As far as the text is concerned, Iconfess that Iwould gladly omit even the word
German and instead use Human; also with my best knowledge and will Iwould
dispense with places like John 3:16 [For God so loved the world that he gave
his only begotten son, that whosoever believes in him should not perish, but
have everlasting life]. On the other hand, Ihave chosen one thing or another
because Iam a musician, because Ineeded it, and because with my venerable
authors Icannot delete or dispute anything.
The performance was set for Good Friday, April 10, 1868, with Brahms con-
ducting and Joseph Joachim serving as leader (concert master) of the orchestra.
To make the performance closer to a Good Friday service Brahms agreed to the
addition of music by other composers. Included were vocal excerpts from Handels
Messiah and Bachs St. Matthew Passion, and also three instrumental pieces. The
Messiah excerptsthe aria I know that my Redeemer liveth and the choruses
Behold the Lamb of God and Hallelujahwere sung at the conclusion of the
program (i.e., after the Requiems six movements). The three instrumental pieces
the slow movement of Bachs Violin Concerto in A Minor, an Andante by the
Baroque-era composer Giuseppe Tartini, and an arrangement of Schumanns song
Abendliedwere played by Joseph Joachim after movement 4 of the Requiem. The
insertions of music after movement 4 and the performance of the soprano aria
I know that my Redeemer liveth are of consequential importance since Brahms
composed the music for what would become movement 5 of the Requiem, Ihr
habt nun Traurigkeit, during the month after the Bremen performance, scoring
it for soprano solo and chorus and inserting it in the Requiem after movement 4.
Brahms sent a letter of explanation to his publisher on May 24, 1868, writing,
Now a seventh number has to be added, No. 5, soprano solo, with about 16 bars
of chorus. Ishall send this number later, as Ihave to have it written out first
and have to look for a place where it can be performed for me, for money and
kind words. Therefore, Inote that it occupies seventeen pages in my full score
and six pages in the vocal score; you can plan accordingly.
Brahms also wrote to his publisher the following about the new movement, With
luck it makes the Requiem even more of a whole. The new movement was performed
separately in Zurich on September 17 (five months after the Bremen performance)

and then in the premiere performance of the seven- movement Requiem on
February 18, 1869, in the Leipzig Gewandhaus, Carl Reinecke conducting. After this
premiere, there were eleven further documented performances in 1869, including
one in Basel a week after the premiere and one at the Michaelskirche in Hamburg,
where Brahms had been baptized. Of the many performances that followed, men-
tioned here are those in Vienna, 1871, with Brahms conducting the Gesellschaft der
Musikfreunde; London, 1871, in a private performance with piano duet accompani-
ment composed by Brahms; London, 1873, in a public performance at St. Jamess
Hall; Leipzig, 1873, at the Thomaskirche, where Bach had been employed; NewYork,
1875, excerpts sung by the NewYork Liederkranz Society; and NewYork, 1877, the
first complete American performance, by the NewYork Choral Society.
Reception ofthe Requiem

There was considerable interest in Brahms and his Requiem both before and
after it had been performed. Robert Schumanns enthusiastic support of the
young Brahms and Brahmss growing success as a composer of piano and cham-
ber works created widespread anticipation for a new large composition. The only
orchestral works Brahms had composed before the Requiem were the Serenade
no.1 in D Major op.11 (1857) and the Piano Concerto no.1 in D Minor op.15
(1859), and these were received with mixed reviews. Those in the camp of the
New German School, represented by Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner, called the
work of Brahms old-fashioned. But once the Requiem was received with both pub-
lic and critical acclaim, reviews of performances were frequent and positive, and
Brahmss career and fame were established.
Quoted below are portions of seven reviews or commentaries of Requiem
performances between 1867 and 1890. Most of the accounts praise the work,
although it is interesting to read those (the first and last two) that are unen-
thusiastic or only partially positive. Regarding the first review, that by Eduard
Hanslick, the timpanist in the performance misunderstood the expression mark-
ing in the score and played the D pedal note at an extremely loud level throughout
the fugue, thus overbalancing the otherparts.
A review by the music critic Eduard Hanslick (18251904) of the December 1,
1867, performance of the Requiems first three movements during the Schubert
memorial concert:
While the first two movements of the Requiem, in spite of their somber gravity,
were received with unanimous applause, the fate of the third movement was
very doubtful. During the concluding fugue of the third movement, surging
above a pedal-point on D, [one] experienced the sensations of a passenger tat-
tling through a tunnel in an expresstrain.
A diary entry by Clara Schumann after the Bremen performance of the six-
movement Requiem on Good Friday, April 10,1868:
The Requiem has taken hold of me as no sacred music ever did before. As
Isaw Johannes standing there, baton in hand, Icould not help thinking of my
dear Roberts prophecy, Let him but once grasp his magic wand and work with
orchestra and chorus, which is fulfilled today. The baton was really a magic
wand and its spell was upon all present. It was a joy such as Ihave not felt for
a longtime.
Part of a speech made by Karl Reinthaler, the chorus master for the April 10,
1868, performance:
What we have heard today is a great and beautiful work, deep and intense in
feeling, ideal and lofty in conception. Yes, one may well call it an epoch-making
work! It was an anxious, a sad and melancholy time we endured when we
laid to rest the last beloved Master [Robert Schumann]; it almost seemed as if
the night had come. But today we can predict that the followers of that great
master will complete what he began. Iknow that you all rejoice with me in
the fact that we have the composer of this splendid work sitting among us, and
you will willingly drink with me to the health of the composerBrahms!
A review in 1869 by music critic Adolf Schubring (18171893) in the Allgemeine

musikalische Zeitung:
Brahmss German Requiem will have great success wherever it is given a good
performance. It is music of indescribable novelty, strength, and freshness, now
of elegiac peace, now of lyric beauty, now convulsively dramatic, the finest con-
trapuntal art clothed in folk-like style, and with it a harmony and orchestration
as practical and effective as we have hitherto experienced in a work of church
music as artful and serious as Sebastian Bach, as elevated and powerful
as Beethovens Missa solemnis, and saturated in its melody and harmony by
Schuberts benevolent influence.
A review by George Macfarren (18131887), professor of music at Cambridge

University, after the London 1873 performance:
It is impossible in the space of these comments even to hint at the extraor-

dinary merit, technical and aesthetical, of the composition under our notice.
When the German Requiem becomes known, lovers of music in England will
feel indeed that their art has a living representative, that the greatest masters
have a successor.
A review in the Musical Times after the London performance in1873:
Were we inclined to hazard an opinion upon the Requiem from a single hearing,
we certainly should not do so when performed as a concert piece, surrounded by
compositions in such violent contrast; and we must content ourselves therefore
with saying that the un-emotional character of the subjects, notwithstanding the
brilliancy of the instrumentation, produced a feeling of weariness in the audience,
which, although we cannot accept as any tacit criticism of the work, sufficiently evi-
denced that the Philharmonic concert-room is not the place for a funeral service.
A review by George Bernard Shaw in The World on November 9,1892:
Brahmss Requiem has not the true funeral relish:it is so execrably and ponder-
ously dull that the very flattest of funerals would seem like a ballet, or at least
a danse macabre, afterit.
Texts Set byBrahms Related toThose ofthe Requiem

There is a clear dichotomy between the texts Brahms chose for his sacred and
secular works. Except for only a few instances (notably in the secular choral/
orchestral repertoire), the texts for the secular works are optimistic in charac-
ter in that they convey pleasant messages about life. The a cappella part songs,
for instancefrom the Fnf Lieder op. 41 composed in 1861 and 1862 to the
Fnf Gesnge op.104 composed in 1888have texts that are often bucolic, with
expressions of love. The vocal chamber works with piano accompaniment, includ-
ing the two opuses of Liebeslieder Walzer, are even more so. Some of the texts are
even humorous (e.g., the first two movements of the Drei Quartette op.31 com-
posed between 1859 and1863).
The texts Brahms chose for his sacred works, particularly those in German, are
decidedly different. They often deal with subjects of life suffering and death. This is
especially apparent in the three opuses of motets, but also in the sacred works with
chamber accompaniment and in several of the choral/orchestral works set to secu-
lar texts. (As a point of interest, the Requiem is the only choral/orchestral work
with a sacred text; all the other choral/orchestral works are set to secular texts.)
For ease of comprehension, all the choral/orchestral and sacred works in German
are listed below. An asterisk identifies those works with texts about life suffering.
Choral/OrchestralWorks:
Ein deutsches Requiem op.45 (18571868)*
Rinaldo op.50 (18631868)
Rhapsodie op.53 (18631868)*

Schicksalslied op.54 (18681871)*
Triumphlied op.55 (18701871)
Nnie op.82 (18801881)*
Gesang der Parzen op.89(1882)
Sacred ACappella or Chamber Works in German:

Geistliches Lied op.30 (1856)*
Begrbnisgesang op.13 (1858)*
Der. 13. Psalm op.27 (1859)*
Marienlieder op.22(1859)
Two motetsop.29
Es ist das Heil uns kommen her op.29 no.1 (1860)*
Schaffe in mir, Gott, ein rein Herz op.29 no.2 (18561860)*
Two motetsop.74
Warum ist das Licht gegeben op.74 no.1 (1877)*
O Heiland, rei die Himmel auf op.74 no.2 (1863)*
Fest-und Gedenksprche op.109 (18881889)
Three motets op.110
Ich aber bin elend op.110 no.1 (1889)*
Ach, arme Welt op.110 no.2 (1889)*
Wenn wir in hchsten Nten sein op.110 no.3 (1889)*
Four of the seven choral/orchestral works and all but two of the sacred works
in German have a concinnity of subject matter. Amajority of the texts men-
tion suffering on earth, generally in the form of misery and sadness as a com-
mon aspect of life. Amajority of the texts also have life suffering as the major
focus of the composition, while several texts mention life misery along with
other thoughts. Many of the texts also allude to peace of death or trust in God
at the time of death as a relief from the suffering. Following here is a review
of German texts chosen by Brahms for the six sacred works that precede the
Requiem and four works, as a sampling, after the composition of the Requiem.
Brahmss first choral composition, Geistliches Lied op. 30, was composed
in 1856 when he was twenty-two or twenty-three. The text is by Paul Fleming
(16091640), a German poet probably best known for his poem Auf den Tod eines
Kindes (On the death of a child) and the Lutheran chorale In allen meinen Taten
(In all that Ido), which was set to the melody O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden
(literally, O head full of blood and wounds, but generally translated as O sacred
head now wounded) used several times by J.S.Bach.
La dich nur nichts nicht dauren mit Trauren,

sei stille, wie Gott es fgt, so sei vergngt meinWille!
Was willst du heute sorgen auf morgen?
Let nothing ever make you suffer withgrief,

be still, as God ordains it, and satisfied will be mysoul!
Why do you want to worry about tomorrow?
Der Eine steht allem fr, der gibt auch dir dasDeine.
Sei nur in allem Handel ohn Wandel,
steh feste, was Gott beschleut, das ist und heit das Beste.Amen.
The One [Lord] stands for all, he gives you what isyours.
Be only in all you do without change, stand firmly,
what God ordains is and represents thebest.
Begrbnisgesang (Burial Song) op. 13 was composed two years later, in 1858.
Brahms revealed no stated purpose for the work, but given the death of his mentor
Robert Schumann two years earlier, it is likely that the text, especially that of verses
four and six (printed below) with their expressions that death will free a person
from lifes misery, refers to Schumann. The origin of the text is the seven-versed
chorale Nun lat uns den Leib begraben (Now let us bury the body) by Michael
Weie (c.14881534), found in the Gesangbuch der bhmischen Brdern of1531.
Sein Arbeit, Trbsal, und Elend ist kommen zu einm gutenEnd.

Er hat getragen Christi Joch, ist gestorben und lebetnoch.
His toil, sadness, and misery have come to a goodend.
He has borne Christs yoke, has died and yetlives.
Hier ist er in Angst gewesen, dort aber wird er genesen,

in ewiger Freude und Wonne leuchten wie die schneSonne.
Here he was in fear, but there he will be healed,
in eternal joy and bliss he will shine like the beautifulsun.
Der 13. Psalm (Psalm 13)op.27 was composed in August of 1859. Scored for
SSA chorus and organ (later arranged for strings), it was written specifically for
the Hamburger Frauenchor, which Brahms founded that same year. The texts of
verses two and five, quoted below, express the essence of the Psalm and the senti-
ments common to Brahms.
Wie lange soll ich sorgen in meiner Seele, und mich ngsten in meinem
Herzen tglich?
Wie lange soll sich mein Feind ber mich erheben?
How long shall there be trouble in my soul, and fright in my heartdaily?
How long shall my foes be exalted overme?
Ich hoffe aber darauf, da du so gndigbist,

mein Herz freuet sich, da du so gerne hilfst.
I trust however that you are so merciful,

my heart rejoices that you so gladlyhelp.
The first of Brahmss seven motets, Schaffe in mir, Gott, ein rein Herz op.29
no. 2, was composed between 1856 and 1860. As with Geistliches Lied, which
was written at about the same time, there is no known purpose for the compo-
sition (i.e., no commission or ensemble to perform it). However, because of the
canonic and fugal elements of structure, it is assumed that Brahms was writing
the motet as an exercise to demonstrate his interest and capability in emulating
the style of Bach and other historic composers. The text (Psalm 51:1012) does
not specifically mention life suffering or misery, although one can glean some
implication of this when this text is considered with those Brahms used in his
other motets.
Schaffe in mir, Gott, ein rein Herz, und gib mir einen neuen gewissenGeist.
Verwirf mich nicht von deinem Angesicht, und nimm deinen heiligen Geist
nicht vonmir.
Trste mich wieder mit deiner Hlfe, und der freudige Geist erhaltemich.
Create in me, God, a pure heart, and grant me a new confident spirit.
Cast me not from your presence, and take not your holy spirit fromme.
Console me again with your support, and uphold me with your joyful spirit.
The second motet, Es ist das Heil uns kommen her op.29 no.1, was composed
in 1860, and like its counterpart of opus 29, is an exercise in contrapuntal inge-
nuity. In this case, Brahms set the text in its original chorale form of a repeated
four-measure stollen followed by a six-measure abgesang. Brahms then treated
the melody in fugal fashion, with the inclusion of each phrase as a cantus fir-
mus, in augmentation and in a separate voice part. Also like its counterpart of
opus 29, this motet does not specifically mention life suffering or misery. The
text was written by Paul Speratus (14841551), an associate of Martin Luther
who helped compile the first Lutheran hymnal. Es ist das Heil uns kommen her,
based on Romans 3:28, was one of the most important texts of the early Lutheran
movement.
Es ist das Heil uns kommen her von Gnad und lauterGte.
Die Werke helfen nimmermehr, sie mgen nicht behten!
Der Glaub sieht Jesum Christum an, der hat gnug fr uns allgetan,
er ist der Mittler worden.
It is salvation that has come to us from grace and pure goodness.
The works [of life] help no more, they will not protectus!
Faith looks at Jesus Christ, who has done enough forus,
he has become our mediator.
The third motet, O Heiland, rei die Himmel auf op. 74 no. 2, was probably
composed at about the same time as the second motet (around 1860), although
some scholars think that it was composed slightly later (in 1863 or 1864). As with
the other motets, O Heiland, rei die Himmel auf exhibits an archaic structure
in this instance, variations of five verses from an original seven-verse text by
Friedrich Spee von Langenfeld (15911635), a Jesuit priest and poet. It is verse
four, printed below, the only verse with a slow tempo and the variation that is
gripping in its musical setting, that speaks directly to the thought of life misery.
Hie leiden wir die grte Not, vor Augen steht der bitterTod.
Ach komm, fhr uns mit starker Hand von Elend zu dem Vaterland.
Here we suffer the greatest distress, before our eyes stands bitterdeath.
Ah come, lead us with a strong hand from misery to the fatherland.
The four works chosen to represent texts from compositions written after the
Requiem are Schicksalslied op. 54, a secular work composed between 1868 and
1871; Warum ist das Licht gegeben op.74 no.1, a motet composed in 1877; Ich aber
bin elend op.110 no.1, a motet composed in 1889; and Wenn wir in hchsten Nten
sein op.110 no.3, a motetalso composed in 1889. In Schicksalslied, the text of
which was written by the poet Friedrich Hlderlin (17701843), celestial spirits
are described as being blissfully happy and free from fate, while mortals on earth
are described as follows:
Doch uns ist gegeben auf keiner Sttte zu ruhn; es schwinden, esfallen
die leidenden Menschen Blindlings von einer Stunde zur andern,
wie Wasser von Klippe zu Klippe geworfen, Jahrlang ins Ungewissehinab.
Yet to us is given no place to rest; the sufferingpeople
disappear and fall blindly from one hour to theother,
like water thrown from cliff to cliff all year long down into the unknown.
The motet Warum ist das Licht gegeben, like the Requiem, uses a combination of
verses from the Bible. Also like the Requiem, the verses first express sentiments
reflecting lifes anguish and misery and then the belief that God will provide
peace, comfort, and joy at the time of death. The biblical verses Brahms quotes
are Job 3:2023, Lamentations 3:41, and James 5:11. To end the motet, Brahms
uses a chorale text by Martin Luther. Extracted below are the beginning of Job
3:2021 and the chorale.
Warum ist das Licht gegeben dem Mhseligen, und das Leben den betrbten
Herzen (die des Todes warten und kommt nicht.
Why is light given to the miserable and life to the afflicted
soul (to those who wait for death and it comesnot.
Mit Fried und Freud ich fahr dahin in Gottes Willen;

Getrost ist mir mein Herz und Sinn sanft und stille.
Wie Gott mir verheien hat:der Tod ist mir Schlaf worden.
In peace and joy Inow depart according to Godswill;
my heart and mind are comforted, calm, andstill;
As God has promised me, death has become mysleep.
Ich aber bin elend is very much like Warum ist das Licht gegeben composed more
than a decade earlier. Brahms combined biblical verses that express lifes misery
and Gods protection at the time of death. The verses of Ich aber bin elend are Psalm
69:29a, Exodus 34:67, and Psalm 69:29b. Extracted below are portions of the
Psalmverse.
Ich aber bin elend, und mir istwehe.

I am but miserable, and to me is given sorrow.
Gott, Herr Gott, deine Hlfe schtzemich.

God, Lord God, may your help protectme.
Wenn wir in hchsten Nten sein is likely the last choral composition Brahms
wrote. For its text Brahms chose four verses of a seven-verse chorale by Paul Eber
(15111569), a student of Martin Luther and an important writer of chorale
texts. Following here are the first two verses.
Wenn wir in hchsten Nten sein, und wissen nicht, wo aus undein,
und finden weder Hilf noch Rat, ob wir gleich sorgen frh undspat,
so ist das unser Trost allein, da wir zusammen insgemein dich rufenan,
O treuer Gott, um Rettung aus der Angst undNot.
When we are in deepest misery, and know not whattodo,
and find neither help nor counsel, although we take care early andlate,
our only consolation is that we together commonly imploreyou,
oh faithful God, for rescue from our fear and misery.
The Texts Brahms Chose forthe Requiem

Before turning to the Requiem texts, it is important to look at the chorale text
used in Bachs cantata BWV 21, Ich hatte viel Bekmmernis. As mentioned above,
Brahms performed this cantata in November 1863 during his first program as
music director of the Vienna Singakademie. Brahms later stated that the chorale
used as a cantus firmus in movement 9 of the cantata served as a model for the
music beginning the second movement of the Requiem, and that the chorale lay
at the root of the entire work [Requiem]. For the text of movement 9 in his can-
tata, Bach chose two verses of the seven-verse chorale Wer nur den lieben Gott
lt walten (Whoever lets only dear God reign) by Georg Neumark (16211681).
Verse two appears in the tenor voice during the first half of the movement; verse
five appears in the soprano voice during the second half of the movement. As
is obvious, both verses are clearly related in subject matter to the texts Brahms
chose for the sacred works he composed prior to the Requiem as well as for the
Requiem itself.
Was helfen uns die schweren Sorgen, was hilft uns unser Weh undAch?
Was hilft es, da wir alle Morgen beseufzen unser Ungemach?
Wir machen unser Kreuz und Leid nur grer durch die Traurigkeit.
What help to us are heavy worries, what use to us are woe andpain?
What use is it that every morning we bewail our misfortune?
We make our own cross and sorrow only greater through sadness.
Denk nicht in deiner Drangsalshitze, da du von Gott verlassen seist,

und da der Gott im Schoe sitze, der sich mit stetem Glcke speist.
Die Folgezeit verndert viel und setzet jeglichem seinZiel.
Think not in the heat of your suffering, that God has abandonedyou,
and that sitting in Gods lap, is someone who enjoys good fortune.
Times course brings many changes and appoints to everyone hisgoal.
The majority of biblical verses that Brahms identified for the Requiem may
have been chosen and organized before any music was composed, or these verses
may have been chosen over a period of time. The dates of the assemblage are
unknown. An undated document exists in which the texts of all seven movements
are written in Brahmss hand on a single page. The ink of the movements is not
consistent throughout the document, however, leading to the assumption that it
was not written all at once. It is presumed that the texts for movements 1 through
4 were chosen first, followed by what are now the final two movements, and then,
at a still later time, the text of movement5.
Whatever the time-frame of choice, the texts are consistent in their overall
message, and this message is consistent with the message of the majority of
sacred texts that precede the composition of the Requiem:the misery of life will
be alleviated at the time of death, or put in more religious terminology, God, who
is to be praised, will provide relief from the suffering felt during life. This message
can be seen consistently in extractions from each of the Requiems movements
shownhere:
Movement1
Selig sind, die da Leid tragen, denn sie sollen getrstet werden.
Blessed are those who bear grief, for they shall be comforted.
Die mit Trnen sen, werden mit Freuden ernten.

Those who sow with tears will reap withjoy.
Movement2
So seid nun geduldig, lieben Brder, bis auf die Zukunft desHerrn.
So be now patient, dear brothers, until the future of theLord.
Freude und Wonne werden sie ergreifen und Schmerz und Seufzen wird weg
mssen.
Joy and delight will seize them and sorrow and sighing will have to goaway.
Movement3
Sie gehen daher wie ein Schemen, und machen ihnen viel vergebliche Unruhe.
They go about like a phantom, and create much vain unrest.
Movement4
Meine Seele verlanget und sehnet sich nach den Vorhfen desHerrn.
My soul yearns and longs for the courts of theLord.
Movement5
Ich habe eine kleine Zeit Mhe und Arbeit gehabt, und habe grossen Trost funden.
I have for a brief time toiled and labored, and have found great comfort.
Movement6
Denn wir haben hie keine bleibende Statt, sondern die zuknftige suchenwir.
For we have here no permanent place, but we seek the one tocome.
Movement7
Selig sind die Toten der Geist spricht dass sie ruhen von ihrer Arbeit.
Blessed are the dead the Spirit says that they rest from theirlabor.
It may be of significance to note that in 1858, while composing the Requiem,

Brahms met Arthur Schopenhauer (17881860), the German philosopher known
for his pessimism, whose writings include such statements as life gives more pain
than pleasure, life is a task to be done, and the world is not an end, but a means,
with the realm of everlasting joy lying beyond the grave. Brahms made no recorded
indication that he was influenced by Schopenhauer, and he may not have been.
However, the concurrence of their ideas in the texts he chose for the Requiem is
striking. Following are the complete Requiem texts with their biblical references.
Movement1
Matthew5:4
Selig sind, die da Leid tragen, denn sie sollen getrstet werden.
Blessed are those who bear grief, for they shall be comforted.
Psalm 126:56
Die mit Trnen sen, werden mit Freuden ernten.
Sie gehen hin und weinen und tragen edlenSamen,
und kommen mit Freuden und bringen ihre Garben.
Those who sow tears will harvestjoys.
They go forth and weep and bear preciousseeds,
and come with joys and bring their sheaves.
Movement2
I Peter1:24
Denn alles Fleisch es ist wie Gras und alle Herrlichkeit des Menschen
wie des Grases Blumen. Das Gras ist verdorret und die Blume abgefallen.
For all flesh is like grass and all magnificence of mortals
like the flowers of grass. The grass has dried up and the flower fallenoff.
James 5:7,8a
So seid nun geduldig, lieben Brder, bis auf die Zukunft desHerrn.
Siehe, ein Ackermann wartet auf die kstliche Frucht derErde
und ist geduldig darber, bis er empfahe den Morgenregen und Abendregen.
So be now patient, dear brothers, until the future of theLord.
Behold, a husbandman waits for the precious fruit of theearth
and is patient about it, until he receives the morning rain and eveningrain.
I Peter1:25
Aber des Herrn Wort bleibet in Ewigkeit.
But the Lords word endures forever.
Isaiah35:10
Die Erlseten des Herrn werden wieder kommen, und gen Zion kommen
mit Jauchzen;
ewige Freude wird ber ihrem Hauptesein;
Freude und Wonne werden sie ergreifen und Schmerz und Seufzen wird
weg mssen.
The redeemed of the Lord will again come, and to Zion come with shouts ofjoy;
eternal joy will be upon theirheads;
joy and delight will seize them and sorrow and sighing will have to goaway.
Movement3
Psalm39:47
Herr, lehre doch mich, da ein Ende mit mir habenmu,
und mein Leben ein Ziel hat, und ich davonmu.
Siehe, meine Tage sind einer Hand breit vordir,
und mein Leben ist wie nichts vordir.
Ach, wie gar nichts sind alle Menschen, die doch so sicherleben.
Sie gehen daher wie ein Schemen, und machen ihnen viel vergebliche Unruhe;
sie sammeln und wissen nicht wer es kriegenwird.
Nun Herr, wess soll ich mich trsten? Ich hoffe aufdich.
Lord, teach me, that Imust have anend;
and my life has an end, and Imust passaway.
Behold, my days are only a hand wide beforeyou,
and my life is as nothing beforeyou.
Ah, how as nothing are all mortals, who yet live so confidently.
They go about like a phantom, and create much vain unrest;
they gather and know not who will receivethem.
Now Lord, in whom shall Ifind comfort? Itrust inyou.
Wisdom of Solomon3:1
Der Gerechten Seelen sind in Gottes Hand, und keine Qual rhret siean.
The souls of the righteous are in Gods hand, and no torment touchesthem.
Movement4
Psalm 84:1,2,4
Wie lieblich sind deine Wohnungen, Herr Zebaoth!
Meine Seele verlanget und sehnet sich nach den Vorhfen desHerrn;
mein Leib und Seele freuen sich in dem lebendigenGott.
Wohl denen, die in deinem Hause wohnen, die loben dich immerdar.
How lovely are your dwellings, Lord of the Sabbath!
My soul yearns and longs for the courts of theLord;
my body and soul rejoice in the livingGod.
Blessings to those, who dwell in your house, who praise you forever.
Movement5
John16:22
Ihr habt nun Traurigkeit; aber ich will euch wieder sehen und euerHerz
soll sich freuen und eure Freude soll niemand von euch nehmen.
You now have sorrow; but Iwant to see you again and yourheart
shall rejoice and your joy shall no one take fromyou.
Ecclesiasticus51:35
Sehet mich an:Ich habe eine kleine ZeitMhe
und Arbeit gehabt, und habe groen Trost funden.
Look at me:Ihave for a brief timetoiled
and labored, and have found great comfort.
Isaiah66:13
Ich will euch trsten, wie einen seine Mutter trstet.
I want to comfort you, as one his mother comforts.
Movement6
Hebrews13:14
Denn wir haben hie eine bleibende Statt, sondern die zuknftige
suchenwir.
For we have here no permanent place, but we seek the one tocome.
I Corinthians 15:51, 52,54,55

Siehe, ich sage euch ein Geheimnis:Wir werden nicht alle entschlafen,
wir werden aber alle verwandelt werden;
und dasselbige pltzlich in einem Augenblick,
zu der Zeit der letzten Posaune.
Denn es wird die Posaune schallen,
und die Toten werden auferstehen unverweslich,
und wir werden verwandelt werden.
Dann wird erfllet werden dasWort,
das geschrieben steht:Der Tod ist verschlungen in denSieg.
Tod, wo ist dein Stachel? Hlle, wo ist deinSieg?
Behold, Itell you a mystery:We will not all fall asleep[die],
we will, however, all be transformed;
and it will happen suddenly in an instant,
at the time of the last trombone [trumpet].
For the trombone willsound,
and the dead will rise up incorruptible,
and we will be transformed.
Then will be fulfilled theword,
that written stands:Death is swallowed up in victory.
Death, where is your sting? Hell, where is your victory?
Revelation4:11
Herr, du bist wrdig zu nehmen Preis undEhre
und Kraft, denn du hast alle Dinge geschaffen,
und durch deinen Willen haben sie das Wesen und sind geschaffen.
Lord, you are worthy to receive praise andhonor
and might, for you have created all things,
and by your will they have their being and are created.
Movement7
Revelation14:13
Selig sind die Toten, die in dem Herren sterben von nunan.
Ja, der Geist spricht, da sie ruhen von ihrer Arbeit;
denn ihre Werke folgen ihnennach.
Blessed are the dead, who in the Lord die from nowon.
Yes, the spirit says that they rest from theirlabor;
for their works follow afterthem.
Musical and Formal Structures

The comment that Brahms made to Clara Schumann when he sent her the fourth
movement of the Requiem in 1865, I am hoping to produce a sort of unity out of
the thing and trust that Ishall retain enough courage and zest to carry it through,
seems to have been prophetic, for he constructed one of the most unified and bal-
anced musical compositions in Western culture. That he desired to create such
a work is evident, given his interest in and high regard for the structurally bal-
anced works of Bach. Brahms would have, for instance, known of Bachs mirror
structures. That Brahms was able to create the balanced work he did, however,
is less than evident and all the more remarkable, given the three-plus years of
his compositional process and his seeming unawareness of the work as a finished
product before the inclusion of movement 5.Whether preplanned or unforeseen,
conscious or unconscious, the Requiem is a paragon of structural unity and bal-
ance on many different levels.
Motifs
The most significant unifying device is a three-note musical motif (sometimes
referred to as the cell motif) that appears at the very beginning of major struc-
tural and melodic sections in all the movements of the Requiem. Moreover, these
sections and their motifs are placed in the movements in order to create a mirror
effectmirror structures being one of the most notable structural elements of
the Requiem. Movements 1 and 7, being the outer two or bookend movements,
closely relate; these movements, then, are followed by relationships between
movements 2 and 6, and 3 and 5, with movement 4 standing alone in the center.
The original and inverted forms of the motif appear in the soprano voice part
at the beginning of the Requiemthe original form twice, first as shown in
Example8.1, measures 1517, and then in measures 1920; the inverted form
also appears twice, first as shown in Example8.2, measures 2930, and then in
measures3132.
Example8.1: Original Cell Motif (beginning of movement1)
Example8.2: Inverted Cell Motif (beginning of movement1)

As part of the overall ABA structure of the movement, the motif in its origi-
nal form returns in measures 111112, followed by the inverted form shown
in Example8.2, now in the flutes (measures 119120 and 121122). Following
this, to close the movement, a different inverted form appears in all the voices
(Example8.3, measures 144150).
Example8.3: Second Version of the Cell Motif (ending of movement1)
This inverted form, which ends movement 1, is used to begin movement

7 (Example 8.4, choral sopranos in measures 23). Note the mirror arrange-
ment:the form of the motif that ends movement 1 is used to begin movement7.
Example8.4: Second Version of the Cell Motif (beginning of movement7)
This motif is repeated by the choral basses in measures 1011 of movement 7,

and later, at the return of the movements opening structural material, the motif
appears in the tenor part (measures 103104). And since the entire ending sec-
tion of music from movement 1 (measures 147end) is used to end movement 7
(measures 155end), the cell motifs at both the end of movement 1 and move-
ment 7 are identical.
The first three notes of the violins (doubled by the violas, flutes, and clarinets)
at the beginning of movement 2 (Example8.5) are a version of the cell motif, this
time with intervals of a second followed by a third instead of a third followed by a
second. This new motivic form is used pervasively throughout the entire first half
of movement 2 (shown two times in brackets).
Example8.5: Third Version of the Cell Motif (beginning of movement2)
To accomplish a mirror structure, the motif does not appear at the beginning
of movement 6, but instead at the end, as the first three notes of the fugue subject
beginning in measure 208 and continuing some 140 measures to the end of the
movement (Example8.6).
Example8.6: Third Version of the Cell Motif (end of movement6)
Another different form of the motif is used at the beginning of movement 3,

here with the interval of a third followed by a second in the opposite direction.
This motif is seen at the first entrance of the baritone solo (Example8.7, measure
3)and at the later places when this melody is repeated (e.g., choral sopranos mea-
sure 19 and baritone solo measure68).
Example8.7: Fourth Version of the Cell Motif (beginning of movement3)
It should be noted that in measure 5 of this melody the motif appears in its
original form, with ascending intervals of a third and a second. Attention is not
drawn to this as a primary use of the cell motif, however, because it does not
appear at the very beginning of the melody and because the arrangement of inter-
vals is common to many melodies. The original form of the motif is used, quite
poignantly, at the beginning of the section of music that precedes the D-pedal
fugue. This section, beginning in measure 164 (the soprano part of measures 165
and 166 shown in Example8.8), to the text Ich hoffe auf dich (I hope inthee).
Example8.8: Original Cell Motif (middle of movement3)
Then, immediately following this short section of music, the fugue melody
(which is used numerous times until the end of the movement) also begins with
the cell motif in its original form (Example8.9, tenor part, measure173).
Example8.9: Original Cell Motif (end of movement3)

At the beginning of movement 5, the original form of the motif appears as the
first three notes of the primary instrumental melodythe instrumental melody
that accompanies the first entrance of the soprano solo and is played by oboe,
flute, clarinet, and flute again in close succession (Example8.10, oboe, measure4).
The motif then appears in inverted form at the beginning of the chorus melo-
dies in the structural B section of the movement (measures 3436 and 4345).
Example8.11 shows the tenor part of measures 34 and35.
Example8.11: Inverted Cell Motif (middle of movement5)
The original form of the motif returns in the wind instruments at the reappear-
ance of the structural Amaterial (oboe, measure49).
The usage of the cell motif is most unique in the fourth movementthe
movement that stands at the very center of the Requiem. Here, the motif is
used as the first three notes of both the opening instrumental melody (shown
in Example8.12 with the flute part transposed down an octave) and the opening
soprano choral melody (Example8.13)the choral melody being an exact inver-
sion of the instrumental melody.
Example8.12: Inverted Cell Motif (beginning of movement4)

These two melodies then reappear at the beginning of the structural center
of the movement (measures 8593), which is also the structural center of the
Requiem, and then again at the end of the movement (the instrumental version
beginning in measure152).
An entirely different musical motif is also thought to pervade the Requiem,
although it can only be seen definitively in movement 2 and somewhat discern-
ibly in movement 6.This new motif is a melody based on the chorale Wer nur
den lieben Gott lt walten found in several Bach cantatas. Of significance, the
chorale appears as a cantus firmus in the ninth movement of Bachs cantata BWV
21, Ich hatte viel Bekmmernis, which, as mentioned earlier, Brahms conducted
with the Vienna Singakademie in November 1863. As seen below, the phrases in
the Bach and Brahms works are remarkably similar. The first phrase of the Bach
chorale is shown in Example8.14; the first Brahms choral phrase of movement 2
is shown in Example8.15.
Example8.14: Chorale Melody in Bach Cantata BWV 21, movement9
Example8.15: Primary Melody in Brahms Requiem, movement2
The beginning of the Vivace section in the sixth movement of the Requiem is
also somewhat similar in design to the first phrase of the chorale. Shown here in
Example8.16 is the soprano part, measures8285
Example8.16: Adapted Chorale Melody from Brahms Requiem, movement6
In addition to having the shape of the chorale, these melodies in movements 2

and 6 are both in minor keys and in 3/4 time (the same as Bachs setting in cantata
BWV 21). Furthermore, it is important to note that movements 2 and 6 are related
in the overall mirror structure of the Requiem. Regarding this mirror relationship,
both movements 2 and 6 share another prominent melody, one that begins the
imitative section of movement 2 (Example 8.17, bass part, measure 206208) and
that is used for the entrance of the baritone solo in movement 6 (Example 8.18,
measure 2830), repeated again beginning at measure 109.
Example8.17: Secondary Melody, movement2
Example8.18: Secondary Melody, movement6
Mirror Construction
Beyond the placement of musical motifs and melodies, Brahms uses the device
of mirror construction in his arrangement and organization of texts, keys, per-
forming forces, and structural designs. Regarding texts, the distribution of bibli-
cal verses into the seven movements of the Requiem, while all communicating the
same basic message, have differing focuses arranged in mirror fashion. The outer
two or bookend movements (1 and 7)speak of hope and comfort for the living
and the dead; the inner movements (2 and 6, 3 and 5)speak of misery, affliction,
and sadness followed by comfort at the time of death; the central movement of
the Requiem (4)has no mention of death whatsoever. Furthermore, the Requiem
begins and ends with the same wordSelig (Blessed).
The keys of the movements are also arranged in a mirror fashion:movement 1
has the internal structure of F Major, D-flat Major, and F Major, while movement
7 has the mirror structure of F Major, AMajor, and F Major (the middle key of D-
flat Major in movement 1 being a major third below F Major, and the middle key
of AMajor in movement 7 being a major third above F Major); movements 2 and
6 are in keys closely related to F MajorB-flat Minor and C Minor, respectively
but end in the major keys of B-flat and C; movements 3 and 5 are in keys that
relate to each other (D and G) but that are further afield from F Major; and move-
ment 4 is in E-flat Major, furthest removed from FMajor.
In terms of performing forces, it is interesting to note that movements 1, 7,
and 4 (outer and center) are entirely choral, while movements 3 and 5 are primar-
ily for soloists. In terms of compositional textures, movements 2 and 6 both end
with imitative or fugal writing.
Finally, mirror construction can be seen in formal compositional structures,

both within and between movements and also within sections of movements.
Movements 1 and 7 have return structures, meaning that the music at the begin-
ning of each movement returns at the end of the movement. Also, movement 7
ends with the same music that ends movement 1. Movements 2 and 6 are the
longest movements in the Requiem both in numbers of measures (337 and 349,
respectively) and in time. In addition, these movements are divided into more sec-
tions, end with lengthy imitative or fugal material, and do not have overall return
structures (although movement 2 is ABA before the lengthy closing C). Movements
3 and 5 are the least related structurally, probably due to the late composition of
movement 5.These movements both have return structures, however; movement
3 is aabba within the larger Aand movement 5 is basically ABA since the final B
is short and acts as a closing. Movement 4, standing alone in the center of the
Requiem, has a double return structure, with the central portion of the move-
ment the same as the movements beginning and ending. Following are the specific
structural designs of each movement, with prime markings denoting music that
is similar but not exact and with measure numbers in parentheses. Note that the
capital letters of each movement (the As, Bs, and Cs) are different from eachother.
Movement 1ABABA
A(147)
B (4764)
A' (6578)
B' (7995)
A" (96144)
Closing (144end)
Movement 2ABAC (the two As are identical)

A-a instrumental(122)
A-a choral and instrumental (2242)
A-a instrumental (4254)
B-b choral (7483)
B-b instrumental and choral (8390)
B-c choral (91106)
B-b choral and instrumental (107126)
A-a instrumental (126145)
A-a' instrumental (166178)
Transition (198206)
C (206end)
Movement3ABC
A-a baritone solo(116)
A-a chorus (1733)
A-b baritone solo (3348)
A-b chorus (4866)
A-a baritone solo and chorus (6693)
Closing (93104) orchestra, with materialfromb
B-c baritone solo (105118)
B-d baritone solo (118128) with orchestral materialfromb
B-c chorus (129142)
Transition (142163 and 164173)
C (173end) D-pedalfugue
Movement 4ABACA
A(146)
B (4684)
A' (84123)
C (123153)
A" (152end)
Movement5ABAB
A(127)
B (2749)
A' (4972)
B' (72end) from the second halfofB
Movement6ABCD
A-a(117)
A-a' (1828)
B (2866)
Transition (6781)
C (82108)
B' (109127)
C' (128208)
D (208end)
Movement 7ABBA (the Closing is identical to that in movement1)

