TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGENEERING
PASCHIMANCHAL CAMPUS (WRC)

GIS MAPPING OF PAVEMENT CONDITION

A CASE STUDY OF PRITHIVI HIGHWAY
(POKHARA TO KOTRE)

A PROJECT REPORT
SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING IN PARTIAL
FUILFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER IN
INFRASTRUCTURE ENGINEERING AND MANAGEMENT
2073

SUBMITTED BY: SUBMITTED TO:

Roman Pandit Department Of Civil Engineering
Roll No: MSIM/13 Paschimanchal Campus (WRC)
 ABSTRACT
Reliable and effective data are required in each stage of planning highway,
maintenance & various evaluations such as to identify problems, risk factors, priority
treatments, formulate strategy, set targets and monitor performance. Current available
raw data are not sufficient for the effective evaluation. These data when properly
coded and visualized, processed and analyzed in a systematic way could give a better
understanding. This project has carried out pavement condition survey and creating a
data base, evaluating pavement, predicting pavement performance, prioritizing the
needs and develop the works program to prepare highway pavement condition
mapping by use of GIS(Geographic Information System). This output result can be
used to satisfy the requirements of a highway network evaluation and thereby
enhancing the efficient performance of the pavement of road by effective
maintenance.

Key words: Pavement condition Rating, GIS mapping, Road maintenance priority
Mapping

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere thanks and deep sense of gratitude to Kishwor
Kumar Shrestha, coordinator, M.Sc. in Infrastructure and Management Engineering,
for his highly valuable and continuous support throughout my project work. Also, I
would also like to express my sincere thanks to Er. Hemanta Tiwari, for his highly
valuable and continuous support guidance, motivation and encouragement and also to
Anil Marsani, coordinator, M.Sc. in Transportation Engineering, for his valuable
suggestion and critical comment at various stages of my works.

I am indebted to all the faculty member and staff of Department of Civil Engineering,
Paschimanchal Campus for their moral support. It would be incomplete if I forget to
appreciate the contribution of my classmates and friends. The works of Shaligram
Regmi and Ganesh Poudel during the data extraction process is highly appreciated.
Also my special thanks go to Tarapati Bhattrai for providing me instrument to
conduct field survey and also his support since the beginning of the project work till
the end.

Roman Pandit
MSIM /13/2072
4th May, 2017

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... I

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................ II

TABLE OF CONTENT ............................................................................................... III

LIST OF FIGURES: ..................................................................................................... V

LISTS OF ABBREVIATION ......................................................................................VI

1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1

1.1 General ............................................................................................................1

1.2 Problem Statement ..........................................................................................2
1.3 Objective of Study...........................................................................................3
1.4 Organization of the report ...............................................................................3
2 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................... 4

2.1 Pavement Condition Rating ............................................................................4

2.1.1 Alligator Cracking (Fatigue) ................................................................ 4

2.1.2 Bleeding................................................................................................ 4
2.1.3 Edge Cracking ...................................................................................... 5
2.1.4 Depression ............................................................................................ 5
2.1.5 Longitudinal and Transverse Cracking ................................................ 6
2.1.6 Patching and Potholes .......................................................................... 6
2.1.7 Rutting .................................................................................................. 7
2.1.8 Surface Distress Index (SDI) ................................................................ 7
2.1.9 International Roughness Index (IRI) .................................................... 7
2.2 Basic Aspect of GIS ........................................................................................7

2.2.1 General ................................................................................................. 7

2.2.2 Definition.............................................................................................. 8
2.2.3 Conceptualization of GIS ..................................................................... 8
2.2.4 Maps and Map Data Handling.............................................................. 9
2.2.5 Components of GIS ............................................................................ 11
2.2.6 Functions of GIS ................................................................................ 14
2.3 Basic Aspect of GPS .....................................................................................17
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3 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................. 18

3.1 General ..........................................................................................................18

3.2 Site Selection .................................................................................................18

3.3 Study Area .....................................................................................................19

3.4 Methodology for Data Collection .................................................................21

3.5 Methodology for Data Extraction .................................................................21

3.6 Methodology flow diagram .............................................................................1

4 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULT ......................................................................... 2

4.1 Pavement condition rating ...............................................................................2

4.1.1 Alligator Cracking Mapping ................................................................ 3

4.1.2 Transverse Cracking Mapping ............................................................. 4
4.1.3 Longitudinal Cracking Mapping .......................................................... 5
4.1.4 Edge Cracking Mapping ....................................................................... 6
4.1.5 Bleeding Mapping ................................................................................ 7
4.1.6 Patching Mapping................................................................................. 8
4.1.7 Pothole Mapping .................................................................................. 9
4.1.8 Rutting Mapping................................................................................... 9
4.1.9 Depression Mapping........................................................................... 11
4.1.10 Drainage Mapping .............................................................................. 11
4.1.11 Pavement Condition Rating Mapping ................................................ 13
4.2 IRI, SDI and PCR comparison ......................................................................14

