Medium: An intervening substance, through which a force acts or an effect is produced

Displacement: The distance of an oscillating body from its central position or point of equilibrium at any given
moment

Amplitude: The absolute value of the maximum displacement from a zero value during one period of an
oscillation, the higher the amplitude the louder the sound the intensity of a sound is proportional amplitude 2

Period: The time required for two successive wave crests to pass a fixed point, or the time for a single wave
crest to travel a distance equal to the length of the wave

Crest: A point on a transverse wave which the displacement is at a maximum

Trough: A point on a transverse wave which the displacement is at a maximum

Transverse Wave: a wave in which the direction of displacement is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation (surface wave of water)

Longitudinal Wave: a wave in which the direction of displacement is the same as the direction of
propagation (sound wave)

Frequency: the number of cycles or completed alternations per unit time of a wave or oscillation

Wavelength: the distance, measured in the direction of propagation of a wave, between two
successive points in the wave that are characterized by the same phase of oscillation

Pitch: Perceived fundamental function of frequency, higher frequency = higher pitch

Ray Diagrams

Convex: A ray parallel to principal axis reflects so as to

appear from the focus, a ray that would pass through the
focus reflects parallel to the principal axis, a ray that would
pass through the centre, reflects as to appear to come
=
from the centre Concave: A ray parallel to the principal
= axis reflects through the focus, a ray through the focus
reflects parallel to the principal axis, a ray through the
Law of Reflection: = centre reflects back through the centre
Snells Law:

= = =

Inverse Square Law:

Ground Waves Long wavelength, follow curvature of Earth used

for time signals
Sky Waves Medium wavelength, reflected by ionosphere
Space Waves Short wavelength, can pass through ionosphere
Waveband Range of Range of Method of Uses Limitations
Yellow= used in Wavelengths Frequencies Detection
communication (nm) (Hz)
Radio Waves Greater than Less than Antenna induces Radio, television, Some reflected
108 3109 an electrical communication by ionosphere
signal causing
electrons in the
wire to oscillate
when receiving
radio waves
Microwaves 105 -108 3109 - Shorter antennae Microwave Line of sight
31012 similar to Radio Ovens, Radar required,
waves but interference
oscillate faster from
due to shorter atmospheric
wavelength disturbances
Infrared 700- 105 31012 Heat-sensing Night vision, heat Absorbed by
4.31019 cells, Charged sensors, laser moisture,
coupled device, metal cutting, interference by
photographic film Fibre optics sunlight
Visible Light 400-700 4.3 1014 Eyes in animals, Fibre optics, CD Line of sight
7.51014 Charged coupled and DVD players required
device,
photographic film
Ultraviolet 10- 400 7.51014 - Charged coupled Tanning, Medical Some ionising
31017 device, (dental), kill
photographic film microbes
X-rays 1-10 31017 - Photographic Imaging, Ionising
31019 film, PSP plate, fluoroscopy, CAT Radiation
Scintillator, scans
Geiger- Muller
tube
Gamma Ray Less than 1 Less than Geiger- Muller Sterilisation, Ionising
31010 tube, Cancer Radiation
photographic treatment,
film, scintillation
screen or plate

Position of Object Location of Image Orientation of Size of Image Type of image

Yellow= Convex, Image
Plain = Concanve
Beyond C Between C and F Inverted Magnification less Real
than 1
At C (or 2F) At C Inverted Magnification =1 Real
Between C and F Beyond C Inverted Magnification Real
greater than 1
At F No image formed No Image formed No Image Formed No image formed
Between F and Behind the Mirror Upright Magnification Virtual
the Mirror greater than 1

Far from the Between the Upright Diminished Virtual

mirror focus and vertex
 Close to Mirror Between the Upright Diminished Virtual
focus and vertex

Transmitting information by radio waves

To transmit information over radio or microwaves, information is modulated onto a carrier

frequency and demodulated at the receiver. The station combines the electrical signal of the music
or voice with a carrier wave in a process called modulation. This modulated wave is amplified and
transmitted by antenna and is detected by a receiving antenna and the information is extracted
through demodulation, producing the original voice signal.

AM vs FM

AM has greater static, has less quality than FM due to interference as noise combines with the AM
signal by superposition to produce a more complex and unclear waveform. The effects of noise are
much reduced in FM radio signals because there is less reliance on amplitude. Since it is much harder
to change the frequency by interference, sound received via FM is closer in quality to that
broadcasted. The number of potential AM channels is larger because FM is limited to the range of
frequencies available. It is also much less difficult to do amplitude modulation than frequency
modulation.

Why modulate?

Audio frequencies are within the range of 20Hz to 20kHz, without modulation all signals at the same
frequency from different transmitters would be mixed up. Therefore, impossible to tune to any of
them. Therefore, we modulate to separate these frequencies. Modulation also reduces the size of
antennae, allowing for greater practicability.

Optical fibres

Thin cylinders made of ultrahigh purity glass that consists of a high index core and surrounded by a
low index outer region cladding and a coating. It works as light enters the core from the end of the
fibre and reaches the boundary between the core and the cladding. If the angle of incidence at the
boundary is larger than the critical angle (angle of reflection = 90), the light will reflect by total
internal reflection. The light continues to travel in the core of the fibre through successive internal
reflections. Light outside the acceptance cone (angles exceeding critical angle) will not undergo total
internal reflection and will be lost to the cladding. Bending an optical fibre may cause the light to be
lost as the critical angle can become greater than the angle of incidence. Large bandwidth, connect
us to the world under the ocean

Radio waves can travel long distances due to reflection by the ionosphere.

Microwaves pass more easily through the atmosphere than longer wavelengths and have a larger
bandwidth.

Reflective dishes are often used to transmit and receive signals over long distances.

Light is transmitted over long distances using optical cables.

Limited range of EMS

Due to the high usage of radio waves and microwaves and the specific restrictions on wavelength
and frequency on communication devices (television set- limited wavelengths), the limited range of
frequencies would be exceeded by the number of users or the frequencies so close that signals
would become mixed up, as signals meant for one phone would be received by another. The
bandwidth for mobile frequencies far exceeds that required for one call thus sophisticated electrical
encoding of the signals known as multiplexing allows many telephones to use the same frequency at
once. Each telephone decodes only the packets of information directly addressed to it.

Observing light rays

To observe light rays through various surfaces, use a power pack and ray box combined with multi-
slit screen. Allowing parallel rays of light that can be traced. Trace out light rays formed when ray
box is pointed towards plane, convex, concave surfaces.

Surface Application
Convex Blind spot mirrors, automobile
mirrors
Concave Torches, head lights, dentistry,
satellite dishes
Ionosphere Sending signals thousands of
kilometres, information
Plane Mirrors
Ionosphere

Absorbs x-rays and gamma rays, while partially absorbing UV rays by the atoms of the gases in the
atmosphere. Containing water vapour, carbon dioxide and small amounts of methane they also
absorb significant amounts of infrared radiation. The degree to which waves are reflected by the
ionosphere depends on the time of day, the time of year and the 11-year sunspot cycle.

Electromagnetic waves

The oscillations of magnetic and electrical fields induce the other fields perpendicular to themselves,
therefore they are able to self-propagate. Travelling at 3108 in the vacuum of space. Definition: a
wave produced by the acceleration of an electric charge and propagated by the periodic variation of
intensities of usually perpendicular electric and magnetic fields.

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