A(139)
B (4076)
B' (76102)
A' (102132)
Closing (132end)

Nineteenth-century performance conventions and issues specific to Brahms and
his Requiem include instrumentation, timbre and vibrato, metric accentuation,
logistical disposition of performing forces, nuanced dynamic levels, and tempo
fluctuation.
Instrumentation, Timbre, and Vibrato

Ein deutsches Requiem is scored for two vocal soloists (soprano and baritone),
mixed chorus (SATB), and orchestra of piccolo, two flutes, two oboes, two clari-
nets, two bassoons, contrabassoon, four horns, two trumpets, three trombones,
tuba, two harps, strings, timpani, and organ. Regarding the instruments, the con-
trabassoon part was not original but added later by Brahms as a substitute for
the organ, which was not always available. The harps play from one part, which
Brahms requested be doubled (i.e., two harps should play from the one part). The
organ was a common orchestral inclusion during the nineteenth century in large-
scale sacred works. For example, Mendelssohn wrote organ parts in Elijah and
St. Paul as well as in Lobgesang (his second symphony), Liszt and Bruckner wrote
parts for the organ in their orchestral Masses, and Mahler included the organ in
his second and eighth symphonies. The organ part for Brahmss Requiem did not
appear in the original full score published by Rieter-Biedermann in 1868. Instead,
there were notations in the string bass part (con Org. and Org. tacet), although
there was a fully realized organ part along with the other published instrumental
parts. Brahms felt that the organ was an essential component of the total instru-
mental timbre and was disappointed when, in some concert hall performances,
it was absent. Perhaps as a substitute, he added the contrabassoon part, which
appeared neither in the full score nor the original published parts, but which he
indicated in the string bass part of his personal conducting score. (Later parts
used in Vienna include a contrabassoon part.) Unrelated to the full orchestra-
tion of the Requiem, but of interest in terms of instrumentation, especially to
performers who would like to perform the work but who do not have access to an
orchestra, Brahms made a piano four-hand scoring of the orchestral texture, this
in 1871 for a performance in London.
The generally conceived notion that the Brahms sound is rich in overtones
and full bodied in texture and timbre is erroneous. The timbre of instruments dur-
ing the nineteenth century was closer in sound to the instruments of the Classical
and Baroque eras than to the sound of modern-day instruments. For instance,
the nineteenth-century German oboes were shorter, softer, and mellower; the
popular Viennese flutes were longer and softer in the high range, producing
sounds with considerably less presence in Brahmss high tessituras than when
played by modern flutes; and the timpani, played with hard sticks, were brighter
than modern-day counterparts. Vocal timbre was also softer and purersimilar
to that produced by the instruments of the time. As stated by Jean-Louis Tulou

(17861865) in his flute treatise of 1835, a beautiful tone on the flute is a tone
that most resembles the fullness and mellow quality of the human voice.
Several important nineteenth-century sources discuss idealized sweetness of
vocal timbre. For example, Isaac Nathan (17901864) states in his singing trea-
tise Musurgia vocalis of1836,
Agreeable sounds to the ear are as genial as the sun to the flowers. Asweet-
toned mellow voice is one of natures best gifts; it soothes the spirit by its
mellifluence, and immediately prepossesses those who listen in favor of the
possessor, while the harsh and discordant voice jars on the ear and irritates the
nerves. Pure tone is the most essential requisite in singing. Quality more
than quantity of tone should be the chief consideration. A judicious singer,
with even a weak voice, will frequently, from nice management, excite more
pleasure than another whose magnificent volume of tone leads him to loftier
flights.
And to underscore the appreciation of soft singing, there are numerous nineteenth-
century comments about falsetto singing. Nathan explains techniques for the
joining of the falsetto to the natural voice, William Thomas Parke (17621847)
wrote in his memoirs, positively, about hearing performances by vocalists singing
in falsetto, and Manuel Garcia (18051906), the famous Spanish baritone and
voice teacher, wrote in his singing treatise of 1847, The falsetto register forms
the purest and brightest portion of the soprano voice.
There is considerable documentation about vibrato in the eighteenth century.
J. J. Quantz, C. P. E. Bach, Leopold Mozart, Giuseppe Tartini, Daniel Gottlob
Trk, and Johann Georg Tromlitz all describe it in their treatises, with consistent
commentary about its limited use in performance; vibrato was considered to be
ornamental, used occasionally at the apex of long, held notes. In the nineteenth
century the authors of voice treatises disparage the use of vibrato. Nathan states
that tones should be devoid of tremor and Garcia calls vibrato an intolerable
fault that ruins every style of singing. Furthermore, the violinist Joseph Joachim,
who played in the 1868 performance of the Brahms Requiem, admonished players
to recognize the steady tone as the ruling one and to use vibrato only when the
expression seems to demand it. From these comments and others related to tim-
bre, it seems certain that vibrato, as it is known and generally practiced today, was
not the prevailing quality of playing and singing that would have been familiar to
Brahms. Nor would a constancy of vibrato or wideness in pitch fluctuation have
been commonplace in opera and with the music of such composers as Richard
Wagner. The kind of vibrato and rich vocalism expected today of Wagnerian sing-
ers was unnecessary in the nineteenth century. In Wagners opera housethe
Festspielhaus in Bayreuthfor example, most of the large orchestra, including all
the wind, brass, and percussion instruments, sat (and still sit today) in stepped
tiers under the stage. In addition, the curved edge of the orchestra pit directs the
sound of the orchestra toward the stage, not the audience, and the brick walls of
the house and wooden seats create a reverberant acoustic that aids the singers.
Heavy vocalism in the Festspielhaus and throughout Germany and Austria during
the nineteenth century was not required. A pure tone with sweetness of timbre
and minimal vibrato was the norm.
Metric Accentuation
Metric accentuation the practice of emphasizing certain notes and de-
emphasizing others as determined by the placement of the notes in regular metric
schemes or patternswas not as prevalent a feature of performance during the
Romantic era as it had been during the Classical era. By the middle of the nine-
teenth century the melodic style focused more on long phrase sections than on
collections of short units. However, metric accentuation was still a common attri-
bute of performance. Wagner mentions this in his conducting treatise of1869.
Has not every German heard the overture to Der Freischtz over and over
again? I have been told of sundry persons who were surprised to find how fre-
quently they had listened to this wonderful musical poem, without having been
shocked when it was rendered in the most trivial manner; these persons were
among the audience of a concert given at Vienna in 1864, when I was invited
to conduct the overture. At the rehearsal it came to pass that the orchestra of
the imperial opera (certainly one of the finest orchestras in existence), were
surprised at my demands regarding the execution of this piece.
I arranged with the excellent musicians that they were to play thistheme:
legato, and with an equable piano, i.e., without the customary commonplace
accentuation and not as follows:
That metric accentuation was customary and commonplace, and that Wagner
expected and appreciated it, is related by Heinrich Porges in 1876 as he followed
Wagners instructions to follow all my rehearsals very closely and to note
down everything I say, even the smallest details, about the interpretation and
performance of our work. According to Porges, published in the book Wagner
Rehearsing the Ring:An Eye-Witness Account of the Stage Rehearsals of the First
Bayreuth Festival, Wagner insisted that the metrical accents, i.e., those at the
beginning of each bar, should have their full weight.
As it reveals and manifests performance that is oratorical and that
approaches natural declamation strong syllables being naturally more
emphasized than weak syllables, and weak syllables being in relief of and in
contrast to the strong onesmetric accentuation is especially important in
the Brahms Requiem. Two passages, of many in the Requiem, demonstrate the
need for this. In the second (B)section of movement 2, which has the character
of a lndler (a folk-like dance popular in Germany and Austria during the nine-
teenth century), it is important to de-emphasize beats two and three of every
measure, the reduction of stress coinciding with both the lndler effect and the
oratorical pronunciation of the text. Shown in Example 8.19 is the soprano
part, measures7582.
Example8.19
A similar treatment is necessary in the second (B) section of movement 4

(shown in Example8.20, bass part, measures 4952).
Example8.20
Both of the above passages, being in 3/4 time, have the metric accentuation
pattern of strong/weak/weak in each measure. The strong beats (the down-
beats) require no special stress, however. The downbeats only appear to be
strong as beats two and three are softer and shorter in duration. Of critical
importance in these examples is to de-emphasize the final syllables of gedul-
dig, Brder, and sehnet. The de-emphasis of unaccented syllables as they
would be pronounced in ordinary speech was a common and important fac-
tor of musical performance during the Romantic era. A natural rise and fall of
textual emphasis, being a continuation of the oratorical customs of previous
eras, was pervasive. The variety of emphases revealed the innate phrasing and
expression of musical lines.
StageSet-up
Choirs were generally placed in front of or beside orchestras in performances
before the twentieth century. This is verified in numerous primary source layout
drawings and descriptions and has been discussed previously regarding the posi-
tioning of chorus and orchestra in Bachs B Minor Mass, Handels Messiah, Haydns
The Creation, Beethovens Symphony no.9, and Mendelssohns St. Paul. Until the
middle of the nineteenth century it was common to place the chorus completely
in front of the orchestra, the orchestra being on raised platforms. During the lat-
ter part of the nineteenth century, however, the chorus and orchestra were often
beside each other in some fashion or another. In a depiction of performances at
the Lower Rhine Music Festival in Aachen, the orchestra was wedged between the
chorus at the center of the stage (see the depiction for Mendelssohn St. Paul), and
in all the performances of the Verdi Requiem conducted by Verdi, the chorus and
orchestra were placed side by side, the chorus on the right and the orchestra on
the left side of thestage.
The chorus and orchestra disposition for the Brahms Requiem performances
may or may not have been identical to the Lower Rhine set-up. The exact place-
ment of performers for the Brahms Requiem is unknown. However, it is unlikely
that the chorus was placed behind the orchestra as in standard concert hall and
cathedral performances of modern times. In these more recent performances, the
communication of the text and choral fabric of sound is compromised, however
brilliantly prepared the chorus might be. Abetter service to the Requiem would
be to place the chorus on both sides of the orchestra in what might be called the
flank design. This design prevents blend issues and provides audience members
and orchestral musicians an expressive connection to the music andtext.
Shown in Diagram 8.A is a representation of performing forces that approxi-
mates the disposition of chorus and orchestra as they might have been arranged
for performances of the Brahms Ein deutsches Requiem during the nineteenth
century. Included in the representation are approximate numbers of perform-
ers, with a total of ninety-six choristers and seventy-four orchestral musicians.
Note that the chorus is as close to the downstage edge of the performing area as
the violins and that there is a contingent of sopranos, altos, tenors, and basses
on both sides of the orchestra. Note also that the string basses are placed at the
center rear of the stage as often located in the Vienna Philharmonic, and that the
orchestra contains anorgan.
The close proximity of chorus to both audience and orchestra aids in the convey-
ance of expressive dynamic or volume levelsthese being considerably nuanced
during the nineteenth century and also more complex than the dynamic markings
indicated in the published score. Brahms, for example, supplemented the pub-
lished score with handwritten expressive markings in his personal score. Most
of these markings are crescendo and diminuendo (cresc. and dim.) indications
that amplify the already existing printed indications, which are plentiful. Afew
10 St. Bass
2 Tpt. 3 Tmb. Tuba
12 B 10 T Timp. 4 Hn. 12 A 14 S
Org.
2 CI. 2 Bsn. Cbsn.
Harp
Harp
Pic. 2 FI. 2 Ob.
14 S 12 A 10 Vlc. 10 Vla. 10 T 12 B
Diagram 8.A: Projected Disposition of Performers for the Brahms Requiem
indications seem to correct printed instructions (e.g., p marked in the trombone

3 part of measures 58 and 91 in movement 1, and crescendo signs marked in
the trumpet part of measures 150152 in movement 3), and a few markings are
made for dramatic effects (e.g., a decrescendo in measure 204 and a crescendo in
measure 205 of the timpani part in movement 2). All of the handwritten mark-
ings are listed in the article A Recently Discovered Composer-Annotated Score
of the Brahms Requiem by Max Rudolf, published by the Riemenschneider Bach
Institute in1976.
Tempo Fluctuation
There was a long and valued tradition of tempo fluctuation, based on expres-
sive characteristics of music, that began well before the Romantic era. Johann
Joachim Quantz in his flute treatise of 1752 address the subject writing, I do
not pretend that a whole piece should be measured in accordance with the pulse
beat; this would be absurd and impossible, and Daniel Gottlob Trk writes in his
clavier treatise of 1789, Even when the composer has indicated the proper man-
ner of expression as well as he can there still remain special cases for which the
expression can be heightened by extraordinary means. Among these, Iparticularly
include the following:1)playing without keeping steady time; 2)quickening and
hesitating; 3)the so-called tempo rubato.
Confirmation that the tradition of tempo rubato continued in the nineteenth
century can be found in many, many primary sources from countries throughout
Europe. All of the sources basically support and promote pliability of tempo in
performance. However, practices varied from country to country, musical genre

to genre, and performer/conductor to performer/conductor. Moreover, there was
considerable debate from various camps within countries as to the degree of fluc-
tuation expected from certain composers and practiced by certain performers.
The polemics of these many differences will not be addressed here. Instead, dis-
cussion, with supportive primary source material, will be limited to the German
practices followed by Brahms and applicable to his Requiem.
Beethoven is essential to the development of these practices. His performing
style was well known and revered during the first half of the nineteenth century,
and there are many accounts of his philosophies about and manifestations of
tempo rubato. As an example of these accounts, Anton Felix Schindler, writing in
his 1840 biography of Beethoven,says,
Everything I have ever heard Beethoven perform was, with very few excep-
tions, entirely free from constraint in the matter of tempo; it was tempo
rubato in the truest meaning of the word, induced by the content and context
of themusic.
And supporting expressive performance, Alexander Wheelock Thayer, in his

biography of Beethoven (18661879), writes about Ferdinand Ries, who was
Beethovens student.
When Imade a mistake in a passage, or wrongly struck notes or leaps that he

often wanted specially emphasized, Beethoven seldom said anything. But if my
fault was in expression, or a crescendo, etc., or in the character of the piece, he
became angry, because, as he said, the former was accidental, while the latter
showed a lack of knowledge, feeling, or attention.
Quoted below are excerpts from writings by four notable Germans of the nine-
teenth century whose commentary about expression and tempo support the prac-
tices developed from Beethoven prior to and throughout the life of Brahms. Carl
Maria Von Weber (17861826), an important composer, pianist, and conductor
of the early Romantic era who had a significant influence on many later German
composers, speaks of tempo fluctuation that cannot be notated; Adolf Bernhard
Marx (17951866), a theorist, critic, and close associate of Felix Mendelssohn,
writes about the importance of expressivity in performance; Franz Liszt (1811
1886), one of the great German composers of the Romantic era and a leader of the
Neudeutsche Schule (New German School) of composition in which feeling gov-
erns performance, talks, like von Weber, of expressive considerations in perfor-
mance that are beyond notation; and Eduard Hanslick (18251904), a well-known
and respected music critic and champion of Brahms, talks about the conducting
style of Hans von Blow (18301894), one of the most famous conductors of the
Romantic era. Important in this quote is the mention of tempo rubato with large
orchestras.
Carl Maria von Weber, discussing, in 1824, tempo in his opera Euryanthe:
The sensation of a forward impetus, or for that matter of holding back, should
never give the listener an impression of hurrying, dragging, or indeed any-
thing violent in tempo. Music and poetic significance can only take the forms
of period or phrase, depending on the intensity of expression. Music has no
means of putting all this on paper. All depends on the sensitivity of the human
individual. If this is lacking, little help can be expected from the metronome,
which can only guard against the most crass errors.
Adolf Bernhard Marx, writing in his Allgemeine Musiklehre of1839:
Besides technical skill, a perfect acquaintance with and observation of the

written expression marks is indispensable for proper performance. We also
hold, however, that in addition to these, sensitivity and insight into those
matters that cannot be completely expressed in words are just as necessary.
As for the meaning and purpose of the whole work and all its sections, they
may be written down and defined or they may be filled out from our personal
feelings. At the same time, we must keep in mind that every feature takes its
direction from the central idea and purpose of the whole work, and that we
too, when we seek to understand, study, and perform a work, must proceed
from its central idea. To understand and present a work perfectly, starting
with this central idea and following it through all of its parts:this is the objec-
tive of artistic performance.
Franz Liszt, in the Preface to the published edition of his Symphonic Poems
of1856:
I may be allowed to remark that it is my wish that the mechanical, bar by bar, up
and down beating of time, which can be observed in so many places, should as
far as possible be discarded, and that only the periodic divisions, with the promi-
nence of certain accentuation and the rounding off of melodic and rhythmic
nuances, should alone be regarded as indispensable. The vitality of a symphonic
performance depends upon the intellectual perception of the conductor, presum-
ing that suitable material for its realization is to be found in the orchestra.
Although I have endeavored to make my intentions clear by providing exact
marks of expression, Icannot conceal from myself that much, and that perhaps
the most important, cannot be set forth on paper, but can only be successfully
brought to light by the artistic capability and the sympathetic and enthusiastic
reproduction by both conductor and performers.
Eduard Hanslick, reviewing, in 1884, the conducting style of Hans vonBlow:
Blow conducts the orchestra as if it were a little bell in his hand. The most
admirable discipline has transformed it [the orchestra] into an instrument on
which he plays with utter freedom and from which he produces nuances possible
only with the discipline to which larger orchestras would not ordinarily submit.
But since he can achieve these nuances securely, it is understandable that he
applies them at those places where they would seem appropriate to him if he
were playing the same piece on the piano. It would be unjust to call these tempo
changes liberties, since conscientious adherence to the score is a primary and
inviolable rule with Blow. It is hard to draw the line, and opinion will vary
according to individual taste and the character of specific passages. Metronomic
evenness of tempo has, in any case, been disavowed by all modern conductors.
Additionally, there are several nineteenth-century primary-source comments

about Brahms himself and his propensity for extremes of tempo fluctuation in
performance. The majority of these commentaries come from letters or diary
entries by Clara Schumann. Two commentaries, however, are from Brahms him-
self, one of which deals directly with his Requiem.
Clara Schumann, in her diary entry of March 26,1854:
In the evening Brahms played me his wonderful new trio [B-flat major] at Frl.
Lesers, but Idid not entirely understand it. Icannot quite get used to the con-
stant change of tempo in his works, and besides, he plays them so entirely
according to his own fancy that today, for example, although Iwas reading the
music from score, Icould not follow him, and it was very difficult for his fellow
players to keep their places.
Clara Schumann, in her diary entry of May 24,1854:
It is not easy to play with Brahms; he plays too arbitrarily, and cares nothing for
a quarter note more orless.
Clara Schumann in a letter of May 7, 1878, writing about two works by Robert
Schumann:
Carnaval and Phantasiestcke have at last gone off to the Hrtels [publishers], after
Ihad worried myself for days with the metronome on their account. Ihad bought
myself a watch with a minute hand, and the long and short of it is that Ihave given
up. You were quite right. The work [of assigning metronome markings] is torture.
It makes one quite desperate. Anyone who understands the pieces will play them
alright, and those who do not understand them need not bother.
Brahms to Clara Schumann in a May 1893 letter:
I am tempted to have a short pianoforte piece copied for you, as Ishould very
much like to know how you get on with it. It is exceptionally melancholy, and to
say, to be played very slowly is not sufficient. Every bar and every note must be
played as if ritardando were indicated, and one wished to draw the melancholy
out of each one of them, and voluptuous joy and comfort out of the discords.
Brahms, in a letter of February 1880 to his friend George Henschel regarding tem-
pos in the Requiem:
The question in your letter received today is somewhat obscure, indistinct; Ihardly
know how to answer: If the indications by figures [metronome marks] of the
tempos in my Requiem should be strictly adhered to? Well, just as with all other
music, Ithink that the metronome is of no value. As far at least as my experi-
ence goes, everyone has, sooner or later, withdrawn his metronome marks. Those
which can be found in my worksgood friends have talked me into putting them
there, for Imyself have never believed that my blood and a mechanical instrument
go well together. The so-called elastic tempo is, moreover, not a new invention.
Con discrezione should be added to that as to many other things.
There is further evidence by Brahms of tempo fluctuation in the Requiem, this in

the form of serpent lines (traditionally used to denote ritards) marked in red pencil
by the composer in the full score he presumably used in performances. The score is a
printing of the Requiems first edition, published by Rieter-Biedermann in 1868 and
now housed in the Riemenschneider Bach Institute. Alist of the serpent line loca-
tions, following here, can also be found in the Max Rudolf article mentionedabove.
Movement1
Measure 61, beats two and three, above the choral sopranostaff
Measure 6263 above the choral tenorstaff
Measure 9596 above the choral sopranostaff
Movement2
Measure 301302 above the Violin Istaff
Movement3
Measure 140141 above both the Flute and Violin Istaves
Measure 153 (from the end of the bar into the margin of the page) above the
Timpanistaff
Movement6
Measure 287288 above both the Flute and Violinstaves
Measure 329 above both the Flute and Violin Istaves
Movement7
In addition to the serpent lines denoting retards, Brahms also notates the follow-
ing markings that affecttempo:
Movement1
Langsam (slow) in Measure 102103 above the Violastaff
Movement2
nicht schleppen (dont drag) before measure 1 of the Timpanistaff
Movement3
vorwrts (forward, increase tempo) in measure 144 above the choral
tenorstaff
vor (abbreviation of vorwrts) in measure 148 above the Violin Istaff
vorwrts in measure 155 above the choral tenorstaff
nicht schleppen in measure 159161 above the choral sopranostaff
Breit (broadly) in measure 164 covering the Violastaff
Sehr breit (very broad) in measure 169170 above the Violastaff
Movement5
Sehr langsam 4/4 in measure 1819 under the choral bass staff
rit. in measure 25 over the choral sopranostaff
Imer [sic] sehr langs in measure 64 covering the choral soprano and altostaves
Movement6
gemessen (measured, stately) in measure 34 above the Violin Istaff
Viel Schneller (much faster) in measure 5153 covering the choral soprano and
altostaves
piu accelr (more accelerando) in measure 6566 between the choral soprano and
altostaves
in measure 68 covering the choral soprano and alto staves
accelr in measure 72 above the choral sopranostaff
a fermata on the second quarter note of measure 200 above the choral
sopranostaff
breit (broadly) in measure 201 above the choral sopranostaff
tempo in measure 204 above the choral sopranostaff

vorw (forward, increase tempo) in measure 248 above the choral altostaff
vor. in measure 284 above both the Flute and Violin Istaves
flott (brisk) in measure 331 near the choral sopranostaff
vorw in measure 331332 covering the Timpanistaff
breit in measure 338 above both the Flute and Violin Istaves
mehr (more) in measure 344345 above both the Flute and Violin Istaves
rit. in measure 347 above the choral sopranostaff
Almost all the serpent lines occur at the ends of major sections of music
or at transition points where one might expect a ritardando of some sort. In
addition, the serpent lines in the fugue of movement 6 are interesting in that
they delineate important structural points of this long section of music. The
one serpent line in movement 7 is especially gratifying as it allows time for the
modulation from D-flat Major back to the home key of F Major. However, there
is one odd and inexplicable serpent linethe one in measure 153 of move-
ment 3; this is in the middle of a section of music where Brahms has marked
the term vorwrts (forward, increase tempo) several times (measures 144, 148,
and155).
The handwritten tempo terms either reinforce the existence of the serpent
lines or make sense to the general flow of the music. The terms also sup-
port a commitment to expressive delivery of the music and text. The several
instances of vorwrts in movement 3 add momentum to the growing tension
of the music, and the references to slow tempos in movement 5 confirm the
melancholy character of the text. The terms indicating increase of tempo in
movement 6 are a particularly important indicator that the printed tempo
terms are limited and not binding. To wit, Viel Schneller in measure 5153
and piu accelr in measure 6566 precede the printed accel. in measure 68 (the
measure in which Brahms marks alla breve). And, most remarkable as an
expressive component of the score and dramatic highlight of the text, is the
fermata in measure 200 of movement 6 before the final statements of Wo ist
deinSieg?
While insightful, the handwritten tempo indications do not reveal the degree
to which Brahms wanted or practiced tempo fluctuation. Were they slight and
nuanced or were they overt and perhaps extreme? Given the personality of
Brahms as a performer, they were probably pronounced; they were undoubtedly
more frequent in occurrence and more variable in tempo than the fluctuation
most musicians practice today, with their pervasive and slavish commitment
to performing scores come scritto (as written) and with no deviations from
printed instructions. At the least, the markings by Brahms along with primary
source commentary from the nineteenth century give the modern-day performer
license and reason to hold expressivity and nuance of tempo as major factors of
performance.
Summary
The Brahms Requiem has had many critically acclaimed performances, both in
the past and in more recent times. Soloists, choristers, and orchestras have been
finely tuned and well prepared, and audiences as well as performers have been
transported to peaks of aesthetic enjoyment, even though few of the esteemed
performances have paid heed to or incorporated the performance practices dis-
cussed here. Some conductors have taken a few tempo liberties not marked in
the published score, and there have been recordings and performances that have
emulated the timbre of the nineteenth century by using instruments of the time.
However, most performances of the Requiem have been without the integration
of nineteenth-century ideals of timbre and vibrato, metric accentuation, tempo
fluctuation, and stage set-up with the chorus on the sides of the orchestra. Would
the addition of these factors be received positively? Perhaps not. Perhaps, like the
restoration of the Sistine Chapel ceiling during the final decades of the twentieth
century, many people will be offended by the alteration of a work they have come
to know and revere. Change, for whatever noble reasons, can be difficult to accept.
But all forms of art deserve to be presented as they were conceivedto be
cleansed of whatever applications have obscured an original identity. The cleans-
ing or restoration process is generally an accepted process of art and architecture;
restorations are sanctioned and generally viewed positively, the stewards of the
paintings and buildings knowing that restoration will reveal yet greater beauty.
So it should be with music, including works like the Brahms Requiem. The incor-
poration of relevant performance practices, being the equivalent of art and archi-
tecture restoration, will reveal a greater beauty of the music, however unfamiliar
the revelation may be at the time of its introduction. Apure timbre with minimal
vibrato will impart greater textural clarity, variation of metric accentuation will
enhance textual comprehension, a stage set-up with choristers downstage will
bring textual nuance to audiences and orchestras, and a range of tempo fluctua-
tion as indicated by Brahms in his conducting score will heighten musical expres-
sion. The Requiem will be revealed as an even greater masterpiece.
Avins, Styra and Eisinger, Josef, translators. Johannes Brahms:Life and Letters. Oxford University
Press,2001.
Dt Grazia, Donna M., editor. Nineteenth-Century Choral Music. Routledge,2013.
Frish, Walter and Karnes, Kevin C., editors. Brahms and His World. Revised edition. Princeton
Garcia, Manuel. Trait complet de lart du chant. Paris, 18401847. Translated by Donald V.
Paschke as A Complete Treatise on the Art of Singing (Part One and part Two). Da Capo Press,
1984 (Part One) and 1975 (PartTwo).
Gardiner, John Eliot, conductor. Brahms Ein Deutsches Requiem. Recording with the Monteverdi
Choir and Orchestre Rvolutionnaire et Romantique. Philips,1991.
Geiringer, Karl. Brahms:His Life and Work. Da Capo Press,1984.
Litzman, Berthold. Letters of Clara Schumann and Johannes Brahms, 1853 1896. Vienna
House,1971.
MacDonald, Malcolm. Brahms. Oxford University Press,2001.
Marx, Adolf Bernhard. Allgemeine Musiklehre. Leipzig,1839.
Mayhall, Ronald Bruce. Tempo Fluctuation in the Romantic Era as Revealed by Nineteenth-
Century Sources and Applied to Selected Choral Compositions. University of Oklahoma
Doctoral Dissertation,1990.
Musgrave, Michael. Brahms AGerman Requiem. Cambridge University Press,1996.
Musgrave, Michael. The Music of Brahms. Oxford University Press,2001.
Musgrave, Michael and Sherman, Bernard D., editors. Performing Brahms: Early Evidence of
Performance Style. Cambridge University Press,2003.
Nathan, Isaac. Musurgia vocalis. London,1836.
Parke, William Thomas. Musical Memoirs:An Account of the General State of Music in England from
the First Commemoration of Handel, in 1784, to the Year 1830. London, 1830. Reprint by Da
Capo Press,1970.
Pleasants, Henry, editor and translator. Hanslicks Music Criticisms. Dover,1950.
Porges, Heinrich. Wagner Rehearsing the Ring: An Eye-Witness Account of the Stage Rehearsals
of the First Bayreuth Festival. Translated by Robert L. Jacobs. Cambridge University
Press,1983.
Rudolf, Max. A Recently Discovered Composer-Annotated Score of the Brahms Requiem.
Riemenschneider Bach Institute,1976.
Schopenhauer, Arthur. Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung. Leipzig, 18181844. Translated by E.
F.J. Payne as The World as Will and Representation, Volume 1. Dover,2012.
Swafford, Jan. Johannes Brahms, ABiography. Vintage Books,1999.
Tulou, Jean-Louis. Mthode de flute. Paris,1835.
9
Giuseppe Verdi Messa da Requiem

The most beautiful, the most magnificent, the most colossally
poetic page one can imagine. Nothing more perfect has been done
so far, nothing beyond it can ever bedone.
Alberto Mazzucato
(composer and music critic, commenting
on the Libera me of the Requiem)
Introduction
Like so many European composers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
including the Italians Gaetano Donizetti and Giacomo Puccini who would be
known almost exclusively for their operas, Verdi spent his youth associated with
the churchlearning musical skills from local choirmasters, playing the organ,
and writing sacred choral pieces. At the age of eight Verdi began serving as the
organist at a local church in Le Roncole, the village of his birth, and at twelve
he became organist at San Bartolomeo in the nearby town of Busseto. Verdi also
occasionally sang in the church choirs and composed various motets and other
liturgical pieces, including a Stabat Mater. At age fifteen he composed the can-
tata I deliri di Saul, an extended work based on a drama by Vittorio Alfieri (1749
1803), the so-called founder of Italian tragedy, and at twenty-two Verdi composed
a Mass entitled Messa Solenne (also called Messa di Gloria). Meanwhile, at eighteen
he applied for but was denied admission to the Milan conservatory (later named
after him), and he began studies with the maestro di concertatore at La Scala,
where he served as keyboardist for a number of operas and oratorios, including
Haydns The Creation. In his late twenties, Verdi composed his first opera, Oberto,
conte di San Bonifacio, which was premiered at La Scala in 1839, and thereafter he
devoted himself almost exclusively to the composition and production of oper-
atic works. He eventually composed twenty-six operas (not counting eleven revi-
sions), including Nabucco in 1842, Ernani in 1844, Macbeth in 1847, Luisa Miller in
1849, Rigoletto in 1851, Il trovatore and La traviata in 1853, Un ballo in maschera in
1859, La forza del destino in 1862, Don Carlos in 1867, Otello in 1887, and Falstaff
in 1893. His only choral composition during his adult years before the Messa da
322
Verdi Messa da R equ i em 323
Requiem was Inno delle nazioni (Hymn of the Nations), which was written for the
Universal Exposition in London of 1862 to a text by Arrigo Boito (18421918)
and which incorporated the national anthems of England, France, and Italy.
After the Requiem, Verdi composed yet five more choral worksall to sacred
texts of one sort or another. In 1880 he wrote an a cappella elaborated setting of
the Lords Prayer, Pater noster, based on the beginning of chapter11 from Dantes
Purgatorio. Then in the very early 1890s (published in 1898) he wrote a collec-
tion of works referred to as the Quattro pezzi sacri (Four sacred pieces). These
consist of Ave Maria for SATB a cappella chorus based on a newly invented enig-
matic scale (a half step followed by a minor third, three whole steps, and two half
steps); Laudi alla vergine Maria, a setting of the first twenty-one lines from the
final Canto of Dantes Paradiso for SSAA a cappella chorus; Stabat Mater for mixed
chorus and orchestra; and Te Deum for double chorus and orchestra.
There are, of course, choral movements from Verdis operas that have become
well known in their own right and have often been extracted and performed
separately. These include the Triumphal Chorus (Gloria all Egitto) from Aida,
the Anvil Chorus (Vedi, le fosche notturne) from Il trovatore, the Gypsy Chorus
(Noi siamo Zingarelle) from La traviata, and the Chorus of Scottish Refugees
(Patria oppressa) from Macbeth. The most notable of the opera choruses is the
Chorus of Hebrew Slaves (Va pensiero) from Nabucco, which reflects the yearn-
ings of the slaves for their liberation and for their homeland and which became
a symbol of Italian nationalism during the latter part of the nineteenth century.
It was sung by hundreds of thousands of mourners during Verdis funeral proces-
sion, and it is the only chorus that was and still is regularly encored during pro-
ductions of theopera.

Verdis Messa da Requiem began as an idea for a work to commemorate the death
of Gioachino Rossini, the most famous and highly regarded composer in Italy dur-
ing the mid-portion of the nineteenth century, except for, perhaps, Verdi himself.
Rossini died on November 13, 1868, and four days later Verdi wrote a letter to his
publisher, Tito Ricordi, enclosing the following proposal.
To honor the memory of Rossini it is my wish that the most distinguished

Italian composers compose a Requiem Mass to be performed on the anni-
versary of his death. Iwould like not only the composers, but all the performing
artists, in addition to lending their services, to also offer a contribution to pay
for the expenses of the project. Iwould like no foreign hand, no hand alien to
art, no matter how powerful, to lend assistance. Otherwise, Iwould withdraw
at once from the association. The Mass should be performed in San Petronio, in
the city of Bologna, which was Rossinis true musical home. This Mass should
not be an object of curiosity or of speculation; as soon as its performance is fin-

ished, it should be sealed and placed in the archives of the liceo musicale of that
city, from which it should never be taken. Exception could perhaps be made for
Rossinis anniversaries, if posterity should decide to celebrate them. If Iwere
in good graces with the Holy Father, Iwould beg him to allow women to take
part in the performance of this music, at least for the premiere. But since Iam
not in his good graces, it would be best to find a person more suitable than Ito
achieve this goal. It would be best to set up a committee of intelligent men to
take charge of the arrangements for the premiere, and especially to choose the
composers, assign the pieces, and watch over the general form of the work. This
composition (however good the individual numbers may be) will necessarily
lack musical unity. But if it is wanting in this respect, it will serve nonetheless
to show how great the veneration we all feel for the man whose loss the whole
world mourns.
Ricordi printed Verdis proposal in the publisher company journal, the