5 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 16

5.1 Summary .......................................................................................................16

5.2 Conclusion.....................................................................................................16

5.3 Limitation ......................................................................................................17

5.4 Future Scope ..................................................................................................17

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 18

APPENDIX 1: Field Work Book

APPENDIX II: Photographs
IV
 LIST OF FIGURES:
Figure 2-1 : Mapping Layers of GIS.............................................................................. 9
Figure 2-2: Map Projections ........................................................................................ 11
Figure 2-3:Components of GIS .................................................................................... 12
Figure 2-4 :Manipulation Tools Of GIS ...................................................................... 16
Figure 3-1: Inspection Segment Consideration............................................................ 19
Figure 3-2: Study Area................................................................................................. 20
Figure 3-3: Methodology Flow Diagram ....................................................................... 1
Figure 4-1: Aligator Crack Mapping ............................................................................. 3
Figure 4-2: Transverse Crack Mapping ......................................................................... 4
Figure 4-3: Logitudinal Crack Mapping ........................................................................ 5
Figure 4-4: Edge Crack Mapping .................................................................................. 6
Figure 4-5: Bleeding Mapping ....................................................................................... 7
Figure 4-6: Patching Mapping ....................................................................................... 8
Figure 4-7: Potholes Mapping ....................................................................................... 9
Figure 4-8: Rutting Mapping ....................................................................................... 10
Figure 4-9: Depression Mapping ................................................................................. 11
Figure 4-10: Drainage Mapping................................................................................... 12
Figure 4-11: Pavement Condition Mapping ................................................................ 13
Figure 4-12: IRI (International Roughness Index)....................................................... 14
Figure 4-13: SDI (Surface Distress Index) .................................................................. 15
Figure 4-14: Pavement Condition Rating .................................................................... 15

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 LISTS OF ABBREVIATION
AADT = Annual Average Daily Traffic
AC = Asphalt Cement
AI = Alligator Cracking Index
ARS = Average Rectified Slope
BI = Bleeding Index
DEI = Depression Index
DRI = Drainage Index
EI = Edge Cracking Index
GIS = Geographic Information System
GPS = Global Positioning System
IRI = International Roughness Index
LI = Longitudinal Cracking Index
PAI = Patching Index
PCR = Pavement Condition Rating
PCU = Passenger Car Units
PHI = Pothole Index
RI = Rutting Index
SDI = Surface Distress Index
TI = Transverse Cracking Index
UTM = Universal Transverse Mercado
VOC = Vehicle Operating Cost

VI
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Highways are the major channel of transportation for carrying goods, passengers and
services. It is the most important infrastructure for social and economic development
of a country. Huge amount of capital investment along the long period of construction
is required for the construction of the road. During the past decades of human
civilization, it has resulted in increased need of movement of people and materials.
Transportation is indeed the backbone of the development of a society and hence a
country with reference to its economy, technology, security and overall growth. The
size of developing countries road network has dramatically increased in last two
decades, due to increase in traffic demands.

Pavements deteriorate with time and the rate of deterioration depends upon a number
of factors like traffic loading, soil sub grade, climate, drainage, environmental factors
and properties of pavement materials. Maintenance work is neither exciting nor as
visible as new construction and therefore lacks political prestige and priority.
Ultimately, cost of delayed treatment (rehabilitation) rises many times than the cost
timely and effective maintenance. The enormity of the cost and the lack of finances
mandate the development of systematic approaches and programs for careful and
appropriate funds allocation.

The Road User Cost Study (Reddy, 2001) has established that due to improper
maintenance and poor surface condition of road pavements, there is a considerable
economic loss to the country due to increased vehicle operation costs. Vehicle
operating cost increases as surface conditions deteriorate. If timely pavement
maintenance is neglected, the surface starts cracking and soon these cracks develop
into potholes. At this stage of deterioration the vehicle operating cost increases by
15%. If pavement is further neglected, it starts deteriorating structurally and then
vehicle-operating cost (VOC) increases by 50%. This is approximately twice the cost
of construction of the road as it is observed over the life of the road. Pavement will
normally deteriorate by 40% during first 75% of its life and during next 12% of its
life it will deteriorate further by 40%. The either serious problem or deterioration on
these roads will fast affect the transportation system with consequent adverse effects

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on the socio-economic activities of a nation. Thus responsibility for proper evaluation
and management of the road system is required which is one of the challenging
problems. This could be only attained with proper timing of the preventive
maintenance, light rehabilitation, and reasonably consistent traffic patterns, roadways
can be kept in good condition for many years at less cost. Timely preventive
maintenance can be achieved by the periodical and effective monitoring and
evaluation of the reliable and effective data.

The conventional methods of evaluating of Road Pavement were not suitable for
comprehensive computerization of highway information. Road information is
geospatial and has recently being managed in Geographic Information System (GIS)
environment. GIS offers some special features that can enhance the approach to
highway management. The key element that distinguishes GIS from other data
systems is the manner in which geographic data are stored and accessed. The addition
of this spatial dimension to the database system is, of course, the source of power of
GIS. Linked with the spatial dimension, database features enable GIS to capture
spatial and topological relationships among geo-referenced entities even when these
relationships are not predened. Standard GIS functions include thematic mapping,
statistics, charting, matrix manipulation, decision support systems, modeling
algorithms, and simultaneous access to several databases. Visualization helps user to
interpret, question, track and visualize data in ways that will establish trends, patterns
and relationships, in the form of maps, reports and charts. GIS helps answer questions
and solve problems by looking at data in a way that is quickly understood and easily
shared to allow for better decision making. Thus, making decision effective.

1.2 Problem Statement

The condition of Prithivi highway is not so good, as the International Roughness
Index (IRI) and Surface Distress Index (SDI) is not improving rather degrading,
though department of road has been doing maintenance of highway continuously.
And still there exists maintenance problem which shows that the basis of data
acquired is not sufficient in order to address the problem. The acquired data needs
effective analysis with sufficient information. Department of road is doing its
pavement condition assessment on basis of Surface Distress Index(SDI) and
International Roughness Index(IRI) which could get best interpreted by using GIS
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mapping with additional pavement information such as drainage conditions,
pavement condition along roadside conditions, etc.

