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A D VA N C E D A N T E N N A T H E O R Y
A D VA N C E D A N T E N N A T H E O R Y
Copyright
2016
c Peeter Joot All Rights Reserved
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v
DOCUMENT VERSION
Version 0.6465
Sources for this notes compilation can be found in the github repository
https://github.com/peeterjoot/physicsplay
The last commit (Dec/5/2016), associated with this pdf was
595cc0ba1748328b765c9dea0767b85311a26b3d
vii
Dedicated to:
Aurora and Lance, my awesome kids, and
Sofia, who not only tolerates and encourages my studies, but is also awesome
enough to think that math is sexy.
P R E FA C E
This document was produced while taking the Spring 2015, University of Toronto Ad-
vanced Antenna Theory course (ECE1229H), taught by Professor G. V. Eleftheriades.
Official course description: This course deals with the analysis and design of a range
of antennas. Topics addressed include: definitions of antenna parameters; vector po-
tentials; solutions to the inhomogeneous wave equation; principles of duality and
reciprocity; wire antennas; antenna arrays; phased arrays; synthesis techniques for dis-
crete and continuous line sources; integral equations and solutions using the method
of moments; field equivalence principle; aperture antennas; antenna measurement
techniques; diffraction; horn antennas; reflector antennas; microstrip antennas; reflec-
tarrays; electrically small antennas; and broadband antennas.
Synopsis
6. Phased Arrays
xi
13. Broadband Antennas : Self complementarity, spirals, log periodic, Yagi Uda
Main Text [5] C.A. Balanis, Antenna Theory, Wiley, 3rd Edition
Recommended [22] W.L. Stutzman and G. A. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design 2nd Edition,
Wiley.
Recommended [9] G.V. Eleftheriades and K.G. Balmain (Edt.) Negative-Refraction Metamate-
rials, Wiley and IEEE Press.
Personal notes exploring details that were not clear to me from the lectures, or
from the texts associated with the lecture material.
This set of notes is significantly different from my notes for many other classes. With
the class taught on slides (and some of those slides mirroring the text closely), I did
not take live notes in class. These notes fill in details that I felt deserved clarification,
contain problem sets solutions, as well as a number of loosely related musings on
Geometric Algebra equivalents to some of the generalized concepts of electromagnetic
theory encountered in this class (i.e. magnetic sources).
My thanks go to Professor Eleftheriades for teaching this course.
Peeter Joot peeterjoot@protonmail.com
xii
CONTENTS
Preface xi
i reading notes 1
1 fundamental parameters of antennas 3
1.1 Poynting vector 3
1.2 Typical far-field radiation intensity 3
1.3 Field plots 5
1.4 dB vs dBi 5
1.5 Trig integrals 7
1.6 Polarization vectors 7
1.7 Phasor power 10
1.8 Radar cross section examples 11
1.9 Scattering from a sphere vs frequency 12
1.10 EIRP 13
1.11 Free space impedance 13
1.12 Notation 14
1.13 Problems 14
2 maxwells equations 29
2.1 Review 29
2.2 Constitutive relations 31
2.3 Boundary conditions 31
2.4 Linear time invariant 32
2.5 Greens functions 32
2.6 Tangential and normal field components 32
2.7 Energy momentum conservation 37
2.8 Duality transformation 42
2.9 Reciprocity theorem 44
2.10 Notation 46
2.11 Problems 47
3 linear wire antennas 49
3.1 Magnetic Vector Potential 49
3.2 Plots of infinitesimal dipole radial dependence 49
3.3 Electric Far field for a spherical potential 50
3.4 Magnetic Far field for a spherical potential 52
3.5 Plane wave relations between electric and magnetic fields 53
xiii
xiv contents
iv appendices 167
a prof. eleftheriades handwriting decoder ring 169
b mathematica notebooks 171
c julia notebooks 175
d matlab notebooks 177
v index 179
vi bibliography 185
bibliography 187
LIST OF FIGURES
xvi
List of Figures xvii
READING NOTES
F U N D A M E N TA L PA R A M E T E R S O F A N T E N N A S
1
1.1 poynting vector
W = E H. (1.1)
I can roll with the use of a different symbol (i.e. not S) for the Poynting vector, but
Im used to seeing a c/4 factor ([20] and [15]). I remembered something like that in
SI units too, so was slightly confused not to see it here.
Per [10] that something is a 0 , as in
1
W= E B. (1.2)
0
Note that the use of H instead of B is what wipes out the requirement for the 1/0
term since H = B/0 , assuming linear media, and no magnetization.
r2
U(, ) = |E(r, , )|2
20 (1.3)
1 2
| E (, )|2 + E (, ) ,
=
20
3
4 fundamental parameters of antennas
To get an understanding where this comes from, consider the far field radial solu-
tions to the electric and magnetic dipole problems, which have the respective forms
(from [10]) of
0 p0 2 sin
E= cos (wt kr )
4 r (1.5a)
0 p0 2 sin
B= cos (wt kr )
4c r
0 m0 2 sin
E= cos (wt kr )
4c r (1.5b)
0 m0 2 sin
B= cos (wt kr ) .
4c2 r
In neither case is there a component in the direction of propagation, and in both
cases (using 0 e0 = 1/c2 )
|E |
|H| =
0 c
r
e0 (1.6)
= |E |
0
1
= |E |.
0
Note that the signs of E vs. B in eq. (1.5a) and eq. (1.5b) and are determined by the
far field relation E = cB r (see: eq. 9.19,9.39 [15]). The effect of dependency is that
the Poynting vector will be radial, which will be seen below.
A superposition of the phasors for such dipole fields, in the far field, will have the
form
1
E= E (, ) + E (, )
r (1.7)
1
B= E (, ) E (, ) ,
rc
with a corresponding time averaged Poynting vector
1
Wav = E B
20
1
= E + E E E
20 cr2
(1.8)
2 2
= | E | + E
20 cr2
r 2 2
= | E | + E ,
20 r2
1.3 field plots 5
verifying eq. (1.3) for a superposition of electric and magnetic dipole fields. This
can likely be shown for more general fields too.
We can plot the fields, or intensity (or log plots in dB of these). It is pointed out in
[10] that when there is r dependence these plots are done by considering the values
of at fixed r.
The field plots are conceptually the simplest, since that vector parameterizes a sur-
face. Any such radial field with magnitude f (r, , ) can be plotted in Mathematica in
the = 0 plane at r = r0 , or in 3D (respectively, but also at r = r0 ) with code like fig. 1.1
Intensity plots can use the same code, with the only difference being the interpreta-
tion. The surface doesnt represent the value of a vector valued radial function, but is
the magnitude of a scalar valued function evaluated at f (r0 , , ).
The surfaces for U = cos , cos2 and for U = sin , sin2 in the plane are paramet-
rically plotted in fig. 1.2, and for cosines in ?? to compare with textbook figures.