Gazzetta musicale di Milano, and also sent copies of it to newspapers around
Italy. The project received a positive reaction from the mayor of Bologna, and
it was also reported positively in newspapers around Europe (France, England,
and Germany), and even in Russia. A selection committee was formed and,
eventually, thirteen composers were chosen (Antonio Bazzini, Raimondo
Boucheron, Antonio Buzzola, Antonio Cagnoni, Carlo Coccia, Gaetano
Gaspari, Teodulo Mabellini, Alessandro Nini, Carlo Pedrotti, Errico Petrella
(later replaced by Lauro Rossi), Pietro Platania, Federico Ricci, and Giuseppe
Verdi). A list of assigned movements and musical requirements was sent to
each composer (Verdis assignment being the final movement of the Requiem,
the Libera me), with a September 15, 1869, deadline for submission. All the
composers complied. However, there were multiple problems with perfor-
mance arrangements: the orchestra was not available on the anniversary of
Rossinis death, some of the preferred soloists were previously engaged on
that date, the church would not allow women to sing in the chorus, the city
bickered about financing, and many of the chorus members could not read
music. As a result, since Verdi was adamant about performance in Bologna on
November 13, the project was eventually scrapped and the Messa per Rossini
was not performed until more than a century lateron September 11, 1988,
under the direction of Helmuth Rilling.
While considering Verdis proposal for the Rossini Requiem, it should be noted
that the idea of a large-scale sacred work with movements of music set by different
composers was not new to Verdi. Rossini, himself, first conceived his Stabat mater
as just such a composite work. Rossini set six of the ten movements in 1832 and
assigned the other four movements to a friend, Giovanni Tadolini (17891872),
and the composite work was performed on Good Friday 1833, but not published.
Almost ten years later Rossini composed the movements previously written by
Tadolini plus a concluding Amen, and this completely Rossini work was then
published as the Stabat mater we knowtoday.
After the anniversary of Rossinis death had passed without a performance of
the composite Requiem, Verdi refocused his attention on opera. By 1869 he had
already composed twenty-nine operas, including Nabucco (1841), Ernani (1844),
Macbeth (1847), Rigoletto (1851), Il trovatore and La traviata (1853), Les vpres
siciliennes (1855), and La forza del destino (1862). In 1870 he began writing Aida,
which was premiered in Cairo in 1871. His Libera me contribution to the Rossini
Requiem had not been forgotten, however, and Ricordi and others pleaded with
Verdi to have it performed. In a letter to Verdi from Alberto Mazzucato (1813
1877), respected teacher at the Milan Conservatory, the Libera me was praised
as the most beautiful, the greatest, and most colossally poetic page imaginable.
Nothing more perfect has yet been created; nothing greater can ever be created.
Verdi responded,
If at my age one could still decently blush, I would do so for the praise you
accord me. Your words have almost instilled in me the desire to finish, later,
the entire Mass. But do not worry, it is a temptation that will pass like
so many others. Ido not like useless things. There are so many, many, many
Requiem Masses!!! It is senseless to add onemore.
Verdi was well acquainted with some of these many Requiems. He owned copies, for
instance, of the Mozart, Cherubini, and Brahms Requiems. Nevertheless, with the
death of the Italian poet and novelist Alessandro Manzoni on May 22, 1873, Verdi
reconsidered his stance. On the day after Manzonis death, he wrote to Ricordi,
I am profoundly saddened by the death of our Great Man! But Ishall not come
to Milan tomorrow. Ido not have the heart to attend his funeral. Iwill come
soon to visit his grave, alone and unseen, and perhaps (after further reflection
and after having considered my strength) to propose something to honor his
memory.
Reinforcing his veneration of Manzoni, Verdi wrote to his close friend Countess
Maffei one week after Manzonisdeath,
I wasnt at the funeral, but there were few people there that morning who were
more sad and moved than I, although distant. Now it is all ended! And with
Him ends the purest, the holiest, the greatest of our glories.
Verdi visited Manzonis grave on June 2, and the following day he wrote to Ricordi,
I would like to demonstrate what affection and veneration Ibore and bear that
Great Man who is no more and whom Milan has so worthily honored. Iwould
like to compose a Mass for the Dead to be performed next year for the anni-
versary of his death. The Mass would have rather vast dimensions, and besides
a large orchestra and a large chorus, four or five principal singers (I cannot be
specific yet) would be needed. Do you think the city would assume the expense
of the performance? The copying of the music Iwould have done at my own
expense, and Imyself would conduct the performance both at rehearsals and in
the church. If you believe this is possible, speak of it to the mayor, and give me
an answer as soon as you can, for you can consider this letter of mine binding.
The mayor of Milan approved of Verdis project enthusiastically, but it took

some months for Verdi to work on the composition in earnest. He reported
that he worked a little on it in August and again somewhat in September.
But apparently he spent the entire month of December on the Requiem, for in
the middle of January (1874) he requested of Ricordi staff paper for the com-
plete orchestral score. Then, on March 7 he wrote to his friend Giuseppe Piroli
(18151890),
Ive been here [in Genoa] since the beginning of the year and have done noth-
ing much but write note upon note for the greater glory of God, and perhaps
for the future boredom of my fellow man. But be that as it may, the music is
now finished and Im pleased that Ive doneit.
On March 30 Verdi sent Ricordi the first two movements of the Requiem (the
Requiem and lengthy Dies irae), and on April 9 Verdi sent movements 4 through
7 (Sanctus, Agnus Dei, Lux aeterna, and Libera me), telling Ricordi that he wanted
to make some revisions to movement 3 (Offertorio) before sending it. This move-
ment was troublesome to Verdi, who wrote to Ricordi on April13,
As for the Offertorio, Icant tell you anything. Istill havent found what Imust
do and how to do it. There is something about it I dont like, but, I repeat,
I havent found a way to fix it. Perhaps I might be able to send it to you
tomorrow, perhaps in aweek.
It took him only two days; on April 15 he wrote to Ricordi, Im sending the score
of the Offertorio and so Amen. The next day he wrote to Piroli, I have been
very busy with and worried about that devil of a Mass, but it is finally finished,
although only as of yesterday!
Many of the preparations for performance were already under way before the
completion of the score. All four soloists had been contracted by mid-March.
Teresa Stolz, who sang the title role in Aida at La Scala in 1871, was the soprano
Verdi had in mind while writing the Requiem; she was also one of the most highly
regarded singers of the time. Mezzo soprano Maria Waldmann, the Amneris in
the La Scala performances of Aida, was also the singer Verdi had in mind as he was
composing the Requiem. While he labeled the part for her as mezzo soprano in
the score, he always referred to the part as contralto in his correspondence, and
he knew that Waldmann could handle both the low and high notes he had written
in her part. The tenor, Giuseppe Capponi, and bass, Ormondo Maini, were not of
much concern to Verdi. He wrote in his correspondence only that they needed to
have pleasant voices, not dramatic acting skills.
The site of the premiere performance had also been chosen by mid-March,
although there had been considerable debate about this in the months leading
up to the choice. Verdi wanted a church with favorable acoustics and had visited
Milan in January to assess various venues. He rejected the Cathedral, but con-
sidered San Marco, Santa Maria del Carmine, and Santa Maria della Passione,
eventually deciding on San Marco. There were concerns that the church would not
allow women to sing in the performance, but after considerable debate, church
officials decided that women could sing as long as they were dressed appropriately
(they had to wear black veils on their heads).
On April 10, in a letter to Verdis French publisher Lon Escudier, Verdi speci-
fied the exact title of the RequiemMessa da Requiem/per/lanniversario della
morte di/Manzoni/22 maggio 1874. On April 24 the choral parts were sent to
the various directors of the ensembles participating in the premiere, and the
first rehearsal with the soloists (of a projected total of fourteen rehearsals Verdi
wanted with them) was scheduled for May 2, the soloists having not seen their
parts before this date. Verdi explained in a letter to Ricordi,
I dont want you to distribute the parts beforehand. Saturday evening will be
taken up only with letting the soloists hear their parts without singing.
However, if Maini [the bass soloist] (who is very stubborn, Ithink) asks you
for his part, you may give it to him. But dont give parts to either Stolz or to
Waldmann. Im afraid there are some errors in thewords.
The orchestral rehearsals were scheduled to begin on or about May 15, and
the premiere took place, as scheduled, on May 22, 1874, in the church of San
Marco as part of a so-called dry liturgical service (no bread or wine were served
during communion). For this performance the chorus, numbering 120 singers,
was placed on the right of the performing area (as seen from the audience point
of view); the orchestra, numbering 100 players, was placed beside the chorus on
the left of the performing area. The soloists were angled in front of the orchestra
and Verdi, conducting, stood opposite in front of the choir (see Diagram 9.A later
in this chapter). Three further performances in Milan took place on the stage of
the Teatro alla Scalaall performances with the orchestra and chorus placed side
by side as in San Marco. Verdi conducted the performance on May 25; Franco
Faccio (18401891), music director of La Scala, conducted performances on May
27 and 29. Of the remuneration given in lira to various musicians involved in the
performances, Teresa Stolz and Maria Waldmann were each paid 3,000, Giuseppe
Capponi received 2,600, and Ormondo Maina received 1,800. The chorus master
was paid 300 and the orchestra2,036.
Performances of the Requiem outside Italy occurring shortly after the pre-
miere include those at the Opra-Comique in Paris (seven performances) between
June 9 and 22, with a total of 200 performers; at Royal Albert Hall in London the
following year (on May 15, 1875), with a chorus of 1,200 and an orchestra of 150;
and at the Hofoperntheater in Vienna in June 1875, with a chorus of 150 and an
orchestra of100.
For the May 1875 performance in London, Verdi rewrote the Liber scriptus
section of the Dies irae, replacing what had originally been a fugue for chorus with
a solo for mezzo soprano. The idea for this change is expressed in a letter Verdi
wrote to Maria Waldmann on November 21, 1874 (six months after the premiere
at San Marco in Milan).
I plan to remove the first fugue on Liber scriptus and to replace it with a
solo for you. Write to me immediately whether this suits you, and tell me your
opinion frankly so that in case it doesnt suit you or if it would be a nuisance to
learn a new little piece, Ican do somethingelse.
Waldmann replied positively on December 2, obviously pleased since the other

members of the quartet had solo sections in the Requiem, but she did not. Verdi
sent the new music to Ricordi on February 6, 1875, and on March 5 he wrote to
Waldmann,
Ive completed the solo for you, but Im not of a mind to have it performed at
Paris [at the Opra-Comique performances between June 9 and22]. With
such a tight schedule you wouldnt have time to study it carefully. Its easy as
far as the notes and music, but you know that there are always meanings one
must consider. Not doing this piece in Paris, we would have time to rehearse
it well together in the days without performances, and you would then perform
it in London and in Vienna.
The new solo was subsequently published in all editions of the Requiem, and it
became a standard part of the work. Copies of the original fugue, as well as the
original Libera me written for the Rossini Requiem, are printed as appendices in
the David Rosen edition of the Requiem published by the University of Chicago
Press in1990.
The Text ofthe Requiem

Verdis choice of texts and movements for the Requiem are identical to those pro-
posed by the committee governing the Rossini Requiem project. Verdi was likely
comfortable with these choices because, unlike Brahms, he was not committed
to the Requiems communication of religious principles or personal beliefs. This
is not to say that Verdi disbelieved in the texts but rather that Verdi was writing
to commemorate a great Italian artist and, in so doing, he was content with some
form of standard Latin Roman Catholic script. In commemorating Manzoni,
Verdi was also writing as a patriot of Italy, one who was striving to bring greater
credit to the artistic stature of his native country. Verdis creative motives were
artistic, not religious.
The texts chosen by the Rossini committee were relatively standard; they were,
except for the Libera me, normally found in Latin Requiem Masses. However,
there was no specific, established, or traditional series of texts for musical set-
tings of the Roman Catholic Requiem, as there was, for instance, of the Mass
Ordinary. The Rossini Requiem committee chose texts and movements similar to
those in the Mozart Requiem, composed in 1791, and the Cherubini Requiem in C
Minor, composed in 1815. Both these works, like the Verdi, are divided into seven
major movements as shown in the followingtable.
Mozart Requiem Cherubini Requiem Verdi Requiem

Introitus Introitus et Kyrie Requiem
Kyrie Graduale Dies irae
Sequenz Dies irae Offertorio
Offertorio Offertorio Sanctus
Sanctus Sanctus Agnus Dei
Agnus Dei Pie Jesu Lux aeterna
Communio Agnus Dei Libera me
Regardless of the titles of the movements, the texts of the three Requiems
are quite similar. All begin with the Introitus (Requiem aeternam), Kyrie, and
Graduale (which is a repeat of the Introitus text). Mozart and Cherubini divided
these texts into two movements, while Verdi combined them into one movement.
All three composers then followed with the Sequence (Dies irae), Offertorio, and
Sanctus. At this point Cherubini set the Pie Jesu again, which all three composers
previously set as the final verse of the Sequence. All Requiems conclude with the
Agnus Dei and Communio, Cherubini and Verdi subsuming the Communio text
into the end of the Agnus Dei. Only the Verdi Requiem has a text shared by none
of the othersthe Responsory (Libera me, Domine, de morte aeterna). In sum-
mary, all of the three Requiems have the same texts except for the final movement
of theVerdi.
Several movements of the Requiems are divided into subsections, with sep-
arate titles. The Sequenz of Mozarts Requiem, for example, has six sections
(Dies irae, Tuba mirum, Rex tremendae, Recordare, Confutatis, and
Lacrimosa) and the Offertorio has two sections (Domine Jesu and Hostias).
The Cherubini Requiem has no subsections, although there are numerous tex-
ture and tempo changes within movements. As indicated in a letter of April 10,
1874, to his French publisher Lon Escudier, Verdi indicates ten sections to his
Dies irae movement (Dies irae, Tuba mirum, Mors stupebit, Liber scriptus,
Quid sum miser, Rex tremendae, Recordare, Ingemisco, Confutatis, and
Lacrimosa). These sections, as well as other portions of music treated individu-
ally and/or repeated, are listed below with scoring forces, the complete Latin text,
and English translation.
Movement 1Requiem (Introit)

Chorus and orchestra
Requiem aeternam dona eis, Domine, et lux perpetua luceateis.
Rest eternal grant to them, Lord, and light perpetual let shine onthem.
Chorus a cappella
Te decet hymnus Deus in Zion, et tibi redetur votum in Jerusalem;
exaudi orationem meam, ad te omnis caro veniet.
A hymn befits God in Zion, and to you shall be fulfilled a vow in Jerusalem;
hear my prayer, for to you all flesh willcome.
Chorus and orchestra
Rest eternal grant to them, Lord, and light perpetual let shine onthem.
Solo quartet, chorus, and orchestra
Kyrie eleison, Christe eleison, Kyrie eleison.
Lord have mercy, Christ have mercy, Lord havemercy.
Movement 2Dies irae (Sequence)

Chorus and orchestraverse1
Dies irae, dies illa, solvet saeclum in favilla, teste David cum Sibylla.
Day of wrath, that day, the world will dissolve in embers, witnessed by David
withSibyl.
Quantus tremor est futurus, quando judex est venturus, cuncta stricte
discussurus!
How great the trembling will be, when the judge will come to strictly investigate
all things!
Tuba mirum spargens sonum per sepulchra regionum, coget omnes ante
thronum.
The wondrous trumpet sending its sound through tombs of all regions will sum-
mon all before the throne.
Bass solo and orchestraverse4
Mors stupebit, et natura, cum resurget creatura, judicanti responsura.
Death will be stunned, and nature, when all creation will rise again to answer
the judgingone.
Mezzo soprano solo and orchestraverses 5and6
Liber scriptus proferetur, in quo totum continetur, unde mundus judicetur.
Judex ergo cum sedebit, quid-quid latet apparebit, nil inultum remanebit.
A written book will be made known, in which all will be contained, and from
which the world will be judged.
When the judge, therefore, sits, whatever concealed lies will be revealed, noth-
ing unavenged will remain.
Chorus and orchestraverse 1 reprise
Dies irae, dies illa, solvet saeclum in favilla, teste David cum Sybilla.
withSibyl.
Soprano, mezzo soprano, and tenor solos and orchestraverse7
Quid sum miser tunc dicturus, quem patronum rogaturus, cum vix justus
sit secures?
What am Ia wretch then to say, which protector will Iask for, when scarcely a
just man is secure?
Solo quartet, chorus, and orchestraverse8
Rex tremendae majestatis, qui salvandos salvas gratis, salva me fons
pietatis.
King of fearful majesty, who saves the saved freely, save me, fount ofpity.
Solo soprano, mezzo soprano, and orchestraverses 9, 10,and11
Recordare Jesu pie, quod sum causa tuae viae, ne me perdas illadie.
Quarens me, sedisti lassus, redemisti crucem passus, tantus labor non sit
cassus.
Remember, merciful Jesus, since Iam the cause of your sojourn, do not cast me
out thatday.
Seeking me, you sat weary, you redeemed me, having suffered on the cross, such
great labor should not be futile.
Solo tenor and orchestraverses 12, 13, 14,and15
Ingemisco, tamquam reus, culpa rubet vultus meus, supplicanti
parceDeus.
Qui Mariam absolvisti, et latronum exaudisti, mihi quoque spem dedisti.
Preces meae non sunt dignae, sed tu bonus fac benigne, ne perenni
cremerigne.
Inter oves locum praesta, et ab hoedis me sequestra, statuens in parte
dextra.
I groan, like a guilty one, guilt reddens my face, spare your supplicant, ohGod.
You who absolved Mary, and heeded the thief, to me also has givenhope.
My prayers are not worthy, but you who are good kindly grant them, let me not
burn in everlastingfire.
Grant me a place of eminence among your sheep, and separate me from the
goats, placing me on your righthand.
Solo bass and orchestraverses 16and17
Confutatis maledictis, flammis acribus addictis, voca me cum benedictis.
Oro supplex et acclinis, cor contritum quasi cinis, gere curam meifinis.
When the accursed are confounded, consigned to harsh flames, call me with your
blessed.
I pray, kneeling and suppliant, my heart contrite as if in ashes, take care of me
at myend.
Chorus and orchestraverse 1 reprise
Dies irae, dies illa, solvet saeclum in favilla, teste David cum Sybilla.
withSibyl.
Solo quartet, chorus, and orchestraverses 18, 19,and20
Lacrimosa dies illa, qua resurget ex favilla, judicandus homoreus.
Huic ergo parce Deus. Pie Jesu Domine, dona eis requiem.
Tearful will be that day, on which the guilty will rise from the embers to be
judged.
Therefore, spare him, oh God. Merciful Lord Jesus, grant themrest.
Movement 3Offertorio
Solo quartet and orchestra
Domine Jesu Christe, Rex gloriae,
libera animas omnium fidelium defunctorum de poenis inferni et de
profundolacu;
libera eas de ore leonis, ne absorbeat eas tartarus, ne cadant in
obscurum,
sed signifer sanctus Michael repraesentet eas in lucem sanctam,
quam olim Abrahae promisisti et seminiejus.
Lord Jesus Christ, king ofglory,
liberate the souls of all the faithful departed from the pains of hell and from the
deeppit;
liberate them from the lions mouth, let not hell swallow them, let them not fall
into darkness,
but let the holy standard-bearer Michael bring them into holylight,
which you once promised to Abraham and to hisseed.
Hostias et preces tibi, Domine, laudis offerimus;

tu suscipe pro animabus illis, quarum hodie memoriam facimus,
fac eas, Domine, de morte transire advitam,
quam olim Abrahae promisisti et seminiejus.
Sacrifices and prayers to you, Lord, we offer praise;
receive them for the souls of those whom we remembertoday,
and grant that they, Lord, pass from death tolife,

which you once promised to Abraham and to hisseed.
Libera animas. Fac eas de morte transire advitam.

Liberate the souls. Grant that they pass from death tolife.
Movement 4Sanctus
Double chorus and orchestra
Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus, Dominus Deus Sabaoth,
pleni sunt coeli et terra gloria tua. Hosanna in excelsis.
Benedictus, qui venit in nomine Domini.
Pleni sunt coeli et terra Gloria tua. Hosanna in excelsis.
Holy, holy, holy, Lord God ofhosts,
heaven and earth are full of your glory. Hosanna in the highest.
Blessed is he who comes in the name of theLord.
Heaven and earth are full of your glory. Hosanna in the highest.
Movement 5AgnusDei
Solo soprano and mezzo soprano, chorus, and orchestra
Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, dona eis requiem.
Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, dona eis requiem.
Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, dona eis requiem sempiternam.
Lamb of God, who takes away the sins of the world, grant themrest.
Lamb of God, who takes away the sins of the world, grant themrest.
Lamb of God, who takes away the sins of the world, grant them rest everlasting.
Movement 6Lux aeterna (Communion)

Solo mezzo soprano, tenor, bass, and orchestra
Lux aeterna luceat eis, Domine, cum sanctis tuis in aeternum, quia
piuses.
Let light eternal shine on them, Lord, with your saints for eternity, for you are
merciful.
Rest eternal grant them, Lord, and light perpetual shine onthem.
Movement 7Libera me (Responsory)

Solo soprano and orchestra
Libera me, Domine, de morte aeterna, in die illa tremenda,
quando coeli movendi sunt et terra, dum veneris judicare saeculum
perignem.
Tremens factus sum ego, et timeo dum discussio venerit, atque venturaira.
Deliver me, Lord, from death eternal, on that day eternal,
when heaven and earth will quake, when you come to judge the world byfire.
I am trembling, and I am in fear until the judgment comes, and also the
comingwrath.
Chorus and orchestra (with some sopranosolo)
Dies illa, dies irae, calamitatis et miseriae, dies magna et amaravalde,
dum veneris judicare saeculum perignem.
That day, day of wrath, of calamity and misery, great day and exceedingly bitter,
when you come to judge the world byfire.
Solo soprano and chorus a cappella
Rest eternal grant to them, Lord, and light perpetual shine onthem.
Solo soprano, chorus, and orchestra
Libera me, Domine, de morte aeterna, in die illa tremenda,
quando coeli movendi sunt et terra, dum veneris judicare saeculum
perignem.
Tremens factus sum ego, et timeo dum discussio venerit, atque venturaira.
Deliver me, Lord, from death eternal, on that day eternal,
when heaven and earth will quake, when you come to judge the world byfire.
I am trembling, and I am in fear until the judgment comes, and also the
comingwrath.
Note that Verdi repeats and reorders some passages not found in the original
liturgical texts. Verse one of movement 2 (the Dies irae poem) is repeated after
verses 6 and 17, segments of lines 2 and 8 in the Offertorio are used to close the
movement, and the first three lines of movement 7 are repeated at the end of
the movement. The reasons for these text repeats will become apparent during
the discussion of formal and musical structures. Other text repeats, such as those
found in movements 1 (Requiem aeternam ), 3 (quam olim Abrahae ), and 5
(Agnus Dei ), are part of the originaltexts.

One may think that Verdi did not prioritize structures as a compositional compo-
nent of his Requiemthat, like his operas, he focused on the dramatic elements
of the music to communicate expressive characteristics of the text. Indeed, musi-
cal drama is an important and pronounced aspect of the Requiem; the settings
in movement 2 of Dies irae, dies illa (Day of wrath, that day), Tuba mirum
spargens sonum (The wondrous trumpet sending its sound), Mors stupebit
(Death will be stunned), and nil inultum remanebit (nothing unavenged will
remain) are but a few of the more obvious examples of highly charged and artful
text setting. The operatic writing for the soloists is also a prominent feature of
the Requiem; from the opening tenor solo line in the Kyrie to the high Cs for the
soprano soloist at the end of the Libera me, Verdi gives the soloists decidedly the-
atrical music to sing. Musical drama was to Verdi, and has been to listeners since
the Requiems premiere, the most discernible and manifest aspect of the work.
However, Verdi was quite attentive to formal and musical structures as well, and it
is this consideration that adds to the Requiems artistic stature and that deepens
the works aesthetic gratification. The Requiem is much more than an amalgama-
tion of dramatic moments; it is a highly organized and balanced work of structural
integrity.
Structures Exhibited inScoring

The first aspect of balanced structure is seen in the overall distribution of forces
and in sectional divisions of music. Of the seven movements in the Requiem, all
include soloists except for the central movement, movement 4, which is scored
for chorus without soloists. All of the other movements are also divided into
multiple sections, while movement 4 has no distinct divisions; except for an
eight-measure introduction, the movement is a double fugue from beginning to
end. As a further consideration of scoring, two movements (movement 3 before
and movement 6 after the central movement of the Requiem) are written for
soloists alone, without chorus. Finally, of the six a cappella sections of music
in the Requiem, the first (the setting of Te decet hymnus) is the second sec-
tion of the entire work, and the last (the setting of Requiem aeternam dona
eis, Domine) is the penultimate section of the entire work. The scoring mirror
structures are seenhere:.
Movement 1 soloists, chorus, and orchestra (a cappella Te decet hymnus)

Movement 2 soloists, chorus, and orchestra
Movement 3 soloists and orchestra
Movement 4 chorus and orchestra
Movement 5 soloists, chorus, and orchestra
Movement 6 soloists and orchestra
Movement 7 soloists, chorus, and orchestra (a cappella Requiem aeternam)
While this balance of forces is not in an exact mirror form, such as is seen in the
Brahms Requiem, Verdis structure has a symmetrical arrangement that is notable
and that contributes to the broad appreciation of the work as awhole.
Another aspect of structural consideration deals with Verdis management
of forces throughout the Requiem. Sparsely scored sections are juxtaposed
with the scoring of full forces, soft passages are combined with loud passages,
and instrumentation is varied so as to create continual interest. Variety of
scoring is especially notable in Verdis employment of full vocal and orchestral
forces. None of the orchestrations compete with each other, each one seems to
create a specific and individualistic effect, and they all seem placed in an order
of increasing power, with the final scoring achieving the most impact. The fol-
lowing list of musical passages utilizing full forces brings attention to their
unique characters and their deployment at the beginning, middle, and end of
the Requiem.

Dies irae (measures153)
Tuba mirum (91139)
Dies irae reprise (239246)
Salva me (356369)
Movement 4Sanctus
Throughout the movement, but especially the Hosanna (115139)

Libera me (382400) where Verdi marks tutta forza (fullpower)
Verdis variety of scoring between these full force passages, especially in soft pas-
sages, also demonstrates his skill in managing the flow of material, capturing the
uniqueness of textual passages, and in providing diversification to the Requiem.
Note the placement of the six a cappella sections (one passage each in movements
1, 2, 5, and 7, and two passages in movement6).
Movement 1Requiem (Introit andKyrie)

Requiem aeternam (128 and 5678) chorus and strings
Te decet hymnus (2855) chorus a cappella

Dies irae (153) chorus and full orchestra, with bass drum le corde ben teste
onde questocontrattempo riesca secco e molto forte (the head very taut so
that these offbeats come out dry and veryloud)
Tuba mirum (91139) chorus and full orchestra, with four extra offstage trum-
pets in lontananza ed invisibili (in the distance and invisible)
Mors stupebit (140161) four grandpauses
Quid sum miser (270321) soprano, mezzo soprano, and tenor solos, with
strings, clarinets, and bassoonsthe bassoons prominent as an obbligato
Lacrymosa (624641) syncopated rhythms in the mezzo soprano solopart
Pie Jesu (666677) solo quartet a cappella
Movement 3Offertorio
Domine Jesu Christe (130) mezzo soprano and tenor soloists with cellos
obbligato
Movement 4Sanctus
Sanctus (throughout the entire movement) double chorus and full orchestra
Movement 5AgnusDei
Agnus Dei (113) soprano and mezzo soprano a cappella
Agnus Dei (1426) chorus, clarinets, bassoons, and strings in octaves
Agnus Dei (4658) soprano and mezzo soprano with three flutes obbligato
Movement 6Lux aeterna (Communion)

Lux aeterna (115) tremolos in the stringparts
Et lux perpetua (2742) mezzo soprano, tenor, and bass a cappella
Cum sanctis tuis (8494) solo trio a cappella

Libera me (1, 171172, 416)soprano solochant
(1520) bassoon quartet a cappella
Requiem aeternam (132170)soprano solo and chorus a cappella
Structures ofIndividual Movements

A third aspect of structural organization can be seen in the return forms of many
movements. Two of these return forms are dictated by liturgical textual arrange-
ment:in movement 1 Verdi uses the same music for the Requiem aeternam dona
eis, Domine, et lux perpetua luceat eis text that is stated both before and after
the Te decet hymnus text, and in movement 3 Verdi has identical musical set-
tings of the Quam olim Abrahae promisisti et semini ejus phrase which appears
before and after the Hostias text. Two other instances of return are entirely
the result of Verdis repetition of text: in movement 6 Verdi repeats the music
of Requiem aeternam dona eis, Domine after et lux perpetua luceat eis, thus
creating an ABA form, and in movement 7 the text Libera me, Domine, de morte
aeterna, in die illa tremenda that is set as a chant at the movements beginning,
returns in the middle and at the very end of the movement. Yet another return
form can be seen in movement 3, which is organized in the mirror construction of
ABCBA (although Verdi sets different texts to the same music for the beginning
and ending Asection of music). And perhaps the most ingenious use of return
material is in the lengthy movement 2. Here Verdi states the Dies irae music
at the beginning of the movement, he reprises it (text and music) at the end of
the first third of the movement, and he reprises it again in the final third of the
movement; this music and text thus appear three times in the movement, which
is divided into three main portions. The following listing shows the structural
significance of each movement.
Movement 1Requiem (Introit)

ARequiem aeternam (128) chorus and orchestra
BTe decet hymnus (2855) chorus a cappella
ARequiem aeternam (5678) chorus and orchestra
CKyrie eleison (78end) soloist, chorus, and orchestra
N.B. The Kyrie, at 62 measures, is almost as long as the Introit, at 78 measures;

the ABA of the Introit and the C of the Kyrie operate, therefore, as two linked
separate movements.

ADies irae, dies illa (174) chorus and orchestra
TransitionQuantus tremor (7491)
BTuba mirum (91139) chorus and orchestra
TransitionMors stupebit (140161) bass solo and orchestra
CLiber scriptus (162229) mezzo soprano and orchestra (with some chorus)
A'Dies irae, dies illa (229268) chorus and orchestra
DQuid sum miser (270321) soprano, mezzo soprano, and tenor soloists and
orchestra
ERex tremendae (322382) solo quartet, chorus, and orchestra
FRecordare (383446) soprano and mezzo soprano soloists and orchestra
GIngemisco (447503) tenor solo and orchestra

HConfutatis maledictis (503573) bass solo and orchestra
A"Dies irae, dies illa (573624) chorus and orchestra
ILacrymosa (624701) solo quartet, chorus, and orchestra
N.B. The separate sections of the movement are grouped into three subdivisions
based on Verdis structural and musical treatment; AC, DF, and GI are linked
internally by various means, while there is a grand pause at measure 269 before
section D (Quid sum miser), and there are two fermatas before the beginning
of section G, the Ingemisco (446447). Section E, in the structural center of
the movement, is climactic in scoring and musical effect (measures 363369).
All the main sections are of relative equality in terms of length (mostly 6070
measures, except for the first section at 91 measures and the last section at 77
measures) and time (mostly three and a half to five minuteseach).
Movement 3 Offertorio
Introduction (112) orchestra
A Domine Jesu Christe (1389) solo quartet and orchestra
B Quam olim Abrahae (89119) solo quartet and orchestra

C Hostias
et preces tibi (120163) solo quartet and orchestra
B Quam olim Abrahae (163199) solo quartet and orchestra
A Libera animas (200222) solo quartet and orchestra
N.B. The movement is constructed in mirror form. Atwo-to-three-measure motif

pervades the Asections (e.g., four times in the cello between measures 13 and
29 and four times in the voices from measures 31 and 47). The Quam olim
Abrahae section is treated in imitative fashion, traditional with composers to
represent the dispersion of Abrahams seed throughout the generations.
Movement 4 Sanctus
Introduction Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus (18) double chorus and orchestra
Fugue Sanctus (9139) double chorus and orchestra
N.B. The fugue is divided into three portions. The first portion (941) is set
to Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus, Dominus Deus Sabaoth, pleni sunt coeli et
terra gloria tua, cadences in D Minor, and consists of statements of the two
fugue subjectsthe first subject in Choir I and then Choir II, the second
subject in Choir II and then Choir I.The second portion of the fugue (41
79) is set to Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini, cadences in F Major,
and consists of episodic statements of the primary fugue subject. The third
portion (79109) is set to Pleni sunt coeli et terra gloria tua in the first
choir and Hosanna in the second choir, cadences in F Major, and consists
of dialogue between the two choirs. Measures 109139, set exclusively to
Hosanna, operate as a closing to the movement.
Movement 5 Agnus Dei

A Agnus Dei (113) soprano and mezzo soprano soloists a cappella
A Agnus Dei (1426) repeat of A by the chorus, with orchestra colla parte
A' Agnus Dei (2739) soprano and mezzo soprano soloists and orchestra
A' Agnus Dei (4045) chorus and orchestra, partial repeat of A'
A" Agnus Dei (4658) soprano and mezzo soprano soloists and flutes
A" Agnus Dei (5964) soprano and mezzo soprano soloists, chorus, and
orchestra, partial repeat
Closing d ona eis (6474) soprano and mezzo soprano soloists, chorus, and
orchestra
N.B. The movement is in variation form, with the chorus echoing the soloists, either in
full or in part. The first Ais in C Major, A' is in C Minor, and A" returns to CMajor.
Movement 6 Lux aeterna (Communion)

Introduction Lux aeterna (115) mezzo soprano and strings
A-a Requiem aeternam (1526) mezzo soprano, tenor, and bass soloists, with
winds and brass
A-b Et lux perpetua (2742) mezzo soprano, tenor, and bass soloists a cappella
A-a Requiem aeternam (4353) mezzo soprano, tenor, and bass soloists and
orchestra
B-a Et lux perpetua (5467) mezzo soprano and orchestra
B-a E
t lux perpetua (6783) mezzo soprano, tenor, and bass solos and orchestra
B-a Cum sanctis tuis (8494) solo trio a cappella
Closing Lux perpetua (94105) solo trio and orchestra
N.B. The closing begins with material from Aand ends with material from B.Not
including the Introduction, the second portion of A(A-b) and the penultimate
portion of the movement (B-a) are both a cappella. Both Aand B sections are
divided into three portions.
Movement 7 Libera me (Responsory)

Introduction Libera me (110)
Transition Dum veneris (1120) soprano solo and orchestra
A Tremens factus (2043) soprano solo and orchestra
B Dies irae (45131) chorus and orchestra
C Requiem aeternam (132170) soprano solo and chorus a cappella
Introduction material Libera me (171179) soprano solo and strings
D Libera me (179415) fugue for soprano solo, chorus, and orchestra
Introduction material
Libera me (416 421) soprano solo, chorus, and
orchestra
N.B. The fugue is divided into three main sections: primary entrances of the
fugue subject followed by episodic writing including inversion of the fugue
subject, stretto, and harmonic sequences (179262); entrance of the soprano
solo and augmentation of the fugue subjects first five notes (262311); and
additional episodic writing. The first and third sections can be further divided
into two portions (at measures 246 and 367), where the dum veneris text is
introduced. Passages of similar harmonic sequences pervade the entire fugue
(e.g., 213218, 233241, 262276, 284289, 336343, 352358, 360366,
401408, and 409416).
Structures Related toMelodicDesign

One other aspect of structure can be seen in the melodic design of the primary
melodies in a number of the movements. Like Brahms, Verdi uses a melodic motif
to unify the Requiem, although Verdi does not seem to employ his motif in every
movement. He does, however, place his motif in places of structural importance
the beginning, middle, and end of the Requiem. Specifically, the Requiem begins
with a descending triad in the cellos (Example 9.1), the primary fugue subject
of movement 4 begins with an ascending triad (Example9.2), and movement 7

ends with two instances of a descending triadthe first three notes of the solo
soprano line in the a cappella section (Example 9.3) and the first notes of the
fugue subject that follows (Example9.4). The descending examples, in a minor
mode, begin and end the Requiem, while the ascending example, in a major mode,
is in the structural center of thework.
Example9.1: Descending Minor Triad:Movement 1, cellos (measures12)
Example9.2: Ascending Major Triad:Movement 4, sopranos (measure9)
Example9.3: Descending Minor Triad:Movement 7, soprano solo (measures

132133)
Example9.4: Descending Minor Triad:Movement 7, altos (measure179)
Additionally, it should be mentioned that the triad of the fugue in movement 7

is used independently and is treated imitatively and in harmonic sequences in the
wind instruments during the measures (401413) preceding the final chant that
ends the Requiem (416421). It should also be mentioned that Verdi, like Brahms,
uses inversion technique in his employment of motivic material. Example 9.5
shows an instance of this technique used pervasively throughout the Libera me
fugue in movement7.
Example9.5: Original and Inverted Motives

Rhythm and Expressive Markings
The first issue of performance practice related to Verdis Requiem concerns the
accuracy of rhythms and articulation markings found in the printed score mate-
rial. Most modern-day performances in the United States use the piano/vocal
score published by G.Schirmer, which corresponds to the full score published
by Dover, and which, in turn, is a republication of the score previously published
by C.F. Peters. Acorresponding score is also published by Ricordi (the original
publisher of the Requiem). A more recent edition of the full score, published
in 1990 as part of the new complete works of Verdi, is issued jointly by the
University of Chicago Press and Ricordi, edited by David Rosen in Volume Iof
Series III:Sacred Music. This new edition of the Requiem is important in many
respects, most notably in correcting mistakes that exist in the older editions.
The majority of these mistakes are minor in that they deal with subtleties of
articulation and slur markings; there are no corrections to pitches or changes to
passages of music or to orchestrations. However, there are some rhythmic cor-
rections that are significant. For instance, the older editions have one rhythmic
treatment of the choral passage in movement 1, measures 2125 (Example9.6),
and a different rhythmic treatment of the same, presumably identical, music
in measures 7175 (Example9.7). As can be seen in these examples, the first
rhythmic treatment has double-dotted rhythmic patterns in measures 21 and
22, but only single-dotted patterns in the corresponding measures 71 and 72.
Also, there are dotted rhythms in measures 23 and 24, but no dotted rhythms
in measures 73 and74.
Example9.6: Movement 1, chorus (measures2125)

Example9.7: Movement 1, chorus (measures7175)
The new Chicago/Ricordi edition corrects this discrepancy by conforming measures

7175 to the rhythmic notation in measures 2125; both phrases are then identical.
The same corrections are in the 2012 edition of the Requiem published by Carus.
The corrections that deal with articulation markings generally restore origi-
nal accent marks where none are indicated in the older editions. An instance
of this can be seen in the first two notes of the opening solo tenor part (move-
ment 1, measure 78), shown in Example9.8, first without the accents and then
withthem.
Example9.8: Movement 1, tenor solo (measure78)
Similar instances of this situation occur in the solo bass part of movement 1
(measure 82), the last two notes of the choral alto part in measure 41 of move-
ment 1, and the second note of the choral alto part in measure 148 of movement7.
Other changes correct the types of articulation markings in the score. For
example, strong inverted v or teepee accents replace regular accent marksthe
teepee accents calling for heavier and longer treatment. The discrepancy between
these markings can be seen in the soprano solo part of measures 107 and 108 in
movement 1 (shown side by side in Example9.9).
Example9.9: Movement 1, soprano solo (measures 107108)
Respecting and performing the diversity and intricacies of articula-

tion markings is critical to accomplishing Verdis expressive concept of the
Requiem. This is vitally important but unproblematic in the many instances
where the accent marks are a logical confirmation of natural declamation.

However, a number of the accent marks are in places that do not conform
to natural declamation; the accent marks are in unconventional places that
emphasize normally unaccented words or syllables. Many of these atypical
marks may seem odd, but they are common to Verdi and are found frequently
in many of his works, including Ave Maria and Laudi alla Vergine Maria of
the Quattro pezzi sacri. Instances of the uncommon accents marks in the
Requiem can be seen in measure 41 of the choral alto line in the Te decet
hymnus section of movement 2, where the final syllable of the word redde-
tur has accent marks (Example9.10), and the principal and counter-subject
melodies of the fugue in movement 4, where the final syllables of the words
Deus and sanctus have accent marks (Example 9.11, choral soprano
entrances, measures912).
Example9.10: Movement 2, alto chorus (measures3841)
Example9.11: Movement 4, soprano chorus (measures912)
Additional similar accent marks occur in the Agnus Dei, where the final syl-
lable of the word Agnus is given a strong accent mark (Example9.12, measure
16 of the phrase that begins in measure 14, but also seen in measures 3, 10, 23,
29, 33, 36, 42, 48, 55, and 61). These accent marks are not, by the way, shown in
the Doverscore.
Example9.12: Movement 5, (measures1417)

And a final example of an expressive and unconventional accent mark is in the

soprano solo line of the a cappella Requiem aeternam portion of movement 7
(Example9.13, measures 141144). The strong accent marks shown here are indi-
cated by regular accent marks in the Schirmer, Peters, and Dover scores.
Example9.13: Movement 7, soprano solo (measures 141144)
The variety of accents, along with numerous other articulation marks, are obvi-
ously important to Verdi since he was so meticulous in notating them and since
they occur so frequently throughout the Requiem. In addition, since they also
occur in his other repertoire they are obviously a significant aspect of his composi-
tional personality. That many of the marks are ignored, as attested to by listening
to any of the numerous recordings of the Requiem or by attending concert per-
formances, is unfortunate. Performers, especially vocal soloists, should respect
Verdis markings, however odd they may seem. All performers should treat the
markings as an aspect of performance practice that reveals an important quality
of the composersart.
It is also apparent by listening to numerous modern-day performances and
recordings of the Requiem that certain of Verdis other score markings are not
observed. In the Tuba mirum section of movement 2 (Dies irae), for instance,
Verdi writes animando a poco a poco spaced out above measures 105108, with
dashes indicating continuation until measure 111 (the dashes are missing in the
commonly used Schirmer and Ricordi scores but are present in the new Chicago
and Carus editions). Verdi then writes sempre animando a poco a poco above
measures 116 and 117, and furthermore, writes animando sempre sino alla fine;
ma sempre a poco a poco over measures 125128 (this instruction is compressed
into a measure and a half in the older editions). The fine to which Verdi refers
is on the downbeat of measure 139. Verdis insistent accelerando instructions
are not heeded, however. Conductors take the animando only until measure 117
or, at the latest, measure 126, keeping the remaining measures until 139 at a
constant tempo and thus lessening the dramatic impact of the tuba mirum text,
which, when taken at a continuous accelerando until the end of the Tuba mirum
heightens the dramatic impact of this text and section of music.
Another rarely heeded score marking is Verdis instruction to place the four
extra trumpets in the Tuba mirum section of the Dies irae in lontananza
ed invisibili (in the distance and invisible). The trumpets are often placed
at the rear or side of the audience, thus perhaps being at a distance from the
conductor and orchestra but not the audience, and not being invisible. Having
these trumpets come from some unseen location, as extra brass players often
are in operas, would help manifest their dramatic intent. They are, after all,
supposed to be portraying the trumpets calling from heaven at the time of last
judgment.
Additional score indications involve dynamic markings, which are frequently
disregarded by the vocal soloists, especially when the soloists are in ensemble
dispositions. Examples include the Quem patronem section of the Dies irae
(measures 295321), which is marked variously piano or pianissimo but which
is generally sung mezzo forte or forte; the pie Jesu section of the Dies irae
(measures 666677), which is a cappella and marked pianissimo and dolce but is
regularly not sung in this manner; and the quam olim Abrahae section of move-
ment 3 (measures 8994), marked piano but often sung forte as it is marked in
the repeat of this section (measures 163167). Not observing the specific and
detailed dynamic markings that Verdi indicates deprives performers and audi-
ences of the rich expressive experience the score offers, while, on the other hand,
observing Verdis wide range of dynamic levels (from pppppp to ffff) greatly
expands the musics expressive palette and also greatly enhances ones apprecia-
tion of thescore.
Tempo
While Verdi was specific and liberal in his marking of accents, phrasings, and
dynamic levels (providing performers a great deal of expressive information), he
was not as plentiful in his indications of basic tempo. All the movements and sec-
tions begin with clear tempo terms. However, beyond the accelerando indicated
in the Tuba mirum mentioned above, there are few details of tempo marked
within movements. This does not mean that tempo was strict and metronomic
and that expressive variation of tempo was undesired by Verdi; tempo fluctuation
was a common feature of performance throughout the nineteenth century, espe-
cially in Verdis world of opera. Notable primary sources attest to its widespread
practice. Domenico Corri (17461825) addresses the subject in his famous sing-
ing treatise of 1810. In the chapter entitled Dialogue, Introductory Requisites
for Vocal Music under the subheading Quickening or Retarding of Time, Corri
writes,
An improvement, by derivation from strict time, is to be made by the singer

delivering some phrases or passages in quicker or slower time than he began
with, in order to give emphasis, energy, or pathos, to particularwords.
And elsewhere in the treatise Corri addresses the subject of tempo rubato,
which during the nineteenth century was not the same as tempo fluctuation. As
explained by Corri and others, tempo rubato was a license applied by a soloist over
the regular tempo of an accompaniment.
Tempo rubato is a detraction of part of the time from one note, and restoring
it by increasing the length of another, or vice versa, so that, while a singer is,
in some measure, singing ad libitum, the orchestra, which accompanies him,
keeps the time firmly and regularly. Composers seem to have arranged their
works in such a manner as to admit of this liberty.
Manuel Garcia (18051906), the famous Spanish baritone and singing teacher, in
his yet more famous singing treatise of 1847, reinforces this definition of tempo
rubato. In his chapter on time, Garcia writes,
The momentary prolongation of value which one gives to one or to several

tones to the detriment of others is called tempo rubato. In order to make
the effect of the tempo rubato perceptible in singing, it is necessary to sustain
the tempo of the accompaniment with precision. The singer, free on this condi-
tion to increase and decrease alternately the partial values, will be able to set
off certain phrases in a new way. The accelerando and the rallentando require
that the accompaniment and the voice move together and slow down or speed
up the movement as a whole. The tempo rubato, on the contrary, accords this
liberty only to thevoice.
It is likely that both tempo fluctuation and tempo rubato were practiced
during Verdis time and were aspects of performance practices in the Requiem.
Marianna Barbieri Nini (18181887), the soprano who premiered the role of
Lady Macbeth in 1847, commented about Verdis presence in rehearsals of
theopera.
He gestured, thumped his score, indicated rallentandos and quickening

of tempos with his hand, and then, as if a lengthy and convincing explana-
tion and colloquy had taken place, he would step back and say, Now youve
understood:Likethat!
Specific to the Requiem, Verdi wrote to his friend Giuseppe Piroli after the June
1875 performance of the Requiem in Vienna,
What a good orchestra and what good choruses! How elastic they are and how
well they let themselves beled.
And in a review of the Requiems performance in Cologne on May 21, 1877, the
German music critic August Guckeisen wrote in the Klnische Zeitung (Cologne
Newspaper),
Verdi chose much sharper, more strident nuances than is customary in

Germany. In this respect we can learn something from the Italians, for their
response to music is to a very considerable degree, sensuous. The circum-

stance that Verdi allows himself a certain degree of rubato does not disad-
vantage a composition, not even a German one. Rubato is an intrinsic part of
declamation, in which the control of the musical content is reflected.
Yet later, there is an account (reported in Encounters with Verdi by Marcello Conati)
of exchanges between Verdi and Arturo Toscanini (18671957) as Toscanini was
rehearsing for the premiere of Verdis Te Deum in1898.
Verdi said that in certain passages the tempo must be broadened or quickened
to provide the necessary expression and color. Toscanini then played it with
the elasticity he felt to be right and when he had finished, Verdi did not wait for
the young conductor to ask him his opinion. Bravo. Thats how Iconceived it,
he exclaimed, and pleased, he gave Toscanini a pat on the shoulder.
While certainly a common feature of performance, it should not be assumed

from these quotations that tempo fluctuation was excessive and comparable
to that practiced by opera singers. In a letter of April 26, 1874, Verdi wrote to
Ricordi,
You understand better than Ithat one must not sing this Mass in the way one
sings an opera, and therefore, phrasing and dynamics that may be fine in the
theater will not please me at allnot atall.
And in a letter of June 3, 1876, after performances of the Requiem in Paris, Verdi
wrote to Ricordi,
The Mass was very well performed; it was better than the other times because
I was able to obtain accents and phrasing that were less theatrical than one
does inItaly.
It is clear, therefore, that the expressive elements of accentuation, phrasing,

dynamic coloration, and tempo fluctuation were important to Verdi, although
without a standard of reference, one cannot know the extent to which they were
evidenced by him in his performances.