1.3 Objective of Study

The objective of this project is to do GIS mapping of pavement condition of Prithivi
Highway (Pokhara to Kotre) offering for comprehensive information of the highway
pavement condition. GIS map will be prepared on various information i.e. Primary
data and secondary data. Where primary data includes various field inspection
procedures for pavement condition and for secondary data includes the data from
various institutional e.g. Department of Road.
The major objectives of this project "GIS MAPPING OF PAVEMENT CONDITION
OF PRITHIVI HIGHWAY (PIRTHIVI CHOWK TO KOTRE)" is pavement
condition assessment considering field inspection and geospatially reference the
observed data in order to map the pavement condition by using GIS application.
This project will be able to find out following objectives:-
Create GIS map indicating the Pavement condition on the highway.
Rate pavement condition on the highway.
Identify the segments that have severed pavement condition.
Relate the pavement conditions with different surface conditions (Alligator
Crack Index, Longitudinal Crack Index, Transverse Crack Index, Patching
Index, and Rutting Index) and Roughness Condition Index in order to get
Pavement Condition Rating.

1.4 Organization of the report

The report is organized in five chapters. The present chapter i.e. chapter one deals
with the general introduction, statement of problem and objectives associated with
this particular Project. Chapter two briefly describes the literature review of various
terms associated with the project methods and tools used. Chapter three deals with the
data collection, extraction and analysis methodology, whereas chapter four deals with
the analysis of collected data by using GIS application and presentation of GIS
mapping of the pavement condition of the road segment considered in this project.
Fifth chapter draws the summary with conclusion, recommendation, limitation and
future works.

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2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Pavement Condition Rating
One of the key components of an effective pavement management system is an
accurate assessment of the condition of the existing pavement network. This
assessment is accomplished by visual pavement condition survey. Pavement
condition Rating (PCR) is an indicator that rates the surface condition of the
pavement (FHWA, 1998). It is built based on visual inspection of road section. PCR
is used to quantify the road condition. The inspection period for road might vary from
segment to another depending on the type of road (i.e., main or branch. etc.) and the
volume of traffic represented by Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT). PCR
provides a method for regular rating of road deterioration. PCR can be used to assess
the road condition.
2.1.1 Alligator Cracking (Fatigue)
Alligator or fatigue cracking is a series of interconnecting cracks caused by fatigue
failure of the asphalt concrete surface under repeated traffic loading. Cracking begins
at the bottom of the asphalt surface, or stabilized base, where tensile stress and strain
are highest under a wheel load. The cracks propagate to the surface initially as a
series of parallel longitudinal cracks. After repeated traffic loading, the cracks
connect, forming many sided, sharp-angled pieces that develop a pattern resembling
chicken wire or the skin of an alligator. The pieces are generally less than 0.5 m on
the longest side. Alligator cracking occurs only in areas subjected to repeated traffic
loading, such as wheel paths (FHWA, 1998). And It can be rated with different
severity level (Low, Medium & High).
Low Fine, longitudinal hairline cracks running parallel to each other
with no, or only a few interconnecting cracks. The cracks are not
spalled.
Medium Further development of light alligator cracks into a pattern or
network of cracks that may be lightly spalled.
High Network or pattern cracking has progressed so that the pieces are
well defined and spalled at the edges. Some of the pieces may
rock under traffic.
2.1.2 Bleeding
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Bleeding is a film of bituminous material on the pavement surface that creates a
shiny, glasslike, reflecting surface that usually becomes quite sticky. Bleeding is
caused by excessive amounts of asphaltic cement or tars in the mix, excess
application of a bituminous sealant, or low air void content, or a combination thereof.
It occurs when asphalt fills the voids of the mix during hot weather and then expands
onto the pavement surface. Since the bleeding process in not reversible during cold
weather, asphalt or tar will accumulate on the surface (FHWA, 1998).
Low Bleeding only has occurred to a very slight degree and is noticeable
only during a few days of the year. Asphalt does not stick to shoes
or vehicles
Medium Bleeding has occurred to the extent that asphalt sticks to shoes
and vehicles during only a few weeks of the year
High Bleeding has occurred extensively and considerable asphalt sticks
to shoes and vehicles during at least several weeks of the year

2.1.3 Edge Cracking

Edge cracks are parallel to and usually within 0.3 to 0.5 m of the outer edge of the
pavement. This distress is accelerated by traffic loading and can be caused by frost-
weakened base or sub grade near the edge of the pavement. The area between the
crack and pavement edge is classified as raveled if it is broken up (sometimes to the
extent that pieces are removed), (FHWA, 1998).
Low Low or medium cracking with no breakup or raveling
Medium Medium cracks with some breakup and raveling
High Considerable breakup or raveling along the edge

2.1.4 Depression
Depressions are localized pavement surface areas with elevations slightly lower than
those of the surrounding pavement. In many instances, light depressions are not
noticeable until after a rain, when bonding water creates a birdbath area; on dry
pavement, depressions can be spotted by looking for stains caused by bonding water.
Depressions are created by settlement of the foundation soil or are a result of
improper construction. Depressions cause some roughness, and when deep enough or
filled with water, can cause hydroplaning (FHWA, 1998).