Three dimensional visualizations of U = sin2 and U = cos2 can be found in
fig. 1.3 Even for such simple functions these look pretty cool.
1.4 db vs dbi
Note that dBi is used to indicate that the gain is with respect to an isotropic radiator.
This is detailed more in [7].
6 fundamental parameters of antennas
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
/2 /2
Table 1.1: 0 sinn d = 0 cosn d
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 /4 2/3 3 /16 8/15 5 /32 16/35
Table 1.2: 0 sinn d
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 /2 4/3 3 /8 16/15 5 /16 32/35
1.5 trig integrals 7
Table 1.3: 0 cosn d
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 /2 0 3 /8 0 5 /16 0
The text introduces polarization vectors , but doesnt spell out their form. Consider
a plane wave field of the form
= Ex e jx x + Ey e jy y, (1.10)
so that
E = e j(tkz) . (1.11)
= |E|, (1.12)
= x + ye jy . (1.14)
Knowing to factor out the average phase angle above is only because I tried initially
without that and things got ugly and messy. I guessed this would help (it does).
Let E = Re E = xx + yy, = t + ( + )/2, and = ( )/2, so that
E = xae j + ybe j e j . (1.16)
x y
= , (1.21)
a b
which is just a line.
1.6 polarization vectors 9
x y
= , (1.23)
a b
Last is the circular and elliptically polarized case. The system is clearly
elliptically polarized if cos(2) = 0, or = ( /2)(1 + 2k), k Z. When
that is the case and a = b also holds, the ellipse is a circle.
When the cos(2) = 0 condition does not hold, a rotation of coordinates
where
2 cos( )
1
= tan1 (1.26)
2 ba
u2
b a 1
cos2 + sin2 + sin 2 +
1=
ab a b 2 (1.27)
2
v b 2 a 2 1
+ sin + cos sin 2 +
ab a b 2
E = E0 x jy e jt
(1.28)
I 2 R/2, (1.29)
|V|e jV
Z=
|I|e jI (1.31)
|V| j(V I )
= e ,
|I|
this average power can be written in phasor form
1 2
P= |I| Z, (1.32)
2
with
P = Re P. (1.33)
Observe that we have to be careful to use the absolute value of the current phasor I,
since I2 differs in phase from |I|2 . This explains the conjugation in the [14] definition
of complex power, which had the form
S = Vrms Irms . (1.34)
Flat plate.
4 (LW)2
max = (1.35)
2
Sphere. In the optical limit the radar cross section for a sphere
max = r2 (1.36)
Cylinder.
2rh2
max = (1.37)
= r2 7.11 (r )4 ,
= 2 /. (1.39)
optical limit ( r )
= r2 . (1.42)
Figure 1.8: Scattering from a sphere vs frequency (from Prof. Eleftheriades class notes).
1.10 eirp
Prof. Eleftheriades introduces the term EIRP, the Effective Isotropic Receiving Power,
the product of power and gain Pt Gt , measured in W.
expressed as 120 377. It seemed curious to me that this was an exact value. With
the numeric value of / is 119.945 (eta.jl), which is close to 120. Its pointed out in
[24] that this is just the consequence of using c = 3 108 m/s.
This can be seen by writing in an alternate form
14 fundamental parameters of antennas
1
=
ce0
= 0 c
(1.44)
= (4 107 N/A2 )(3 108 m/s)
= 120Nm/A2 s
= 120.
1.12 notation
Time average. Both Prof. Eleftheriades and the text [5] use square brackets [ ]
for time averages, not h i . Was that an engineering convention?
Bold vectors are usually phasors, with (bold) calligraphic script used for the
time domain fields. Example: E(x, y, z, t) = eE(x, y)e j(tkz) , E (x, y, z, t) = Re E.
1.13 problems
Exercise 1.1 Max power density and directivity. (2015 problem set 1, p1)
The power radiated by a lossless antenna is 10 W. The corresponding radiation inten-
sity is given by,
Calculate
a. the maximum power density at a distance of 1 km.
b. the directivity of the antenna (dimensionless and dB).
Answer for Exercise 1.1
U B0 cos3
Wr (r, ) = = , W/m2 , (1.46)
r2 r2
with the maximum at = 0 of
1.13 problems 15
B0
Wr (r)|max = , W/m2 . (1.47)
r2
Since the average power density is
Pav = Ud
/2
= 2B0 cos3 sin d
0
/2
= 2B0 cos3 d cos (1.48)
0
0
cos4
= 2B0
4 /2
B0
=
2
= 10 (W),
20
Wr (1 km)|max = 106 6.37 106 (W/m2 ). (1.49)
Umax
D0 = 4
Prad
Umax
= 4 (1.50)
Pav
4B
0
=
B0 /2
= 8,
so the directivity is
D = 8 cos3 . (1.51)
Exercise 1.2 Directivity and free space loss. (2015 problem set 1, p2)
A satellite dish has a diameter d = 1.5m and an aperture efficiency of 70%. Calculate
the directivity of the dish at 12 GHz. If the distance from a geostationary satellite is
37,000 km calculate the corresponding free-space loss in dB.
Answer for Exercise 1.2
Ignoring any concavity in the dish (which is probably parabolic, with physical area
somewhere between r2 , and 2 2 ), the maximum effective area is
Aem = eem Ap
= 0.70.752 (1.53)
= 0.39
= 1.24 (m2 )
4Aem
D0 =
2
4Aem 2
= (1.54)
c2
2 2
= 4 1.24 m2 12 109 s1 / 3 108 m/s
= 2.5 104 .
2
c 2
=
4R 4R
2
3 108 m/s (1.55)
=
4 37 106 m 12 109 s1
= 2.9 1021
= 205 dB.
4
D0
1r 2r
4 1802 (1.56)
=
(30)(35)
= 39.3.
G1 = 1020/10 , (1.57a)
G2 = 1015/10 (1.57b)
The wavelength is
c
=
3 108 m/s (1.58)
=
109 s1
= 0.3 m
2
Pr = Pt G1 G2
4R
2 (1.59)
0.3 m
= 150 W 103.5
4(103 m)
= 0.27 mW.
18 fundamental parameters of antennas
1 = x (1.60)
2
2
a jb
|1 2 | = p +p
2(a2 + b2 ) 2 2
2(a + b )
1 2 2
(1.64)
= a + b
2(a2 + b2 )
1
= ,
2
yielding the same factor of two reduction in power.
G = 1015/10 W. (1.65)
|r t |2 103/10 . (1.66)
The wavelength is
3 108 m/s
= (1.67)
1010 s1
= 3 102 m.
Pr 108 W
=
Pt Pt
0.03 m 2 3/2 2 0.3
(1.68)
= 10 10
4104 m
= 2.9 1011 ,
or
Pt 350 W. (1.69)
1. 200
2. 500.
20 fundamental parameters of antennas
2
G2
Pr
=
Pt 4 4n2 2 (1.70)
2
G2
1
= .