Verdi scored the Requiem for four vocal soloists (SATB), mixed chorus (mostly
SATB, but double chorus SATB/SATB in the Sanctus), and orchestra of three flutes
(the third flute sometimes playing piccolo), two oboes, two clarinets, four bas-
soons (each often having a separate part), four horns, four trumpets (plus four
more trumpets that play offstage in the Tuba mirum portion of the Dies irae),
three trombones, tuba, timpani, bass drum, and strings.
While this is a relatively standard orchestration for a late nineteenth-century
choral/orchestral work, Verdi expected especially large numbers of performers.
The following listing of numbers testifies to the grand scale that Verdi not only
conceived but also implemented in performances. Note the size of the chorus rela-
tive to the orchestra, especially in the La Scala performances of May 1874 and June
1879. Arelative ratio of 1:1 between chorus and orchestra was not uncommon dur-
ing the nineteenth century. Since orchestral instruments were somewhat softer
than they are today and since the chorus was placed beside the orchestra (see the
discussion below), choruses did not need to be considerably larger than orchestras.
May 1874, San Marco, Milan:chorus 120 and orchestra100

May 1874, La Scala, Milan:chorus 120 and orchestra110
June 1874, Opra-Comique, Paris:200 performerstotal
May 1875, Royal Albert Hall, London:chorus 1,200 and orchestra150
June 1875, Hofoperntheater, Vienna:chorus 150 and orchestra100
May and June 1876, Thtre Italien, Paris:230 performerstotal
May 1877, Lower Rhine Music Festival, Cologne:c.500 chorus and 200 orchestra
June 1879, La Scala, Milan:chorus 150 and orchestra130
The specific soprano/alto/tenor/bass makeup of the chorus for the Requiem per-
formances is not known. However, some idea of the distribution of choral voices
can be projected from that recommended by Verdi for the premiere of Aida at
La Scala. Verdi wrote to Ricordi on May 24,1871,
As for the chorus, it is the greatest error to reduce the number of middle parts.
If done that way one will never have that wave of soundthat fullness, pow-
erful and robustthat filters out the shrillness of the high voices. Thus, do it
my way, that is:16 first tenors, 16 second tenors, 16 bass-baritones, 16 lower
basses, 12 first sopranos, 12 second sopranos, and 12 contraltos.
The total number of recommended choral singers for Aida is, therefore, one hun-
dred, consisting of thirty-six women and sixty-four men (the men almost double
the number of women). This balance is not exactly suitable for the Requiem since
the role of the chorus in Aida is different from the role of the chorus in the Requiem.
However, we have a sense that Verdi gave priority to the male voice parts, and this
priority should be represented in performances of the Requiemtoday.
As for the makeup of the orchestra, Verdi recommended to Ricordi in March
1871 that the distribution of strings in the standard opera orchestra in theaters
such as La Scala should consist of fourteen first violins, fourteen second violins,
twelve violas, twelve cellos, and twelve double basses. This number totals sixty-
four, which combined with the scoring of twenty-nine required winds, brass, and
percussion instrumentalists in the Requiem, totals ninety-three (or eighty-nine

if one does not include the four offstage trumpets). It is assumed that the num-
ber of strings was increased for an orchestra of one hundred. However, with an
orchestra of 150 to 200, it is likely that the winds (except, perhaps, for the bas-
soons) and brass parts were doubled, the doubling of winds and brass being quite
common during the early years of the nineteenth century.
As for the disposition of forces in performances of the Requiem, the chorus,
as mentioned earlier in this study, was placed on the right side of the perform-
ing area, while the orchestra was placed beside the chorus on the left; the solo-
ists and conductor were placed front and center. This arrangement, used by Verdi
for every performance of the Requiem he conducted, is confirmed in a number
of sources. Most notably, Verdi sent a sketch of the right/left arrangement to
Ricordi in a letter of April 17, 1874 (this sketch included in the preface notes to
the Rosen/Chicago score). Also, a review of the 1875 Vienna performance of the
Requiem reported, to the left is the orchestra of about 100 players; to the right
the chorus of 150 voices. In addition, Ricordi wrote to Verdi on June 14, 1879,
before performances at La Scala, The orchestra and chorus will be arranged as
they have always been for the Mass. Ibelieve that you have established this as
the best arrangement. Furthermore, several depictions were made of this side-
by-side arrangement of forces, including an artistic rendering by Osvaldi Tofani
(18491915) published in the Illustrazione Universale, Milan, in 1874. In this ren-
dering the soloists are standing at an angle in front of the orchestra, with bass
Ormondo Maina on the far left, tenor Giuseppe Capponi next to him, followed by
mezzo soprano Maria Waldmann and soprano Teresa Stolz. Diagram 9.A depicts
this rendering, with the altar shown at the rear center and with a disposition of
orchestral instruments and choral sections as they might have been situated.
While it would be interesting to stage modern- day performances of the
Requiem in this side-by-side manner, doing so may seem too radical and may also
be too impractical; numerous special risers would have to be built for both the cho-
rus and orchestra. However, another common nineteenth-century disposition of
forcesthat with the chorus divided into two groups flanking the orchestrahas
considerable historical precedent and can be accomplished in modern times with
relative ease and with considerable success in achieving desired aesthetic goals.
Diagram 9.B illustrates. Note that the string basses are placed at the center rear
of the stage (a placement still used today by some orchestras, notably the Vienna
Philharmonic) and that the violins are divided on either side of the stage (first
violins to the left of the conductor and second violins to the right), this division of
violins being conventional throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
However, unlike suggested stage arrangements of other nineteenth century works
(e.g., Mendelssohn St. Paul and Brahms Ein deutsches Requiem), the violins in the
projection below are positioned in front of the chorus. This is a nod to modern-
day arrangements of strings, especially violins, in a row of two-playerdesks.
3 Tmb. Tba. Drm. Timp.
4 Tpt. 2 CI. 4 Bsn.
4 Hn. 3 FI. 2 Ob.

32 B 32 T
12 Vlc. 12 Vla.
12
Bass
24 S 24 A
14 Vl. II 14 Vl. I
Diagram 9.A: Disposition and Projected Numbers of Performers Conducted byVerdi
Of special importance to the Verdi Requiem, the chorus in the proposed stage
set-up has a contingent of sopranos, altos, tenors, and basses at the front and
also at both sides of the stage. With a full complement of parts at the front of
the stage the audience can experience a balanced representation of the chorus
and can also hear expressive details of the text. With a full complement of parts
on either side of the stage the double-chorus Sanctus can be realized effectively.
In addition, the chorus members can hear each other best with this double-
mixed arrangement, and having the chorus on either side of the orchestra
increases the communication between the two performing forces; the orchestra,
especially the string players, can hear expressive nuances of the chorus (which
the string players cannot hear with the chorus at the rear of the orchestra),
and the chorus can hear a balance of orchestral instruments rather than a pre-
ponderance of brass and percussion sounds. Having the chorus arranged with
sopranos, altos, tenors, and basses on both sides of the orchestra also helps with
the integration of forces; rhythmic cohesion between the orchestra and chorus
12 String Basses
16 T 12 A m 3 Tbn. Tba 12 S 16 B
Dru .
p. 4 Hn.
Tim 4 Tp
t.
2 Clar. 4 Bsn.
Pic. 2 FI. 2 Ob.

16 B 12 S 12 A 16 T
12 Vlc. 12 Vla.
Diagram 9.B: Proposed Modern-day Disposition and Projected Numbers of

Performers
can be increased, phrasing can be better coordinated, elements of diction (word

expression) can be incorporated in orchestral lines, and the two entities can feel
equal in importance.
Finally regarding the proposed arrangement of performers in Diagram 9.B, it
is assumed that the winds, brass, and string basses will be on standard risers or
platforms, and that the rear grouping of sopranos, altos, tenors, and basses will be
raised higher than the front group of choral singers. The numbers of string players
match those recommended by Verdi and also those common today; the numbers
of singers also match those recommended by Verdi with the exception that the
altos have been increased to equal the number of sopranos.
Summary
Verdis Messa da Requiem is a cornucopia of expressive features, and every effort
should be made to reveal and manifest the details of this expressive wealth.
Differences should be made between the regular and heavier accents markings,
and these accents should be observed, especially by singers, whether they occur
on regularly emphasized words or syllables of text or on normally unaccented
words or syllablesthis latter treatment being a common aspect of Verdis com-
positional personality. In addition, performers should manifest Verdis wide range
of dynamic markings and should also take advantage of tempo pliability. Finally,
and perhaps most important, the disposition of performers should allow for the
choristers to interact with the orchestra and to have a downstage presence, thus
enabling their nuances of text to be heard by the audience.
Balthazar, Scott L. The Cambridge Companion to Verdi. Cambridge University Press,2004.
Budden, Julian. Verdi. Oxford University Press,2008.
Corri, Domenico. The Singers Preceptor. London,1810.
Garcia, Manuel. Trait complet de lart du chant. Paris, 18401847. Translated by Donald V.
Paschke as A Complete Treatise on the Art of Singing (Part One and Part Two). Da Capo Press,
1984 (Part One) and 1975 (PartTwo).
Harwood, Gregory. Giuseppe Verdi:AGuide to Research. Routledge,1998.
Kimbell, David R.B. Verdi in the Age of Italian Romanticism. Cambridge University Press,1983.
Lederer, Victor. Verdi:The Operas and Choral Works. Amadeus Press,2014.
Mayhall, Ronald Bruce. Tempo Fluctuation in the Romantic Era as Revealed by Nineteenth-
Century Sources and Applied to Selected Choral Compositions. University of Oklahoma
Doctoral Dissertation,1990.
Nathan, Isaac. Musurgia vocalis. London,1836.
Osborne, Charles. Verdi:ALife in the Theatre. Knopf,1987.
Phillips-Matz, Mary Jane. Verdi:ABiography. Oxford University Press,1993.
Rosen, David. Giuseppe Verdi: Messa da Requiem (Critical Commentary). University of Chicago
Press,1990.
Rosen, David. Giuseppe Verdi:Messa da Requiem (Full Score with comprehensive historical intro-
duction). University of Chicago Press,1990.
Rosen, David. Verdi Requiem. Cambridge University Press,1995.
Rosselli, John. The Life of Verdi. Cambridge University Press,2000.
Steinberg, Michael, Choral Masterworks:AListeners Guide. Oxford University Press,2005.
Werfel, Franz and Stefan, Paul. Verdi:The Man and His Letters. Vienna House,1973.
10
Igor Stravinsky Mass

The more art is controlled, limited, worked over, the more it isfree.
Igor Stravinsky

Igor Stravinsky was born near St. Petersburg on June 17, 1882, the third son of
Anna, an amateur singer and skilled pianist, and Fyodor, one of the most popu-
lar bass-baritones in Russia at the time. Fyodor was also a bibliophile. According
toIgor,
My fathers library contained 7,0008,000 volumes of, mostly, history and

Russian literature. It was a valuable and famous library because of certain first
editions of Gogol, Pushkin, and Tolstoy, as well as of the minor Russian poets.
It was considered important enough to be declared a National Library after the
Revolution, and my mother was accorded the title National Librarian. Iread
omnivorously as a child. Idiscovered Shakespeare, Dante, and the Greeks
in my fathers libraryall in Russianand Iremember being furiously excited
by OedipusRex.
The young Stravinsky was also exposed to much music, especially operatic rep-
ertoire. He heard performances of the current popular Russian fare, including
Glinkas Ruslan and Ludmila, Mussorgskys Boris Godunov, Borodins Prince Igor,
and Tchaikovskys The Maid of Orleans, Eugene Onegin, The Golden Slippers, and
Pique Dame. More important to Stravinsky, however, were the operas of Rimsky-
Korsakov, who would become his teacher, and he particularly remembered hearing
and liking Sadko, The Snow Maiden, Mozart and Salieri, The Tale of Tsar Saltan, and
The Golden Cockerel (also called Le Coq dor). Beyond the Russian operatic repertoire,
popular during Stravinskys youth were Mozarts Figaro and Don Giovanni, Bellinis
Norma, Donizettis Lucia di Lammermoor and Don Pasquale, and Verdis La traviata,
Il trovatore, Rigoletto, and Aida. According to Stravinsky, the most popular operas
and the ones he heard multiple times were Nicolais The Merry Wives of Windsor,
354
Strav insk y M
a ss 355
Massenets Manon, Smetanas The Bartered Bride, Bizets Carmen, and Gounods
Faust. Most of these operas were performed at the Mariinsky Theater, which
was where Fyodor sang most frequently and which was near the family home. As
reported by Stravinsky in Expositions and Developments, Much of my free time was
spent at rehearsals and performances of operas. My father had obtained a pass for
me that allowed me to attend almost all rehearsals at the Mariinsky Theater.
By the time Iwas sixteen Iwould spend as many as five or six nights a week at
the opera. The young Stravinsky also attended operas during trips abroad, and
he remembered being fond of hearing light music such as Johann Strauss Die
Fledermaus and Gilbert and Sullivans Patience and The Pirates of Penzance.
Since operas were replaced by oratorios during Lent when the opera theaters
were closed, Stravinsky heard many of the standard choral/orchestral works.
Often performed during his youth were Handels Messiah and Judas Maccabaeus,
Haydns The Creation and The Seasons, Berliozs Damnation of Faust, Mendelssohns
St. Paul and Lobgesang, Schumanns Paradise and the Peri, and the Brahms Ein
deutsches Requiem. Bachs works were not popular, however, and Stravinsky only
recalled hearing the St. Matthew Passiononce.
Stravinsky began piano lessons when he was nine, and shortly afterward lessons
in theory and counterpoint as well. Further musical studies were with Rimsky-
Korsakovs son Vladimir and eventually Rimsky-Korsakov himself. The lessons
with the elder Rimsky-Korsakov, which occurred twice weekly for about three
years, focused mostly on orchestration. According to Stravinsky, Rimsky-Korsakov
would give me some pages of the piano score of a new opera he had just finished,
which Iwas to orchestrate. When Ihad orchestrated a section, he would show me
his own instrumentation of the same passage and Ihad to comparethem.
Rimsky-Korsakov died in 1908 when Stravinsky was twenty-five and achiev-
ing his first successes at compositionhis Symphony in E-flat Major op.1 (1907),
Scherzo fantastique op.3 (1908), and Fireworks (also 1908). He came to the attention
of the impresario Sergei Diaghilev (18721929), who commissioned him to compose
a ballet based on the Russian firebird fairy tale for the 1910 season of the Ballets
Russes, and with its success, Stravinsky composed Petrushka for the 1911 season and
The Rite of Spring (Le sacre du printemps) for 1913. The premiere of The Rite of Spring
on May 29, 1913, is, of course, famous for the violent audience reaction it caused. As
described by the playwright and filmmaker Jean Cocteau (18891963), the audi-
ence laughed, scoffed, whistled, and cat-called. The uproar degenerated into a
free-for-all. Pierre Monteux (18751964), the conductor of the premiere, recalled,
The audience remained quiet for the first two minutes. Then came boos and
cat-calls from the gallery, soon after from the lower floors. Neighbors began to
hit each other over the head with fists, canes or whatever came to hand. Soon
this anger was concentrated against the dancers, and then, more particularly,
against the orchestra, the direct perpetrator of the musical crime. Everything
available was tossed in our direction, but we continued to playon.
Word of the musics paganistic modernism spread, and Stravinsky became a

worldwide sensation.
Numerous stage works followed The Rite of Spring, almost all of the works a
blending of genres involving singing and dancing. Le rossignol (The Nightingale)
of 1914 was called an opera, but was performed by the Ballets Russes with sing-
ers and the orchestra in the stage pit while dancers mimed actions on stage.
Renard of 1916 (but not performed until 1922 by the Ballets Russes) was called
by Stravinsky a burlesque for the stage with singing and music, and Histoire
du soldat (The Soldiers Tale) of 1918 is a theatrical work to be read, played, and
danced. Les noces (The Wedding) is considered today to be a choral work for
the concert stage. However, it was described by Stravinsky as choreographed
scenes with music and voices and was premiered by the Ballets Russes in 1923.
Oedipus rex was called by Stravinsky an opera-oratorio, and in the first years
after its composition it was performed both as a stage and a concertwork.
Stravinskys first purely choral works are two short settings of secular folk-based
Russian texts: (1) Zvezdolikiy (Star-Face or Star-Faced One), also called Le roi des
toiles (The King of the Stars), for six-part mens chorus and large orchestra; and
(2) Podblyudnye (In the Presence of the Dish or Saucer), also called Four Russian
Peasant Songs, composed between 1914 and 1917 for womens voices a cappella
(later revised with the addition of four horns). The next choral works are sacred set-
tings with church Slavonic texts composed for the Russian Orthodox Church:Simvol
ver (Symbol of faith), composed in 1926 but not published until 1932, then revised
and translated into Latin as Credo in 1949; Otche nash (Our father) in 1926, revised
and translated into Latin as Pater noster in 1949; and Bogoroditse devo (Blessed vir-
gin) in 1934, later revised and translated into Latin as AveMaria.
During Stravinskys youth, the Russian Orthodox Church was a significant
part of his life, although neither he nor his family had strong religious convictions
or were regular churchgoers. Nevertheless, he was baptized in the church the day
he was born, and then more ceremoniously joined to the Russian Church about
a week later. Classes in his school (the Second Gymnasium) began with prayers,
and all students took courses in catechism and biblical history. About religion in
school and at home, Stravinsky recalled,
Bible studies [at school] were as much concerned with language as with religion
because our Bible was Slavonic rather than Russian. The sound and study of
Slavonic delighted me and sustained me through these classes.
Fasts and feasts of the church were strictly observed in our household, and
I was required to attend holy services and to read the Bible. I was always
profoundly moved, too, by one observance of the Church year, the Epiphany cer-
emony during which a cross was baptized in the Neva [river] by Tsar Alexander
III. Unlike most official church holidays, which had degenerated into something
like national bank holidays, the Epiphany was an occasion of real solemnity.
Strav insk y M
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At fourteen or fifteen I began to criticize and rebel against the Church, and
before leaving the Gymnasium Ihad abandoned it completelya rupture that
was left unrepaired for almost three decades.
During these decades Stravinsky lived variously in Russia, Switzerland, and

France, settling in Nice in 1924. At that time, a certain Father Nicolas, of the
Russian Church, came into my lifeand even into my home; he was practically
a member of our household during a period of five years. In 1926, on his return
home from a concert tour, Stravinsky joined a group of pilgrims traveling to Padua
to observe the seven-hundredth anniversary of St. Anthonys death. During the
pilgrimage Stravinsky recalled,
I happened to enter the Basilica just as the Saints body was exhibited. Isaw the
coffin, Iknelt, and Iprayed. Iasked that a sign of recognition be given when
and if my prayer was answered, and as it was answered, and with the sign, Ido
not hesitate to call that moment of recognition the most real in mylife.
He then rejoined the Russian Orthodox Church and composed Simvol ver and
Otche nash. Later, he related to his close associate and artistic champion Robert
Craft (19232015), Perhaps the strongest factor in my decision to re-enter the
Russian Church rather than convert to the Roman was linguistic. The Slavonic lan-
guage of the Russian liturgy has always been the language of prayer for me. Church
Slavonic was even originally a part of Symphony of Psalms, composed in 1930. The
text that is now Laudate Dominum at the beginning of the third movement was
conceived as Ghospodi pomiluj but subsequently changed. Meanwhile, relating
the composition of Symphony of Psalms to his religious faith, Stravinsky said that
it was composed in a state of religious and musical ebullience.
From the late 1920s until the mid- 1940s Stravinsky was busy touring
and composing instrumental works such as the Dumbarton Oaks Concerto for
chamber orchestra in 1938, Symphony in Three Movements for the New York
Philharmonic (composed between 1942 and 1945 and premiered in 1946), and
the Ebony Concerto for Woody Herman in 1946. Stravinsky also composed a
number of theatrical works during this time, many of these works based on
themes of Greek mythology. The opera-oratorio Oedipus rex was composed in
1927; the ballet Apollo, with choreography by George Balanchine, was com-
posed between 1927 and 1928; the melodrama Persephone was completed in
1933; and the ballet Orpheus, another collaboration with George Balanchine,
was written in 1947. All these theatrical works are characterized by neoclassical
elements of composition, especially Orpheus, with its textures of polyphony and
counterpoint.
In 1942 or 1943, Stravinsky said that he happened upon some Masses by
Mozart in a second-hand music store in Los Angeles. As I[later] played through
these rococo-operatic sweets-of-sin, Iknew Ihad to write a Mass of my own, but
a real one. And in further explaining his desire to write a Roman Catholic Mass,
Stravinskynoted,
I wanted my Mass to be used liturgically, an outright impossibility so far as

the Russian Church was concerned, as Orthodox tradition proscribes musical
instruments in its servicesand as I can endure unaccompanied singing in
only the most harmonically primitivemusic.
Stravinsky further explained,
My Mass was not composed for concert performances but for use in the
church. It is liturgical and almost without ornament. In making a musical
setting of the Credo Iwished only to preserve the text in a special way. One
composes a march to facilitate marching men, so with my Credo I hope to
provide an aid to the text. The Credo is the longest movement. There is much
to believe.
Stravinsky also said of the Credo, It is very cold music, absolutely cold, that will
appeal directly to the spirit.
Several explications about Stravinskys comments are necessary here. First,
Mozarts rococo-operatic sweets-of-sin were authentic liturgical Masses, per-
formed during Roman Catholic services in Salzburg churches when they were
written and in many other churches thereafter. In this regard, Mozarts Masses
are every bit as real musically as Stravinskys Mass was intended to be. Second,
Stravinskys description, almost without ornament applies specifically to the
Credo. The Gloria and Sanctus are highly ornamental. Third, the reference to cold
music, absolutely cold, which also applies specifically to the Credo, describes the
anti-Romantic or anti-expressive elements of his writing, these reflecting his views
of Russian Orthodox music. Aaron Copland reinforced the anti-expressive nature of
Stravinsky in his commentary The Personality of Stravinsky in the Merle Armitage
book Stravinsky (later also quoted in Copland on Music). Copland writes in1949,
It is his work of the last few years that holds the mystery tightest. One thinks
of the Mass, the Canticum Sacrum, or of Threni these works, in some curi-
ous way, seem strangely removed from everyday events and yet they remain
for the most part profoundly human. Sobriety is the keynoteit seems hardly
possible to create a music of less sensuous appeal.
The Kyrie and Gloria of the Mass were composed in 1944; the Credo, Sanctus,
and Agnus Dei were mostly written in 1947, and the Mass was completed on
March 15, 1948. The Kyrie and Gloria were performed in Boston, February 26,
1947, with two-piano accompaniment conducted by Irving Fine. The premiere
of the completed Mass was with the choral and orchestral forces of the Teatro
alla Scala (La Scala) in Milan on October 27, 1948, conducted by Stravinskys
Strav insk y M
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friend Ernest Ansermet, who called the Mass a work of humility and submis-
sion. Stravinsky recorded the Mass on February 24 and 25, 1949, and con-
ducted the first performance in NewYork City at Town Hall on February27.
Masses Based onHistoricModels

The Nineteenth Century
During the nineteenth century it was common for composers to write Masses in
both old and new stylesthe old-style Masses being neo-Renaissance in that they
emulated the a cappella polyphonic textures of Palestrina. This style, called stile
antico (antique style), had become out of favor during the Baroque and Classical
eras when many composers were writing large-scale Masses with instrumental
accompaniment and vocal forces that included substantial writing for soloists.
However, efforts to restore church music to Renaissance polyphonic ideals were
advanced by certain composers during the Classical era in Catholic European coun-
tries, mainly Austria and France. In Austria, for example, a number of compos-
ers either studied with or were influenced by Johann Joseph Fux (c.16601741),
whose monumental counterpoint treatise of 1725, Gradus ad Parnassum, defended
and promoted the Palestrinian style of imitative polyphony. Michael Haydn (1737
1806), younger brother of Joseph Haydn, studied with Fux and composed several
of his early Masses in this stile antico style of Palestrina. Missa Sanctae crucis of
1762, for instance, is scored for a cappella chorus, and the Kyrie and Agnus Dei
are structured with overlapping points of imitation. Antonio Salieri (17501825)
composed his first Mass, the Missa stylo a cappella, in the same manner.
Neo-Renaissance Masses also had a presence in France during the nineteenth
century. Charles-Franois Gounod (18181893), for example, composed many
Masses in the older style, both early and late in his career. While the majority of
these Masses are scored for chorus with organ accompaniment, the organ part is not
independent, but mainly a colla parte support of the voices. Examples of Gounods
old-style Masses include the Messe brve et salut for mens voices, composed in 1846
while Gounod was Matre de chapelle at the church of the Sminaire des Missions
Etrangres, the Messe brve no.6 (subtitled aux cathedrals), and the Messe brve
no.7 (subtitled aux chapelles), both of these later Masses composed in1890.
There were also efforts in Germany during the nineteenth century to reform
Catholic church music and return it to Renaissance ideals. Most notably, Franz
Xaver Witt (18341888), a Catholic priest and church musician, founded the
Allgemeine Ccilien- Verein (generally referred to as the Cecilian Society) in
Bamberg in 1870. Numerous composers subscribed to the societys ideals, even
though most of the composers wrote Masses in both older and newer styles (the
newer-style Masses being large-scale works with orchestral accompaniment).
Franz Liszt (18111886) composed three of his five settings of the Mass Ordinary
in the old historic style. Two of these Masses are scored for mens voices with sup-
portive organ accompaniment, and the other Mass, the Missa choralis of 1865,
which is characterized by extensive passages of imitative polyphony, is for mixed

voices and organ. Josef Rheinberger (18391901) composed the majority of his
twenty-two Masses in the older style. Examples include his famous Missa in E-flat
Major op.109 (Cantus Missae) for a cappella double chorus, and the Missa brevis
in G Major op.151 (St. Crucis). In addition, Anton Bruckners Messe in E-Moll (E
Minor Mass) has three movements (Kyrie, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei) that are basi-
cally a cappella and imitative.
Italian composers after the Renaissance were generally not interested in set-
ting the mass ordinary. But Italy became important in the neo-Renaissance move-
ment at the very beginning of the twentieth century when Pope Pius X issued a
motu proprio on November 22, 1903 (Saint Cecilias Day). Entitled Tra le sollecitu-
dini (Among the concerns), the edict criticized the current state of Catholic church
music and mandated a return to the use of Gregorian chant, with recommenda-
tions that new compositions be composed in the style of Palestrina. Following are
excerpts from the motu proprio.
The principal function of sacred music is to clothe with suitable melody the
liturgical text proposed for the understanding of the faithful. Therefore, its
purpose is to add greater efficacy to thetext.
Gregorian Chant has always been regarded as the supreme model for sacred
music. Therefore, it is fully legitimate to lay down the following rule:In its move-
ment, inspiration, and mood, the more closely a church composition approaches
the Gregorian form, the more sacred and liturgical it becomes. The more out of
harmony it is with that supreme model, the less worthy it is of the temple.
The above-mentioned qualities are also possessed in an excellent degree by

classic polyphony, especially of the Roman School, which reached its great-
est perfection in the fifteenth century [sic], owing to the works of Pierluigi da
Palestrina [who lived and worked in the sixteenth century].
Among the different kinds of modern music, that which appears less suitable
for accompanying the liturgy is the theatrical style, which was exceptionally
popular during the [last] century, especially in Italy. Of its very nature, this
style is diametrically opposed to Gregorian Chant.
Although the music proper to the Church is purely vocal music, music with the
accompaniment of the organ is also permitted. In some special cases, within
due limits and with proper safeguards, other instruments may be allowed.
As a result of the motu proprio, the Liber usualis, first published by the monks of
Solesmes in France in 1896, became the official source of Gregorian chants for the
Catholic Church worldwide. Numerous editions followed the original, and the book,
officially titled Liber usualis missae et officii pro dominicis et festis duplicibus cum cantu
Strav insk y M
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gregoriano (Book of common practice for mass and office for Sundays and double
feasts, with Gregorian chant), was distributed widely. Moreover, the Liber usualis
helped further a growing interest in chant and in Renaissance polyphony. Directors
of music in Catholic churches throughout Europe began performing more and more
music from the Renaissance era, and composers throughout Europe began writing
Masses that were liturgical and based on some form of historicalmodel.
The Twentieth Century

Somewhat surprisingly, two British composers wrote the first significant neo-
Renaissance Masses in the twentieth century. This circumstance was the result
of both composersHerbert Howells (18921983) and Ralph Vaughan Williams
(18721958)being attracted to the programming of Richard Runciman Terry
(18651938), the director of music at the Roman Catholic Westminster Cathedral
in London from 1901 to 1924. Herbert Howells was first introduced to Terry
when he entered the Royal College of Music in 1912 (at age nineteen) and began
attending services at Westminster Cathedral and hearing a great deal of Latin
polyphony from British Renaissance composers. Howells was so impressed with
Terrys work and the Tudor music he heard, he immediately composed Mass in the
Dorian Mode, a liturgical Mass modeled on the works of WilliamByrd.
Ralph Vaughan Williams also had an interest in Tudor music. In 1906, while he
was editing the English Hymnal, he took the Tallis Third Mode Melody and used it
for the setting of Joseph Addisons hymn text When Rising from the Bed of Death.
Then in 1910 Vaughan Williams composed his Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis
for string orchestra, followed by the Mass in G Minor, which was composed in 1920
and 1921 and dedicated to Gustav Holst and his Whitsuntide Singers. The premiere
of the Mass was by the City of Birmingham Choir in 1922 and in the secular perfor-
mance venue of Birmingham Town Hall. However, the Mass, with its chant incipits
of the Gloria and Credo, was always intended to be liturgical and performed in a
sacred setting. Moreover, in addition to a cappella scoring, the Mass has numerous
Renaissance traits, including chant-like melodies, modal harmonies, white notation
(i.e., scoring in half and whole notes instead of more modern quarter and eighth
notes), and numerous sections of imitative polyphony and double choir dialogue.
Richard Terry finally performed the Mass at Westminster Cathedral in 1923 and
said to Vaughan Williams, Im quite sincere when Isay that [your Mass] is a work
one has all along been waiting for. In your individual and modern idiom you have
really captured the old liturgical spirit and atmosphere.
Two other composers who wrote significant neo-Renaissance Masses in the
early part of the twentieth centurythe Swiss composer Frank Martin (1890
1974) and the French composer Francis Poulenc (18991963)were motivated
by personal circumstances. Martins Messe pour double choeur a cappella was com-
posed in 1922 (the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, and Sanctus) and 1926 (the Agnus Dei).
However, the Mass was not released by Martin for performance until 1963 when
it was premiered by the Bugenhagen Kantorei of Hamburg on November 23.
Explaining the delay of release, Martin wrote in the program notes of the booklet
for the premiere, I considered [the Mass to be] between God and myself. Ifelt then
that an expression of religious feelings should remain secret and removed from
public opinion. Poulencs Messe en sol Majeur for mixed a cappella chorus was com-
posed shortly after the death of his close friend Pierre-Octave Ferroud in 1936 and
a subsequent pilgrimage to the chapel of the Black Virgin of Rocamadour, where
Poulenc experienced a religious awakening. Neither the Martin nor the Poulenc
Mass is liturgical in having a priest intone the beginning of the Gloria and Credo
(the Poulenc Mass has no Credo), but both Masses have Renaissance characteris-
tics. Martins Mass, like that of Vaughan Williams, is characterized by chant-like
melodies, modal harmonies, a cappella scoring, and many passages of imitative
polyphony and double choir dialogue. Poulencs Mass is also characterized by a cap-
pella scoring, imitative passages, and modal melodies, although the melodies seem
to be more Medieval than Renaissance in intervallic structure. Because of this and
an overall Medieval concept, Poulencs Mass is most like that by Stravinsky. Poulenc
said of his Mass, I tried to compose, in this direct, primitive style, an act of faith
for that is what a Mass is. Similarly, Stravinsky said that he wanted to write very
cold music that will appeal directly to the spirit and for use in the church.
Furthermore, Poulenc called his Mass a reflection of the unadorned architecture
of a Romanesque church and Stravinsky said that his Mass was composed almost
without ornament. In musical expression the two Masses are quite different, how-
ever. The textures of Poulencs Mass are in short measure-long cubes, like many of
his other choral works, including the Gloria and motets. Stravinskys Mass, as will
be described in detail below, is an amalgamation of varied styles.
Three composers Ernst Pepping (1901 1981), Johann Nepomuk David
(18951977), and Paul Hindemith (18951963)wrote Masses that subscribed
to reform effortsnot of the Catholic Church, but of the Lutheran Church instead.
All three composers were also motivated by keen interest in historic music
Pepping in the music of Heinrich Schtz (15851672), David in Lutheran chorales,
and Hindemith, like Stravinsky, in a variety of Medieval and Renaissance models.
Pepping composed four Massestwo in German for the Lutheran liturgy (e.g.,
the Deutsche Choralmesse of 1931 consisting of chorales related to the mass) and
two in Latin. The early Kleine Messe of 1929 is a relatively simple setting of the
Kyrie, Gloria, and Sanctus for three voices (soprano, alto, and bass), with a cap-
pella scoring and imitative textures. The later Missa Dona nobis pacem of 1948
is a complex and artistically superior work scored for mixed chorus, frequently
divided into eight parts, and contains all five portions of the Roman Catholic
Ordinary in textures of alternating homophony and imitative polyphony. Given
the time frame of composition, it is believed that the Missa Dona nobis pacem was
composed as a personal call forpeace.
Davids choral music was, likewise, mainly Lutheran in focus. Many of his
works are set to German texts and are based on Lutheran choralesall a cappella
and in neo-Renaissance textures. His one Mass, the Deutsche Messe op.42 of 1952
is also in German. However, unlike most Lutheran Mass settings, which contain
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only the Kyrie and Gloria, Davids Mass contains all five portions of the Roman
Catholic Ordinary. The Kyrie is in both Greek and German; the Gloria has German
text simultaneous with the Latin Gloria in excelsis Deo, which runs throughout
the movement; and the Credo, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei are completely in German.
The textures are mostly imitative and reflective of Renaissance polyphony.
Hindemith, like Pepping and David, was a committed Protestant, although
Hindemith did not compose sacred music. His oratorio, Das Unaufhrliche (The
Unceasing) of 1931, is set to a secular text by the German essayist, novelist, and
poet Gottfried Benn (18861956) that relates philosophical issues about perma-
nence and change in the worldthe basic premise being that mankind should
follow the unceasing (unaufhrlich) natural law of constant transformation, and
Hindemiths Requiem of 1946, When lilacs last in the door-yard bloomd, subtitled A
Requiem for those we love, was composed to Walt Whitmans ode mourning the
death of Abraham Lincoln. Hindemiths only sacred work to a Latin text, other than
the Mass, is Apparebit repentina dies, which is a setting of an anonymous medieval
poem about the Day of Judgment composed for the 1947 Symposium of Music
Criticism at Harvard University. Hindemiths Messe fr gemischten Chor a cappella
was written in 1963, six weeks before the composers death, for Hans Gillesberger,
conductor of the Vienna Kammerchor. Gillesberger had performed Hindemiths
madrigals in 1958 and had after that repeatedly asked Hindemith for a Mass. But
Hindemith steadfastly refused, stating that Palestrina had been the last word in
Catholic church music. Nevertheless, Hindemith composed his Mass in a combi-
nation of neo-Renaissance and neo-Medieval styles during the summer of 1963
and conducted it in a liturgical service at Viennas Piarist Church on November
12; Gillesberger conducted the Mass with the Vienna Kammerchor in the Vienna
Konzerthaus the following evening. Hindemiths writing in the Mass is a marvel of
imitative polyphony, with elements of numerology, symbolism, canons, inversions
of melodic phrases, fauxbourdon, and repeated motifs and phrases.
Mention should also be made of mass settings by Leo Janek (18541928)
and Zoltn Kodly (18821967). Janeks Glagolsk me (Glagolitic Mass) was
composed in 1926 and revised in 1927. Although it is not neo-Renaissance
being scored for mixed double chorus, SATB soloists, and full orchestra with organ
and a large percussion sectionit reflects historic Masses by using old Slavonic
language and by giving the five traditional movements of the Mass Slavonic titles
(e.g., Ghospodi pomiluj for the Kyrie and Slava for the Gloria). Furthermore,
the organ is featured as a solo instrument (as it might have been in a church ser-
vice) in the middle portion of the Credo and in a toccata after the Agnus Dei.
Kodlys Missa Brevis of 1944, scored for mixed chorus with either orchestra or
organ accompaniment, is also not neo-Renaissance. However, modal harmonies
and imitative textures are reflective of Hungarian music of thepast.
Stravinskys Mass, composed between 1944 and 1947, is an eclectic mixture
of neo-isms. The Agnus Dei is neo-Renaissance (considering the a cappella cho-
ral parts and imitative textures); the end of the Credo and the beginning of the
Christe section of the Kyrie are also imitative, although this latter passage is
scored with an independent instrumental accompaniment. The Gloria and Sanctus

movements are clearly neo-Medieval or neo-Gothic, with florid passages reflective
of those used during the Notre Dame period of the Medieval era by Lonin (active
between 1180 and 1190) and Protin (active around 1200). The Credo can be
called neo-Slavonic or neo-Orthodox because of the syllabic setting of the text in
repetitive rhythms and homophonic chords reminiscent of Russian chant. With
driving, motoristic rhythms, the Credo is also similar to Stravinskys music com-
posed early in his career in Russia. Robert Craft made reference to Stravinskys
many historic references, writing,
The Mass evidences several models, all exquisitely interfused. The Credo is
redolent of plainsong, has a canonic Amen and a Plagal cadence. There is an
exquisite use of Organum in the Gloria and an amazing revival of Gregorian
Neumes in the Sanctus. The latter, for instance, contains a Climacus Resupinus
Flexus, in modern notational cognates, of course. The Mass is also marked
by the use of the Dorianmode.
The scoring of the Mass for a small ensemble of wind and brass instruments
also has historic precedents. During the Renaissance it was a common practice to
have sacred music in church accompanied colla parte by instruments, including
winds and brass (i.e., recorders, shawms, crumhorns, and sacbuts), and begin-
ning in the late Classical era, wind and brass instruments (called Harmonie in
Germany and Austria) were popular in church music. Schuberts Deutsche Messe,
Haydns Harmoniemesse, and Bruckners Messe in E-Moll are examples. Even the
motu proprio of Pope Leo X, as mentioned above, admitted the possibility of wind
instruments in church. Stravinsky may not have been aware of the motu proprio
or Masses by Schubert, Haydn, and Bruckner, but he likely encountered wind and
brass ensembles in the many Catholic church services he attended during hislife.
Interest in choral works based on historic models by other composers has con-
tinued throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Noteworthy contri-
butions to the Mass repertoire include Benjamin Brittens Missa Brevis of 1959
and Arvo Prts Berliner Messe of 1990. Brittens Mass is scored for treble voices
and organ and written for Londons Westminster Cathedral choir (the choir that
was so important to Herbert Howells and Ralph Vaughan Williams). In addition,
the vocal texture of Brittens Mass is replete with scalar passages that are often
used in inversion and with imitative polyphony. Prts Mass is scored for mixed
chorus and organ (or strings in a 19911992 revision) and in the composers min-
imalistic style (called tintinnabuli from the effect of sound lingering after a bell
has been struck) that has a quality of music from the Medievalera.
Three Masses of more modern timesVincent Persichettis Mass op. 84 of
1960, Paul Chiharas Missa Carminum (Folk-Song Mass) of 1975, and Krzysztof
Pendereckis Missa Brevis of 2012are excellent examples of neo-Renaissance writ-
ing in that they clearly represent the stile antico style of Palestrina. Persichettis Mass,
commissioned by NewYork Citys Collegiate Chorale, is the most Renaissance-like
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of the three. It is an a cappella setting of the complete Latin text characterized by

unmetered phrases, quotations of Gregorian chant and other melodies that are
chant-like, repetition of motifs, and alternating textures of imitative polyphony
and homophony. Chiharas Mass combines both sacred and secular music. Basing
the writing on the Gregorian chant Deus genitor alme, Chihara incorporates folk
melodies into the Latin fabric, this in the manner of Renaissance-era Masses based
on folk tunes such as Lhomme arm. Chihara, for example, cites the folk tune Sally
Gardens in the Kyrie and I wonder as Iwander in the Gloria. Chihara even incorpo-
rates Hebrew into the Mass. Pendereckis Missa Brevis, commissioned by the Bach
Archiv in Leipzig for the 800th anniversary of St. Thomas Church, is a setting of
the mass except the Credo, and is characterized by overlapping phrases of imitative
polyphony as well as sections of dialogue between upper and lower voices.
Stravinsky and Musical Styles ofthePast