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Low 13 to 25 mm Medium 25 to 50 mm High More than 50 mm
2.1.5 Longitudinal and Transverse Cracking
Longitudinal cracks are parallel to the pavements centerline or lay down direction
(FHWA, 1998). They may be caused by:
- A poorly constructed paving lane joint.
- Shrinkage of the asphalt cement (AC) surface due to low temperatures or
hardening of the asphalt, or daily temperature cycling, or both.
- A reflective crack caused by cracking beneath the surface course.
- Transverse cracks extend across the pavement at approximately right angles to
the pavement centerline or direction of laydown. These types of cracks are not
usually load-associated.
Low Crack width is less than 10 mm, or filled crack of any width (filler in
satisfactory condition).
Medium non-filled crack width is greater than or equal to 10 mm and less
than 75 mm; non-filled crack is less than or equal to 75 mm
surrounded by light and random cracking; or, filled crack is of any
width surrounded by light random cracking.
High any crack filled or non-filled surrounded by medium- or high-
severity random cracking; non-filled crack greater than 75 m or a
crack of any width where approximately 100 mm of pavement
around the crack is severely broken.

2.1.6 Patching and Potholes

A patch is an area of pavement that has been replaced with new material to repair the
existing pavement. A patch is considered a defect no matter how well it is performing
(a patched area or adjacent area usually does not perform as well as an original
pavement section). Potholes are bowl-shaped holes of various sizes occurring in the
pavement surface. Generally, some roughness is associated with this distress (FHWA,
1998).
Low Patch is in good condition and satisfactory. Ride quality is rated as
low severity or better
Medium Patch is moderately deteriorated, or ride quality is rated as
medium severity, or both
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 High Patch is badly deteriorated, or ride quality is rated as high severity, or
both; needs replacement soon
2.1.7 Rutting
A rut is a surface depression in the wheel paths. Pavement uplift may occur along the
sides of the rut, but, in many instances, ruts are noticeable only after a rainfall when
the paths are filled with water. Rutting stems from a permanent deformation in any of
the pavement layers or subgrades, usually caused by consolidated or lateral
movement of the materials due to traffic load (FHWA, 1998).
Low 6 to 13 mm
Medium 13 to 25 mm
High 25 mm

2.1.8 Surface Distress Index (SDI)

Surface distress is an important visual indicator of pavement deterioration. Surface
distress includes all type of defects affecting the integrity of the surface which, if they
are left untreated, will seriously reduce the serviceability of the road and the life of
the pavement.

2.1.9 International Roughness Index (IRI)

It is the roughness index most commonly obtained from measured longitudinal road
profiles. It is calculated using a quarter-car vehicle math model, whose response is
accumulated to yield a roughness index with units of slope (in/mi, m/km, etc.). Since
its introduction in 1986, IRI has become the road roughness index most commonly
used worldwide for evaluating and managing road systems.

2.2 Basic Aspect of GIS

2.2.1 General
Recent developments in information technology are having a major effect on the way
in which systems are designed and used in many application fields. Geographical
information systems (GIS) have been adopted as a successful solution by a wide
range of disciplines such as environmental planning, business demographics, property
management and urban studies. The spatial organization, manipulation, and analysis
of geographic data are extended the analytical reach of organizations around the

7
world. The use of geographic information tools has received overwhelming
acceptance by both government and private sector. This technology is enabling
organizations to consider more effective ways of doing business, and in doing so,
reducing costs and increasing productivity.

2.2.2 Definition
Because of the varying nature of GIS and the rapid growth of associated disciplines,
many definitions of this technology exist. Some have attempted to use the name itself
to better understand the functions and components of GIS. GIS can be defined in this
way:
Geographic: The system is concerned with data relating to geography and
geographic scales of measurement. This is referenced by some coordinate system
to locations on the surface of the earth.
Information: The system allows for the storage and extraction of specific and
meaningful attributes information. These data are connected to some geography
and are organized around a model of the real world. Spatial and non-spatial
queries are made possible.
System: An automated system should include an integrated set of procedures for
the input, storage, manipulation, and output of geographic information.

2.2.3 Conceptualization of GIS

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 Figure 2-1 : Mapping Layers of GIS

Generally the geographic data in GIS is organized in such a way that they can be
envisioned as digital layers or coverages of information. Each cover is registered to
the same common map base; each has a distinct type of feature, points, lines, or
polygons. The GIS stores the spatial data and attribute data. A coverage represents a
single theme such as soils (polygon), streams (line), roads (line), land-use (polygon),
and wells (point) as shown above (Burrough, 1986).

2.2.4 Maps and Map Data Handling

Before examining the individual components and functions of GIS, it will be helpful
to consider the nature of maps and mapped data. A GIS works with observations or
measurements that can be tied to a specific geographic location on the ground.
Another common term for mapped data is spatial data. Spatial data vary with
location, so the nature of the data that we collect, measure, and interpret will change
as we consider various locations on the earth's surface. Observations of the earth's
surface are recorded on maps to portray the spatial data in a format that is easy for
humans to comprehend. Maps, as devices used to communicate the nature of spatial
data, are the focus of the next section.

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All maps are simplifications of the real world. The true earth is infinitely complex
and it is not possible to depict on a map all of the real earth features that we might be
interested in. As a simplified image of the earth, maps can be called models of
reality. Though they are simplifications, these models are quite sophisticated, and the
science of map making, called cartography, is a formal geographic science.

A true map must accurately show not only what the nature of the mapped variable is
(in correct proportion), but also must correctly place all mapped data in their true
geographic locations. The geographic location of spatial data can be classified into
two types: absolute and relative. Absolute location refers to a unique and
standardized place or position, while relative location defines position based on the
location of other variables or phenomena. Absolute geographic position is specified
using a universal coordinate system such as Latitude/Longitude or Universal
Transverse Mercado (UTM) coordinates. These universal coordinate systems allow
both the map maker and the map user to specify a unique and definite position for
every location on both the earth and maps of the earth. This unique location, which is
"tagged" to all spatial data, is critical to being able to store and analyze data in a GIS.
It is this geographic tag or characteristic that distinguishes GIS as a technology that
focuses on mapped data.