4 4n2
The same gain is used for transmission and reception, since both are for the same
horn. That gain (not in dB) is
G = 1016.3/10 (1.71)
= 43.
The wavelength is
3 108 m/s
= (1.72)
1010 m
= 0.03 m.
= r2
= (5)2 (1.73)
= 252
2
G2
Pr 1
= 252
Pt 4 4n2
25(43) 2
(1.74)
=
64 2 n4
73
= 4.
n
For the n = 200, 500 cases respectively, the delivered power ratio is
1.13 problems 21
1. n = 200
Pr 73
= (1.75)
Pt 2004
= 4.6 108
2. R = 500
Pr 73
= (1.76)
Pt 5004
= 1.2 109
(LW)2
= 4
2
1002
2 (1.77)
= 4
2
= 4 104 .
2
2
G2
Pr 1
= 42 104
Pt 4 4n2
2
(43) 10 4
(1.78)
=
16 2 n4
1.2 105
= .
n4
For the n = 200, 500 cases respectively, the delivered power ratio is
1. n = 200
Pr 1.2 105
= (1.79)
Pt 2004
= 7.3 105 .
22 fundamental parameters of antennas
2. R = 500
Pr 1.2 105
= (1.80)
Pt 5004
= 1.9 106 .
(Observe that an inverse radial dependence in E0 must be implied here for this to
be a valid far-field representation of the field.)
Show that Tai & Pereiras formula gives D1 = 3, and D2 = 1 respectively for this
field.
Calculate the exact directivity for this field.
Answer for Exercise 1.7
The field components are
E = E0 cos cos (1.82a)
E = E0 sin (1.82b)
2
D1 =
0 cos2 sin d
2 (1.83)
=
1 cos3
3 0
= 3,
and
2
D2 =
0 sin d
2 (1.84)
=
cos |0
= 1.
1.13 problems 23
To find the exact directivity, first the Poynting vector is required. That is
| E0 |2
P= cos cos sin r cos cos sin
2c0
| E0 |2 (1.85)
= cos cos sin cos cos + sin
2c0
| E0 |2 r
cos2 cos2 + sin2 ,
=
2c0
The , and contributions to this intensity, and the total intensity are all plotted in
fig. 1.9
FIXME: did I save these under the right paths? Recall thetacap and phicap reversed.
2
cos2 cos2 + sin2 sin dd
Prad =
0 0 (1.87)
8
= .
3
Observe that the radiation intensity U can also be decomposed into two compo-
nents, one for each component of the original E phasor.
U = sin2 (1.88b)
This decomposition allows for expression of the partial directivities in these respec-
tive (orthogonal) directions
4U 3
D = = cos2 cos2 (1.89a)
Prad 2
4U 3
D = = sin2 (1.89b)
Prad 2
The maximum of each of these partial directivities is both 3/2, giving a maximum
directivity of
D0 = D |max + D max = 3, (1.90)
| E |2max
D1 = 1 2
(1.91a)
2 0 | E (, 0)| sin d
2
E
max
D2 = , (1.91b)
1 E (, /2)2 sin d
2 0
2r /2
1 1
= sin d. (1.92b)
D2 2 ln 2 0
4A2p
= , (1.93)
2
as we have seen in class.
Answer for Exercise 1.9
A few simplifying assumptions are required to show this result:
3. The effective aperture Aeff is also the maximum effective aperture, so it (and the
directivity) has no directional dependence.
Ws
lim 4R2 , (1.94)
R Wi
where Ws is the scattered power density, Wi is the incident power density, and R is
the distance from the scattering object to the measurement point. Without the point
source approximation for the re-radiation of the incident power, this quantity would
depend on the orientation of the plate with respect to the observation.
26 fundamental parameters of antennas
Pc = Wi A p , (1.95)
where A p is the area of the plate. Treating all the power as radiated as if from a
point source, measured at distance R from the plate, and assuming a perfect radiator
(i.e. G = D0 ), the scattered power density at this point of observation is
Pc G Pc D0
Ws = = . (1.96)
4R2 4R2
The directivity follows from the assumption that the effective area equals the phys-
ical area, since that means
2 D0
Aeff = Ap, (1.97)
4
so
4A p
D0 = . (1.98)
2
The scattered power density at the receiver is
Pc
Ws = D0
4R2 (1.99)
Wi A p 4A p
= .
4R2 2
Plugging this into eq. (1.94), and dropping the limit that becomes irrelevant, gives
W
2
i A p 4A p 1
=4R
2
4R
2 Wi (1.100)
2
4A p
= ,
2
as desired.
1.13 problems 27
P2AUT GAUT
sg = , (1.101)
P2 Gsg
where the left-hand side of the above equation represents the ratio of the powers
received by the antenna under test and the standard-gain antenna.
Answer for Exercise 1.10
The Friis equation can be used for this measurement task. For the respective set of
antenna configurations, and for fixed transmission power, there are two such equa-
tions
2
P2AUT
= GAUT Gt (1.102a)
Pt 4R
sg 2
P2
= Gsg Gt , (1.102b)
Pt 4R
where the transmission power is Pt and transmission antenna gain is Gt . That trans-
mit antenna power and gain need not be known, since dividing these equations can-
cels the common factors, including those, leaving
P2AUT GAUT
sg = , (1.103)
P2 Gsg
as desired.
This procedure assumes that the standard gain antenna and the antenna under test
have identical polarization, and that neither is orthogonally polarized with respect to
the antenna at port #1.
M A X W E L L S E Q U AT I O N S
2
2.1 review
For reasons that are yet to be seen (and justified), we work with a generalization of
Maxwells equations to include electric AND magnetic charge densities.
B
E = M (2.1a)
t
D
H=J + (2.1b)
t
D = (2.1c)
B = m . (2.1d)
Assuming a phasor relationships of the form E = Re E(r)e jt for the fields and the
H = J + jD (2.2b)
D= (2.2c)
B = m . (2.2d)
29
30 maxwells equations
are designated the induced fields. The currents and charges are
0 = M j B (2.3)
= M jm ,
and
0 = J + j D (2.4)
= J + j,
J = j. (2.5b)
Integral forms The integral forms of Maxwells equations follow from Stokes theo-
rem and the divergence theorems. Stokes theorem is a relation between the integral
of the curl and the outwards normal differential area element of a surface, to the
boundary of that surface, and applies to any surface with that boundary
dA ( f) = f dl. (2.6)
where the integral is over the surface of the volume, and the area element of the
bounding integral has an outwards normal orientation.
2.2 constitutive relations 31
dl H = dA J + jD (2.8b)
dA D = dV (2.8c)
V
dA B = m dV (2.8d)
V
For linear isotropic homogeneous materials, the following constitutive relations apply
D = eE
B = H
J = E, Ohms law.
where
In AM radio, will see ferrite cores with the inductors, which introduces non-unit r .