Given the division of Stravinskys music into three stylistic periodsRussian,
neoclassical, and serialit is typical to think that only compositions in the neo-
classical period are based on or were modeled after music of past eras. One tends to
think of Stravinskys Russian music as original, revolutionary, and groundbreak-
ing, especially considering The Rite of Spring and the reaction it caused when it was
first performed, and one also tends to think of the serial repertoire as new and
original, especially given that the serial compositional techniques were invented
during Stravinskys lifetime. However, Stravinsky always felt himself connected
to the past and always composed with the past in mind. This mindset is expressed
many times in Poetics of Music, the publication of six Charles Eliot Norton lectures
that Stravinsky gave at Harvard University during the 19391940 academic year.
In the first lecture he takes exception to having been called a revolutionary when
he composed The Rite of Spring, stating, My position [now] is exactly the same as
it was at the time when Icomposed The Rite and when people saw fit to call me
a revolutionary. Iconfess that Iam completely insensitive to the prestige of
revolution. Stravinsky then spends considerable time praising the musical style
of Gounods opera Faust. In the second lecture Stravinsky decries the musical dra-
mas of Wagner and praises Verdi, who he credits with saying, Let us return to old
times, and that will be progress. The condemnation of Wagner is continued in the
third lecture, with statements such as I maintain that there is more substance
and true invention in [Verdis] aria La donna mobile than in the rhetoric and
vociferation of [Wagners] Ring. Richard Wagners music is more improvised
than constructed. In the fourth lecture Stravinsky persists in his disapproval of
inventive compositional styles, calling Berlioz a monster of originality, inventor
of his own language, of his own vocabulary, and of the apparatus of his art. The
use of already employed materials and of established forms is usually forbidden
him, and in the fifth and sixth lectures Stravinsky continues to hail the conserva-
tive and censure the progressive.
Such consistent and passionate expressions against the innovations of composers

such as Wagner and Berlioz is understandable at the time of the Norton lectures when
Stravinsky was embarking on his neoclassical period of composition and, therefore,
imbued with a sense of commitment to its principles. His comments of admiration
for the music of such composers as Gounod, Bellini, Delibes, and Verdi (although not
Verdis Falstaff, which Stravinsky criticizes) explain certain of his own works such as
the 1920 ballet Pulcinella, based on an eighteenth-century play and utilizing music
of Giovanni Pergolesi (17101736), and the opera The Rakes Progress, composed in
1951 to a libretto about the engravings of William Hogarth (16971764).
There are other philosophical statements in Poetics of Music that explain character-
istics of neoclassical structure, balance, clarity, and emotional restraint in Stravinskys
works composed between the early 1920s and the mid 1950s:Gratuitous excess
spoils every substance, every form that it touches (page13); All music is nothing
more than a succession of impulses that converge toward a definite point of repose.
This is as true of Gregorian chant as of a Bach fugue, as true of Brahmss music as of
Debussys (pages 3738); The creators function is to sift the elements he receives
from [imagination], for human activity must impose limits upon itself. The more art
is controlled, limited, worked over, the more it is free (page66); My freedom will
be so much the greater and more meaningful the more narrowly Ilimit my field of
action. The more constraints one imposes, the more one frees ones self of the
chains that shackle the spirit (page68); and I always use academic formulas know-
ingly and voluntarily. Iuse them quite as knowingly as Iwould use folklore. They are
raw materials of my work (page88).
The great majority, if not all of Stravinskys choral works, can be seen to adhere
to the principles promulgated in Poetics of Music and in other of the composers pub-
lished writings. For example, the early Slavic sacred pieces (later given Latin texts) are
all restrained and austere, and the early secular worksFour Russian Peasant Songs
and Les noces (The Wedding)have minimalistic rhythmic qualities and constrained
instrumental scoring (four horns for the Four Russian Peasant Songs and four pianos
with percussion for Les noces). Two of the three final choral works are also chamber-
like in scoring and uncomplicated in rhythmic texture:the very brief Anthem (sub-
titled The dove descending breaks the air) of 1962 is scored for a cappella chorus,
with staggered choral entrances that have an aspect of Renaissance polyphony; and
Introitus (also called T. S.Eliot in memoriam) of 1965 is scored for two-part mens
voices (often in unison), with accompaniment of piano, harp, viola, bass, timpani,
and tam-tam. Stravinskys last work, Requiem Canticles of 19651966, is scored for
a large orchestra. However the work is brief and the scoring is generally sparse and
pointillistic in the manner of Webern. The vocal texture is divided between melis-
matic writing for alto and bass soloists (similar to that in the Gloria and Sanctus
of the Mass) and homophony for the chorus, and furthermore, the work as a whole
is structured in mirror form, with instrumental sections at the beginning, middle,
and end of the work, and with alternating choral and solo sections in between. Two
other late works are also highly structured and characterized by uncluttered textures
and emotional restraint. In Threni:id est Lamentationes Jeremiae prophetae, composed
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between 1957 and 1958 and scored for SATTBB solos, mixed chorus, and orchestra,
the solo vocal textures are somewhat active rhythmically when scored for two parts;
otherwise the solo vocal textures are rhythmically uncomplicated and relatively
homophonic, and there are also vocal passages that are a cappella. And in A Sermon,
a Narrative, and a Prayer, composed between 1960 and 1961 and scored for speaker,
alto and bass solos, mixed chorus, and large orchestra, the vocal/choral textures are
similar to those in Anthem. In both Threni and A Sermon the orchestral textures are
pointillistic, similar to those in Requiem Canticles.
None of the five very early choral works composed during Stravinskys Russian
period and five very late choral works composed during his serial period are revolution-
ary, groundbreaking, or original in terms of compositional procedures. The Russian
works can be compared to Stravinskys contemporaries, including his idol, Tchaikovsky,
and his mentor and teacher, Rimsky-Korsakov. On the other hand, the late, serial
works follow methodologies created and begun by Schoenberg and Webern. This is
not to imply that Stravinskys writing lacks creativity. It is merely to demonstrate that
Stravinsky was always connected to music of the pastmusic composed beforehim.
Stravinskys choral works between the very early and very late compositions, are,
as to be expected, the most historic in their connections to music of the past. Before
discussing these, however, it should be noted that the term neoclassical refers
to stylistic characteristics that can be described by terms such as order, structure,
balance, clarity, and emotional restraint. Neoclassical is not the same as neo-
Classical, which refers to music exhibiting stylistic characteristics of the Classical
era. Some of Stravinskys works, most notably his opera The Rakes Progress, are
clearly neo-Classical. However, none of the choral works can be called this. While all
the choral works of the middle period can be characterized by terminology related
to classicism, none of the choral works resemble or are based on works by Haydn,
Mozart, or other composers of the eighteenth century. The Mass in particular, as
verified by Stravinskys own words, was composed in an anti-Mozartianstyle.
Stravinsky wrote the following about neoclassicism in the December 1927
issue of The Dominant:
There is much talk nowadays of a reversion to classicism, and works believed

to have been composed under the influence of so-called classical models are
labeled neo-classic. It is difficult for me to say whether this classification is
correct or not. With works that are worthy of attention, and have been writ-
ten under the obvious influence of the music of the past, does not the matter
consist rather in a quest that probes deeper than a mere imitation of the so-
called classical idiom? Ifear that the bulk of the public, and also the critics, are
content with recording superficial impressions created by the use of certain
technical devices which were current in so-called classical music. Classical
musictrue classical musicclaimed musical form as its basic substance.
If those who label as neo-classic the works belonging to the latest tendency in
music mean by that label that they detect in them a wholesome return to this
formal idea, the only basis of music, well andgood.
Stravinskys choral works during the middle part of his compositional career
(those works from the beginning of the neoclassical period to those at the begin-
ning of the serial period) have two traits that characterize them as neoclassi-
cal:scoring and text. As to scoring, most of the works are written for mixed vocal
forces with orchestral accompaniment that is reduced in some manner or another,
and as to text, all the works either come from so-called classical sources or deal
with classical subjects.
Oedipus rex andBabel

Both Oedipus rex of 19261927 and Babel of 1944 are scored for speaker, male
voices, and traditional large orchestra. Oedipus rexscored for speaker, ATTBBB
solos, male chorus, and full orchestra that includes triple winds and pianowas
originally intended to be an opera in celebration of the twentieth anniversary of
Sergei Diaghilevs Ballets Russes. Two of the first performances (Paris in 1927
and Boston in 1928) were in concert form, however, with minimal staging of
characters in masks who moved only their arms and heads and thus, according
to Stravinsky, gave the impression of living statues. Stravinsky then called the
work an opera-oratorio, even though many later performances with Stravinskys
involvement were fully staged, including those by the Vienna State Opera in 1928
and the Santa Fe Opera in 1960, 1961, and 1962. The libretto is the basis for
the works neoclassicism. Originally written by Jean Cocteau in French, then
translated into Latin (according to Stravinsky, a medium not dead but turned
to stone), the story is derived from the Sophocles tragedy of Oedipus, who, for-
saken by his parents as a child, unwittingly kills his father and marries his mother.
When he learns the truth of this relationship, he blinds himself. Stravinskys
music, according to Leonard Bernstein who conducted the work as part of his
final Charles Eliot Norton lecture at Harvard University in 1973, is composed of
many techniques from past classical and popular styles.
Babelscored for speaker, two-part male chorus, and large orchestra with tri-
ple windswas part of a collage of works based on the first chapters of Genesis.
The collage idea came from the music publisher Nathaniel Shilkret, who commis-
sioned Stravinsky, Schoenberg, Milhaud, and others to contribute works to the
project. Bartk, Hindemith, and Prokofiev were also to have contributed, but
their works never materialized. Babel, Stravinskys first work in English, is based
on Genesis 11:19 and is divided into four tempo sections. The music is neoclassi-
cal in form and structure. Robert Craft has described it as a passacaglia in which
a fugue serves as one of the variations.
Symphony ofPsalms and Canticumsacrum

Both Symphony of Psalms of 1930 and Canticum sacrum of 1955 are scored to Latin
texts for mixed vocal forces and orchestra without violins. Symphony of Psalms
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(originally titled Symphonie de psaumes) is undoubtedly Stravinskys most popular

choral work. It was commissioned by Serge Koussevitzky (18741951), conductor
of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, to celebrate the orchestras fiftieth anniver-
sary. Koussevitzky was an extraordinary champion of contemporary music and
commissioned many works that became well known and that entered the standard
repertoire of orchestras around the world. In 1922, for instance, Koussevitzky
commissioned Maurice Ravel to transcribe for orchestra Mussorgskys original
piano scoring of Pictures at an Exhibition, and for the 1930 Boston Symphony
Orchestras fiftieth anniversary, Koussevitzky commissioned works from Ravel
(Piano Concerto in G), Prokofiev (Symphony no.4), Hindemith (Concert Music for
Strings and Brass), and Howard Hanson (Symphony no.2, the Romantic), as well
as Stravinsky (who was expected to compose a purely orchestralwork).
For Symphony of Psalms, Stravinsky, not satisfied with traditional symphonic
models, decided to create an organic whole without conforming to the various
models adopted by custom, but still retaining the periodic order by which the
symphony is distinguished from the suite. He scored the work for mixed chorus
and large orchestra that included harp and two pianos but that did not include
violins or violas. For his text he chose, in Latin, Psalm 39:1213, Psalm 40:13,
and all of Psalm 150. These were divided into three movements, called Prlude,
Double Fugue, and Allegro symphonique in the program of the premiere per-
formance of the work (but not published in the score). The movements were later
called by Stravinsky Prayer, Testimony, and Hymn of Praise. The structures
of the movements, seen in the following chart showing the three movements,
reflect Stravinskys neoclassical ideals. Movement Iis in an AABA structure, com-
mon in many choral works throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries;
movement II is a double fugue, with the orchestra devoted to the first fugue and
the choir to the second; and movement III is in a tri-parte structure, marked by
similar Alleluia passages at the beginning, middle, and end of the movement.
The numbers in parentheses refer to rehearsal numbers in thescore.
MovementI
Introduction (beginning to one before4)
A (4 to one before6)
Interlude (6 to one before7)
Closing (9 to one before10)
B (10 to one before12)
Closing (12 to three after12)
A (four after 12 to theend)
MovementII
Fugue 1orchestral (beginning to one before4)
Episodeorchestral (4 to one before5)
Fugue 2choral (5 to one before9)

Episodechoral (9to10)
Stretto of Fugue 2a cappella (10 to one before12)
Stretto of Fugue 1orchestral (12 to two before14)
Combination of Fugues 1 and 2developmental (14 to one before17)
Coda (17 to theend)
MovementIII
Alleluia (beginning)
ALaudate (1 to one before3)
BOrchestral interlude (3to6)
A' (one after 6 to one before8)
B' (8 to one before9)
Transition (9 to one before12)
Alleluia (12 to one before13)
B (13 to one before20)
C (22 to one before24)
C (26 to one before28)
Extension (28to29)
Alleluia and Laudate (29 to theend)
Canticum sacrum is scored for tenor and baritone solos, mixed chorus,
and orchestra with harp and organ but without violins. The work, subtitled
by Stravinsky ad honorem Sancti Marci nominis, was commissioned for the
Venice Biennale International Festival of Contemporary Music and dedicated
To the City of Venice, in praise of its Patron Saint, the Blessed Mark, Apostle.
The first performance was in St. Marks Basilica on September 13, 1956, and
was conducted by the composer. As with the other middle-period works, the
neoclassicism of Canticum sacrum is reflected in its form, which like the Mass of
ten years earlier has an arch structure:the final movement is an almost exact
retrograde of the first movement, and the center of the work is a fugue. The
second and fourth movements feature solos, the central three movements rep-
resent the three virtues (Charity, Hope, and Faith), and all five movements
of the work are organized to reflect the architecture of the five cupolas of St.
Marks Basilica.
Mass and Cantata

Both Mass and Cantata are scored for voices and instrumental chamber ensemble.
Mass, which will be discussed in detail below, was composed between 1944 and
1947. Cantata was composed in 1951 and 1952 and is scored for soprano and
tenor solos, four-part womens chorus, and instrumental ensemble composed
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of two flutes, oboe, English horn (doubling a second oboe), and cello. The work
was written for the Los Angeles Chamber Symphony Society, who premiered the
work on November 11, 1952. In the program notes for the premiere performance,
Stravinsky wrote extensively about the works genesis:
After finishing The Rakes Progress Iwas persuaded by a strong desire to com-
pose another work in which the problems of setting English words to music
would reappear, but this time in a purer, non-dramatic form. I selected four
popular anonymous lyrics of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, verses
which attracted me not only for their great beauty and their compelling syl-
labification, but for their construction which suggested music construction.
Three of the poems are semi-sacred. The fourth, Westron Wind, is a love lyric.
The Cantata is, therefore, secular.
As with the Mass and Canticum sacrum, the Cantata is in arch form, with state-
ments of a rhythmically simple refrain alternating with rhythmically complex
movements called by Stravinsky ricercars. About this latter form, Stravinsky
wrote, I use the term ricercar not in the sense that Bach used it to distinguish
certain strict alla breve fugues, . . but in its earlier designation of a composition in
canonic style. The ricercar in the center of the work is a lengthy tenor solo sub-
titled cantus cancrizans (song in retrograde).
MovementI
A Lyke-Wake Dirgeverse 1chorus
MovementII
Ricercar 1The maidens camesopranosolo
MovementIII
MovementIV
Ricercar 2Tomorrow shall be my dancing daytenorsolo
MovementV
MovementVI
Westron Windsoprano and tenorduet
MovementVII
A Lyke-Wake Dirg everse 4chorus
The six choral works discussed abovefrom Oedipus rex to Canticum sacrum
all were composed to ancient texts or texts about ancient subjects, all with rhyth-
mic textures and melodic designs reminiscent of those used before the nineteenth
century, and all to structures based on historic models. In addition, it should
be noted that during his middle period Stravinsky also made arrangements of
works by J.S. Bach and Carlo Gesualdo. Stravinskys Bach arrangementChoral-
Variationem ber das Weihnachtslied Vom Himmel hoch da komm ich herwas
composed between 1955 and 1956 and scored for mixed chorus (mostly in uni-
son) and orchestra without violins or cellos. The five variations are arranged in
arch form according to keyC Major for variations Iand V, G Major for varia-
tions II and IV, and D-flat Major for variation III. The Gesualdo workTres sacrae
cantioneswas composed between 1957 and 1959 and scored for a cappella cho-
rus. Stravinsky arranged three Gesualdo motets (Da pacem Domine, Assumpta est
Maria, and Illumina nos) by composing sextus and bassus parts that were missing
and by altering other parts that result in a neo-Gesualdostyle.
Formal and Musical Structures oftheMass

All the movements except for the central movement of the Massthe Credo
have return forms (i.e., all the movements are structured so that previous mate-
rial in each movement reappears or returns), and the five movements of the Mass
are in arch or symmetrical form:the first and last movements (Kyrie and Agnus
Dei) are entirely choral, in three sections with instrumental interludes, and
have comparable neo-Renaissance attributes; the second and fourth movements
(Gloria and Sanctus) feature soloists and have almost identical neo-Medieval or
neo-Gothic melodic and rhythmic qualities; and the central movement (Credo)
stands alone with its chant-like and motoristic textures. The related movements
do not share musical material, and are not, therefore, mirror in construction like
the Brahms Ein deutsches Requiem or the Bach motet Jesu, meine Freude BWV 227,
which have duplications of music in related movements. The related movements
in the Stravinsky Mass are only homologous in melodic design and rhythmic tex-
tures; none of the musical material is repeated between movements.
Structural relationships between movements have existed throughout history.
During the Renaissance, for instance, many Masses were constructed on a cantus
firmus that either pervaded or had some presence in all the movements. The Kyrie
and Agnus Dei were especially related in that both of these movements often pre-
sented the cantus firmus most completely and clearly (e.g., Josquins Missa Pange lin-
gua). In addition, the Kyrie and Agnus Dei were often related structurally since each
of the movements is divided into three parts with repetitions of texts as seenhere.
Kyrie
Kyrie eleison,
Christe eleison,
Kyrie eleison.
Agnus Dei
Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis.
Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis.
Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, dona nobispacem.
Strav insk y M
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In Masses composed after the Renaissance, with no melody pervading all

movements, it was not uncommon for composers to end the Agnus Dei with
the melody that began the Kyrie. This is the case in Joseph Haydns Missa Sancti
Nicolai, Beethovens Missa in C Major op.86, and Vaughan Williamss Mass in G
Minor. Poulencs Messe en sol Majeur has similar but not exactly replicated melo-
dies in the Kyrie and Agnus Dei movements.
Stravinsky may or may not have known earlier Masses and their structures,
but it is likely that he encountered and was familiar with the arch form as one
of the structural unifying devices used by composers of the past, and given his
predilection for strict forms during his neoclassical period, it is certain that he
would have been drawn to the arch form. Stravinsky used this structural device
in three consecutive choral works:Mass (19441948), Cantata (19511952), and
Canticum sacrum (1955).
Kyrie and AgnusDei

The overall form of the Kyrie is ABA. The first A is structured of three choral
phrases, each preceded by a measure of bell-like instrumental pitches (measures
1, 6, and 10). The textures of the three choral phrases parallel those in the Agnus
Dei, but in reverse. That is, in the Kyrie, the first phrase is homophonic, the sec-
ond phrase begins with a duet for lower voices, and the third phrase begins with
a duet for upper voices. The B section, which begins in measure 16 after a five-
measure transition, is characterized by dance-like material that alternates in a
somewhat dialogue fashion between choral and instrumental passages. The final
Ais a brief reprise of the choral phrase that began the movement, but cadencing
on a G Major chord in first inversion instead of an E-flat Major six chord as at the
end of the first Asection. (The numbers below in parenthesis refer to rehearsal
numbers, not measure numbers.)
Kyrie
A (beginningto2)
Transition (two after 2 to one before3)
B (3 to four after7)
Transition (one before 8 to one before9)
A (9 to theend)
The Agnus Dei is the arch equivalent of the Kyrie in structure, with, as men-
tioned above, the textures of the choral phrases in reverse. In the Agnus Dei the
first phrase begins with a duet for upper voices, the second phrase begins with a
duet for lower voices, and the third and final phrase (like the opening phrase of
the Kyrie) is homophonic. Otherwise, the structure of the Agnus Dei is basically
AAA, with each A preceded by an identical four-measure instrumental section

ofmusic.
AgnusDei
A (beginning to one before58)
A' (58 to one before61)
A" (61 to three after63)
Closing (four after 63 to theend)
Gloria and Sanctus

The Gloria has two main and divergent compositional elements, one florid or
melismatic and one chordal. The florid passages are scored for treble soloists while
the chordal passages are scored for chorus; instruments participate in and con-
tribute to both styles. The character of the florid writing can be seen in the open-
ing instrumental passage shown in Example10.1.
Example10.1
Likewise, the character of the chordal writing can be seen in the opening cho-
ral passage shown in Example10.2. While there are occasional notes that adorn
some of the syllables of text, these are passing notes and do not compromise the
homophonic character of the passage. Note that the text is completely homopho-
nic throughout allparts.
Example10.2
Strav insk y M
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In terms of structure, the florid passage above and phrases similar to it

can be labeled A, the chordal passages can be labeled B, but also lower-case
b since these phrases repeat numerous times with slight variations within
the larger B. The chart below demonstrates. A closing is made up of four
short phrases scored for the treble solo voices, the phrases separated by a
single bell-like chord. A one-measure tutti Amen ends the movement. As
with the Kyrie, the text in the Gloria is not treated in a traditional manner.
For example, the text is not divided into fast-slow-fast sections typical in
Classical-era Masses.
Gloria
A (beginning to one before13)
Bwith four statements of b (13 to one before15)
BABABalternating (19 to one before22)
Closing (22 to theend)
The Sanctus has four distinct and contrasting compositional elements, each ele-
ment reflecting a historic style and each element set to traditional text sections.
The first element (A) is melismatic (neo-Medieval) and set in three passages to
Sanctus, Sanctus, Sanctus, each passage consisting of an intonation of Sanctus
sung by two tenor soloists followed by a choral tutti response; the two tenor solo-
ists, representing two high male voices, are the arch equivalent of the two treble
soloists of the Gloria. The section ends with a closing sung by an SATB solo quartet
to the text Dominus Deus SABAOTH. Shown in Example10.3 is the opening solo
phrase.
Example10.3
The second section of the Sanctus (B), set to the text Pleni sunt coeli
et terra gloria tua, is the beginning of what might be a fugue. However,
the subject is stated only once by each voice part of the solo quartet that
sang the closing phrase of A. Shown in Example 10.4 are the opening two
entrances (bass and tenor). The style of the fugue subject is rhythmically
severe and dense, not unlike the fugue in the central movement of Symphony
of Psalms.
Example10.4
The third section of the Sanctus (C), scored for chorus and set to the text
Hosanna in excelsis, is like the B or second compositional element of the Gloria
in both tempo and rhythmic activity. The texture is completely homophonic in
regard to text setting, with the inclusion of ornamental passing tones in the
melodic designs of the voice parts. Shown in Example10.5 are the first four choral
measures of this thirteen-measure section.
Example10.5
The fourth section of the Sanctus (D), set to the Benedictus text, is not char-
acterized by the vocal writing, but instead by the instrumental accompaniment,
which begins with double-dotted rhythms in the bassoons (Example10.6) remi-
niscent of the French Overture style of the Baroqueera.
Strav insk y M
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Example10.6
In traditional manner, the Hosanna is then repeated (expanded by Stravinsky

from thirteen measures previously into twenty measures, the final six measures
serving as a slower-tempo closing).
The complete form of the Sanctusis
Sanctus
ASanctus (beginning to two after45)
BPleni sunt coeli (three after 45 to one before48)
CHosanna (48 to one before50)
DBenedictus (50 to one before52)
CHosanna (52 to theend)
Credo
The Credothe central movement of the Mass, scored for chorus and instruments
without soloshas only one compositional element, that characterized by repeti-
tive pitches and rhythms in drone-like chants that are completely homophonic in
the voices until the final brief Amen that closes the movement. Moreover, there
is a pitch structure of many phrases that unifies the entire movement. This struc-
ture, consisting of several or more notes chanted on one pitch followed by a step
downward and a return to the opening pitch, can be seen in the opening soprano
line of the movement (Example10.7).
Example10.7
Other occurrences of the pitch structure are located at the beginnings of phrase
groups or sectional divisions of the movement as seen in the listingbelow.
soprano for four measures, beginning two after26

soprano for two-and-a-half measures, beginning nine after26
soprano for six measures, beginningat29
tenor for four measures, beginningat32
soprano for two measures, beginningat33
soprano for two measures, beginning three after33
soprano for two measures, beginningat34
soprano for two-and-a-half measures, beginning in the measure three after34
tenor for six measures, beginning with the anacrusis to one after36
soprano for three measures, beginningat37
Stravinsky varies the meters and textures of the phrases in the Credo to create
four distinct sections. The first section (from the beginning to one before 27)is
consistently in duple meter; the second section (from 27 to one before 32)is in
a variety of meters, mostly 3/8, and is more active in pitch variation; the third
section (from 32 to one before 36)is like the first section; and the fourth section
(from 36 to one before 42)has long phrases of static pitch repetition generally
accompanied by long sustained instrumental chords. Each of the four sections is
then divided into smaller phrase groups that are separated by cadences, rests, or
apostrophe breath marks. These smaller sections, along with the larger ones, are
shown in the following chart. The numbers, including those in parentheses, indi-
cate the number of measures in the phrase group. The lower case a represents the
phrase structure that unifies the movement. Note that this phrase motto occurs
eleven times throughout the movement and most notably at the beginnings of
sections, both large and small. The closing is scored for a cappella chorus and con-
sists of imitative phrases, each beginning with the same five-noteshape.
Credo
Section1
a (3)+ 8 followed by one measure of instrumental separation
a (4)+3
a (2 )+3
Section2
8 + 10, cadencing with a hemiola
a (6)+ 3 hemiola
9, cadencing with a hemiola
choral closing followed by instrumental closing
Section3
a (4)+5
a (2)+ a (2)+3
a (2 ) + a (2 )+10
Section4
a (7)+3
a (3)+9
7, endinginx
6, endinginx
5, ending inx+6
Closing(6)
Strav insk y M
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Summary
Stravinskys Mass is a composite and eclectic mix of historic structures, from large-
scale organizational forms such as the symmetrical or arch arrangement of the five
movements and the return patterns within individual movements to the use of
imitative, fugal, motivic, and other historic compositional forms in sections and
phrases of the music. Unifying the entire Mass is Stravinskys unique brand of pitch
and rhythmic design; pitches are repeated from several to numerous times in every
movement, resulting in a motor or chant-like texture, and rhythmic shapes within
changing meters result in accents and stresses that are contrary to traditional expec-
tations. These misplaced accents are especially noticeable in Stravinskys setting of
text, and there are countless examples of rearranged syllabic stresses throughout
the Mass. Some of these can be seen in the musical examples abovefor instance,
the beginning of the Credo (Example 10.7), where Stravinskys rhythmic setting
places an accent on the final syllable of omnipotentem instead of on the expected
penultimate syllable. Many other examples will be discussed directlybelow.

Text Setting
Stravinskys manner of text setting, with unaccented syllables put on metrically
strong beats or unaccented syllables scored with pitch and rhythmic primacy, is
not without precedent. This deliberate displacement of natural oratory is found,
for instance, throughout Poulencs choral works. Two illustrations are shown in
Examples10.8 and 10.9. At the beginning of the Gloria in the 1937 Messe en sol
Majeur the natural declamation of Gloria in excelsis Deo sung by the choral
basses is transformed into Gloria in excelsis Deo (shown in Example10.8),
and in the Benedictus, the normal declamation Benedictus, shown below in
the choral soprano line, is altered to Benedictus (Example10.9).
Example10.8
Example10.9
In the opening of the Gloria from Stravinskys Mass, long agogic accents
are given to the two declamatory weak syllables of the word Gloria (shown
in Example10.10), and at the choral entrance, the text with the natural decla-
mation Laudamus Te: Benedicimus Te, is presented metrically as Laudamus
Te:Benedicimus Te (Example10.11).
Example10.10
Example10.11
Similar manners of text setting can be seen in the Pleni sunt coeli and
Hosanna from the Sanctus (seen in Examples10.4 and 10.5) as well as the open-
ing phrase of the Credo (shown in Example10.7). One further example can be seen
in the opening soprano and alto choral parts of the Agnus Dei (Example10.12).
Example10.12
Strav insk y M
a ss 381
Both Poulenc and Stravinsky employ yet another unusual manner of text set-
ting, this in the form of reiterating vowels within syllables for added emphasis.
In the Sanctus of Poulencs Mass, there are several such instances. Shown in
Example 10.13 are three instances of the same musical motif set to different
texts. In the first instance each syllable of Sanctus has its own note (or notes).
However, with Pleni sunt coeli and gloria tua vowels of the first syllable must
be reiterated. Asimilar situation occurs with Hosanna at the end of the move-
ment. Shown in Example10.14, the first syllable of the word must be sounded
three times, the first two sounds accented.
Example10.13
Example10.14
A corresponding passage of different words being set to the same musical

motif occurs in the Gloria of Stravinskys Mass (Example10.15). The parentheses
are original markings by the composer.
Example10.15
And yet other instances, not necessitated by conformance to previously set

motifs, occur in Stravinskys Symphony of Psalms. At the end of the third movement
there are numerous instances of syllabic reiteration. Shown in Example10.16 is
the soprano line at rehearsal 20. Note that the reiterations are given tenuto marks
to ensure their stress.
Example10.16
About text setting specific to the Symphony of Psalms, but certainly applicable
to all his vocal works, including the Mass, Stravinsky said, I cared above all for the
sounds of the syllables. This viewpoint relates directly to his love of languages
the sounds of languagesand to his characteristic manner of isolating sounds. By
giving stress to unaccented syllables and by reiterating sounds in repeated rhyth-
mic patterns, he creates aural textures of pulses that become a signature of his
writing.
The style, so characteristic of both Poulenc and Stravinsky and so pervasive
throughout their Masses, is an integral element of the music and should be appre-
ciated as such and treated as a significant aspect of performance. The nature of
setting text askew from its normal state can be seen as one of the important artis-
tic techniques of the early years of the twentieth century, comparable to the set-
ting of figures askew in the cubist paintings of Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso.
No effort should be made to strive for natural declamation in the music (except
when this is an obvious desire of the composers), just as no effort should be made
to alter paintings to make the cubist figures more natural. Instead, perform-
ers should embrace the style of text setting and manifest it with determination
and obvious intent. This is especially important with the motoristic writing of
Stravinsky, whose rhythmic scoring eliminates the variability of word and syllabic
stress. Nuances of metric accentuation, so important an aspect of performance
practice during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, are gone and are
replaced with constant repetitive impulses. With this in mind, the articulation
of syllables should be more than mere repetitions of rhythms, but instead inten-
tional articulations of repetitive stresses to emulate and reveal the intended spe-
cial character of themusic.

Stravinsky composed his Mass for mixed chorus and double wind quintet (two
oboes, English horn, two bassoons, two trumpets, and three trombones). In
addition, there are parts for five soloists (soprano, alto, two tenors, and bass).
Regarding the soloists, Stravinsky consistently indicates preferably a Solo Voice
at the beginning of each of the five soprano and alto duet passages in the Gloria,
while for the corresponding tenor duet passages in the Sanctus he indicates Solo.
Strav insk y M
a ss 383
The reason for the discrepancy in indications may possibly be a result of the Gloria
being composed in 1944 and the Sanctus four years later. The desire for solo per-
formance in both movements is clear, however. The florid passages in both move-
ments are soloistic in nature and are best performed by individuals rather than
sections of the choir. The other vocal solo indications include the incipit that begins
the Credo and the quartets in the Sanctus. In a liturgical setting, the Credo incipit
would be sung by a church officiant; in concert performances the incipit can be
sung from the choir by one of the tenor soloists. The Sanctus solo passages, being
quite brief, can be performed in one of two manners:sung by the two soprano and
two tenor soloists (since the tessituras of the alto and bass parts are not low) or by
a solo SATB quartet from the choir (in this case sung from within or just in front
of the choir, not from the front of the performing area). In either instance, all the
soloists should also sing with and be a physical part of the choir in the Kyrie, Credo,
and Agnus Dei movements of the Mass. For their passages of solo music, the sing-
ers can move from within the choir to the front sides of the performing area (close
to the choir) and then back again after the completion of their solos. There is no
need, and it would seem odd, for the soprano and tenor soloists to be positioned
next to the conductor at the front of the stage; their solos are not extensive enough
for this, nor are the solos of a character to warrant front-and-center positioning.
Stravinsky specifies in the score of the Mass that childrens voices should be
employed for the choral soprano and alto parts. This is an important consider-
ation, one that adds to the liturgical intent of the Mass; Stravinsky would have
heard and been aware of men and boy choirs in churches, and in conceiving his
Mass for use in the church liturgy, he would have had the sound aesthetic of chil-
dren in his mind. The sound of childrengenerally pure and clear as opposed to
the rich timbre of adult female voicesalso corresponds to Stravinskys melodic
writing and instrumental scoring. Clarity of timbre is needed to satisfactorily
perform the florid lines in the Gloria and Sanctus, and clarity of timbre is also an
aspect of Stravinskys sparse and generally uncomplicated scoring for the wind
and brass instruments. Furthermore, the sound of children, by nature, is nave
and objective as compared to the mature and expressive character of adult female
voices. In short, the timbre of children that Stravinsky recommends is an intrin-
sic element of the aesthetic character of the Mass. Nevertheless, Stravinskys
recommendation does not mandate the use of children, just as performances
of the Mass need not be limited to liturgical worship services. The premiere of
the Mass was, after all, sung by adult voices in the secular venue of La Scala in
Milan. What is important is the emulation or manifestation of the aesthetic of
childrens voicesboth in timbre and in objective delivery.
The size of the choir is also an important aspect of the aesthetic nature of the
Mass. Given the chamber instrumental scoring for double wind quintet and the
uncluttered and clear textures of the scoring, it is best to perform the Mass with
a limited number of choristers. Atypical symphonic choir of one hundred or more
voices, suited for performances of the Brahms or Verdi Requiems, is not appropriate
for Stravinskys Mass. However, the wind and brass instruments create a certain
level of volume that needs to be balanced by the choir, and thus a choir of sixteen
to twenty voices may not be adequate. With a small chamber choir, the singers, in
order to be heard adequately, may feel the need to produce sounds incompatible
with the child-like ethos. Eventually, the number of choristers needs to produce
the desired aesthetic timbre and also be heard in balance with the instruments.
Placement of the performers can aid in achieving a desired balance of sound as
well as a desired aesthetic interaction of performers. When positioning the choir
behind the instrumentalists (most logical for performances not a part of a liturgi-
cal service), it is best to arrange the choir in a horseshoe shape surrounding the
instruments as much as possible. The instruments can be grouped in their timbre
families, facing somewhat inward to interact with each other and to ameliorate
their volume of sound, and the soloists can easily perform from the sides of the
choral forces. This arrangement of forces is depicted in Diagram10.A.
Although it might seem more logical and standard to have the choir and instru-
mentalists arranged in a straighter formation, with the brass instruments seated
directly behind the winds and with the choir arranged in block formation (as is stan-
dard in choral/orchestral works), this disposition of performers is not recommended
for several reasons. With the brass in a line behind the winds, Plexiglas shields, com-
mon in orchestral set-ups, may be necessary to attenuate the sound of the brass;
the vocal and instrumental forces cannot easily hear or interact with each other; the
tenor soloists cannot easily move from choral to solo positions; and the solo quartet,
positioned behind the instruments, cannot be easily seen or heard by the audience.
Therefore, the stage set-up depicted in Diagram 10.B is not recommended.
For performances in a sacred venue as part of a liturgical service, it is advisable
to have the performers divided into two groups on either side of the performing
B T
S Solo quartet A
Tm
.
sn
.B
b.T
n
Tp
mb
.
Bs
Ob
t.
.T
.
S S T T
Eh
Tp
mb
.
Ob
t.
Diagram 10.A: Recommended Concert Venue Arrangement of Performers

Strav insk y M
a ss 385
A T
A T
S B
S Solo quartet B
Tpt. Tmb. Tmb.
Tpt. Tmb.
Ob. Eh. Bsn.
S S Ob. Bsn. T T
Diagram 10.B: Not Recommended Concert Venue Arrangement of Performers
Altar
Tmb. Tmb. Tmb.