Generally there are three classes or families of map projections. Each geometric
shape is used to transform the globe (a curved surface) to a plane (the map surface).
These three families are called "developable" surfaces because planes, cones, and
cylinders can be "flattened" without distortion. Azimuthal or planar projections use a
flat two-dimensional surface to develop the map, conical projections are transformed
onto a cone wrapped around the globe which is then flattened, and the cylindrical
families of maps are projected onto a cylinder wrapped around the globe. Different
projections are selected to minimize specific types of distortions in distance,

10
 direction, area found on all flat maps. shape and area found on all flat maps.

Figure 2-2: Map Projections

GIS developers and users must also concern themselves with map scale. Scale is the
mathematical relationship of real earth distance (ground distance) to that same
distance as it is shown on a map. This relationship is often stated as a ratio of the two
distances. As mentioned above, all maps are models or simplifications of reality.
Maps also are reductions of reality. That is, the ratio of ground to map distance is
normally much less than one. Maps to be stored in a GIS must be similar in scale if
they are to be manipulated together. Maps with widely varying scales cannot be
accurately combined. Thus, the user of either traditional paper maps or computerized
GIS maps is fundamentally restricted by the degree of scale difference between map
manuscripts. Maps with large differences in scale (e.g., 1:250,000 vs. 1:9,600) cannot
be registered and overlaid without serious distortion and probable error.

2.2.5 Components of GIS

There are five integrated components of a GIS: as shown in figure.2.3 below:

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 Figure 2-3:Components of GIS

Data: The data in a GIS are by definition geographic. All data in a GIS are
either spatial data or attribute data. The spatial data tells us where something
occurs. Attribute data tells what occurs; it tells us the nature or characteristics
of the spatial data. Every GIS provides the ability to store and manipulate
both the spatial data and the associated attribute data. Spatial data being
specifically location information pertaining to where objects of interest are
located, their distribution and extent, adjacency, proximity and connectivity,
verses, attribute data, or observations about features.
Hardware: A fully functional GIS must contain hardware to support data
input, output, storage, retrieval, display, and analysis. Hardware essentials
focus on the platform and the peripheral devices. Rapid improvements in
computer technology have allowed the advent of true desktop GIS
functionality.
Software: Many GIS software packages are in the market, each offering
different levels of functionality. Turnkey systems (ready for use directly out
of the box) and customized installations are all possible. Because GIS
software packages are so numerous the trends is to perform a need assessment
or requirements analysis prior to committing to purchase from one vendor.
Users: GIS users are often envisioned as hands-on computer processing
people. While his is in part true, we choose to define a broader spectrum of

12
 GIS users. One classification scheme classifies users into two groups: system
users and end users.
a) System users are those persons who have actual hands-on use of the GIS
hardware and software. These persons have advanced technical skills in
the application of GIS to problem solving. System users tend to be
responsible not only for the day-to-day use of the system, but also for
system maintenance and upkeep.
b) End users are those persons who do not have actual hands-on use of the
system but who do make use of the information products generated via the
GIS. End users do not necessarily have to possess hands-on technical
skills. However, they must be able to communicate effectively and interact
with system users in order to make requests for information products, and
must also understand the limitations and requirements of GIS-based
processing.
Analysis module: This module provides the tools for the spatial analysis.
There may be different kind of analysis tools depending upon the nature of
the software, like transportation planner require some tools which can
measure the performance of the networks.

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2.2.6 Functions of GIS
Another productive way to study GIS is through our original definition: a GIS is a
computerized, integrated system used to compile, store, manipulate, and output
mapped data. This section examines each of these functions.

2.2.6.1 Compilation
Data compilation involves assembling all of the spatial and attributes data that are to
be stored in a computerized format within the GIS. Map data with common
projections, scales, and coordinate systems must be pulled together in order to
establish the centralized GIS database. Data must also be examined for compatibility
in terms of content and time of data collection. Ultimately, the data will be stored in a
GIS according to the specific format requirements set by both the user and the chosen
GIS software/hardware environment.

When all of the common data requirements are set by the GIS user, a "base map" has
been established. A base map is a set of standard requirements for data. It provides
accurate standards for geographic control, and also defines a model or template that is
used to shape all data into a compatible form. A base map is not necessarily a map per
se; rather, it is a comprehensive set of standards established and enacted to ensure
quality control for the spatial and attribute data contained in the GIS.

Once the data are assembled and base map parameters are set, the user must translate
the map and attribute data into computer-compatible form. This conversion process
referred to as "conversion" or "digitizing," converts paper maps into numerical digits
that can be stored in the computer. Digitizing can be performed using various
techniques. Scanning is one technique. Another technique is line digitizing which
uses a tablet and a tracing stylus (Figure 2.4). Digitizing simplifies map data into sets
of points, lines, or cells that can be stored in the GIS computer. Each GIS software
package will impose a specific form and design on the way that these sets of points,
lines, and cells are stored as digital map files. Digitization is a simplification process
that converts all spatial data to a point (e.g., a well), a line (e.g., a stream), a polygon
formed by a closed, complex line (e.g., a lake), or a grid cell. Digitization reduces all
spatial entities to these simple forms because they are easy to store in the computer. A
GIS database cannot readily recognize features or entities as human map users do.