This is to increase the radiation resistance.
Linear time invariant meant that the impulse response h(t, t0 ) was a function of just
the difference in times h(t, t0 ) = h(t t0 ).
For electromagnetic problems the impulse function sources (r r0 ) also has a direc-
tion, and can yield any of Ex , Ey , Ez . A tensor impulse response is required.
Some overview of an approach that uses such tensor Greens functions is outlined
on the slides. It gets really messy since we require four tensor Greens functions to
handle electric and magnetic current and charges. Because of this complexity, we dont
go down this path, and use potentials instead.
In 3.5 [5] and the class notes, a verification of the spherical wave form for the
Helmholtz Greens function was developed. This was much simpler than the same
verification I did in [18]. Part of the reason for that was that I worked in Cartesian co-
ordinates, which made things much messier. The other part of the reason, for treating
a neighbourhood of |r r0 | 0, I verified the convolution, whereas Prof. Eleftheriades
argues that a verification that 2 + k2 G(r, r0 )dV 0 = 1 is sufficient. Balanis, on the
other hand, argues that knowing the solution for k 6= 0 must just be the solution for
k = 0 (i.e. the Poisson solution) provided it is multiplied by the e jkr factor.
Note that back when I did that derivation, I used a different sign convention for the
Greens function, and in QM we used a positive sign instead of the negative in e jkr .
The integral forms of Maxwells equations can be used to derive relations for the
tangential and normal field components to the sources. These relations were men-
tioned in class, but it is useful to go over the derivation. This isnt all review from
first year electromagnetism since we are now using a magnetic source modifications
of Maxwells equations.
The derivation below follows that of [3] closely, but I am trying it myself to ensure
that I understand the assumptions.
The two infinitesimally thin pillboxes of fig. 2.1 are used in the argument.
Maxwells equations with both magnetic and electric sources are
B
E = M (2.9a)
t
2.6 tangential and normal field components 33
(a)
(b)
D
H = J + (2.9b)
t
D = e (2.9c)
B = m . (2.9d)
After application of Stokes and the divergence theorems Maxwells equations have
the integral form
B
E dl = dA +M (2.10a)
t
D
H dl = dA +J (2.10b)
t
D dA = e dV (2.10c)
V V
B dA = m dV. (2.10d)
V V
Maxwell-Faraday equation First consider one of the loop integrals, like eq. (2.10a). For
an infinitesimal loop, that integral is
y y y y
E dl E x(1) x + E (1) + E (2) E x(2) x E (2) E (1)
2 2 2 2 (2.11)
1 E (2) 1 E (1)
E x(1) E x(2) x + xy + xy.
2 x 2 x
We let y 0 which kills off all but the first difference term.
The RHS of eq. (2.11) is approximately
B Bz
dA + M xy + Mz . (2.12)
t t
2.6 tangential and normal field components 35
While M may have components that are not normal to the interface, the surface
current need only have a normal component, since only that component contributes
to the surface integral.
The coordinate expression of eq. (2.14) can be written as
Ms z = E (1) E (2) (y z)
(2.15)
= E (1) E (2) y z.
(1) (2)
E E n = Ms , (2.16)
where n is the normal between the interfaces. Id failed to understand when reading
this derivation initially, how the B contribution was killed off. i.e. If the vanishing area
in the surface integral kills off the B contribution, why do we have a M contribution
left. The key to this is understanding that this magnetic current is considered to be
confined very closely to the surface getting larger as y gets smaller.
Also note that the units of Ms are volts/meter like the electric field (not volts/squared-
meter like M.)
Amperes law As above, assume a linear electric surface current density of the form
J s = lim (J n) ny, (2.17)
y0
H(1) H(2) n = J s . (2.18)
36 maxwells equations
Gausss law Using the cylindrical pillbox surface with radius r, height y, and top
and bottom surface areas A = (r )2 , the LHS of Gausss law eq. (2.10c) expands
to
y y
D dA Dy(2) A + D(2) 2r (1)
+ D 2r Dy(1) A
V 2 2 (2.19)
(2) (1)
Dy Dy A.
As with the Stokes integrals above it is assumed that the height is infinitesimal
with respect to the radial dimension. Letting that height y 0 kills off the radially
directed contributions of the flux through the sidewalls.
The RHS expands to approximately
e dV Aye . (2.20)
V
e = lim ye . (2.21)
y0
or
D (2) D (1) n = e . (2.23)
Gausss law for magnetism The same argument can be applied to the magnetic flux.
Define a highly localized magnetic surface current density (webers/meter-squared)
as
m = lim ym , (2.24)
y0
B (2) B (1) n = m . (2.25)
2.7 energy momentum conservation 37
Maxwells equations with magnetic sources In this section, the form of Maxwells equa-
tions to be used are expressed in terms of E and H, assume linear media, and do not
assume a phasor representation
H
E = M 0 (2.26a)
t
E
H = J + e0 (2.26b)
t
E = / e0 (2.26c)
H = m / 0 . (2.26d)
Energy momentum conservation With magnetic sources the Poynting and energy con-
servation relationship has to be adjusted slightly. Lets derive that result, starting with
the divergence of the Poynting vector
(E H) = H ( E ) E ( H)
= H 0 t H + M E (J + e0 t E ) (2.27)
= 0 H t H H M e0 E t E E J ,
or
1
e0 E 2 + 0 H2 + (E H) = H M E J . (2.28)
2 t
1
T = F j . (2.29)
c
Note that eq. (2.29) was likely not in SI units. The next task is to generalize this
classical relationship to incorporate the magnetic sources used in antenna theory. With
38 maxwells equations
an eye towards the relativistic nature of the energy momentum tensor, it is natural to
assume that the remainder of the energy momentum tensor conservation relation can
be found by taking the time derivatives of the Poynting vector.
E H
(E H) = H+E
t t t (2.30)
1 1
= ( H J ) H + E ( E M) ,
e0 0
or
1
(E H) + 0 J H + e0 E M
c2 t
= 0 H ( H) (2.31)
e0 E ( E ) .
1
(E H) + E + 0 J H + m H + e0 E M (2.32)
c2 t
= 0 (H H H ( H)) + e0 (E E E ( E )) .
It seems slightly surprising the sign of the magnetic equivalent of the Lorentz force
terms have an alternation of sign. This is, however, consistent with the duality trans-
formations outlined in ([5] table 3.2)
m (2.33a)
J M (2.33b)
0 e0 (2.33c)
EH (2.33d)
H E , (2.33e)
2.7 energy momentum conservation 39
for
E + 0 J H m H + e0 M (E ) = m H + e0 E M. (2.34)
Comfortable that the LHS has the desired structure, the RHS can expressed as a
divergence. Just expanding one of the differences of vector products on the RHS does
not obviously show that this is possible, for example
ea (E E E ( E )) = Ea b Eb eabc Eb ecrs r Es
[rs]
= Ea b Eb ab Eb r Es (2.35)
= Ea b Eb Eb ( a Eb b Ea )
= Ea b Eb Eb a Eb + Eb b Ea .