Bsn. Bsn.
T A S B
Tpt.
Ob.
Tpt.
Ob.
Eh.
B S A T
S S T T
Diagram 10.C: Recommended Sacred Venue Arrangement of Performers
area (seen in Diagram 10.C). This arrangement of performers is especially logical

in churches with a so-called divided chancel positioning of choir stalls. The choir
can be divided into two SATB groups facing each other, the instruments, similarly,
can be divided into their two timbre families, also facing each other, and the solo-
ists can easily move to positions between the conductor andchoir.
Summary
Performance practices are as important to Stravinskys Mass as they are to the
Masses of Josquin, Palestrina, and Bach. Whether in the distant historic past or
in more recent times, understanding the meanings of notation and related sty-
listic conventions of a time period and of a particular composer are critical to
communicating a works intentions and to revealing its greatness. In the case of
Stravinskys Mass, timbre and rhythmic character are key elements of perfor-
mance. Singing with a normal, richly textured adult vocal tone quality, from both
soloists and choir, the impersonal and cold nature of the Mass is concealed, and
with a normal and matter-of-fact delivery of rhythm, the chant-like pulsating
and motoristic character of text is absent. Stravinskys Mass is made ordinary;
performers and audiences are prevented from experiencing the works unique
qualities. But with attention to timbre and rhythmic articulationwith compre-
hension of their purposes and special qualitiesand with commitment to mani-
festing timbre and rhythmic characters in performance, the essence of the Mass
can be revealed and Stravinskys artistic achievement fully appreciated.
Cocteau, Jean. Le Coq et larlequin:notes de la musique. Paris, 1918. Translated by Rollo H. Myers
as Cock and Harlequin:Notes Concerning Music. Egoist Press,1920.
Copland, Aaron. Copland on Music. Doubleday,1960.
Craft, Robert. Stravinsky:Chronicle of a Friendship. Vanderbilt University Press,1994.
Cross, Jonathan. The Cambridge Companion to Stravinsky. Revised edition. Cambridge University
Press,2003.
Cross, Jonathan. Igor Stravinsky. Reaktion Books,2015.
Joseph, Charles M. Stravinsky Inside Out. Yale University Press,2001.
Lundergan, Edward. Modal Symmetry and Textual Symbolism in the Credo of the Stravinsky
Mass. Choral Journal 45, no. 8, March2006.
McAuliffe, Mary. Twilight of the Belle Epoque. Rowman and Littlefield,2014.
Slonimsky, Nicolas. Lexicon of Musical Invective: Critical Assaults on Composers since Beethovens
Time. Coleman-Ross, 1953. Reprinted by Washington,1969.
Stravinsky, Igor. An Autobiography. W. W.Norton,1962.
Stravinsky, Igor. Poetics of Music in the Form of Six Lessons. Vintage Books,1968.
Stravinsky, Igor and Craft, Robert. Conversations with Igor Stravinsky. Doubleday, 1959. Reprinted
by the University of California Press,1980.
Stravinsky, Igor and Craft, Robert. Expositions and Developments. Faber and Faber, 1962.
Reprinted by the University of California Press,1981.
Strimple, Nick. Choral Music in the Twentieth Century. Amadeus Press,2005.
Walsh, Stephen. Stravinsky:The Second Exile:France and America, 19341971. Knopf,2006.
White, Eric Walter. Stravinsky: The Composer and His Works. Second edition. University of
California Press,1979.
11
Benjamin Britten War Requiem

My subject is War, and the pity of War. The Poetry is in thepity.
WilfredOwen
Introduction
The recognition that Britten had created a masterpiece was immediate and
profound at the time of the War Requiems premiere. Mary Cotton, one of the
orchestral players in the first performance, commented that at the end there
was a deathly silence people were in tears it was so moving, and Dietrich
Fischer-Dieskau, the baritone soloist in the premiere, wrote in his autobiogra-
phy, The first performance created an atmosphere of such intensity that by the
end Iwas completely undone; Idid not know where to hide my face. Confirming
this, Britten later wrote to William Plomer, librettist for Brittens opera Gloriana
and several other Britten works, F-Dieskau was so upset at the end Peter [Pears]
couldnt get him out of the choir-stalls. William Mann, the chief music critic of
the Times, called the Requiem Brittens masterpiece the most masterly and
nobly imagined work that Britten has ever given us so superbly proportioned
and calculated, so humiliating and disturbing in effect, in fact, so tremendous,
and the playwright Peter Shaffer wrote in Time & Tide, I believe [the War Requiem]
to be the most impressive and moving piece of sacred music ever to be composed
in this country the most profound and moving thing which this most com-
mitted of geniuses has so far achieved. It makes criticism impertinent. Desmond
Shawe-Taylor wrote in the Sunday Times, Not for a long while can Ihope to write
of Benjamin Brittens War Requiem with the detachment that is supposed to be
proper to criticism:the experience is still too immediate and overwhelming. If the
work has faults, Icannot yet seethem.
Sculptor Barbara Hepworth, who listened to the live broadcast of the pre-
miere over the BBC network, wrote a letter to Britten stating, I was profoundly
moved this evening as Ilistened to the War Requiem. Ifelt it to be a truly mag-
nificent work, and of tremendous importance. The visionary quality seems to
me sublime, and a review in the San Francisco Chronicle of a 1964 performance
387
in Redwood, California, stated, Virtually any performance of the War Requiem

would be a moving experience. It is a better than even chance that most of
the two or three thousand listeners who packed the Redwood Auditorium to the
rafters will demand a second hearing. Ican think of no better idea under the sun,
except possibly to form an international committee to present the work in every
language, in every country of the world. Cellist Mstislav Rostropovich wrote to
Britten that he and his wife Galina Vishnevskaya, who was to sing the soprano
part in the premiere, were mad about the Requiem. It is a profound and extraor-
dinarily powerful work! Its majestic! and Igor Stravinsky, who was known to be
jealous of Britten, wrote, to criticize the War Requiem in Britain would be as if one
had failed to stand up for God Save the Queen.
Interest in the Requiem was so appreciable that a recording was made eight
months after the premiere. This recording, with its iconic black cover, sold an
unprecedented 200,000 copies in the first five months of its release. Many other
recordings followed, including three different ones by the London Philharmonic
and three separate recordings conducted by Kurt Masur (one with the London
Philharmonic, one with the New York Philharmonic, and one with the Israel
Philharmonic). In 2013, to commemorate the one hundredth anniversary of
Brittens birth, the world premiere performance (including speeches before and
after the Requiem) was released commercially.
In addition to the recordings, many live performances of the Requiem were
scheduled shortly after the premiere. Two of these performances were within
months of the premiere and a repeat Coventry performance on June 1. In
Germany, the Berlin Philharmonic, with Colin Davis conducting, performed it
on November 18, 1962 (Remembrance Sunday), and the London premiere was
on December 6, 1962, in Westminster Abbey, with Meredith Davies and Britten
conducting. Subsequent performances were at Royal Albert Hall on August 1,
1963, with the BBC Symphony Orchestra and the Melos Ensemble conducted by
Sir Malcolm Sargent and Britten; at Tanglewood on July 27, 1963 (the American
premiere), with Eric Leinsdorf conducting the Boston Symphony Orchestra; and
on that same day a performance in Wellington, New Zealand, by the New Zealand
National Orchestra, conducted by John Hopkins. The Dutch premiere was in 1964
with the Amsterdam Concertgebouw Orchestra, conducted by Bernard Haitink
and Britten, and also with the three soloists for whom the Requiem was writ-
ten (Peter Pears, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, and Galina Vishnevskaya) in their first
public performance together. The first performance by the Vienna Philharmonic,
with Istvan Kertesz conducting, was also in 1964, and the first performance
in East Germany, at the Martin Luther Church in Dresden with the Dresden
Staatskapelle directed by Kurt Sanderling, was on February 13, 1965. Another
performance at Royal Albert Hall in London, with Britten and Meredith Davies
conducting, took place on August 8, 1964, the performance beginning at 8 PM to
mark the exact time fifty years earlier that Britain declared war on Germany. The
B r itten War R equ i em 389
War Requiem was also performed in February 1965, conducted by David Willcocks
in Tokyos Metropolitan FestivalHall.
In 1988 the BBC produced a film of the Requiem. Directed by Derek Jarman, it
is a fictionalized account of the poet Wilfred Owen (whose poems were incorpo-
rated into the text of the Requiem) during World War I.The film has no dialogue,
but only the music of the Requiem from the 1963 Britten recording plus a recita-
tion of Owens poem Strange Meeting by Sir Laurence Olivier, who portrayed
an old soldier in the film; this was Oliviers last public role before his death in
July1989.

The idea of composing a large-scale work to war poetry was not new to Britten.
Four notable British composers Edward Elgar (1857 1934), Arthur Bliss
(1891 1975), Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872 1958), and Michael Tippett
(19051998)all wrote works considered to be statements about the ravages and
anguishes ofwar.
Elgars cantata The Spirit of England, scored for tenor or soprano soloist,
mixed chorus, and orchestra, was the composers final choral/orchestral work.
Composed between 1914 and 1917, it is a setting of three poems from the anthol-
ogy The Winnowing Fan by Laurence Binyon (18691943). Elgar chose the poems
The Fourth of August (the first verse of which states the title of the cantata),
To Women, and For the Fallen (this latter being a now famous poem regularly
recited at Remembrance Sunday Services in England). Elgar, like most composers
after him, dedicated his cantata to soldiers of war, the dedication reading, To the
memory of our Glorious Men, with a special thought for the Worcesters.
Bliss composed an anti-war choral symphony entitled Morning Heroes in 1930,
which, like Brittens War Requiem, combines disparate texts about war, including
poems by Wilfred Owen. Scored for speaker, double chorus, and large orchestra,
the texts include Hectors Farewell to Andromache and Achilles Goes Forth into
Battle from Homers Iliad, The City Arming and Bivouacs Flame from Walt
Whitmans Drum Taps, Spring Offensive by Wilfred Owen, and Dawn on the
Somme by Robert Nichols (Owens friend and compatriot). Furthermore, Blisss
work, like Brittens, is dedicated to soldiers who died in war, the Bliss dedica-
tion being to the memory of my brother Francis and all other comrades killed
in battle.
In 1936 Ralph Vaughan Williams (18721958) issued the anti-war choral/
orchestral Dona Nobis Pacem, the text of which, like Brittens War Requiem, com-
bines words from both sacred and secular sources. Included are three poems
by Walt Whitman (Reconciliation, Dirge for Two Veterans, and Beat! Beat!
Drums!Blow! Bugles! Blow) and numerous verses from the Bible along with
the Agnus Dei from the Latin Mass Ordinary. Of special interest in the Vaughan
Williams work is part of the Angel of Death speech by John Bright (18111889)
made in the House of Commons on February 23, 1855. The speech denounces
Britains participation in the Crimean Wara war that was taking place at the
time of Brights speech.
Tippetts war-commentary work is the oratorio A Child of Our Time, composed
between 1939 and 1941. Tippett wrote the libretto himself, basing a great deal
of his text on the writings of others, including the poem The Seed by Wilfred
Owen and the novel Ein Kind unserer Zeit by dn von Horvth (19011938).
The Horvth novel, which provides the basic story for Tippetts oratorio, is about
the life of Herschel Grynszpan, a youth who had killed a minor German diplo-
mat because of the Nazi treatment of Jews in Germany and who, by this action,
had set off the Kristallnacht, the large-scale harassment and torture of Jews
throughout Germany and Austria on November 9 and 10, 1938.
Wars or war threats were rampant during the 1930s. Hitler was appointed
chancellor of Germany in 1933, Italy and Ethiopia were at war from 1935 to 1936,
the Spanish Civil War took place in 1936, and Japan invaded China in 1937. As
a consequence of these conflicts, especially with their close proximity in time to
World War I(19141918), anti-war sentiments were common, and a number of
peoplenotably those in the artsmade their sentiments known and either
declared themselves pacifists or participated in pacifist activities. In 1937, Britten
and his partner Peter Pears joined the Peace Pledge Union, which was founded in
1934 and which at its beginning had 135,000 memberseach member swearing
to the oath, I renounce war, and am therefore determined not to support any
kind of war. Iam also determined to work for the removal of all causes ofwar.
Britten composed two works in the late 1930s that had clear political
messagesthe song cycle with orchestral accompaniment Our Hunting Fathers
op. 8, commissioned by the Norfolk and Norwich Triennial Music Festival and
premiered there on September 25, 1936, and Ballad of Heroes op.14, a cantata for
tenor soloist, chorus, and orchestra, composed for the Festival of Music for the
People and premiered at Queens Hall, London on April 5, 1939. W.H. Auden was
the major librettist for both works, Our Hunting Fathers dealing with mans inhu-
manity to man, and Ballad of Heroes dealing with the necessity of man to fight for
peace, for liberty, and for you. Honour, honour themall.
With war imminent, Britten and Pears left England immediately after the
premiere of Ballad of Heroes. They first traveled to Canada, where Britten worked
for the Canadian BBC. They then relocated to New York, living in Woodstock
for awhile, where they became acquainted with Aaron Copland, and moving to
Brooklyn in December 1940, where they lived in February House (at 7 Middagh
Street) with, among others, W.H. Auden, Carson McCullers (author of The Heart
Is a Lonely Hunter), and Gypsy Rose Lee (the burlesque entertainer whose 1957
memoir was made into the musical and film Gypsy). While at February House,
Britten composed his first anti-war Requiemthe Sinfonia da Requiem op. 20,
premiered by the NewYork Philharmonic in Carnegie Hall in March, 1941. The

three movements of this purely instrumental composition are each given a title
from the Latin Requiem Mass for the DeadLacrymosa, Dies Irae, and Requiem
Aeternam. Britten wrote of the work, Im making it just as anti-war as possi-
ble. Idont believe you can express social or political or economic theories in
music, but by coupling new music with well known musical phrases, Ithink its
possible to get over certain ideas. All Im sure of is my own anti-war conviction
as Iwriteit.
Britten and Pears returned to England in April 1942, and upon their arrival
Britten registered as a conscientious objector and told the War Board, The
whole of my life has been devoted to acts of creationbeing by profession a
composerand I cannot take part in acts of destruction. In the several years
that followed, Britten thought about composing new anti-war works. In 1945,
after the American bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, he contemplated writ-
ing an oratorio entitled Mea Culpa. About this, Ronald Duncan, who was to write
the libretto of the oratorio and who would later write the libretto for The Rape of
Lucretia, the new oratorio was to be a full-scale work with chorus, soloists, and
symphony orchestra, almost like the Messe des Morts. But the project languished
during deliberations between the publisher Boosey & Hawkes and the BBC. In
1948 Britten developed plans for a work to be called A Gandhi Requiem. About
this project Britten wrote to Boosey & Hawkes, The Death of Gandhi has been a
great shock to one of my strong convictions, & Iam determined to commemorate
this occasion in, possibly, some form of requiem, to his honor. But Britten was
extremely busy with other projects at the time and the Gandhi work never went
beyond the proposalstage.
Britten was mainly focused on opera during the 1940s and 1950s. In 1941, while
still in the United States, he composed the operetta Paul Bunyan to a libretto by
W.H. Auden. The premiere at Columbia University on May 5 was not well received
and Britten withdrew the work. However, the following year Serge Koussevitzky,
who had conducted the Sinfonia da Requiem with the Boston Symphony Orchestra,
commissioned Britten to compose a large-scale stage work. Britten had recently
read the lengthy poem The Borough by George Crabbe (17541832) and immedi-
ately began sketches for the opera he would call Peter Grimes. Work on the opera
lasted three years, with its premiere by the Sadlers Wells Opera Company occur-
ring on June 7, 1945. Unlike Paul Bunyan, Peter Grimes was received with great
enthusiasm; ticket sales even exceeded those for Puccinis La bohme and Madama
Butterfly, both of which were being presented by Sadlers Wells at the same time.
The American premiere of Peter Grimes took place a year later at Tanglewood, with
Koussevitzkys student, Leonard Bernstein, conducting.
With the success of Peter Grimes, Britten continued to focus his compositional
activity on stage works, writing ten operas in the next fifteen years, including The
Rape of Lucretia in 1946, Albert Herring in 1947, The Little Sweep in 1949, Billy
Budd in 1951, Gloriana in 1953, The Turn of the Screw in 1954, Noye's Fludde in
1957, and A Midsummer Night's Dream in 1960. Interestingly, none of the operas
or other vocal works deal with the subject of war.
During the 1940s and 1950s Britten also composed some of his most pop-
ular and well-known choral works. Both A Ceremony of Carols (for treble voices
and harp) and Hymn to Saint Cecilia (for mixed chorus a cappella) were written in
1942 while Britten and Pears were sailing from the United States back to England.
Rejoice in the Lamb (for mixed chorus and organ) and The Ballad of Little Musgrave
and Lady Barnard (for mens voices and piano) were composed the following year,
the Festival Te Deum was written in 1944, the cantata Saint Nicolas in 1948, the
Spring Symphony in 1949, Five Flower Songs in 1950, and the Missa Brevis in1959.
In addition to these choral compositions, Britten wrote a number of instru-
mental works, including The Young Persons Guide to the Orchestra in 1946, and he
was also making recordings and touring with Pears throughout Europe.
Britten began thinking about composing the War Requiem in October 1958
when he was approached by a committee from Coventry Cathedral to write a major
choral/orchestral work for the dedication of the new cathedralthe old one hav-
ing been demolished during the Coventry Blitz in November 1940. The timing of
the commission is interesting in that Britten had just composed Nocturne, which
includes a setting of the poem The Kind Ghosts by Wilfred Owen and which
also uses the interval of a tritone as a compositional deviseboth Owens poetry
and the tritone being significant in the War Requiem. The Coventry commission
became official in November 1960, but Britten was busy with other projects,
including a major revision of Billy Budd and composition of the Cello Sonata in C
Major for Rostropovich, and did not begin work on the Requiem until the follow-
ing year. Britten planned for his new work to be scored for three separate strata
of forces: (1) a large orchestra with mixed chorus and soprano soloist singing the
traditional text of the Roman Requiem Mass; (2) a chamber orchestra accompany-
ing tenor and baritone soloists, each of whom would represent a country engaged
in World War II; and (3) a boys choir accompanied by organ.
For the tenor and baritone soloists, Britten wanted specific singerstenor
Peter Pears to represent England and baritone Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau to rep-
resent Germany. It is logical that Britten would choose Pears to represent the
British; Britten had been writing many works, including the major roles in his
operas, for Pears. Fischer-Dieskau was undoubtedly the most famous German
singer of his time. He sang both lieder and opera, toured extensively, and made
numerous recordings, including those with British pianist Gerald Moore. Inviting
Fischer-Dieskau to sing in the War Requiem, Britten wrote to him on February
16,1961,
Please forgive me for writing to such a busy man as yourself. Coventry

Cathedral, like so many wonderful buildings in Europe, was destroyed in the
last war. It has now been rebuilt in a very remarkable fashion, and for the
reconsecration of the new building they are holding a big Festival at the end of
May and beginning of June next year. Ihave been asked to write a new work for
what is to us all a most significant occasion. Iam writing what Ithink will be
one of my most important works. It is a full-scale Requiem Mass for chorus and
orchestra (in memory of those of all nations who died in the last war), and Iam
interspersing the Latin text with many poems of a great English poet, Wilfred
Owen, who was killed in the First World War. These magnificent poems, full
of the hate of destruction, are a kind of commentary on the Mass; they are,
of course, in English. These poems will be set for tenor and baritone, with an
accompaniment of chamber orchestra, placed in the middle of the other forces.
They will need singing with the utmost beauty, intensity, and sincerity. Peter
Pears has agreed to sing the tenor part, and with great temerity Iam asking you
whether you would sing the baritone.
Britten was at first not concerned about the soprano soloist, writing to friend
and logistical collaborator for Coventry, John Lowe, in February 1961, I expect
to need a strong soprano for the Mass section, but this will not be so difficult
to find, and we can discuss it at a later stage in the writing of the work. Lowe
recommended sopranos Elizabeth Schwarzkopf and Amy Shuard. However, while
Britten was working with Rostropovich on the Cello Sonata, he became acquainted
with Rostropovichs wife, soprano Galina Vishnevskaya, whom he wrote to in
March 1961 inviting her to sing at an upcoming festival in Aldeburgh. Britten
commented, I have recently heard several of your wonderful records, which have
made me a great admirer of yours. She accepted the offer, and after her recital at
the festival that summer, Vishnevskaya wrote that Britten said he was particu-
larly glad he had heard me right at that moment because he had begun to write his
War Requiem and now wanted to write a part for me . His composition, which
was a call for peace, would bring together representatives of the three nations that
had suffered most during the war:an Englishman, Peter Pears; a German, Fischer-
Dieskau; and a Russian, myself.
By the end of August Britten related to his publisher that he had finished the
first large chunk of the War Requiem, and in October he wrote to stage direc-
tor Basil Coleman (who had worked with Britten on Billy Budd in 1951, Gloriana
in 1953, and The Turn of the Screw in 1954), I go on working at the Coventry
piece. Sometimes it seems the best ever, more often the worstbut it is always
withme.
The vocal score was finished at the end of the year, and Meredith Davies, con-
ductor of the English Opera Group and frequent collaborator with Britten, began
rehearsing the choirs for the premiere. In January of 1962 Britten completed the
orchestral score, and at the end of April Britten received word from Rostropovich
that Russias minister of culture was denying Vishnevskaya permission to partici-
pate in the War Requiem premiere. According to Rostropovich, the combination
of Cathedral & Reconciliation with W.Germany was too much for them. Heather
Harper, who had sung the role of Ellen Orford in Peter Grimes and the Governess
in The Turn of the Screw and who had ten days to learn the Requiems soprano part,
replaced Vishnevskaya for the premiere, although Vishnevskaya sang later perfor-
mances in England and she also sang on the 1963 recording.
Numerous problems with the cathedral beset plans for the premiere: build-
ers were still working and making noise during rehearsals; the acoustics, which
Britten had been told would be excellent, were, he said, lunatic; there was not
enough space for the chorus; and the cathedral staff had opened only one door for
the audience to enter, thus causing a long queue outside and the delay of the per-
formance. In addition, Britten was suffering from what he called a rotten arm
and decided that he should only conduct the chamber orchestra (members of
the Melos Ensemble) with tenor and baritone soloists and that Meredith Davies
would conduct the full orchestra (the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra),
chorus, and soprano. The boys choir (Highgate School Choir) was led from the
organ by its director, Edward Chapman.
Wilfred Owen and His Poetry inthe War Requiem

Owen was born in 1893 near Oswestry, Shropshire (south of Chester, near the
Welsh border). He learned to sing and play the piano during his early years in
private school, and later, he developed an interest in English literature and
French during his years of study at the Shrewsbury Technical School. He had
a brief period of employment when he was twenty, working as a part-time
teacher at the Berlitz School in Bordeaux, France, and at twenty-one serving as
a tutor to the children of an English family living in France. But shortly after
World War Ibegan in July 1914, he wrote to his brother, After all my years
of playing soldiers, and then of reading History, Ihave almost a mania to be
in the East, to see fighting, and to serve. The following October, when he was
twenty-two, Owen enlisted in the British Army as a member of the Artists
Rifles, and during the following months he was regularly promoted, becoming
head of the Brigade Firing Point at Fleetwood in November 1916. By January
of the following year, while he was stationed in taples, France, his view of the
war turned negative and he wrote of it as the universal pervasion of Ugliness.
Hideous landscapes, vile noises, foul language everything unnatural, bro-
ken, blasted.
He was sent to a war hospital in June after injuries in March and April, and
while at the hospital he met the poets Robert Graves and Siegfried Sassoon, the
latter of whom was the reigning war poet of the time. At the hospital Owen also
began writing poems, eventually composing sixty of them. By October 1918,
he was back in taples, France, and on November 4, at age twenty-five, he was
killed by enemy gunfire as his battalion attempted to take possession of the Oise-
Sambre Canal. As fate would have it, the war ended one week later, on November
11, the day Owens parents received a telegram informing them of their sons
death, and the day which is now celebrated as Veterans Day in the United States,
Armistice Day in France and Belgium, and Remembrance Day in Britain. Sixty-
seven years later, on November 11, 1985, a tribute marker to Owen and other war
poets (including Robert Graves and Siegfried Sassoon) was laid in Poets Corner
of WestminsterAbbey.
As an introduction to and explanation of his poetry, Owen wrote a preface
shortly before his death for a proposed collection of his poems to be called
Disabled & Other Poems. Although the collection of poems was never pub-
lished, the preface became known and acclaimed, and it elicited the follow-
ing commentary from Dylan Thomas (19141953):This preface was to show
to England and the intolerant world the foolishness, unnaturalness, horror,
inhumanity, and insupportability of war, and to expose, so that all could suf-
fer and see the heroic lies, the willingness of the old to sacrifice the young,
indifference, grief, the soul of soldiers. Owen is a poet of all times, all
places, and allwars.
The first part of Owens preface reads:
This book is not about heroes.

English Poetry is not yet fit to speak ofthem.
Nor is it about deeds, or lands, nor anything aboutglory,
Honour, might, majesty, dominion, or power, exceptWar.
Above all, Iam not concerned with Poetry,

My subject is War, and the pity ofWar.
The Poetry is in thepity.
Yet these elegies are not to this generation,

This is in no sense consolatory.
They may be to thenext.
All the poet can do today is towarn.
For the preface to the War Requiem, Britten excerpted the lines, My subject
is War, and the pity of War. The Poetry is in the pity. All a poet can do today
is warn. Britten further dedicated the Requiem to four soldier friends who had
either died in the war or later because of it:Roger Burney, sub-lieutenant in the
Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve, who died on board the French submarine Surcouf
in 1942; Piers Dunkerley, captain in the Royal Marines, who committed suicide
in June 1959; David Gill, ordinary seaman in the Royal Navy, who was killed in a
battle on the Mediterranean; and Michael Halliday, lieutenant in the Royal New
Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve, who was presumably killed in action but who
was neverfound.
For the body of the Requiem, Britten chose and incorporated, with some emen-
dations, nine of Owens poemsone per movement except for the Dies irae, which
has four. These poems, with their first line of text, placement in the Requiem, and
soloist or soloists singing the poem, are listedhere.
Anthem for DoomedYouth

What passing-bells for these who die as cattle?
Movement 1, Requiem Aeternamtenor
But Iwas looking at the permanentstars
Bugles sang, saddening the eveningair
Movement 2, Dies iraebaritone
The NextWar
Out there, weve walked quite friendly up toDeath
Movement 2, Dies Iraetenor and baritone
Sonnet (On Seeing a Piece of Our Heavy Artillery Brought into Action)
Be slowly lifted up, thou long blackarm
Movement 2, Dies Iraebaritone
Futility
Move him into the sungently its touch awoke himonce
Movement 2, Dies Iraetenor
The Parable of the Old Man and theYoung
So Abram rose, and clave thewood
Movement 3, Offertoriumbaritone andtenor
TheEnd
After the blast of lightning from theEast
Movement 4, Sanctusbaritone
At a Calvary nearAncre
One ever hangs where shelled roads part. In this war He too lost alimb
Movement 5, Agnus Deitenor
Strange Meeting
It seemed that out of battle Iescaped down some profound dull tunnel
Movement 6, Libera Metenor and baritone
There are several notable things to be gleaned from this listing. First, the
poems are divided into three groups of three poems each, structured so that
each group begins with the soloists singing separately and ending with the
soloists singing together. This grouping is of critical importance in understand-
ing the structure of the War Requiem and in comprehending the flow of texts
as they alternate between Latin and English, sacred and secular, and old and
new. In addition, the groupings of three divided by three, much more than the
division of the Requiem into six movements, help the listener grasp Brittens
anti-war message; as the texts progress through the Requiem, their meanings
become increasingly more poignant and distressingeven heart-wrenching.
In the opening group of three poems, the tenor and baritone each relate a
rather objective view of war, the tenor in movement 1 (Requiem Aeternam) com-
menting on the monstrous anger of the guns and the stuttering rifles rapid
rattle, and the baritone at the beginning of movement 2 (Dies Irae) observing
that bugles sang, saddening the evening air; and bugles answered, sorrowful to
hear. When the two soldiers sing together later in movement 2, they comment on
the war as nave, happy-go-lucky comrades in arms:weve walked quite friendly
up to death; sat down and eaten with him, cool and bland. We laughed at him,
we leagued with him, oldchum.
In the second group of three poems the soloists/soldiers individually express
wars ugliness and the reality of death. The baritone (still in movement 2),
describes a piece of artillery as a long black arm, great gun towering toward
Heaven, about to curse, and the tenor at the end of movement 2 reacts to see-
ing a dead soldier on the battlefield:Are limbs, so dear-achieved, are sides, full-
nervedstill warmtoo hard to stir? Was it for this the clay grew tall? And
when the tenor and baritone sing together in movement 3 (Offertorium), they
relate the Abraham and Isaac story from the book of Genesis in the Bible. Owen
paraphrases the biblical verses with very little alteration: Abraham prepares to
offer his son as a sacrifice to God when an angel appears and says, lay not thy
hand upon the lad, neither do anything to him. Behold a ram, caught in a thicket
by its horns; offer the ram instead of him. This is what Abraham does in the bibli-
cal story; Abraham went and took the ram and offered it up for a burnt sacrifice
instead of his son. But Owen veers from the biblical story and, instead, writes,
But the old man would not so, but slew his sonand half the seed of Europe,
one byone.
In the third group of poems, the tenor and baritone sing specifically of death.
The baritone in the Sanctus (movement 4)asks a series of questions:Shall life
renew these bodies? Of a truth all death will He annul, all tears assuage? Fill the
void veins of Life again with youth, and wash, with an immortal water, age? The
answer is no. Mine ancient scars shall not be glorified, nor my titanic tears, the
sea, be dried. Following this, the tenor in the Agnus Dei (movement 5)compares
the death of Jesus with the death of a soldier: One ever hangs where shelled
roads part. In this war He too lost a limb, but His disciples hide apart; and now the
Soldiers bear with Him. Finally, in movement 6 (Libera Me) the two soldiers face
death together, one saying, Strange friend, here is no cause to mourn, and the
other replying, None save the undone years, the hopelessness; whatever hope is
yours was my life also. Iam the enemy you killed my friend. They then both sing
together the final words of the Requiem, Let us sleepnow.
Beyond the meaningful flow of the texts, the concinnity between Owens
poetry and the Latin texts is remarkable; it seems as if the texts were meant to be
together, and once together they make their separate messages all the more poi-
gnant and powerful. The relationships between the Latin and English are shown
in the following listing of excerpts from thetexts.
Movement 1Requiem Aeternam

Choirs singing hymns of praisetoGod
Te decet hymnus, Deus inSion
Choirs of gunfireinwar
Nor any voice of mourning save the choirs, the shrill demented choirs of wailing
shells
Movement 2DiesIrae
The last trumpet summoning thedead
Tuba mirum spargenssonum
Bugle calls summoning the soldierstowar
Bugles sang, saddening the evening air, and bugles answered, sorrowful
tohear
Movement 3Offertorium
The liberation of the faithfuls souls as promised to Abraham and hisseed
quam olim Abrahae promisti, et seminiejus
The Abraham and Isaac story from Genesis 22:119
So Abram rose, and clave the wood, and went, and took the fire with him, and
aknife
Movement 4Sanctus
The redemption of mankind and the blessing of all who come in the name of theLord
Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini
Mankind will not be redeemed, life will not be renewed, and death will not be
annulled
Mine ancient scars shall not be glorified, nor my titanic tears, the sea,
bedried
Movement 5AgnusDei
The crucified Jesus is the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of theworld
Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccatamundi
A soldier is also crucified
One ever hangs where shelled roads part. In this war He too lost alimb
Movement 6LiberaMe
Supplications for liberation from eternaldeath
Libera me, Domine, de morte aeterna and Requiescant inpace
Supplications between two soldiers for peace indeath
Let us sleepnow
An even greater textual relationship is realized through Brittens musical scor-

ing. For example, bells pervade the texture of the first movement during the
opening Latin text, while the first lines of the Owen poem are, What passing-
bells for these who die as cattle? Then, Britten scores the second section of the
Latin text (Te decet hymnus) for boys choir, while the second section of the
Owen poem, referring to boys, reads, What candles may be held to speed them
all? Not in the hands of boys, but in their eyes shall shine the holy glimmers of
good-byes. Also, Owens paraphrase of the Abraham and Isaac story is artfully
scored, in part, with Brittens setting of the biblical text in his second canticle,
composed in 1952; as Owen paraphrases the biblical text, Britten paraphrases his
former musical setting.
Britten also skillfully manages the flow of performing forces to increase
tension and, therefore, further the dramatic communication of his anti-war
sentiment. The three vocal entities(1) the mixed chorus and full orches-
tra with soprano soloist, (2) the tenor and baritone soloists with chamber
orchestra, and (3)the boys chorus with organall follow each other almost
as separate movements early in the Requiem. In movement 1, for instance,
there is only the briefest of overlap as one entity fades into the next, and in
the lengthy second movement, the same procedure is followed until the final
twothe third and fourthO wen poems used in the movement. In the first
of these, On Seeing a Piece of Our Artillery Brought into Action, orchestral
trumpets play Dies irae motifs between phrases such as Be slowly lifted up,
thou long black arm, great gun towering toward Heaven, about to curse. In the
next, the final poem of the movement, Futility, phrases of the mixed chorus
and soprano soloist singing Lacrimosa dies illa alternate with phrases sung
by the tenor soloist.
A similar type of treatment occurs in movement 3, Offertorium, where for a
brief period of time the boys sing the text Hostias et preces tibi Domine over
intermittent statements of the tenor and baritone soloists singing half the seed
of Europe, one by one. These instances of confluence between entities and their
material, being brief in duration, are profound and striking.
It is not until the fifth movement, Agnus Dei, that two entities engage
in continued alternation. Here the mixed choir responds with Agnus Dei,
qui tollis peccata mundi, dona eis requiem (or a portion of that phrase)
after every phrase of the Owen poem At a Calvary near Ancre sung by
the tenor soloist. And it is not until the end of the sixth and final move-
ment of the Requiem, Libera Me, that all performing entities participate
together:the tenor and baritone soloists sing Let us sleep now while the
boys, followed by the mixed choir and soprano soloist, sing In paradisum
deducant te Angeli.
To further the comprehension of the Latin and English texts, the following
listing is of the Requiems movements and sub-movements as indicated at the
beginning of the fullscore.

equiem aeternam dona eis Domine
Chorus R
Boys Choir Te decet hymnus, Deus in Sion
Tenor Solo What passing-bells for these who die as cattle
Chorus Kyrie
eleison, Christe eleison, Kyrie eleison.
Movement 2 Dies Irae

Chorus Dies
irae, dies illa, solvet saeclum in favilla
Baritone solo Bugles sang, saddening the evening air
Soprano Solo and Chorus Liber scriptus proferetur
Tenor and Baritone Solos Out there, weve walked quite friendly
Chorus Recordare
Jesu pie, quod sum causa tuae viae
Baritone Solo Be slowly lifted up, thou long black arm
Chorus and Soprano Solo Dies irae Lacrimosa dies illa
Tenor Solo M ove him into the sunGently its touch awoke him once
Chorus Pie
Jesu Domine, dona eis requiem. Amen.
Movement 3 Offertorium
Boys Choir Domine Jesu Christe, Rex gloriae
signifier sanctus Michael repraesentet eas in lucem sanctam
Chorus Sed
Baritone and Tenor Solos So Abram rose, and clave the wood
Boys Choir Hostias et preces tibi Domine laudis offerimus
Movement 4 Sanctus
Soprano Solo and Chorus Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus Dominus Deus Sabaoth
Baritone Solo After the blast of lightning from the East
Movement 5 Agnus Dei

Tenor Solo One ever hangs where shelled roads part
Chorus Agnus
Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, dona eis requiem.
Movement 6 Libera Me
Chorus and Soprano Solo Libera me, Domine, de morte aeterna
Tenor Solo It seemed that out of battle I escaped
Baritone Solo None, said the other, save the undone years
Boys Choir, Chorus, and Soprano Solo In paradisum deducant
In summary, Brittens use of poems by Wilfred Owen clearly creates a powerful

anti-war message. The placement of the poems creates the drama of the message,
while the organization of the nine poems into three groups clarifies the overall
structure of the message as well as the increasing interaction between the two
main war protagonists. In addition, the succession of poems and their alternation
with Latin texts create increasing tension, the blending of the poems with their
seeming Latin equivalents increases the poignancy of the texts, and Brittens use
of musical motifs to underscore text helps unify the textual thrust of the Requiem.
Musical Symbolism
Britten uses non-consonant intervals and their representative numbers through-
out the Requiem to communicate tension, strife, and discord. The most signifi-
cant of the intervals is the tritone, notated as an augmented fourth or diminished
fifth and represented by the number 5. Britten specifically uses C-natural and
F-sharp (or occasionally G-flat), the interval of which pervades the entire fabric
of the Requiem as a seeming musical signature. In movement 1, the music for
the mixed chorus and orchestral bells is almost completely given over to the two
pitches C-natural and F-sharp (see Examples11.20 and 11.21) and, in addition,
the quarter-note beat of the opening orchestral texture is divided into fives. The
music for the boys chorus in movement 1 is also centered around the tritone in
that each phrase of music begins and ends on either a C-natural or F-sharp (see
Examples11.16, 11.22, and 11.23), and furthermore, most of the phrases of the
tenor soloist are structured in the same way (see Examples 11.24 and 11.25).
Thus, virtually the entire movement is in a state of unresolved tension.
Two other movements also use the tritone as a musical focal point. The opening
of the Sanctus has F-sharp then C-natural played by all the orchestral instruments,
while a number of the soprano solo phrases begin on B-sharp (enharmonically C-
natural) and end on F-sharp (Example11.1).
Example11.1
In the Agnus Dei, the meter of which is divided into five, the entire orchestral
writing consists of an ostinato, with short, measure-long phrases that begin on
either F-sharp or C-natural (Example11.2).
Example11.2
In addition, the unison choral phrases of the Agnus Dei have scalar passages
organized around the tritone pitches; scalar directions begin on F- sharp and
then C-natural followed by phrases that begin on C-natural and end on F-sharp
(Example11.3).
Example11.3
Furthermore, the Agnus Dei ends with an unaccompanied related scalar pas-
sage sung by the tenor soloist. Here, the phrase begins and ends on F-sharp,
but the first measure implies an F-sharp Major scale, while the second measure
implies a scale in C Minor (Example11.4).
Example11.4
The final movement of the Requiem, Libera Me, which according to