14
Rather, we enter the spatial data coordinates for the lake's shoreline as a polygon.
Later, the attributes of the lake will be entered into the GIS database and will be
associated with the polygon. Following the digitization of map features, the user
completes the compilation phase by relating all spatial features to their respective
attributes, and by cleaning up and correcting errors introduced as a result of the data
conversion process. The end result of compilation is a set of digital files, each
accurately representing all of the spatial and attributes data of interest contained on
the original map manuscripts. These digital files contain geographic coordinates for
spatial objects (points, lines, polygons, and cells) that represent mapped features.
Although we conceptualize the GIS as a set of registered map layers, the GIS actually
stores these data at a much more primitive level.

2.2.6.2 Storage
Once the data have been digitally compiled, digital map files in the GIS are stored on
magnetic or other (e.g., optical) digital media. Again, different GIS software packages
will employ different storage formats. In most cases, however, data storage will be
based on a generic data model that is used to convert map data into a digital form.
The two most common types of data models are raster and vector. Both types are used
to simplify the data shown on a map into a more basic form that can be easily and
efficiently stored in the computer.

2.2.6.3 Manipulation
Once data are stored in a GIS, many retrieval, analysis, and output options are
available to users. These functions are often available in the form of "toolkits." A
toolkit is a set of generic functions that a GIS user can employ to manipulate and
analyze geographic data. Toolkits provide processing functions such as data retrieval,
measuring area and perimeter, overlaying maps, performing map algebra, and
reclassifying map data. A GIS usually includes a basic set of computer programs or
"tools." The functions provided by the toolkit vary with the software package. Figures
2.4 & 2.5 Provides an overview of various tools and functions. Data manipulation
tools include coordinate change, projection, and edge matching, which allow a GIS to
reconcile irregularities between map layers or adjacent map sheets called "tiles."
Query and windowing are spatial retrieval tools. Query provides a way to retrieve

15
user-specified data from the database. Windowing allows the user to select a specified
area from a map displayed on the monitor to examine it in greater detail.

Figure 2-4 :Manipulation Tools Of GIS

Data analysis tools include aggregation, classification, measurement, overlay,

buffering, networks, and map algebra. Aggregation helps the user in interpreting the
data, classification allows the user to classify areas within a map, and measurement
can be used to determine the size of any area. The overlay function allows the user to
"stack" map layers on one another. Buffering examines an area that surrounds a
feature of interest such as a point. Network functions examine the movement of
objects along an interconnected pathway (e.g., traffic flow along a map of highway
segments). Map algebra utilities allow the user to specify mathematical relationships
between map layers.

2.2.6.4 Output
The final functional task of a GIS is to generate output; usually a map. GIS-generated
maps are compiled from the many data sets contained in the digital GIS and match
exact user specifications. Map output may employ several color and symbology
schemes, and will be sized and scaled to meet user needs. These output products
resemble hand-drafted maps and fulfill essentially the same purposes. However, it is

16
incorrect to refer to GIS simply as a mapping system. Although GIS is able to
generate high-quality map output, its ability to perform analysis and management sets
it apart from the more limited computer-mapping packages.

Another form of output from a GIS is tabular or report information. Data summarized
according to user-defined classes or within user-defined areas can readily be
generated in a textual format. This output may also be routed to another computer
application such as a statistical analysis package or a graphing package for
subsequent analysis and display.

2.3 Basic Aspect of GPS

GPS is a full-time, all weather, high precision, earth orbiting, satellite positioning,
navigation, and time transfer system. The primary function of GPS is to provide
accurate positioning services for air, sea, and ground based. Present policy also
permits civilian use of the system with some restrictions. These restrictions are
generally directed at the accuracy of the real-time capabilities of the system. As with
other technologies, GPS brings with it its own unique terminology. It would be
impractical to attempt to define all terms here, but a few key ones are:

NAVSTAR - the code name for the satellite constellation on which GPS is
based.
DGPS (Dynamic GPS) - a process of collecting GPS location data while in
motion, a technique that is explored later in this paper.
Differential positioning - measurement of the relative positions of two GPS
receivers that are locked on the same satellites.
C/A code - the standard (Clear/Acquisition) GPS code.
P-code - the protected or precise code transmitted by the satellites. (J.Kevany,
1994).

17
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 General
The key component to a quality pavement condition mapping is quality data
collection during the pavement evaluation process. It is important that the data
collected during each inspection can be compared with previous pavement
inspections. Several methods for data collection are available. The methods selected
should fulfill our objective. Here, Data for mapping is mostly based or include visual
inspection of some type. A properly executed visual evaluation is one of the most
reliable and efficient forms of pavement evaluation available. It is simple,
inexpensive, and provides a great deal of valuable information about pavement
condition.

A visual inspection of the pavement surface can provide valuable information. Visual
inspection data can be used to evaluate current pavement condition, predict future
pavement performance, determine and prioritize pavement maintenance and
rehabilitation needs, estimate repair quantities, and evaluate the performance of
different maintenance and rehabilitation techniques and materials.

3.2 Site Selection

The site and stretch to be considered for the implementation of this project effectively
need to have different variation of pavement condition. Pavement inspection is
conducted by considering small inspection units. An inspection unit is a small
segment of a pavement section or management unit selected of convenient size which
is then inspected in details such that the inspection units represents the average
pavement condition surrounding.

18
 Figure 3-1: Inspection Segment Consideration

When a small area of pavement is found to be much worse than the majority of the
pavement, it can be inspected and identified as a "special" inspection unit. This is
used to identify areas of localized deterioration such as an area damaged by utility
cuts, crossing of construction traffic, or other localized problems.