1
ab
(E H) + ( E + 0 J H) + ( m H + e 0 E M) = e a T e b . (2.38)
c2 t
On the LHS we have the rate of change of momentum density, the electric Lorentz
force density terms, the dual (magnetic) Lorentz force density terms, and on the RHS
the the momentum flux terms.
40 maxwells equations
1 jt 1
E2 = Ee + E e jt Ee jt + E e jt
2 2
1 2 2jt
(2.40)
= E e + E E + E E + (E )2 e2jt
4
1
= Re E E + E2 e2jt .
2
Similarly, for the cross product
1
E H= E He2jt + E H + E H + (E H ) e2jt
4 (2.41)
1
= Re E H + E He2jt .
2
Given phasor representations of the sources M = Me jt , J = Je jt , eq. (2.28) can
be recast into (a messy) phasor form
1 1
Re e0 E E + 0 H H + e0 E2 e2jt + 0 H2 e2jt
2 2 t
1
+ Re E H + E He2jt (2.42)
2
1
= Re H M E J H Me2jt E Je2jt .
2
All the time dependence has been moved into the exponential factors, so the e0 E
E + 0 H H terms are killed by the time derivative operator. Averaging over one
period kills the rest of the oscillatory terms, leaving just
0 = (E H ) + H M + E J . (2.43)
Comparison to the reciprocity theorem result The reciprocity theorem had a striking sim-
ilarity to the Poynting theorem above, which isnt suprising since both were derived
by calculating the divergence of a Poynting like quantity. Heres a repetition of the
reciprocity divergence calculation without the single frequency (phasor) assumption
2.7 energy momentum conservation 41
E (a) H(b) E (b) H(a)
= H(b) E (a) E (a) H(b)
H(a) E (b) + E (b) H(a)
= H(b) 0 t H(a) + M(a) E (a) J (b) + e0 t E (b) (2.44)
+ H(a) 0 t H(b) + M(b) + E (b) J (a) + e0 t E (a)
= e0 E (b) t E (a) E (a) t E (b) + 0 H(a) t H(b) H(b) t H(a)
+ H(a) M(b) H(b) M(a) + E (b) J (a) E (a) J (b)
What do these time derivative terms look like in the frequency domain?
1 (b) jt
E (b) t E (a) = E e + E(b) e jt t E(a) e jt + E(a) e jt
4
j (b) jt
= E e + E(b) e jt E(a) e jt E(a) e jt
4
(a) (b)
= jE E jE(b) E(a) + jE(a) E(b) e2jt jE(a) E(b) e2jt
4
1
= Re jE(a) E(b) + jE(a) E(b) e2jt
2
(2.45)
so we have
h
0 = Re E(a) H(b) E(b) H(a) + Im e0 E(a) E(b) + 0 H(a) H(b)
(2.47)
(b) (a) (a) (b)
i
(a) (b) (b) (a)
+ Re H M +H M E J +E J .
av
Observe that the perfect cancellation of the time derivative terms only occurs when
the cross product differences were those of the phasors. When those cross differences
are those of the actual fields, like those in the Poynting theorem, there is a frequency
dependent term is that expansion.
42 maxwells equations
2. What do the energy momentum conservation equations look like in tensor form
with magnetic sources?
E = e / e0 (2.49a)
H = m / 0 (2.49b)
E t B = J m (2.49c)
H t D = J e , (2.49d)
sin E 0 / + cos H0 = m /0
(2.50b)
e0 = 0
J e0 = 0
0
(2.52)
m = e
0
Jm = J e,
and Maxwells equations then have only magnetic sources
E0 = 0 (2.53a)
H 0 = m
0
/ 0 (2.53b)
E 0 t B 0 = J m
0
(2.53c)
H0 t D 0 = 0. (2.53d)
Of this relation Jackson points out that The invariance of the equations of electro-
dynamics under duality transformations shows that it is a matter of convention to
speak of a particle possessing an electric charge, but not magnetic charge. This is an
interesting comment, and worth some additional thought.
44 maxwells equations
The class slides presented a derivation of the reciprocity theorem, a theorem that
contained the integral of
E(a) H(b) E(b) H(a) dS = (2.54)
over a surface, where the RHS was a volume integral involving the fields and (elec-
tric and magnetic) current sources. The idea was to consider two different source
loading configurations of the same system, and to show that the fields and sources in
the two configurations can be related.
To derive the result in question, a simple way to start is to look at the divergence of
the difference of cross products above. This will require the phasor form of the two
cross product Maxwells equations
E = (M + j0 H) (2.55a)
H = J + je0 E, (2.55b)
so the divergence is
E(a) H(b) E(b) H(a) = H(b) E(a) E(a) H(b)
H(a) E(b) + E(b) H(a)
= H(b) M(a) + j0 H(a) E(a) J(b) + je0 E(b)
+ H(a) M(b) + j0 H(b) + E(b) J(a) + je0 E(a) .
(2.56)
The non-source terms cancel, leaving
E(a) H(b) E(b) H(a) = H(b) M(a) E(a) J(b) + H(a) M(b) + E(b) J(a)
(2.57)
Should we be surprised to have a relation of this form? Probably not, given that the
energy momentum relationship between the fields and currents of a single source has
the form
e0 2 2 2 1
E + c B + (E B ) = E J . (2.58)
t 2 0
2.9 reciprocity theorem 45
Far field integral form Employing the divergence theorem over a sphere the identity
above takes the form
(a) (b) (b) (a)
E H E H rdS = H(b) M(a) E(a) J(b) +H(a) M(b) +E(b) J(a) dV
S V (2.59)
In the far field, the cross products are strictly radial. That surface integral can be
written as
(a) (b) (b) (a)
1
E H E H rdS = E(a) r E(b) E(b) r E(a) rdS
0 S
S
1
= E(a) E(b) E(b) E(a) dS
0 S
=0
(2.60)
The above expansions used eq. (2.64) to expand the terms of the form
(A (r C)) r = A C (A r) (C r) , (2.61)
in which only the first dot product survives due to the transverse nature of the
fields.
So in the far field we have a direct relation between the fields and sources of two
source configurations of the same system of the form
(a) (b) (b) (a)
H M +E J dV = H(b) M(a) + E(a) J(b) dV (2.62)
V V
Application to antenna theory. This is the underlying reason that we are able to pose
the problem of what an antenna can receive, in terms of what the antenna can trans-
mit.
Prof. Eleftheriades explained the the send-receive equivalence using the concepts
of a two-port network ([14], [21]).
An alternate, and very intuitive, explanation can be found in appendix A.1 [6], that
directly related the current density sources and scalar current to the voltages in those
regions using an integral representation of the reciprocity theorem.