Britten acts as a recapitulation and thus brings back music from many of
the previous movements, also has noteworthy examples of the tritone. At
the beginning of the dialogue between the two soldierst he only time in the
Requiem in which they converse with each othert he first words, Strange
friend, are set to C-n atural and F-s harp (four measures after rehearsal num-
ber 120). Then, at the end of the movement, at the climax of the orchestral
texture when all forces are involved (rehearsal number 135), the bells and
boys interrupt with the two signature pitches, reminding us of continuing
discord and conflict.
The most noteworthy use of the tritone, however, is in the unaccompa-
nied passages for mixed chorus that end movements 1, 2, and 6the almost
identical passages that are significantly positioned at the beginning, struc-
tural center, and end of the Requiem. All three passages are shown here for
comparison, with the alto and tenor parts omitted since they replicate the
soprano and bass parts. Example11.5, consisting of three phrases, concludes
movement1.
Example11.5
Example 11.6 concludes the lengthy movement 2 and, as mentioned above,

is in the structural center of the Requiem. This passage is also divided into three
phrases.
Example11.7 is at the very end of the Requiem and has only two phrases.
Note that each of the phrases begins and ends with chords consisting of the
pitches C-natural and F-sharp (or, enharmonically, B-sharp and F-sharp), and that
the bells demarcate the phrases with the tritone pitches. Only the final chords
resolve the dissonance.
Different discordant intervals, along with the numbers they represent, are
used in other movements to further the tension Britten desires to communi-
cate. Movement 2, the Dies Irae, is focused on the interval of a seventh. As
seen in Example 11.8, the opening horn phrase begins on A-flat and ends on
G-natural.
Example11.6
Example11.7
Example11.8
Similarly, the trombone and tuba phrase four measures later begins and ends a
seventh apart (Example11.9).
Example11.9
This scalar pattern, in one direction and then in inversion, is emulated by the
choral voices throughout their sections of the movement. In addition, the phrases
begin and end a seventh apart and the meter is 7/4the meter that begins and is
used frequently throughout the movement (Example11.10).
Example11.10
Corresponding phrase shapes based on the interval of the seventh occur many
more times in the Dies Irae, including the soprano solo at the text Liber scriptus
(Example11.11) and the tenor and baritone duet at the beginning of the Owen
poem The Next War (Example11.12).
Example11.11
Movement 3, the Offertorium, uses the interval of a second in much the

same manner as the tritone and seventh are used in the previous movements.
To illustrate, the opening phrases of the Offertorium are based almost entirely
on seconds (Example 11.13), the choral writing to the text sed signifer sanctus
Michael consists of simultaneous seconds (Example 11.14), and the opening
melody of the Owen poem The Parable of the Old Man and the Young begins
and ends a second apart (Example 11.15). In addition, much of the movements
meter is either 2/2 or 6/8.
Example11.12
Example11.13
Example11.14
Example11.15
In summary, each movement uses a non-consonant interval as its pitch (and

sometimes metric) structuremovement 1 the augmented fourth, movement 2
the seventh, movement 3 the second, movements 4 and 5 the augmented fourth,
and movement 6, as a recapitulation, all the previous intervals.
Melodic phrases and their inversions as seen in Examples11.2 and 11.10 per-
vade the Requiem and seem to be yet another musical technique that Britten uses
to convey conflict. In the Te decet hymnus section of movement 1, each phrase
of the soprano boys choir part is followed by the same phrase in inversion sung
by the alto part. Shown in Example11.16 is the first phrase, with the alto part
directly under the soprano part for ease of comparison.
Example11.16
Other instances of inversion include the motif Bugles sang between rehearsal
numbers 24 and 26 in movement 2, and the baritone soloist melody at rehearsal
number 27 in the first Owen poem in movement 2 (Example11.17).
Example11.17
And yet further instances of melodic inversions can be seen in the soprano solo-
ist melody to Liber scriptus in movement 2 at rehearsal number 28 (Example
11.18) and during the Quam olim Abrahae sections of movement 3 (Example
11.19, beginning twelve measures after rehearsal 64).
Brittens use of scalar passages and melodic inversions are not limited to the
War Requiem. They pervade the Missa Brevis, which was composed in 1959 shortly
before Britten began thinking about and composing the Requiem. Notable in the
Missa Brevis is the structure of the Kyrie, which consists of a scalar passage from
F-sharp down to C-sharp as the first Kyrie eleison, C-sharp up to F-sharp as the
Example11.18
Example11.19
Christe eleison, and a reprise of F-sharp down to C-sharp as the second Kyrie
eleison. Asimilar technique ends the Agnus Dei, and there are additional non-
scalar but inverted melodies in the other movements.
Melodic inversions also occur in the Requiems of Brahms and Verdi. As
two examples, the opening violin melody in movement 4 of the Brahms
Ein deutsches Requiem is immediately echoed with its inversion by the cho-
ral sopranos (Examples 8.12 and 8.13), and in the final movement of the
Verdi Messa da Requiem the fugue occurs in its original and inverted forms
(Example9.5).
Interestingly, there are other striking similarities between the Britten and
Verdi Requiems. In addition to use of melodic inversion, both Dies Irae move-
ments are divided into nine sections (discussed later under Structural Symbolism).
Other similarities include the opening three notes of the first movement with
their chant-like quality uttered sotto voce on a single pitch; the insertion of rests
between word syllables in the Quantus tremor portion of the Dies Irae; the
Liber scriptus portion of the Dies Irae scored for soprano solo and orchestra,
with forceful dramatic qualities in closely related minor keys; the scoring of the
Recordare portion of the Dies Irae for womens voices and the Confutatis for
mens voices; the Lacrimosa portion of the Dies Irae movement, both in B-flat
Minor with a texture of alternating notes and rests; and near identical settings
of the phrase Tremens factus sum ego in the final movement of the Requiem.
Britten was asked about resemblances between his work and that of Verdis in a
1969 interview with Donald Mitchell, the editor of the multi-volume collection
of Britten letters. Britten replied, I think Iwould be a fool if Ididnt take notice
of how Mozart, Verdi, Dvokwhoever you like to namehad written their
Masses. Imean, many people have pointed out to me the similarities between the
Verdi Requiem and bits of my own War Requiem, and they may be there. If Ihave
not absorbed that, thats toobad.
The use of structural or other musical devices that have been employed by
previous composers has been a standard phenomenon throughout the history
of Western music, and there are many instances, both conscious and subcon-
scious, that cause association of one work to another. Mendelssohns St. Paul
and its connection to the works of Bach and Handel is an example. Another
example of a different sort is Brittens use of leitmotifs in the War Requiem
remembrance melodies that connect text passages and, therefore, further
integrate the Owen poems with the Latin texts and unify the anti-war mes-
sage of the Requiem. Discussed below is the use of the Te decet hymnus music.
Originally sung by the boys choir in movement 1, it is reused in the Owen
poem Anthem for Doomed Youth when the tenor sings Not in the hands of
boys, but in their eyes shall shine the holy glimmers of good-byes (beginning
at rehearsal number13).
The most frequently used leitmotif is the trombone triad that opens the Dies
Irae movement, which is later set to the text Bugles sang at the beginning of
the Owen poem But Iwas looking at the Permanent Stars and also at the begin-
ning of On Seeing a Piece of Artillery Brought into Action. Yet further uses of
the motif occur in the orchestra before the Lacrimosa, with the text Libera me,
Domine (beginning at rehearsal number 110), and in the Owen poem Strange
Meeting when the baritone sings The pity of war, the pity of war distilled
(between rehearsal numbers 122 and123).
Two other examples of a single melody being used for different texts war-
rant mention: (1) the Lacrimosa phrase in the Owen poem Futility, when
the tenor sings Was it for this the clay grew tall, and (2) the tenor soloists
Dona nobis pacem scale from the end of the Agnus Dei movement in Strange
Meeting, after the baritone soloist sings None, save the undone years, the
hopelessness.
Structural Symbolism
The tension created by the collocation of Latin and English texts, discordant
intervals and their corresponding meters, and scalar passages with inversions is
increased by the structural arrangements of the texts and music within sections
of the work devoted to a single performing entity and also between movements
as the separate entities relate one to another. In other words, Britten uses
structures to create tension. This can be seen clearly in four of the Requiems
movements.

The lengthy opening section of movement 1, to the text Requiem aeternam
dona eis, Domine, et lux perpetua luceat eis, is divided into four portions.
In the first portion (measures 15), the choral voices sing the two dissonant
pitches F-sharp and C-natural at quite some distance in time from each other
(see Example 11.20). In the second portion (measures 815) the distance is
closer, in the third portion (measures 1619) there is some overlap, and in the
fourth portion (measures 2026) the voices are together, with the F-sharp and
C-natural sounding simultaneously (see Example11.21). The effect is that, over
the period of approximately three minutes, musical tension has been increased
considerably.
Example11.20
Example11.21
This same structural procedure is used in the second section of the movement,
Te decet hymnus. Here, the upper boys voices sing a phrase that begins on C-
natural and ends on F-sharp (rehearsal number 3 to 4). This is followed by the
lower boys voices singing the same phrase in inversionbeginning on F-sharp
and ending on C-natural (rehearsal number 4 to five after 4). The procedure con-
tinues in like manner, with the next phrase shorter than the first two (seen in
Example 11.22), and with each succeeding phrase yet shorter, more and more
compressed, until the voices join together on the two pitches (Example11.23).
Another two minutes of increasing tension has passed.
Example11.22
Example11.23
The third section of the movement is a recapitulation of the first section

(dictated by the arrangement of the Latin text and observable in many Latin
Requiems, including that by Verdi). But here the imitation is abbreviated and
most of the section is given over to the two pitches in close and simultaneous
proximitythus creating another two minutes of mounting tension.
The fourth section of the movement, devoted to the Owen poem The Next
War, also has vocal phrases built around the dissonant tritone. The first phrase
(commencing one measure after rehearsal number 9)begins on C-natural and ends
on G-flat (Example11.24), while the next two phrases end on C-natural, thereby
extending tension, and are followed by the fourth phrase imitating the basic pitch
structure of the first phrase (Example11.25). The following four phrases, which
end this section of the movement, are relatively similar in design to the first four
phrases. While there is no overlap of pitches in this section, the melodic focus on
the tritones binds it to the other sections and adds to the increasing tension of
the movement. In addition, Britten uses the melodic material of the movements
second section (Te decet hymnus,) during the entire middle portion of this
fourth section of the movement; initiated by the tenor singing the phrase not in
the hands of boys, the chamber orchestra oboe and clarinet state the entire Te
decet hymnus sequence previously sung by theboys.
Example11.24
Example11.25
Finally, the movement ends with the mixed chorus singing three phrases unac-
companied, each phrase separated by bells intoning the tritone. Kyrie eleison
and Christe eleison begin and end with the pitches F-sharp and C-natural.
However, the closing Kyrie eleison begins on the dissonant intervals but
cadences on an F Major triadthe sole consonant cadence in the entire move-
ment (see Example11.5). Only this final chord releases nine and a half minutes of
continuously building tension.
Movement 2DiesIrae
The second movement of the Requiem is challenging in that it contains so much
text; it has the complete Latin Dies Irae, except verses 11 and 14, plus four
Owen poems. Britten manages this aggregate on a large scale by dividing the
texts into nine sections, quite similar to the nine sections of division in the
Verdi Requiem. For apprehension of these divisions, see the graphs below show-
ing their mirror structures. Overall, both Requiems are structured with cho-
rus featured in the first and last of the nine sectionsthe bookend sections.
The mirrored internal sections (2 and 8, 3 and 7, and 4 and 6)feature soloists,
while the middle section (5)features chorus again. Specifically, note that sec-
tions 1 and 9 in the Britten Requiem are for chorus only, sections 2 and 8 are for
soloists only, sections 3 and 7 are for soprano solo and chorus, 4 and 6 are for
soloists without chorus, and the center section is for chorus alone. The mirror
arrangements of the sections are striking and notably comparable to the mirror
structures used by Brahms in his Requiem. The Verdi Requiem Dies Irae is not so
obviously mirrored. However, the nine sections can be seen to have a structure
similar to that used by Britten.
Britten War Requiem DiesIrae

1. Chorus Dies irae
2. Baritone SoloBuglessang
3. Soprano Solo and ChorusLiber scriptus
4. Tenor and Baritone SolosOut there, weve walked quite friendly up toDeath
5. ChorusRecordare Jesupie
6. Baritone SoloBe slowly lifted up, thou long blackarm
7. Chorus and Soprano SoloDies irae Lacrimosa diesilla
8. Tenor SoloMove him into thesun
9. Chorus Pie Jesu Domine, dona eis requiem.Amen.
Verdi Requiem DiesIrae

1. Chorus Diesirae
2. Chorus and Bass SoloTuba mirum and Mors stupebit
3. Mezzo Solo and ChorusLiber scriptus and Diesirae
4. Soprano, Mezzo, and Tenor SolosQuid summiser
5. Solo Quartet and ChorusRex tremendae
6. Soprano and Mezzo SolosRecordare
7. Tenor SoloIngemisco
8. Bass Solo and ChorusConfutatis and Diesirae
9. Solo Quartet and ChorusLacrymosa
In terms of tension, each section of the Britten Dies Irae has a structural design
that contains elements of and is similar to the design of movement 1.All of the Dies
Irae sections are connected by dissonance, with no resolution at the end of any sec-
tion until the conclusion of the movement (shown in Example11.6), and further-
more, each section is built around and often begins and ends with the movements
signature dissonant interval of a seventh. This can be seen clearly in the following
listing.
Section 1 Dies irae (beginning to rehearsal 24)

The beginning horn phrase in measures 46 spans a seventh
The ending choral phrases span a seventh
Section 2 Bugles sang (rehearsal 24 to 28)

The beginning flute phrase spans a seventh and imitates the opening hornphrase
The ending baritone phrase Voices of old despondency resigned, Bowed by the
shadow of the morrow, slept spans a seventh
Section 3 Liber scriptus (rehearsal 28 to 33)

The beginning soprano solo phrase spans a seventh in tessitura
Section 4 Out there, weve walked quite friendly up to Death (rehearsal 33 to 39)
The beginning tenor and baritone solo phrases span a seventh
The ending baritone words for flags span a seventh
Section 5 Recordare Jesu pie (rehearsal 39 to 49)

The opening violas, cellos, and basses feature sevenths
The ending choral phrase Quasi cinis:Gere curam mei finis spans a seventh
Section 6 Be slowly lifted up, thou long black arm (rehearsal 49 to 52)
The opening baritone solo phrase spans a seventh
The ending baritone phrase May God curse thee, and cut thee from our soul
spans a seventh
Section 7 Reprise of Dies irae (rehearsal 52 to 56)

The opening asabove
The soprano solo Lacrimosa spans a seventh in tessitura (rehearsal54)
The ending soprano solo words parce Deus span a seventh in tessitura
Section 8 Move him, move him into the sun (rehearsal 56 to 60)
The opening tenor solo phrase spans a seventh
The ending tenor solo words at all span a tritone
Section 9 Pie Jesu Domine (rehearsal 60 to end)

The opening a cappella choral notes are in tritones
The ending is an F Major chord resolution
It is important to note that section 6, the shortest of the Owen poems,

has mottos from section 1 played by the orchestral trumpets, and many of
the baritone solo phrases end in a tritone. In addition, the timpani part has
each beat of each measure divided into five. Also, the penultimate tenor solo
phrase in section 8 (Was it for this the clay grew tall) is set to the Lacrimosa
melody of section 7, thus drawing a parallel between the sadness of both the
Latin and Englishtexts.
Movement 3 Offertorium
As one might expect, movement 3 has structural traits similar to those of move-
ments 1and2. The signature interval of a second and the corresponding meters
2/2 and 6/8 pervade movement 3 and act as connectors between the movements
internal sections.
Section 1Domine Jesu (beginning to rehearsal63)

The entire texture of the boys chorus and organ accompaniment is mostly in
seconds
Section 2Sed signifier sanctus Michael (rehearsal 63to69)

The opening choral and orchestral textures are in seconds
The fortepiano marks between rehearsal 65 and 67 highlight seconds
Section 3So Abram rose, and clave the wood, and went (rehearsal 69to79)
The opening meter is in 2/2 and 6/8 simultaneously
The opening baritone phrase begins and ends a secondapart
The organ accompaniment during the boys choir portion of this section
(rehearsal 77 to 79) is in continuous intervals of a seventh, although these
sound very much like the seconds used throughout the movement
Section 4Reprise of the Quam olim Abrahae portion of section2

The ending features seconds in the penultimate and antepenultimate measures
Section 3 has motifs from the Dies Irae (between rehearsal 73 and 74) and a tri-
tone span at the baritone solo phrase But the old man would not so (rehearsal
76). This tritone reference is significant in that, as mentioned earlier, the phrase
deviates from the biblical passage in Genesis 22. In verse 13 of the Bible the pas-
sage reads, And Abraham went and took the ram, and offered it up for a burnt
sacrifice instead of his son. Contrary to this, Owens passage reads, But the old
man would not so, but slew his son, and half the seed of Europe, one by one. Also
notable, the remaining measures of this section of movement 3 combine the boys
choir with organ and the tenor and baritone solos with chamber orchestra; this is
the first combination of forces in the Requiem.
Movement 6 Libera me
Britten said that this movement is a kind of recapitulation of the whole
Mass, with the choirs, up to the climax of Dies Irae overtaken, as it were,
by the steadily accelerating orchestra. This statement is basically a descrip-
tion of the movements first section, which is built upon the tritone, seconds,
and sevenths, and which has a lengthy and powerful buildup of sound and
tempo that climaxes at rehearsal 116 and then dissipates to a quiet ending at
rehearsal118.
Section 1 Libera me (beginning to rehearsal 118)

The tenor drum opens with beats divided into fives (similar to the opening of
movement1)
The opening chorus phrases are constructed of seconds
The chorus phrases Quando coeli movendi sunt et terra between 103 and 104
are insevens
The chorus phrase Libera me, Domine at 104 uses inversion
The choral phrases Dum veneris judicare saeculum per ignem between 105 and
106 span a tritone between C-natural and F-sharp (or G-flat)
The motif Bugles Sang and other music from the Dies Irae occur in the orches-
tra between 110 and111
Descending scalar patterns pervade the chorus and orchestra texture from 113
to five after 115, and, in addition, a descending scale is created by the opening
pitches of the choral phrases from 113 to 115 (G, F, E-flat, D-flat,C)
An ascending scalar pattern is created by the choral voices leading to the
climaxat116
The Libera me text returns in seconds from 116to118
Section 2 It seemed that out of battle I escaped (118 to 121)

The tritone C-natural and F-sharp is used for the words Strange friend near the
end of this section
Section 3 None, said the other, Save the undone years (121 to 127)
The scale that concludes the Agnus Dei is used at the beginning of this section
The motif Bugles Sang occurs just before123
The music set to We chorused when he sang aloft at rehearsal 35 in move-
ment 3 is used for the text Miss we the march of this retreating world at
rehearsal124
Section 4 Let us sleep now/In paradisum deducant te Angeli (127 to 137)

No tritones, seconds, or sevenths are used in this section until the bells and boys
choir interrupt the consonances with the signature C-natural and F-sharp at
rehearsal 135. Moreover, the first forty-four measures of this section have a
pedal-pointD
The section ends with the a cappella chorus shown in Example11.7
Section 4 is not only characterized by consonance until the interruption of the

tritones, but it is also the only section of the Requiem in which all the performing
forces are together: the tenor and baritone soloists singing Let us sleep now,
the chorus singing In paradisum deducant te Angeli, and the boys choir singing
Chorus Angelorum te suscipiat.
Supplementary Structures
Structure is used to manage tension within sections of movements and also to man-
age tension between sections and between movements and thus to create a flow of
musical energy that keeps the listener engaged throughout the entire Requiem. For
example, the final tenor phrase of the Owen poem Anthem for Doomed Youth in
the first movement of the Requiem is an augmentation of the Te decet melody
that has been pervasive in this section of music. By elongating the melody, Britten
manages flow to the Very slow Kyrie that ends the movement. The decrescendos
in the Dies Irae before the first Owen poem in this movement (But Iwas looking
at the Permanent Stars) and in movement 6 before the final Owen poem of the
Requiem (Strange Meeting) accomplish a similar effect offlow.
Perhaps the most remarkable structural device Britten uses to manage ten-
sion is one related to texture and tempo. Tension is built through the normal
means of increasingly thick textures, accelerations of tempo, and crescendos.
However, at the point of climaxat the time of most poignancythe air is
cleared, so to speak, and the culmination of tension is achieved through a reverse
process. This technique is employed in many of Brittens compositions, most
notably in the opera Billy Budd. As Captain Vere comes to grip with his decision
to sentence Billy to deathas Vere sings Beauty, handsomeness, goodness, it
is for me to destroy you with music that builds tension through dramatically
increasing volume and textureat the moment when Vere goes to tell Billy that
he must be hangedat the climax of the sceneBritten halts the motion and
reduces the texture by writing a series of thirty-four major or minor whole-note
chords with the tempo marking Very Slow. The effect of this sudden textural
change is breathtaking.
Britten uses the same technique in the War Requiem. At points of climax or of
most critical poignancy, the music becomes thin in texture, slow in tempo, and
soft in volume. This is the case in the final Owen poem of the lengthy Dies Irae
movement, where each phrase of the heart-rending poem is set as a recitative,
with static accompanimental lines. The end of the Sanctus, while not identical
in treatment, is similar, and the end of the Agnus Dei is most striking when the
tenor sings a fusion of F-Sharp and C-Minor scalar passages without any accom-
paniment at all. The most extraordinary instance of Brittens clearing-the-air-
at-moments-of-extreme-poignancy technique is in the final movement of the
Requiem and with the final Owen poem. Much of this poem is set as a recitative,
in a manner similar to the setting of the final poem in the Dies Irae. However,
at the end of the poem in movement 6, the lines I am the enemy you killed, my
friend. I knew you in this dark: for so you frowned Yesterday through me as you
jabbed and killed. I parried; but my hands were loath and cold are sung com-
pletely unaccompanied, softly and slowly.

PerformingForces
The War Requiem is scored for three separate vocal and instrumental groups that
function as three distinct performing strata:
(1) a mixed chorus (mostly SATB, but occasionally divided into SSAATTBB),
soprano solo, and a very large orchestra consisting of three flutes (the
third flute doubling piccolo), three oboes, English horn, three clarinets
(the third clarinet doubling bass clarinet and clarinet in E-flat), two bas-
soons, contrabassoon, six horns, four trumpets, three trombones, tuba,
piano, grand organ (scored in the final movement ad lib.), strings, and
percussion section requiring four players and consisting of side drums,
tenor drum, bass drum, tambourine, triangle, cymbals, castanets, whip,
Chinese blocks, gong, bells (C and F-sharp), vibraphone, glockenspiel, and
antique cymbals (C and F-sharp)
(2) baritone and tenor solos and chamber orchestra of flute (doubling pic-
colo), oboe (doubling English horn), clarinet, bassoon, horn, timpani, side
drum, bass drum, cymbal, gong, harp, two violins, viola, cello, and double
bass
(3) a boys choir and chamber or portativeorgan.
Given that there would be approximately fifty-two strings (12 + 12 + 10 + 10 +

8)in strata 1 to balance the winds, brass, and percussion, and that the mixed cho-
rus would number between 100 and 150 choristers, strata 1 would have between
185 and 235 performers. With strata 2 numbering fifteen performers and strata
3 numbering between twenty and forty, the total number of performers would be
somewhere between approximately 220 and 290 performers.
StageSet-up
The arrangement of performing forces is critical to the manifestation of Brittens
concept of the Requiem. In order for the three strata of forces to capably relay
their musical and textual intents and for these intents to be comprehended by
an audience, there should be spatial separation between the strata (shown in the
arrangement of forces in Diagram 11.A). The separation of forces is especially
important in regard to the alternation of Latin texts (sung by the soprano soloist
and mixed chorus in stratum 1)and the Owen poetry (sung by the tenor and bari-
tone soloists in stratum 2). Britten did not originally plan for this arrangement of
performing forces. In a letter dated May 12, 1961, to John Lowe, a member of the
Coventry Festival Arts Committee, Britten wrote, I think the best position [for
the chamber orchestra] would be immediately in front of the conductor with the
two male soloists. The boys, however, Iwould like to have placed at a distance.
But as the compositional process developed, Britten decided to have the tenor and
baritone soloists with the chamber orchestra off to the side of the main orchestra;
the boys were positioned on the other side and behind the orchestra. As a conse-
quence, the forces of stratum 1 (performing the Latin texts) were separated from
the forces of stratum 2 (performing the English texts), thus providing the listen-
ers with both a visual and aural distinction between the two important strata.
Soprano soloist
and mixed chorus
so Ten
lo or
ist &
ir s
ho n or and Bari
yc
Bo orga Full orchestra ch c to
es ha ne
d
an tra m
be
r
Diagram 11.A: Recommended Placement of Performers
The separation of forces was possible in the great crossing area of Coventry
Cathedral. However, separation is a challenge in most concert halls with their lim-
ited stage space. These concert hall performances generally situate the chamber
orchestra on stage left, similar to the Coventry Cathedral arrangement, but with
no separation of forces; some performances completely integrate the chamber
and full orchestras, both led by one conductor. Quite naturally, most present-day
performances situate the soprano soloist with the main choir, which is generally
behind the full orchestra. However, all concert hall performances situate the boys
chorus and organ off stageat the rear of the audience, which is most common,
or above and behind the stage if there is built-in seating. Separating the boys from
the others but not the chamber forces from the others is unfortunate since the
main conceptual thrust of the Requiem is the contrast between the Latin and
English texts, not between the Latin texts sung by the main chorus and the boys.
While it is understandable that presenters of concert hall performances desire to
feature the tenor and baritone soloists and have them positioned on stage, front
and center, and while it is also understandable that it is expensive to extend a
stage and lose audience seats, it should be understandable as well that the spatial
organization of performing forces is integral to the composition and to its artistic
objective. If the War Requiem is to be performed, the commitment of the present-
ers to provide audiences with a meaningful aesthetic experience should be abso-
lute. The arrangement of forces, therefore, should not be compromised.
Nationalities ofthe Vocal Soloists and Their Vocal Timbres

The nationalities of the soloists are also an important aspect of performance prac-
tice. Britten composed the solo roles for specific singers representing countries
engaged in World War IIthe tenor Peter Pears representing Britain, the bari-
tone Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau representing Germany, and the soprano Galina
Vishnevskaya representing Russia. The representations of the countries are of
critical importance to the communication and reception of the War Requiems
central message, even today, when people have very little direct connection to the
world wars. The Requiem is a period work that intends to communicate a clear
message about war. Use of soloists as Britten intended only helps to facilitate this
message. Even more important is the use of soloists who have vocal characteris-
tics similar to those for which Britten composed the Requiem. The lyrical qualities
of Pears and Fischer-Dieskau are vital to the conveyance of Owens poetry, and
Vishnevskayas rich and powerful Russian voice is in stark contrast. The styles
of these particular singers are imbedded in Brittens music, the manifestation of
which is best served by choosing singers today with traits similar to those for
whom the music was originally conceived and composed.
Acoustics
The acoustical property of the performance venue is yet another consideration
of performance practice. While Britten was surprised and disappointed by the
quality and length of reverberation in the completed new Coventry Cathedral
(eight seconds at the time of its finished construction), he was certainly famil-
iar with cathedrals around England and knew that the acoustical environment
of the Requiems performance would be cathedral-like, not like the acoustics in
concert halls. He composed the War Requiem for a reverberant acoustical environ-
ment and even commented that he had designed the work for a big reverberant
acoustic, and that is where it sounds best. The public had the same opinion; when
the Requiem was performed at the Royal Festival Hall on December 12, 1963, a
reviewer in the Times the following day complained about the halls dry inappro-
priately clinical acoustic. Brittens scoring of the music calls for acoustical rever-
beration. This is obvious in many passages, most notably regarding the fermatas
at the beginning of the Dies irae. In concert halls, without appreciable reverbera-
tion, these fermatas, as well as many other musical places in the Requiem, sound
oddly empty and lose a great deal of their originally intended effect. This loss can
be minimized, however, in halls that have the capacity to alter acoustics. In these
venues it is recommended that some attempt be made to add reverberation, doing
so to emulate the original circumstances and conception of the War Requiem.
Addendum
Two important factors of the War Requiem not yet discussedoverall structure
and harmonic languageare significant as they affect ones comprehension and
appreciation of the score. Regarding structure, an awareness and understanding
of the Requiems large-scale organization aids one in fully grasping the emotional
message that Britten is attempting to communicate. This awareness also allows
one, whether performer or listener, to become part of the flow of the Requiem
to become engaged in and sustain an optimal aesthetic experience (as described by
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi in his book Flow). Comprehending the overall structure
of the War Requiem is challenging for such a large and complex work, however,
since the Requiem comprises twenty-five separate and individual sections that
result in a total duration of approximately eighty minutes. Comprehension is
also challenging in that there are several ways of perceiving the organization of
Brittens twenty-five sections.
The most common view of the overall structure, and the least satisfying, is one
that recognizes and follows the six titled movements of the Requiem (Requiem
Aeternam, Dies Irae, Offertorium, Sanctus, Agnus Dei, and Libera Me). This view
is problematic in that the lengths and subdivisions of the movements are diverse
and unbalanced. For example, the Dies Irae is divided into nine parts and lasts
about twenty-five minutes, while the Agnus Dei is in only one part and lasts three-
and-a-half minutes. Also, as previously discussed in regard to Owens poetry, the
character and substance of Brittens anti-war message is impeded by the division
of the Requiem into six movements.
Another manner of viewing the overall structure of the Requiem is to divide
it into three large musical parts, each part ending with the near identical a cap-
pella passages that begin with the motto tritones and cadence with the distinctive
F-Major chords. As mentioned earlier, these a cappella passages are placed at the
beginning, structural center, and end of the Requiem. However, the durations of
the parts are unequal (9:30, 25:30, and 46:00 minutes, respectively), and, as with
viewing the overall structure of the Requiem according to its six movements, a
three-part musical division of the Requiem obscures the message of the work.
The message, as well as an aesthetically satisfying engagement in flow, is best
achieved by viewing the overall structure according to the arrangement of Owens
poems in the Requiem. As outlined earlier in the chart during the discussion of
the poetry, there are nine poems divided into three groups, each group begin-
ning with the soloists singing separately and ending with them singing together.
Divided in this manner, the lengths of the three parts are relatively equal (20:30,
24:25, and 36:25 minutes, respectively), the emotional message of the Requiem is
made apparent, and the opportunity for an aesthetic sense of flow is optimized.
No one manner of viewing the overall structure of the War Requiem is ideal-
ized, however, or even possible. The division of the work into six movements is
concrete. Major cadences occur and time is taken between the movements, and,
in addition, musical mottos bind and give identity to each movement. Similarly,
one cannot avoid the palpable closure that comes at the ends of the three a cap-
pella passages. Therefore, a combination of structural awareness is, it seems, most
helpful in fully appreciating the monumental nature of Brittens masterpiece.
Understanding the harmonic language of the War Requiem is also critical to
a full appreciation of the work. While Britten uses many structural and musical
techniques to convey his anti-war sentiments and to communicate tension and
discord, he does not use melodic or harmonic dissonance such as was common
for composers at the mid-point of the twentieth century; the musical language of
the War Requiem is not atonal, for instance, and it is not intrinsically dissonant.
Neither does Britten use other compositional techniques that would be considered
modern. There is a brief section of aleatoric music at the Pleni sunt coeli et terra
section of the Sanctus, and at the same place there is a gradual incorporation of
all twelve notes of the chromatic scale (undoubtedly to represent all of heaven and
earth). However, the writing in the Requiem is basically tonal. Brittens anti-war
message is communicated by a musical language that creates a sense of allure, one
that draws the listener to feelings of distress, lament, and misery, not one that
uses musical gestures that are harsh, provocative, or off-putting. Perhaps Brittens
more euphonious language is motivated by a desire to communicate pity, which is
certainly a reasonable assumption given the subtitle of the Requiem:My subject
is War, and the pity of War. The Poetry is in the pity. With numerous passages of
poignant music throughout the Requiem and with the use of tritones, seconds,
and sevenths managed over long spans of time to create a cogent and visceral
desire for consonance, Britten communicates a powerful message of pityof con-
flict needing cessation and of tension in need of resolution.
Another explanation for the musical language and the anti-war message
it intends to communicate comes from Britten himself. In a letter to his sister
Barbara shortly after the premiere, Britten wrote in his usual understated man-
ner, I hope itll make people think a bit. By juxtaposing the Owen poems with
the traditional Latin Requiem texts, by having the Owen poems sung by individu-
als that clearly represent enemies during war, and by using musical techniques
that create long spans of tension in need of resolution, Britten unquestionably
created an atmosphere that causes introspection and contemplation.
But Britten does more than create a need for resolution. He actually provides
resolution three times in the Requiemthe three F Major chords placed at the
ends of the a cappella choral sections of music that occur at the conclusion of the
first movement (after approximately nine minutes of building tritone tension),
at the exact structural center of the Requiem (after the fifth Owen poem), and at
the end of the entire work (after all the performing forces participate together in
their message asking for peace). Given the repetitions of these chords after almost
identical passages of a cappella music and given their structural placement in the
Requiem, the resolution that these chords relay is more than significant. Perhaps
the resolution they imply represents atonement. The Australian painter Sidney
Nolan, who moved to London in 1951 and was a regular figure at the Aldeburgh
festivals, said that Britten told him in 1970, Really what the whole thing is, its
a kind of reparation. Thats what the War Requiem is about; it is reparation. Or
perhaps the chords representhope.
Bridcut, John. The Essential Britten. Faber and Faber,2012.
Britten, Benjamin, conductor. War Requiem, with the Bach Choir, London Symphony Orchestra
Chorus, Highgate School Choir, Melos Ensemble, and London Symphony Orchestra.
London, 1963 (recording). Decca 4757511.
Carpenter, Humphrey. Benjamin Britten:ABiography. Charles Scribners Sons,1992.
Cooke, Mervyn. Britten War Requiem. Cambridge University Press,1996.