3.3 Study Area

The study area lies in western part of Nepal (Fig. 1). It covers a total roadway length
of 18.7 km of both Prithivi highway and measures 118.67 km2. Prithivi highway is
the major highway that connects the capital city of Kathmandu to Pokhara city and
also the other parts of the country. The Annual Average Daily Trafc (AADT) of the
part of Prithivi highway is 13841 Passenger Car Units (PCU). The average
International Roughness Index (IRI) of the part of Prithivi highway is 13.81 m/km
from kotre to bijyapur khola and 7.56 m/km bijyapur khola to Prithivi chowk. This
stretch of the highway suffers from frequent detoration of road pavement. As a result,
the road service is lower in aspect of comfort, time of travel, safety and other factors.

19
Figure 3-2: Study Area

20
3.4 Methodology for Data Collection
The major data to be collected for this project is done through the field investigation.
Different pavement condition is considered such that the combine data gives the
effective measures of the pavement condition of the road segment considered. The
pavement survey was conducted by using a GPS and the visual inspection along the
segment considered. This measured value represents the various pavement
phenomena including pavement distress, rut depth, patch and potholes and cracks.
The pavement surface roughness was collected by IRI values (International
Roughness Index) for further analysis from the DOR site as a secondary data.

The IRI was developed by the World Bank in the 1980s and is still in use as
pavement condition index. The IRI is used to dene characteristics of longitudinal
prole of a traveled wheel-track and constitutes a standardized roughness
measurement. It is based on the average rectied slope (ARS), which is a ltered ratio
of a standard vehicles accumulated suspension motion (in mm, inches, etc.) divided
by the distance traveled by the vehicle during the measurement (km, mi, etc.). The
stretch of road under study was divided into a number of equal sections.
The workbook used in field survey is attached in this report and presented in
appendix.

3.5 Methodology for Data Extraction

A weighted average is used to calculate the pavement condition when special
inspection units are inspected. The inspection or Data that has been collected are also
geospatially referenced and further the data are now analyzed by using GIS. Before
the analysis and mapping of the pavement condition we find the pavement condition
rating of the segment of the highway individually for the different indexes and which
are:
AI= Alligator Cracking Index PAI= Patching Index
TI= Transverse Cracking Index PHI= Pothole Index
LI= Longitudinal Cracking Index RI= Rutting Index
EI= Edge Cracking Index DEI= Depression Index
BI= Bleeding Index DRI= Drainage Index

21
Here the different index is calculated by the assigning the severity level ratting for the
condition. In this project we have considered three severity conditions, I.e. Low,
Medium, High. And one additional severity condition is added i.e. for the negligible
condition i.e.

Very Low = 0
Low = 0.25
Medium =0.5
High =0.9 and above (i.e. 0.9)

3.6 Methodology flow diagram

Road Drainage
Condition

Data
Pavement Data
Road Network
Processing Collection

Road Geometry

Spatial Data GIS Analysis Literature Review

Database Integration

Query & Analysis

Output Generation

Figure 3-3: Methodology Flow Diagram

1
4 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULT
In this Chapter, We will deal about the analysis of the extracted data. The Data now
represents the pavement condition of the considered road segment. The each
parameters is used individually to map the road condition and finally all the layer of
each parameters are merged to give the final output, i.e. pavement condition rating.
The final output is compared with the secondary data IRI value got from the DOR
and the ultimate GIS mapping representation the pavement condition rating index is
got.

4.1 Pavement condition rating

Pavement condition rating is calculated by adding the weighted value rating of the
various pavement conditions index. The GIS map is plotted by overlaying the
weighted value of the considered various index which is given by:

Pavement Condition Rating

(PCR)= AI + TI + LI + EI + BI + PAI + PHI + RI + DEI + DRI
AI= Alligator Cracking Index
TI= Transverse Cracking Index
LI= Longitudinal Cracking Index
EI= Edge Cracking Index
BI= Bleeding Index
PAI= Patching Index
PHI= Pothole Index
RI= Rutting Index
DEI= Depression Index
DRI= Drainage Index

2
4.1.1 Alligator Cracking Mapping
In the field observation we have found that alligator crack was more dominant at
segment towards kotre than towards pirthivichowk which is also shown in the below
map.

Figure 4-1: Aligator Crack Mapping

3
4.1.2 Transverse Cracking Mapping
In field observation we have found very less and minor traverse cracks along the
segments so the map below shows very low transverse cracking along all segments.

Figure 4-2: Transverse Crack Mapping

4
4.1.3 Longitudinal Cracking Mapping
In field observation we have found very less and minor Longitudinal cracks along the
segments so the map below shows very low transverse cracking along all segments.

Figure 4-3: Logitudinal Crack Mapping

5
4.1.4 Edge Cracking Mapping
In field observation we have found high edge cracking along the segments taken such
the map below shows mostly high edge cracking almost all segments.

Figure 4-4: Edge Crack Mapping

6
4.1.5 Bleeding Mapping
In field observation we have found very less and minor bleeding along the segments
only few place were seen to have minor bleeding such map below shows the field
conditions of bleeding.

Figure 4-5: Bleeding Mapping

7
4.1.6 Patching Mapping
In field observation we have seen patching in high density all over the segments and
minor patching is ovserved near to segment to pirthivichowk as recently the highway
pavement was reconstructed which is clearly seen in the map below.

Figure 4-6: Patching Mapping

8
4.1.7 Pothole Mapping
In field observation we have found very less potholes as all potholes has recently been
patched along the segments so the map below shows very low potholes along all
segments.

Figure 4-7: Potholes Mapping

9
4.1.8 Rutting Mapping
In field observation we have found very less and minor rutting along the segments so
the map below shows very low rutting along all segments.

Figure 4-8: Rutting Mapping

10
4.1.9 Depression Mapping
In field observation we have found less and minor deformation towards the
pirthivichowk while high deformation at sections near to the kotre which is shown by
the map below.