46 maxwells equations
Identities
(A B) = B ( A) A ( B) .
Proof.
(A B) = a eabc Ab Bc
= eabc ( a Ab )Bc ebac Ab ( a Bc ) (2.63)
= B ( A) B ( A).
(A (B C)) D = (A C) (B D) (A B) (C D)
Proof.
2.10 notation
Some notes on notation for this chapter and the coverage of this material in class:
Both M and Jm are used for magnetic current sources in the class notes.
2.11 problems 47
2.11 problems
Exercise 2.1 Far field electric field away from sources. (2015 problem set 2, p3)
Show that in a region of space where there are no sources, the electric field derived
from the magnetic vector potential is given by the expression:
1
E= ( A) . (2.65)
je0 0
( A) = erst er s etbc b Ac
[bc]
= rs er s b A c (2.66)
= er s (r As s Ar ) ,
so
( A) = ( A) 2 A. (2.67)
This supplies a strong hint of how to proceed. The electric field can be expanded
utilizing this relation and the Helmholtz equation relating A and J
1
E = jA j ( A)
e0 0
1
( A) + 2 A (2.68)
= jA j
e0 0
1
( A) k2 A + 0 J .
= jA j
e0 0
However,
k2 2 / c2
= = , (2.69)
e0 0 (1/c2 )
leaving
1 1
E = j ( A) + j J. (2.70)
e0 0 e0
Since J = 0 in a region of space where there are no sources, the electric field in such
a region is given by eq. (2.65) as stated.
LINEAR WIRE ANTENNAS
3
3.1 magnetic vector potential
In class and in the problem set A was referred to as the Magnetic Vector Potential.
I only recalled this referred to as the Vector Potential. Prefixing this with magnetic
seemed counter intuitive to me since it is generated by electric sources (charges and
currents). This terminology can be justified due to the fact that A generates the mag-
netic field by its curl. Some mention of this can be found in [25], which also points
out that the Electric Potential refers to the scalar . Prof. Eleftheriades points out that
Electric Vector Potential refers to the vector potential F generated by magnetic sources
(because in that case the electric field is generated by the curl of F.)
In 4.2 of [5] are some discussions of the kr < 1, kr = 1, and kr > 1 radial dependence
of the fields and power of a solution to an infinitesimal dipole system. Here are some
plots of those kr dependence, along with the kr = 1 contour as a reference. All the
dependence and any scaling is left out.
The CDF notebook visualizeDipoleFields.cdf is available to interactively plot these,
rotate the plots and change the ranges of what is plotted.
jk jkr j
A plot of the real and imaginary parts of H = re 1 kr can be found in
fig. 3.1.
(a) (b)
49
50 linear wire antennas
j
A plot of the real and imaginary parts of Er = 1
r2
1 kr e jkr can be found in
fig. 3.2
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
It is interesting to look at the far electric field associated with an arbitrary spherical
magnetic vector potential, assuming all of the radial dependence is in the spherical
envelope. That is
e jkr
A= rar , + a , + a , . (3.1)
r
The electric field is
1
E = jA j ( A) . (3.2)
0 e0
3.3 electric far field for a spherical potential 51
= r + + . (3.3b)
r r r sin
For the assumed potential, the divergence is
ar
jkr 1 e jkr 1 e jkr a
2e
A= 2 r + (sin a ) +
r r r r sin r r sin r
1 1 1 1 a (3.4)
= ar e jkr 2
jk + 2 e jkr (sin a ) + 2 e jkr
r r r sin r sin
ar jkr
jk e .
r
The last approximation dropped all the 1/r2 terms that will be small compared to
1/r contribution that dominates when r , the far field.
The gradient can now be computed
a
r jkr
( A) jk e
r
ar jkr
= jk r + + e
r r r sin r
1 jkr jkr ar jkr ar (3.5)
= jk rar e + 2e +e
r r r r2 sin
ar ar ar
= jk r 2 1 + jkr + 2 + 2 e jkr
r r r sin
ar
k2 r e jkr .
r
Again, a far field approximation has been used to kill all the 1/r2 terms.
The far field approximation of the electric field is now possible
1
E = jA j ( A)
0 e0
e jkr 1 ar
k2 r e jkr
= j rar (, ) + a (, ) + a (, ) + j
r 0 e0 r
(3.6)
e jkr 2
c
2 ar
jkr
= j ra ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + j r e
r , a , a ,
r c r
e jkr
= j a (, ) + a (, ) .
r
52 linear wire antennas
Observe the perfect, somewhat miraculous seeming, cancellation of all the radial
components of the field. If AT is the non-radial projection of A, the electric far field is
just
Application of the same assumed representation for the magnetic field gives
B=A
r 1
= A sin + Ar r rA + (r (rA ) Ar )
r sin r sin r
jkr jkr jkr
r e 1 e e
= a sin + ar r r a
r sin r r sin r r
jkr jkr
e e
+ r r a ar
r r r
r e jkr 1 e jkr
jkr
= a sin + ar r e a (3.8)
r sin r r sin r
e jkr
jkr
+ r e a ar
r r
e jkr
jk a a
r
e jkr
= jkr a + a
r
1
= Eff .
c
The approximation above drops the 1/r2 terms. Since
1 1
r
e0 1
= 0 e0 = = , (3.9)
0 c 0 0
the magnetic far field can be expressed in terms of the electric far field as
1
H= r E. (3.10)
3.5 plane wave relations between electric and magnetic fields 53
I recalled an identity of the form eq. (3.10) in [15], but didnt think that it required a
far field approximation. The reason for this was because the Jackson identity assumed
a plane wave representation of the field, something that the far field assumptions also
locally require.
Assuming a plane wave representation for both fields
The cross product relation between the fields follows from the Maxwell-Faraday
law of induction
B
0= E + , (3.12)
t
or
or
k
H= k E
kc0 (3.14)
1
= k E,
which also finds eq. (3.10), but with much less work and less mess.
Also observe that its possible to tell that the far field fields have only transverse com-
ponents using the same argument that they are locally plane waves at that distance.
The plane waves must satisfy the zero divergence Maxwells equations
54 linear wire antennas
E =0 (3.15a)
B = 0, (3.15b)
so by the same logic
kE=0 (3.16a)
k B = 0. (3.16b)
In the far field the electric field must equal its transverse projection
1
E = ProjT jA j ( A) . (3.17)
0 e0
Since by eq. (3.5) the scalar potential term has only a radial component, that leaves
E = j ProjT A, (3.18)
which provides eq. (3.7) with slightly less work.
Weve seen that the far field electric and magnetic fields associated with a magnetic
vector potential were
E = j ProjT A, (3.19a)
1
H= k E. (3.19b)
What does H look like in terms of A? Expanding the rejection of the radial compo-
nent answers that
j
H = k A A k k . (3.20)
The k crossed terms are killed, leaving
j
H= k A. (3.21)
Its worth a quick note that the duality transformation for this, referring to [5]
tab. 3.2, is
H = j ProjT F (3.22a)
E = k H = j k F. (3.22b)
These show explicitly that neither the electric or magnetic far field have any radial
component, matching with intuition for transverse propagation of the fields.