Craggs, Stewart. Benjamin Britten:ABio-bibliography. Greenwood,2002.
Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. Flow:The Psychology of Optimal Experience. Harper & Row,1990
Cuthbertson, Guy. Wilfred Owen. Yale University Press,2014.
Elliott, Graham. Benjamin Britten:The Spiritual Dimension. Oxford University Press,2006.
Evans, Peter. The Music of Benjamin Britten. Clarendon Press,1996.
Featherstone, Simon. War Poetry:An Introductory Reader. Routledge,1995.
Hibberd, Dominic. Wilfred Owen:ANew Biography. Phoenix,2003.
Hodgson, Peter John. Benjamin Britten:AGuide to Research. Routledge,1996.
Kennedy, Michael. Britten. Revised edition. Oxford University Press,2001.
Matthews, David. Britten. Haus,2013.
Oliver, Michael. Benjamin Britten. Phaidon Press,1996.
Owen, Harold. Journey from Obscurity: Wilfred Owen, 18931918 (three volumes). Oxford
University Press, 19631965.
Owen, Wilfred. Complete Poems by Wilfred Owen. Blackthorn Press,2013.
Schafer, Murray. British Composers in Interview. Faber and Faber,1963.
Strimple, Nick. Choral Music in the Twentieth Century. Amadeus Press,2005.
Summer, Robert J. Choral Masterworks from Bach to Britten:Reflections of a Conductor. Scarecrow
Press,2007.
Tippins, Sherill. February House:The Story of W.H. Auden, Carson McCullers, Jane and Paul Bowles,
Benjamin Britten, and Gypsy Rose Lee, under One Roof in Wartime America. Mifflin,2005.
A ppendix
S C O R E D ATA
Missa Pangelingua
Josquin Desprez (between 1450 and 1455August 27,1521)
Composed after1515
Duration30:00
Premiere unknown
Published1539 (Missae tredecim quatuor vocum a praestantiss, Nuremberg)
Texttraditional Roman Catholic Mass Ordinary
Scoring SATBchorus
Missa Papae Marcelli

Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525February 2,1594)
Composedc.1562
Duration31:30
PremiereApril 28, 1565(Rome)
Published 1567 (Palestrina Missarum liber secundus)
ScoringSATTBB chorus except Agnus Dei 2 for SSAATBB
B MinorMass
Johann Sebastian Bach (March 21, 1685July 28,1750)
Composedbetween 1724 and1749

Missa (Kyrie and Gloria)1733
425
426 A p pendi x
Symbolum Nicenum (Credo)between August 1748 and October 1749

Sanctus 1724
Osanna, Benedictus, Agnus Dei et Dona nobis pacembetween August 1748 and
October1749
Duration107:00
PremiereCredo in 1786 (Hamburg), complete Mass in 1859 (Leipzig)
Published
1833Kyrie and Gloria, remaining movements in 1845 (Hans Georg Ngeli)
1856complete Mass as Volume 6 of Bach-Gesamtausgabe(BGA)
Scoring
Kyrie and GloriaSSATB solos, SSATB chorus, two flutes, two oboes, two
bassoons, corno da caccia, three trumpets, strings, and basso continuo
CredoSAB solos and the same choral and orchestral forces as the Kyrie and
Gloria except for no corno da caccia or separately scored bassoons
SanctusSSAATB chorus, three oboes, three trumpets, timpani, strings, and
basso continuo
OsannaSATB/SATB (double chorus), two flutes, two oboes, three trumpets,
strings, and basso continuo
BenedictusT solo, flute, and basso continuo
Agnus DeiAsolo, violin 1 and 2, and basso continuo
Dona nobis pacemSATB chorus and orchestra the same as the Kyrie andGloria
Messiah
George Frideric Handel (February 23, 1685April 14,1759)
Composedbetween August 22, 1741, and September 14,1741

Duration140:00
PremiereApril 13, 1742 (Dublin)
Published1767 (Randall andAbell)
TextBible verses assembled by Charles Jennens
ScoringSATB solos, SATB chorus (SSATB for Lift up your heads), two trumpets,
timpani, strings, and basso continuo (harpsichord andorgan)
The Creation
Joseph Haydn (March 31, 1732May 31,1809)
Composed1797
Duration105:00
A p pendi x 427
PremiereApril 30, 1798 (Vienna)

Published1800 (Haydn), 1803 (Breitkopf & Hrtel)
TextGottfried van Swieten, based on John Miltons poem ParadiseLost.
ScoringSTB solos, SATB chorus, three flutes (third flute used only at the beginning
of the oratorios third part), two oboes, two bassoons, contrabassoon, two horns,
two trumpets, two trombones, timpani, strings, and basso continuo keyboard
(pianoforte)
Symphonyno.9
Ludwig van Beethoven (before December 17, 1770March 26,1827)

Duration60:00 to70:00
PremiereMay 7, 1824 (Vienna)
Published1826 (Schott)
Textfrom the poem An die Freude by Johann Christoph Friedrich Schiller
Scoring movements 1 through 3: two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons,
four horns, two trumpets, three trombones, timpani, and strings. movement 4:
same as above plus SATB solos, SATB chorus, piccolo, contrabassoon, triangle,
cymbals, and bass drum
St.Paul
Felix Mendelssohn (February 3, 1809November 4,1847)

Duration116:00
Premiere
May 23, 1836 (Dsseldorf), preliminary version, sung in German
October 7, 1836 (Liverpool), preliminary version, sung in English
March 16, 1837 (Leipzig), revised version, sung inGerman
Published1837 (Simrock and Novello)
TextBible verses assembled by Julius Schubring
ScoringSSTTTTBBB solos, SATB chorus (SSATB for two movements, and
SSAA for one), two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons, serpent,
contrabassoon, four horns, two trumpets, three trombones, timpani, strings,
andorgan
428 A p pendi x
Ein deutsches Requiem

Johannes Brahms (May 7, 1833April 3,1897)
Composedbefore 1865 to1868

Duration70:00
Premiere
December 1, 1867 (Vienna) movements 1, 2, and 3
April 10, 1868 (Bremen) six movements (not including movement 5)
February 18, 1869 (Leipzig) seven movements
Published1868 and 1869 (J. Rieter-Biedermann)
TextBible verses assembled byBrahms
ScoringSB solos, SATB chorus, piccolo, two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets, two
bassoons, contrabassoon, four horns, two trumpets, three trombones, tuba, harp,
strings, timpani, andorgan
Messa da Requiem
Giuseppe Verdi (October 10, 1813January 27,1901)

Duration85:00 to90:00
Premiere
May 22, 1874 (Milan)
May 9, 1875 (London) revised version
Published1875 (Ricordi)
Texttraditional Latin RequiemMass
ScoringSATB solos, SATB chorus (except for SATB/SATB in the Sanctus), three flutes
(the third flute sometimes playing piccolo), two oboes, two clarinets, four bassoons
(each often having a separate part), four horns, four trumpets (plus four more
trumpets that play offstage in the Tuba mirum portion of the Dies irae), three
trombones, tuba, timpani, bass drum, and strings
Mass
Igor Stravinsky (June 17, 1882April 6,1971)
Composed
1944 (Kyrie and Gloria)
19471948 (Credo, Sanctus, and AgnusDei)
A p pendi x 429
Duration18:00
PremiereOctober 27, 1948 (Milan)
Published1948 (Boosey & Hawkes)
ScoringSATTB solos, SATB chorus, and double wind quintet (two oboes, English
horn, two bassoons, two trumpets, and three trombones)
War Requiem
Benjamin Britten (November 22, 1913December 4,1976)

Duration82:00
PremiereMay 30, 1962 (Coventry Cathedral)
Published1962 (Boosey & Hawkes)
Texttraditional Latin Requiem Mass and poems of WilfredOwen
Scoringfor three strata of performers
(1) S solo, SATB chorus (expanding to SSAATTBB), three flutes (the third
flute doubling piccolo), three oboes, English horn, three clarinets (the
third clarinet doubling bass clarinet and clarinet in E-flat two bassoons,
contrabassoon, six horns, four trumpets, three trombones, tuba, piano,
grand organ (scored in the final movement ad lib.), strings, and percus-
sion section requiring four players and consisting of side drums, tenor
drum, bass drum, tambourine, triangle, cymbals, castanets, whip, Chinese
blocks, gong, bells (C and F-sharp), vibraphone, glockenspiel, and antique
cymbals (C and F-sharp)
(2) baritone and tenor solos and chamber orchestra of flute (doubling pic-
colo), oboe (doubling English horn), clarinet, bassoon, horn, timpani, side
drum, bass drum, cymbal, gong, harp, two violins, viola, cello, and double
bass
(3) boys choir and chamber or portativeorgan
INDEX
Aaron, Pietro,33 B Minor Mass (BWV 232), 56, 72118, 157, 193,
Affekt /Affektenlehre (Doctrine of Affections), 249, 256, 274,312
111, 139, 110, 112, 142, Christ lag in Todesbanden (BWV 4), 74, 283,284
153,154 Christmas Oratorio (BWV 248), 78,284
Agazzari, Agostino, 36,54,70 Der Herr denket an uns (BWV 196),74
Agricola, Alexander,2 Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott (BWV 80),75
Agricola, Johann Friedrich,204 Ein ungefrbt Gemte (BWV 24),108
Albrechtsberger, Johann Georg,172 Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit (BWV 106),
Allgemeine Deutschen Ccilienverein,56 74,282
Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, 55, 226, 232, Gott ist mein Knig (BWV 71),74
258,288 Gott, man lobet dich in der Stille (BWV 120),83
Alt-Bachisches Archiv,73 Gott, wie dein Name, so ist auch dein Ruhm (BWV
Alxinger, Johann Baptist von,171 171),83
Anerio, Felice,48 Herr, deine Augen sehen nach dem Glauben (BWV
Animuccia, Giovanni, 38,47,48 102),79
Anselmi Parmense, Giorgio (Anselmus Ich habe genug (BWV 82),76
de Parma),25 Ich hatte viel Bekmmernis (BWV 21), 74, 107,
Arcadelt, Jacques,43 284, 294,304
Artiganova, Giande,3 Jauchzet Gott in allen Landen (BWV 51),76
Attaingnant, Pierre,4 Jesu, der du meine Seele (BWV 78),75
Auden, W.H., 390, 391,423 Jesu, meine Freude (BWV 227), 75,372
Avison, Charles, 149,163 Lobet Gott in seinen Reichen (BWV 11),83,86
Avolio, Christina Maria,143 Magnificat (BWV 243 and BWV 243a),75
Missa in A Major (BWV 234), 76, 108
Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel, 88, 89, 90, 115, 118, Missa in F Major (BWV 233), 76, 77
236, 277,309 Missa in G Major (BWV 236), 76, 77, 78
Bach, Johann Ambrosius,72 Missa in G Minor (BWV 235), 76, 79
Bach, Johann Christoph,72 Nach dir, Herr, verlanget mich (BWV 150),74
Bach, Johannes Hans,72 Nun ist das Heil und die Kraft (BWV 50),75
Bach, Johann Ludwig,77 Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland (BWV 61),74
Bach, Johann Michael,72 Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland (BWV 62),75
Bach, Johann Sebastian, 56, 72119, 120, 121, Preise dein Glcke, gesegnetes Sachsen (BWV
144, 157, 182, 193, 210, 249251, 215),83
255260, 262266, 269272, 274, Sanctus (BWV 238), 8082,106
275, 282284, 286288, 290, 292, Schauet doch und sehet (BWV 46), 75,83,85
294, 295, 300, 304, 312, 355, 365, Siehe zu, da deine Gottesfurcht nicht Heuchelei
366, 371, 372, 386, 409,423 (BVW 179),78
Ach wie flchtig, ach wie nichtig (BWV 26),75 St. John Passion (BWV 245), 75, 144,250
Aus der Tiefe rufe ich, Herr, zu dir (BWV 131),75 St. Matthew Passion (BWV 244), 249251, 256,
Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir (BWV 38),74 262264, 266, 270, 271, 272, 275, 286,355
431
432 Ind e x
Tnet, ihr Pauken! Erschallet, Trompetten (BWV Birnbaum, Johann Abraham,114

214),78 Bliss, Arthur,389
Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme (BWV 140),76 Boccherini, Giovanni Johann Gastone, 168,169
Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen (BWV 12), Bhm, Joseph,215
74,83,85 Bordoni, Faustina, 108,123
Wie schn leuchtet der Morgenstern (BWV1),75 Borromeo, Carlo,46,54
Wir danken dir, Gott, wir danken dir (BWV 29), Brahms, Johannes, 210, 282321, 329, 340, 341,366
8384,107 Ach, arme Welt op.110 no.2,290
Bach, Wilhelm Friedemann,82,88 Begrbnisgesang op.13, 284, 290,291
Bailey, James,143 Der 13. Psalm op.27, 290, 291292
Baini, Giuseppe,54,90 Ein deutsches Requiem op.45, 90, 274, 282321,
Banchieri, Adriano,40,54 325, 335, 350, 355, 372, 383, 408,412
Baron, Ernst Gottlieb,115 Es ist das Heil uns kommen her op.29 no.1,
Barthlemon, Franois Hippolyte, 170171 290,292
Bartoli, Cosimo,4 Fest-und Gedenksprche op.109,290
Bassani, Giovanni Battista,87 Geistliches Lied op.30, 290291
Beard, John,143 Gesang der Parzen op.89,290
Beecham, Sir Thomas,162 Ich aber bin elend op.110 no.1, 290, 293294
Beethoven, Ludwig van, 89, 171, 172, 207246, Nnie op.82, 217,290
314,386 O Heiland, rei die Himmel auf op.74 no.2,
Cantate auf den Tod Kaiser Joseph des 290,293
Zweiten,211 Piano Concerto no.1 in D Minor op.15,287
Cantate auf die Erhebung Leopold des Zeiten zur Rhapsodie op.53,290
Kaiserwrde,211 Rinaldo op.50,289
Christus am Oelberge (Christ on the Mount of Schaffe in mir, Gott, ein rein Herz op.29 no.2,
Olives), 211,250 290,292
Die Weihe des Hauses (The Consecration of the Schicksalslied op.54, 290,293
House),214 Serenade no.1 in D Major op.11,287
Fantasie fr Klavier, Chor und Orchester c-moll Symphony no.1,208
op.80 (Choral Fantasy),211 Triumphlied op.55,290
Fidelio, 214,215 Warum ist das Licht gegeben op.74 no.1, 290,
Missa in C Major op.86, 211, 231,373 293294
Missa solemnis, 90, 214, 230,288 Wenn wir in hchsten Nten sein op.110 no.3,
Piano Sonata no.4 op.7 (Grand Sonata),211 290, 293294
Piano Sonata no.8 op.13 (Sonate pathtique), Bramante, Donato,42
211,226 Bright, John,390
Piano Sonata no.23 op.57 (Appassionata),228 Britten, Benjamin, 387423
Piano Sonata no.28 op.101,231 Abraham and Isaac (Canticle II),399
Symphony no.1 in C Major op.21, 211212 Ballad of Heroes,390
Symphony no.2 in D Major op.36, 211212 Billy Budd, 391, 392, 393,417
Symphony no.3 in E-flat Major op.55 (Sinfonia Ghandi Requiem,A,391
Eroica),212 Gloriana, 387, 391,393
Symphony no.4 in B-flat Major op.60,212 Mea Culpa,391
Symphony no.5 in C Minor op.67,212 Missa Brevis, 364, 392, 407408
Symphony no.6 in F Major op.68 (Pastoral Our Hunting Fathers,390
Symphony),212 Peter Grimes,391
Symphony no.7 in AMajor op.92, 212213 Rape of Lucretia, The,391
Symphony no.8 in F Major op.93, 212213 Sinfonia da Requiem, 390391
Symphony no.9 in D Minor op.125, 168, 207 War Requiem, 387423
246, 274,312 Brossard, Sbastien de,277
Beggars Opera, The,124 Brown, A.Peter, 189, 190191,206
Berlin Singakademie, 89, 90, 249,211 Bruckner, Anton, 208, 308, 360,364
Berlioz, Hector, 173, 221, 355, 365,366 Brhl, Carl von,214
Bernstein, Leonard, 209, 368,391 Brumel, Antoine,2,5
Berwald, Johan Fredrik,192 Brydges, James (Duke of Chandos),122
Binchois, Gilles de bins,1,6 Blow, Hans von, 314,316
Bindi, Giovanni,108 Burney, Charles, 5, 55, 89, 145, 148, 160, 163,167
Binyon, Laurence,389 Busnois, Antoine,12
Ind e x 433
Caccini, Giulio,277 In principio erat verbum,6

Caldara, Antonio,121 Memor esto verbi tui -Portio mea, Domine,6
Cappella Giulia, 7, 36, 38, 42, 44,47,48 Miserere mei, Deus, 6, 9,1213
Capponi, Giuseppe, 327328,350 Missa de beata virgine, 7, 910,1415
Carestini, Giovanni,124 Missa di dadi,5
Carissimi, Giacomo,130 Missa Dung aultre amer,2
Carpani, Giuseppe, 170,206 Missa Faisant regretz,4
Castiglione, Baldassare,4 Missa Fortuna desperate,5
Cavendish, William,127 Missa Hercules dux Ferrariae,3,5
Chapman Edward,394 Missa La sol fa remi,6
Charles I(the Bold),2 Missa Lhomme arm sexti toni,6
CharlesV,43 Missa Lhomme arm super voces musicales,5
Charles VII (le Victorieux),1 Missa Mater patris,5
Charles VIII (lAffable),2 Missa Pange lingua,135
Cherubini, Luigi, 325, 329330 Missa Una musque de Buscaya,4
Chihara, Paul, 364365 Nymphes des bois (La dploration de Johan.
Chrysander, Friedrich,89 Ockeghem),2,6
Church, John,143 Parfons regretz,6
Cibber, Susanna Maria,143 Pater noster -Ave Maria,3
Cirillo, Bernardino,44 Petite camusette,6
Clive, Catherine,143 Praeter rerum seriem,6
Coclico, Adrian Petit,3334 Salve regina -Eya ergo, 6,1112
Cocteau, Jean, 355, 368,386 Scaramella,6
Collegium Germanicum,48 Stabat mater -Eya mater, fons amoris,6
Compre, Loyset,12 Tu solus qui facis mirabilia,2
Concerts Spirituels, 241,244 Victimae paschali laudes -Dic nobis, Maria,2,6
Cond-sur-lEscaut,3,22 Devrient, Eduard, 270,281
Congregation of the Oratory,4748 Diaghilev, Sergei, 355,368
Copland, Aaron, 358, 386,390 Dies, Albert Christoph, 170,206
Corelli, Arcangelo,121 Dietrich, Albert,285
Corri, Domenico, 206, 346,353 Dirzka, Ignaz,214
Cotton, Mary,387 Donizetti, Gaetano, 215, 217, 322,354
Council of Trent, 41, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, Dryden, John, 125,174
55,56,67 Dufay, Guillaume, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7,8,42
Counter-Reformation, 37, 41,47,70 Drr, Alfred, 74,118
Coventry Cathedral, 388, 392, 393, 418, 419,420 Dvok, Anton, 208,409
Craft, Robert, 357, 364, 368,386 Dyke, Henry van,207
Cramer, Carl Friedrich,210
Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, 420,423 Eber, Paul,294
Cuzzoni, Francesca,123 Elgar, Edward,389
Czerny, Carl, 194, 216, 228, 235,245 Ellis, Alexander, 149,163
Elssler, Johann,190
David, Johann Nepomuk,362 Erba, Dionigi,130
Davies, Meredith, 388, 393,394 Ercole IdEste,3
Davis, Colin,388 Esterhzy, Anton, 165, 166168
Del Lago, Giovanni,28 Esterhzy, Nikolaus I, 165168
Desprez, Josquin,135 Esterhzy, Nikolaus II, 165, 167168
Adieu mes amours,6 Esterhsy, Paul Anton, 165168
Allegezmoy,6
Alma redemptoris mater /Ave regina celorum,2 Farinelli,124
Ave Maria virgo serena, 34,67,9 Fasch, Carl Friedrich,89
Baisezmoy,6 Ferdinand de Medici,121
Cela sans plus,6 Fermata, 104, 202, 269, 275277, 318, 319,
De profundis,6 338,420
El grillo,6 Ferrabosco, Domenico Maria,44,46
Gaude virgo mater Christi, 6 Finck, Hermann,29,34
Illibata dei virgo nutrix -Ave virginum, 6, Fischer-Dieskau, Dietrich, 387, 388, 392393,
8,1314 419,420
434 Ind e x
Fleming, Paul,290 Brockes Passion, 77,130

Forkel, Johann Nikolaus, 89,118 Chandos Anthems, 77,122
Francis I(le Pre et Restaurateur des Lettres),4 Coronation Anthems, 123,130
Frasi, Giulia,143 Deborah, 77, 124, 125, 136,170
Friebert, Joseph,171 Deidamia,126
Friedrich August II (Elector of Saxony),75,81 Dixit Dominus,122
Frederick II of Prussia (Frederick the Great),87 Esther, 77, 122, 123124, 126, 127, 130,170
Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia, 233,249 Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline (The Ways
Furtwngler, Wilhelm,208 of Zion do Mourn) 125,130
Fux, Johann Joseph, 56,359 Giulio Cesare,123
Hercules, 129,130
Gabrieli, Andrea,40 Il pastor fido,122
Gaffurius, Franchinus, 25,27,34 Il Trionfo del Tempo e del Disinganno, 121,125
Galli, Caterina,143 Il Trionfo del Tempo e della Verit,125
Garcia, Manuel, 278, 281, 309, 320, 347,353 Imeneo, 126,127
Gardner, William,173 Israel in Egypt, 7778, 125126, 130, 134, 167,
Gates, Bernard,123 170, 250, 256,271
Georg Ludwig (Elector of Hanover and King Jephtha, 129,250
George I),122 Joseph and His Brethren, 129,130
Gesellschaft der Associierten, 129, 171, 172,174 Joshua, 129, 130, 250,269
Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, 189, 191, 215, Judas Maccabaeus, 129, 130, 170, 250,355
231, 243, 285,287 LAllegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato, 126,
Gewandhaus Orchestra, 76, 91, 208, 248, 251, 127,134
281,287 La Resurrezione,121
Glareanus, Heinrich, 4,7,60 Messiah, 78, 120164, 167, 170, 171, 193, 250,
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 217, 218, 229,251 256, 269, 270, 274, 283, 286, 312,355
Goldschmidt, Otto,91 Music for Royal Fireworks,129
Gombert, Nicolas,3 Nero,121
Gounod, Charles-Franois, 355, 359, 365,366 Occasional Oratorio,129
Grassineau, James,150 Ode for St. Cecilias Day, 125,127
Graves, Robert, 394395 Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne, 77,122
Griesinger, Georg August, 167, 175,206 Oreste,124
Grillparzer, Franz,175 Orlando,124
Groer Redoutensaal, 174,216 Radamisto,123
Guadagni, Gaetano, 134,143 Rinaldo,122
Guckeisen, August,347 Rodelinda,123
Guidiccioni, Lelio,54 Rodrigo,121
Samson, 127, 130,250
Haberl, Franz Xaver,56 Saul, 125, 126, 130, 134,170
Haizinger, Anton,215 Semele, 129,130
Hamburger Frauenchor, 284,291 Serse, 125126
Hamilton, Newburgh,125 Solomon, 129, 289,271
Handel and Haydn Society,173 Sosarme,124
Handel, George Frideric, 72, 74, 75, 7778, 89, Susanna,129
90, 120164, 167, 169, 170, 175, 176, 182, Teseo,122
185, 206, 245, 249, 250, 251, 255, 256, Theodora, 129,130
257, 258, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate, 122,127
321,409 Hanslick, Eduard, 287, 314, 316,321
Acis and Galatea, 122, 127, 171,270 Harper, Heather,393
Agrippina,122 Harrison, Samuel,148
Alexander Balus, 129,130 Hasse, Johann Adolf,82
Alexanders Feast, 125, 127, 171, 243, 244, Haydn, Joseph, 56, 89, 165206, 211, 212, 218,
249,250 242, 245, 359, 364,367
Almira,121 Applausus, 166, 199200
Arianna in Creta,124 Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser,168
Athalia, 124, 125,126 Creation, The (Schpfung, Die), 165206, 236,
Belshazzar, 129,130 244, 274, 312, 322,355
Berenice,124 Harmoniemesse, 167, 241,364
Ind e x 435
Il ritorno di Tobia, 166, 168170 Kollmann, Augustus Frederic Christopher,226

Missa Cellenis in honorem BVM Krner, Christian Gottfried,217
(Ccilienmesse),166 Koussevitzky, Serge, 369,391
Missa in angustiis (Nelsonmesse),167 Kreutzer, Conradin,242
Missa in tempore belli (Paukenmesse),167 Kuhnau, Johann, 73,130
Missa Sancti Bernardi von Offida
(Heiligmesse),167 Lambe, William,143
Missa Sancti Nicolai,373 Lamy, Peronet,1
Schpfungsmesse,167 Lanfranco, Giovanni Maria,28
Seasons, The (Jahreszeiten, Die), 168, 174,355 Lasso, Orlando di,5,22
Seven Last Words of Christ, The (Die sieben letzten Legrenzi, Giovanni, 121,130
Worte), 166, 168,171 Leipzig Allgemeine musicalische Zeitung,189
Stabat Mater,166 Leonardo da Vinci,4
String Quartet op.33 no.2,184 Lhomme arm, 2, 5, 6, 8, 38, 44, 48, 53,365
Symphony no.45 (The Farewell), 166,184 Linley, Thomas,175
Symphony no.60 (The Distracted),184 Liszt, Franz, 91, 208, 287, 308, 314,315
Symphony no.94 (The Surprise), 166,184 Loewe, Carl,250
Symphony no.101 (The Clock),212 Louis XI (le Predent),1,2
Te Deum (Marie Theresa),168 LouisXII,3
Theresienmesse,167 Lower Rhine Music Festival, 208, 248, 251, 274,
Haydn, Michael, 56,359 312,349
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich,249 Lowe, Thomas,143
Heidegger, John James,124 Lowinsky, Edward, 35,62,71
Heiligenstadt Testament,211 Luther, Martin, 1, 5, 43, 292, 293, 294,388
Heine, Heinrich,241
Henrici, Christian Friedrich (Picander),76 Macfarren, George,288
Henschel, George,317 Maelzel, Johann Nepomuk, 231, 232,236
Hensel, Fanny, 251, 252,253 Mahler, Gustav, 208, 243,308
Hepworth, Barbara,387 Maini, Ormondo,327
Herbeck, Johann,285 Mainwaring, John, 122123,163
Heyden, Sebald, 61,62,70 Mancini, Giovanni Battista,148
Hill, John,143 Mandyczewski, Eusebius,189
Hiller, Johann Adam, 76, 129, 144,145 Mann, William,387
Hindemith, Paul, 57, 362, 363, 368,369 Manzoni, Alessandro, 325, 327,329
Hoffmann, E.T. A., 55,226 Mara, Gertrud Elizabeth,148
Hogwood, Christopher, 163, 192,206 Marpurg, Friedrich Wilhelm, 112, 195, 236,245
Holden, John,195 Martin, Frank, 57,361
Hlderlin, Friedrich,293 Marx, Adolf Bernhard, 251, 259, 314, 315,321
Holdsworth, Edward,126 Marxsen, Eduard,285
Horsley, William,269 Mason, John,143
Howells, Herbert, 57, 361,364 Massarelli, Angelo,45
Hummel, Johann Nepomuk,236 Masur, Kurt, 281,388
Hus, Jan,41 Mattheson, Johann, 108, 109, 111, 115, 119, 120,
121, 148,163
Il trionfo di Dori,40 Mazzucato, Alberto, 322,325
Ippolito II dEste,37 Mendelssohn, Felix, 89, 90, 91, 185, 208, 210,
247281,314
Janek, Leo,363 Christus,248
Jarman, Derek,389 Die erste Walpurgisnacht,248
Jennens, Charles, 125, 126,134 Die Hebriden (Fingals Cave Overture), 248,249
Joachim, Joseph, 283, 284, 286,309 Ein Sommernachtstraum op.21, 248,249
Elijah, 140, 248, 272, 280,308
Krtnertor Theater, 169, 214215, 216, Octet in E-flat Major op.20,249
241242,243 O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden, 248,250
Kirnberger, Johann Philipp, 88, 89, 112, 236,245 St. Paul, 90, 140, 193, 247281, 308, 312, 350,
Klingemann, Karl, 90, 254255, 257,271 355,409
Koch, Heinrich Christoph, 236, 245,277 Symphony no.2 (Lobgesang), 140, 248,
Kodly, Zoltn,363 308,355
436 Ind e x
Symphony no.3 (Scottish),249 Dies sanctificatus,38,40

Symphony no.4 (Italian), 248,249 Ecce sacerdos magnus,38
Symphony no.5 (Reformation), 249,276 Gi fu chi mebbe cara,38
Merulo, Claudio,3 Hodie Christus natus est,38
Metric Accentuation, 15, 149151, 188, Improperia,46
195197, 205, 236240, 245, 308, Io son ferito, 37,38,40
310311, 320,382 Miserere mei,39
Michelangelo, 45, 42, 43,46,59 Missa Alma redemptoris mater,38
Mielich, Hans,23 Missa Assumpta est Maria,39
Milton, John, 171, 175, 189,427 Missa Ave Maria,38
Mitchell, Donald,409 Missa Benedictaes,38
Morales, Cristbal de,3,38 Missa Dies sanctificatus,39
Moscheles, Ignaz,271 Missa Ecce sacerdos magnus,38
Mosel, Ignaz von,231 Missa Gabriel archangelus,38
Mouton, Jean,2 Missa Hodie Christus natus est,77
Mozart, Leopold, 149, 163, 195, 236,309 Missa Io mi son giovinetta,48
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 129, 162, 171, 194, Missa Iste confessor,38
197, 206, 210, 211, 212, 215, 243, 245, Missa Jesu, nostra redemptor,38
257, 269, 309, 325, 329, 354, 357, 358, Missa Lhomme arm,38,48
367,409 Missa O sacrum convivium,38
Mudarra, Alonso, 25,65,71 Missa Papae Marcelli, 19,3671
Musica Ficta, 14, 15, 3033, 34,6870 Missa Petra sancta,38
Musica Recta, 14, 15, 3033,6970 Missa pro defunctis,38
Missa Qual il pi grande amore,38
Ngeli, Hans Georg, 72,8889 Missa Quando lieta sperai,38
Nanino, Giovanni Maria,48 Missa Regina caeli,38
Nathan, Isaac, 309, 321,353 Missa sine nomine,87
Neri, Filippo,47,48 Missa Tu es Petrus,77
Neumark, Georg,295 Missa Ut re mi fa sol la,38,48
Nichelmann, Christoph,89 Missa Vestiva i colli,38,71
Nichols, Robert,389 Quando dal terzo cielo,40
Nini, Marianna Barbieri,324 Regina coeli,39
Nolan, Sidney,422 Sicut cervus,40
Notes ingales, 112,151 Stabat mater,6263
Super flumina Babylonis,40
Obrecht, Jacob,2,5 Tu es Petrus -Quodcumque ligaveris, 37,
Ockeghem, Jean de (Johannes), 12, 4,6,8 38,40,41
Ode to Joy, 190, 208, 209, 210, 220, 223225, Veni sponsa Christi, 19, 37, 38, 39,40,60
231, 234, 237,239 Vestiva i colli, 37,38,40
Ohga, Norio,209 Pamphili, Benedetto, 121,122
Oratory, 26, 34, 44, 6465, 6667, 70, 237,379 Parke, William Thomas, 167, 206, 242, 245,
Ormaneto, Niccol,46 309,321
Ornamentation, 114118, 155162, 191, 202205 Prt, Arvo,364
Ornithoparcus, Andreas,61 Peace Pledge Union,390
Ostinato, 5, 6, 7, 1117, 21,401 Pears, Peter, 387, 388, 390, 391, 392, 393,
Ott, Hans,7 419,420
Ottoboni, Pietro, 121,122 Penderecki, Krzysztof, 364,365
Owen, Wilfred, 387, 389, 393, 394400, 405, 407, Pepping, Ernst, 362363
409, 411, 412, 414, 415, 417, 418, 420, Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista, 88,366
421, 422,423 Persichetti, Vincent, 57,364
Ozawa, Seiji,209 Petrucci, Ottaviano, 4,9,42
Philharmonic Society of London, 213,241
Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da, 3, 5, 19, 3671, Philip III (Philippe le Bon),1
250, 359, 360, 363, 364,386 Phillips, Henry,253
Alma redemptoris mater,38,39 Piringer, Ferdinand,241
Assumpta est Maria,38,39 Piroli, Giuseppe, 326,347
Ave Maria,38,39 Plomer, William,387
Ave regina coelorum,39 Pontificio Collegio Romano (Seminario
Benedictus Dominus,39 Romano),37
Canite tuba -Rorate coeli,37,40 Popes,4149
Ind e x 437
AdrianVI,43 Ries, Ferdinand, 227, 241,314

Alexander VI, 2,4142 Rietz, Julius,89
Callixtus III,42 Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolay, 354, 355,367
Clement VII,43 Rore, Cipriano de,38,40
Clement VIII,49 Rossini, Gioachino, 216, 217, 323325, 328,329
Gregory XIII,39,48 Rostropovich, Mstislav, 388, 392,393
Gregory XIV,48 Rudolf, Archduke of Austria,213
Innocent VIII,2 Rudolf, Max, 313, 317,321
InnocentIX,49 Rungenhagen, Karl Friedrich,90
Julius II,36,42 Ruspoli, Francesco Maria, 121,122
Julius III, 36, 37, 38, 4445,58
Leo X, 4243,364 Saint-Gry, Cambrai,2
Marcellus II, 37, 45, 49,55,67 Saint-Quentin,2
Paul III, 41,4344 Salieri, Antonio, 172, 232, 354,359,
Paul IV, 37,4546 Salomon, Johann Peter, 166, 167, 170, 173,175
PiusII,42 Santa Maria, Toms de, 61,62,71
Pius III,42 Sassoon, Siegfried, 394395
Pius IV,46,48 Savonarola, Girolamo,4142
Pius V,47,48 Scalzi, Carlo,124
Pius X, 56,360 Scarlatti, Alessandro,121
SixtusIV,42 Scarlatti, Domenico,121
SixtusV,48 Scheibe, Johann Adolf, 114115
Urban VII,48 Schelble, Johann Nepomuk, 90, 251,256
Porges, Heinrich, 310,321 Schenker, Heinrich,208
Porpora, Nicola,124 Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich von, 217220
Porta, Giovanni,130 An die Freude (Ode to Joy), 190, 207, 209,
Poulenc, Francis, 57, 361, 362, 373, 379, 381382 213, 214, 217220, 225, 230, 240
Praetorius, Michael, 54, 57, 58, 60, 64,66,71 Schindler, Anton Felix, 212, 213, 214, 227, 233,
Prosdocimus de Beldemandis,62 236, 245,314
Protestant Reformation,41,43 Schleiermacher, Friedrich,249
Puccini, Giacomo, 322,391 Schneider, Friedrich, 250,251
Purday, Charles H.,170 Schopenhauer, Arthur, 296,321
Schubert, Franz, 217218, 285, 287, 288,364
Quantz, Johann Joachim, 108109, 112113, Schubring, Adolf,288
115, 119, 194, 206, 236, 245, 274, Schubring, Julius, 251, 259,427
309,313 Schumann, Clara, 283284, 285, 288, 300,
316317,321
Ramos de Pareja, Bartolom,24 Schumann, Robert, 91, 228229, 247, 251, 254,
Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino)42 282283, 284, 286, 287, 288, 291,355
Rattle, Simon,209 Schuppanzigh, Ignaz, 214215
Recitative, 121, 125, 126, 134137, 138139, 143, Schtz, Heinrich, 73, 282, 284,362
148, 153155, 156, 157, 159, 168, 169, Schwarzenberg Palace, 171, 172, 173, 174,192
176182, 183187, 188, 190, 191, 195, Seipelt, Joseph,215
197201, 205, 223, 224, 229, 230, 251, Senesino, 123,124
256, 260262, 263264, 265, 269271, Senfl, Ludwig,3
277279, 280,417 Sestola, Girolamode,3
Reichardt, Johann Friedrich,218 Seyfried, Ignaz von,235
Reinecke, Carl,287 Sforza, Ascanio,2,3
Reinhold, Henry Theodore,143 Shaffer, Peter,387
Reinthaler, Karl, 282, 285,288 Shawe-Taylor, Desmond,387
Rellstab, Friedrich,218 Shaw, George Bernard,289
Ren, Duke of Anjou,2 Shaw, Watkins, 134,163
Rhau, Georg,30,34 Shrock, Dennis, 115, 119, 151, 159, 163, 197,
Rheinberger, Josef,360 206,245
Rhesa, H.E.,254 Silbermann, Gottfried,149
Rhythmic Alteration, 113114, 151153 Silverstolpe, Frederick Samuel, 165, 172, 176,183
Richafort, Jean,4 Simrock, Peter Joseph,271
Rich, John, 124,125 Sistine Chapel (Cappella Sistina), 2, 2223, 36, 42,
Ricordi, Tito, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 342, 46, 57, 5859, 257,320
343, 345, 348, 349, 350,428 Smart, George,270
438 Ind e x
Smend, Friedrich,89,91 Umlauf, Michael,215

Smith Jr., John Christopher,133 Unger, Caroline,215
Smith Sr., John Christopher,133 Urio, Francesco Antonio,130
Sontag, Henriette,215
Spee von Langenfeld, Friedrich,293 Van der Weyden,1
Speratus, Paul,292 Van Eyck,Jan,1
Spohr, Louis, 250251 Vasari, Giorgio,45
Sporck, Anton von, 76, 82,106 Vaughan Williams, Ralph, 57, 361, 362, 364, 373,
Stolz, Teresa, 326, 327,350 389390
St. Peters Basilica, 23, 42,43,48 Verdelot, Philippe,38
Stravinsky, Igor, 354386,388 Verdi, Giuseppe, 217, 322353, 354, 365, 366,
Anthem (The dove descending breaks the air), 383, 408409, 411, 412413
366,367 Ave Maria,323
Babel,368 I deliri de Saul,322
Cantata, 370371,373 Inno delle nazioni,323
Canticum sacrum, 358, 368370,373 Laudi alla vergine Maria,323
Four Russian Peasant Songs, 356,366 Messa da Requiem, 312, 322353
Introitus,366 Messa Solenne (Messa di Gloria),322
Les noces, 356,366 Pater noster,323
Mass, 354386 Stabat Mater,323
Oedipus rex, 356, 357,368 Te Deum,323
Poetics of Music, 365, 366,386 Vernazza, Ettore,41
Requiem Canticles, 366,367 Vibrato, 109, 147, 149, 191, 308, 309310,320
Rite of Spring, The, 355356,365 Vicentino, Nicola, 26, 28, 35, 44, 64,66,71
Sermon, a Narrative, and a Prayer,A,367 Victoria, Toms Luisde,48
Symphony of Psalms, 357, 368370, 381,382 Vienna Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde,285
Threni, 358, 366367 Vienna Singakademie, 189, 282, 284, 294,304
Zvezdolikiy (Star-Face or Star-Faced One),356 Vishnevskaya, Galina, 388, 393394, 419420
Sulzer, Johann Georg,225 Vivaldi, Antonio,77
Swieten, Gottfried van, 89, 129, 170, 171172,
174176, 182183, 189190,198 Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, 76, 260, 261,
265266, 267268,276
Tadolini, Giovanni, 324325 Wagner, Richard, 55, 207208, 228230, 241,
Tansur, William, 150,164 243, 246, 287, 309, 310311, 321,
Tartini, Giuseppe, 286,309 365366
Tausch, Julius,253 Waldmann, Maria, 326328,350
Tchaikovsky, Pytor, 217, 218, 226, 354,367 Walther, Johann Gottfried,112
Telemann, Georg Philipp, 75, 130,277 Ward, Joseph,143
Tempo Fluctuation, 308, 313319, 320, 321, 346, Wass, Robert,143
347, 348,353 Weber, Carl Maria von, 215, 235, 314,315
Tepper de Ferguson, Ludwig-Wilhelm,218 Wegeler, Franz Gerhard,211
Terry, Richard Runciman,361 Weingartner, Felix, 215, 243,246
Text Underlay, 11, 14, 2630, 33, 34, 35, 104,133 Werner, Gregor, 165,166
Thayer, Alexander Wheelock, 227, 245,314 Whitman, Walt, 363,389
Thomas, Dylan,395 Wiener allgemeine musicalische Zeitung,216
Thomson, James,174 Wigand, Balthasar,192
Tinctoris, Johannes,31 Willaert, Adrian,3,40
Tippett, Michael, 389,390 Witt, Franz Xaver, 56,359
Tonknstler-Societt, 168, 169, 171,172 Wolff, Christoph, 89,119
Tonmalerei (tone painting),182 Wolf, Hugo,174
Toscanini, Arturo, 208,348 Wolle, John Frederick,91
Tosi, Pier Francesco, 147,164 Wycliffe, John,41
Tromlitz, Johann Georg, 194, 195, 204, 206, 236,
245,309 Zabern, Conrad von,25,66
Tulou, Jean-Louis, 309,321 Zarlino, Gioseffo, 26, 29, 31, 32, 34, 35, 65,68,71
Trk, Daniel Gottlob, 194, 204, 206, 234, 236, Zelter, Carl Friedrich, 89, 218,249
246, 309,313 Ziegler, Johann Gotthilf,111

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Choral Monuments

Published in the United States of America by Oxford UniversityPress

Oxford University Press2017

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData

1. Josquin DesprezMissa Pange Lingua 1

2. Giovanni Pierluigi da PalestrinaMissa Papae Marcelli 36

3. Johann Sebastian BachB Minor Mass 72

4. George Frideric HandelMessiah 120

Metric Accentuation 149

5. Joseph HaydnThe Creation 165

6. Ludwig van BeethovenSymphony no.9 207

7. Felix MendelssohnSt. Paul 247

F OR M A L A ND MU SIC A L S T RUCTUR E S 262

8. Johannes BrahmsEin deutsches Requiem 282

9. Giuseppe VerdiMessa da Requiem 322

Rhythm and Expressive Markings 342

10. Igor StravinskyMass 354

11. Benjamin BrittenWar Requiem 387

Stage Set-u p 418

Appendix: Score Data 425

I wish to express heartfelt thanks to those of my many students and colleagues

The eleven masterworks of this book were chosen to represent remarkable

Josquin Desprez Missa Pange Lingua

Biographical and Compositional Overview

Agricola (c.14461506), and Jacob Obrecht (c.14571505). Busnois, who sang in

And confirming this, another of the dukes emissaries, Girolamo da Sestola,wrote,

Several sixteenth-century composers, including Nicolas Gombert (c.1495

The Swiss music theorist Heinrich Glareanus (1488

rivaled Josquin as a composer, so Michelangelo still stands lonely at the sum-

The protestant reformer Martin Luther (14831546) praised Josquin, stating

Finally, Charles Burney (17261814) wrote in his General History ofMusic,

The laws and difficulties of Canon, Fugue, Augmentation, Diminution,

Today, Josquin is considered to be the most important composer in the devel-

in thirteen manuscripts during the Renaissance era and praised by Glareanus in

Brussels, Bibliotheque Royale, MS.IV-922

Salient Compositional Characteristics

Illibata dei virgo nutrix (Unimpaired virgin nurse ofGod),

Imitative procedure is also prevalent in Josquins late Masses. In the popular

Further examples of imitation in the Missa de beata virgine occur in short

A few of the imitative passages, as seen at the beginning of the Et vitam

To balance the motet, yet another ostinato, one characterized by descending

This ostinato, undoubtedly based on a Gregorian psalm tone chant, appears as

has a three-note solmization syllable la mi la which is a soggetto cavato of

In conclusion, Josquin begins to unify the textures of motets and Masses in

The Missa Pangelingua

The entire Mass is unified in that each movement is based on melodic

Performance Practice Considerations

Meter, Tactus, andTempo

Franchinus Gaffurius (14511522), Josquins contemporary and friend, basically

To sing with discrimination means to observe fittingly the necessary require-

Commentary such as the above continued in the sixteenth century. As examples

The rules, or recommendations for following common-sense placement of text

The German composer Hermann Finck (15271558) in his Practica musica of

Applying these principles of text underlay to a passage from Josquins Missa

In addition to the consideration of prosody in text underlay, one needs to be

The treatment of ligatures is explained by the German music publisher Georg

A ligature is a connection of one note to another. It is formed from either

Musica Ficta and MusicaRecta

Recognition of the final note is important in determining whether or not to raise

Regarding tritones, Pietro Aaron (c.1480c.1545), who claimed to have been a

As with text underlay, there is no single correct application of musica