Figure 4-9: Depression Mapping

11
4.1.10 Drainage Mapping
In field observation we have found different drainage condition along the segments
which is shown in the map below and it shows very power drainage arrangement
along all segments.

Figure 4-10: Drainage Mapping

12
4.1.11 Pavement Condition Rating Mapping
After all the mapping for the different condition is done the layering of each condition
is done in order to get the combine effect which is the pavement condition rating of
all segments.

Figure 4-11: Pavement Condition Mapping

13
4.2 IRI, SDI and PCR comparison
Here the International Roughness Index (IRI) & Surface Distress Index (SDI) are got
from the DOR and the value starts from Kotre to Prithivichowk. (ssrn.aviyaan.com,
2015)

25
IRI Value (2015)

20

15

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Km
(kotre - Pitrhivichowk)

Figure 4-12: IRI (International Roughness Index)

14
2.5
SDI Value (2015)

1.5

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Km

Figure 4-13: SDI (Surface Distress Index)

PCR Index
0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
P10
P1
P4
P7

P13
P16
P19
P22
P25
P28
P31
P34
P37
P40
P43
P46
P49
P52
P55
P58
P61
P64
P67
P70
P73
P76

Figure 4-14: Pavement Condition Rating

Here we can see that the IRI and SDI value from DOR are not as reliable as the data
does not seem similar to the current pavement condition rating.

15
5 CONCLUSION
5.1 Summary
This project work helps us understand how the Pavement conditions are interlinked
with the various surface conditions (Alligator Crack Index, Longitudinal Crack Index,
Transverse Crack Index, Patching Index, and Rutting Index) and Roughness
Conditions. This study presents an approach in the preparation of pavement condition
rating models and GIS mapping of pavement condition. Which in further could be
beneficial to relate the impact of pavement condition on others factors.

5.2 Conclusion
Field investigation of the Prithivi Highway (Prithivi Chowk to Kotre ) has been done
taking the small segments (200 mtr. to 250 mtr. ) such representation the average
information of the considered length of highway. During field investigation the data
has been taken on basis of ranking of the pavement condition. And the data that is
obtained is also geo-referenced by the use of GPS which together gives the complete
information of the pavement condition. The data is presented on this report. While
SDI Index and IRI Index got from the road department is taken as secondary data and
is compared with the data acquired from the field investigation .As the latest data
acquired is of 2015 AD which shows that the condition of the road has gone very
worse.

This approach has important benet. Currently, Road maintenance planning under the
constraints of budget, time and other resources is very challenging. Characteristics
and spatial distribution of different road components makes the decision making
process on priorities very complicated. The process can be made easier by applying a
powerful tool which can store, analyze and manipulate spatially distributed data. In
this project, we have developed a GIS-based integrated model for road repair and
maintenance considering road pavement component and roadside drainage. In the
process we have drawn attention to effective inspection and monitoring, which plays
important role in road maintenance and prolongs the life of road.

The section of highway that we considered in this project is a major link to the
Pokhara to other parts of the country, but it is frequently observed that the

16
deteriorates of pavement and government road maintenance efforts fails . The
Department of Roads currently allocates road maintenance budget without any of the
scientic/technical assessment carried out in this research. As a result, maintenance
work is less effective than it could be. We hope that this project will be useful in
maintenance planning to ensure operation of the highway throughout the year not
only in Nepal, but also in other similar geographical and topographical regions.

5.3 Limitation
During this project lot of problems has been faced. Whether it is due to lack of
equipment or due to timeframe constrain or due to condition of weather. During the
field observation made we have observed that the condition of the highway was lot
more worse than expected which leads to the difficult in rating of the defects. Also
the unusual weather condition made it worse to take data though it also made
somehow easier to take data as due to rain it made possible to observe the minor
potholes and the cracks. The traffic flow was high which made very difficult to make
observation on the segment. And the final problem was the case of limited or
constrain of the equipment.

Due to lack of the equipment the project will only able to analysis general parameters
related to the pavement condition of the highway. Also the highway alignment is
taken only partially i.e. (Prithivi Chowk to Kotre) to give the project an effective
meaning and better approach. The study will also have limitation of the tools used for
the project such as GIS, GPS, etc.

5.4 Future Scope

The proposed PCR in this project only considers limited failures; its scope can be
enlarged by considering other more failure criteria.
Pavement loading consideration can be used for more effective rating system.
Pavement deterioration due to climatic effects may be considered.
On availability of actual pavement and traffic related data, this simple PCR
developed may be put through a case study.

17
 REFERENCES
(2005). Quality Assurance Manual. FHWA-NPS Road Inventory Program.

ssrn.aviyaan.com. (2015). Retrieved from http://ssrn.aviyaan.com/road_condition/

(2019). Recurrent Maintenance Norms For Paved Highways and Feeder Roads. Nepal
Government, Department of Road.

Burrough, P. A. (1986). Principles of geographical information systems for Land.

FHWA. (1998). Pavement Condition Index Distress Identification Manual for Asphalt and
Surface Treatment Pavements. United States Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Administration.

J.Kevany, M. (1994). Use of GPS in GIS data collection (Vol. 18).

MRCU. (1995). Road Pavement Management. Nepal Government, Department Of Road.

Pantha, B. R., Yatabe, R., & Netra, P. B. (2010). GIS-based highway maintenance prioritization
model: an integrated approach. Journal of Transport Geography, 18, 426-433.

Reddy, B. a. (2001, Dec). Priority Ranking Model for Managing Flexible. Journal of Indian
Road Congress, Vol. 62-3.

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