3.8 vertical dipole reflection coefficient 55
In class a ground reflection scenario was covered for a horizontal dipole. Reading
the text I was surprised to see what looked like the same sort of treatment 4.7.2,
but ending up with a quite different result. It turns out the difference is because the
text was treating the vertical dipole configuration, whereas Prof. Eleftheriades was
treating a horizontal dipole configuration, which have different reflection coefficients.
These differing reflection coefficients are due to differences in the polarization of the
field.
To understand these differences in reflection coefficients, consider first the field
due to a vertical dipole as sketched in fig. 3.4, with a wave vector directed from the
transmission point downwards in the z-y plane.
0 I0 l jkr
A = z e (3.24)
4r
The electric field, in the far field, can be computed by computing the normal pro-
jection to the wave vector direction
56 linear wire antennas
E = j A k k
0 I0 l
= j (z (z cos + y sin )) (z cos + y sin )
4r
0 I0 l (3.25)
= j (zy sin ) (z cos + y sin )
4r
0 I0 l
= j sin (y cos + z sin )
4r
0 I0 l
= j sin yezy .
4r
This is directed in the z-y plane rotated an additional /2 past k. The magnetic
field must then be directed into the page, along the x axis. This is sketched in fig. 3.5.
This is the Fresnel equation for the case when that corresponds to E lies in the plane
of incidence, and the magnetic field is completely parallel to the plane of reflection).
For the no transmission case, allowing vt 0, the index of refraction is nt = c/vt ,
and the reflection coefficient is 1 as claimed in 4.7.2 of [5]. Because of the symmetry
of this dipole configuration, the azimuthal angle that the wave vector is directed along
does not matter.
3.9 horizontal dipole reflection coefficient 57
In the class notes, a horizontal dipole coming out of the page is indicated. With the
page representing the z-y plane, this is a magnetic vector potential directed along the
x-axis direction
0 I0 l jkr
A = x e . (3.27)
4r
For a wave vector directed in the z-y plane as in eq. (3.23), the electric far field is
directed along
x k k = x x k k
(((
(3.28)
= x (x ((z(cos
(( +(
( y sin ) k
= x.
The electric far field lies completely in the plane of reflection. From [12] (eq. 4.34),
the Fresnel reflection coefficients is
ni cos i nt cos t
R= , (3.29)
ni cos i + nt cos t
Azimuthal angle dependency of the reflection coefficient Now consider a horizontal dipole
directed along the y-axis. For the same wave vector direction as above, the electric far
field is now directed along
y k k = y y k k
= y (y (z cos + y sin )) k
= y k sin
(3.30)
= y sin (z cos + y sin )
= y cos2 sin cos z
= cos (y cos sin z)
= cos yezy .
That is
58 linear wire antennas
0 I0 l jkr
E = j e cos yezy . (3.31)
4r
This far field electric field lies in the plane of incidence (a direction of rotated
by /2), not in the plane of reflection. The corresponding magnetic field should be
directed along the plane of reflection, which is easily confirmed by calculation
In order to apply the Fresnel equations, the field components have to be resolved into
components where either the electric field or the magnetic field is parallel to the plane
of reflection. The geometry of this, with the wave vector direction k and the electric
and magnetic field phasors perpendicular to that direction is sketched in fig. 3.6.
If the incident wave is a plane wave, or equivalently a far field spherical wave, it
will have the form
1
H= k E, (3.34)
0
3.10 resolving fields into components parallel to the reflecting plane 59
E H = k (3.35a)
E k = 0 (3.35b)
H k = 0. (3.35c)
The key to resolving the fields into components parallel to the plane of reflection
lies in the observation that the cross product of the plane normal n and the incident
wave vector direction k lies in that plane. With
k n
p = (3.36a)
k n
q = k p, (3.36b)
E = (E p) p + (E q) q = Ek p + E q (3.37a)
60 linear wire antennas
H = (H p) p + (H q) q = Hk p + H q. (3.37b)
This subdivides the fields into two pairs, one with the electric field parallel to the
reflection plane
E1 = (E p) p = Ek p
(3.38)
H1 = (H q) q = H q,
and one with the magnetic field parallel to the reflection plane
H2 = (H p) p = Hk p
(3.39)
E2 = (E q) q = E q.
This is most of what we need to proceed with the reflection and transmission anal-
ysis. The only task remaining is to determine the reflection angle.
Using a pencil with the tip on the table I was able to convince myself by observation
that there is always a normal plane of incidence regardless of any oblique angle that
the ray hits the reflecting surface. This was, for some reason, not intuitively obvious to
me. Having done that, the geometry must be reduced to what is sketched in fig. 3.7.
k k p0 p0 , (3.40)
3.10 resolving fields into components parallel to the reflecting plane 61
2 2 2
k k p0 p0 = 1 + k p0 2 k p0
2 (3.41)
= 1 k p0 .
The angle of incidence, relative to the normal to the reflection plane, follows from
k k p0 p0
cos = k r 2
1 k p0 (3.42)
r
2
= 1 k p0 .
k p0 = k (p n)
1
(3.43)
= k k n n ,
k n
where
k k n n = kr erst k n nt
s
= kr erst esab k a nb nt
[ab] (3.44)
= kr rt k a nb nt
= kr nt (kr nt k t nr )
2
= 1 + k n .
That gives
2
1 + k n
k p0 = r 2
1 k n (3.45)
r
2
= 1 k n ,
or
62 linear wire antennas
v
u r !2
u 2
cos = t1 1 k n
r (3.46)
2
= k n
= k n.
= cos1 k n, (3.47)
where the reflection plane normal should off the back surface to get the sign right.
The only detail left is the vector direction of the reflected ray (as well as the direction
for the transmitted ray if that is of interest). The reflected ray direction flips the sign
of the normal component of the ray
k0 = k n n + k n n
= k n n + k nk n (3.48)
= k 2 k n n.
Here the sign of the normal doesnt matter since it only occurs quadratically.
This now supplies everything needed for the application of the Fresnel equations
to determine the reflected ray characteristics of an arbitrarily polarized incident field.
In the last problem set we examined the array factor for a corner cube configuration,
shown in fig. 4.6.
Motivation This is a horizontal dipole antenna placed next to a metallic corner. The
radiation at points in the interior of the cube have contributions due to the line of sight
field from the antenna as well as reflections. We looked at an approximation of ground
reflections using the Image Theorem, modeling the ground as a perfectly conducting
3.11 image theorem 63
Figure 3.9: Incorrect Image Theorem source placement for corner cube.
Because of the horizontal orientation of the dipole, I argued that the reflection coef-
ficient should be -1. The reflection point is a bit messy to calculate, and it turns out
to zeroth order in h/r the sin magnitude scaling of the reflected (far-field) field is
present for both reflected rays. I though that this was probably because the observa-
64 linear wire antennas
tion point lays at the same altitude for both the line of sight ray and the reflected
ray.
Attempting this problem as a reflection problem makes it much more difficult than
it needs to be. It turns out that the correct image source placement for this problem is
that of fig. 3.10.
Figure 3.10: Correct image source placement for the corner cube.
This wasnt at all obvious to me. The key is understanding that the goal of the image
source placement isnt to figure out how the reflection will occur, but to manufacture
a source configuration for which the tangential component of the electric field is zero
on the conducting surface.
Image placement for infinite conducting plane. Before thinking about the corner cube
configuration, consider a horizontal dipole next to an infinite conducting plane. This,
and the correct image source placement is illustrated in fig. 3.11.
Ill now verify that this is the correct image source. This is basically a calculation
that the tangential components of the electric fields from both sources sum to zero.
3.11 image theorem 65
Let,
r = | s r0 | , (3.49)
so that the magnetic vector potential for the first quadrant dipole has the form
A0 jkr
A= e z. (3.50)
4r
With
s r0
k =
s (3.51)
E = z z k k,
A0 jkr
E = j e E. (3.52)
4r
If the normal to the plane is n the tangential component of this field is the projection
of E on the direction
k n
p = . (3.53)
k n
k n
E p p = z z k k k n 2 . (3.54)
k n
Because the triple product k k n = 0, the tangential component of the electric
field, provided k n 6= 0, is
A0 jkr k n
Ek = j e z k n 2 . (3.55)
4r
1 n k
66 linear wire antennas
Now the wave vector direction for the second quadrant ray on the plane is required.
Both k0 and s0 are reflections across the plane. Any such reflection has the value
x0 = (x n) n (x n) n
= (n x + n x) n (3.56)
= nxn.
This has the x component flipped in sign and the rest left untouched as desired for
a reflection in the y-z plane.
The second quadrant field will have k0 n terms in place of all the k n terms of
eq. (3.55). We want to know how the two compare. This calculation is simply done
using the dual form of the cross product temporarily
k0 n = I k0 n
D E
= I k0 n
D 2 E
= I nknn
D E 2 (3.58)
= I nk
2
= I n k
= n k
= k n.
So, provided the image source in the second quadrant is oppositely oriented (sign
inversion), the tangential components of the two will sum to zero on that surface.
Thinking back to the corner cube, it is clear that an image source opposite to the
source across from one of the walls will result in a zero tangential electric field along
this boundary as is the case here (say the y-z plane). A second pair of sources opposite
from each other anywhere else also about the y-z plane will not change that zero
tangential electric field on this surface, but if the signs of the sources is alternated as
3.12 problems 67
in fig. 3.10 it will also result in zero tangential electric field on the z-x plane, which
has the desired boundary value effects for both surfaces of the corner cube.
Once the image sources are placed, the problem can be tackled with the boundary
removed.
3.12 problems
3 (p r) r p
E= . (3.59)
4e0 r3
so
cos
Er = ql . (3.63)
2e0 r3
For the component, noting that = (cos cos , cos sin , sin ),
(3 cos r z) = z (3.64)
= sin ,
68 linear wire antennas
so
sin
E = ql . (3.65)
4e0 r3
Finally the E component of this electrostatic field is zero since
(3 cos r z) = 0, (3.66)
because r and are orthonormal, and lies in the x-y plane, always perpendicular
to z.
Current for the dipole configuration A set of equal magnitude oscillating charges q(t)
separated by distance l, have the phasor representation
q(t) = qe jt . (3.67)
The dipole moment associated with such a charge distribution is
l
l
p(t) = +q + (q) e jt z
2 2 (3.68)
jt
= qle z.
This has the desired dipole moment magnitude p = ql z. The current for this dipole
configuration is
dq(t)
I(t) = (3.69)
dt
= jqe jt ,
allowing a phasor identification for the current magnitude
I0 = jq. (3.70)
Near field equivalence The near field electric field equations derived from the mag-
netic vector potential are expressed in terms of I0 , not q. Since the ratio of charge to
permittivity is
q I0
=
e0 je0
1
= jI0
kce0 (3.71)
0 e0
= jI0
ke0
= jI0 ,
k
3.12 problems 69
the electric field components eq. (3.63) and eq. (3.65) calculated from the dipole
moment take the form
cos
Er = j I0 l (3.72a)
2kr3
sin
E = j I0 l (3.72b)
4kr3
E = 0. (3.72c)
This reproduces the near field electric field equations for a vertical infinitesimal
dipole (4.20a,b) from the text [5] in the limit kr 0.
For a vertical dipole the magnetic vector potential has the form
A0
A = z e jkr , (3.73)
r
where A0 = 0 I0 l /4. The far field electric field is
E = jAT
A0 (3.74)
= j e jkr z z k k ,
r
where all the radial (non-transverse) components of the magnetic vector potential
have been subtracted out.
70 linear wire antennas
Reflection coefficient To determine the sign of the reflection coefficient for a vertical
dipole configuration, consider a wave vector directed in the z-y plane at an angle
from the pole
The far field electric field that propagates along this direction, has direction
z z k k = z (z (z cos + y sin )) k
= z cos k
(3.76)
= z cos (z cos + y sin )
= z sin2 sin cos y
= sin (cos y sin z) .
When there is reflection, the electric (far) field is directed entirely in the plane of
incidence (with the magnetic field entirely parallel to the reflecting interface). The
Fresnel reflection coefficient ([12] eq. 4.40) for such a polarization is
nt cos i ni cos t
R= . (3.77)
ni cos i + nt cos t
For no transmission the transmitted speed of the radiation vt 0, and the the index
of refraction of the ground approaches nt = c/vt . This shows that the reflection
coefficient for the vertical dipole configuration is +1. Because of the symmetry of this
dipoles orientation the sign of the reflection coefficient has no azimuthal dependency.
rref = 552 + 50002 (3.78c)
rlos = 452 + 50002 (3.78d)
Summing the line of sight and reflected (image source contribution) gives
1 jkri
E = jA0 r
e cos i (sin i y cos i z)
i {los,ref} i
(3.79)
1
jA0 cos A (sin A y cos A z) e jkri ,
r i{los,ref }
p
where an average distance r = h2t + d2 = 502 + 50002 , the distance from the origin
to the base station has been factored out in the denominator.
The sum of the phase terms is
2 2
r2 +2ht hr +h2r r2 2ht hr +h2r
e jk + e jk e jk r +2ht hr + e jk r2ht hr
2 2
= e jkr 1+2ht hr /r + e jkr 12ht hr /r
e jkr e jkht hr /r + e jkht hr /r (3.80)
jkr kht hr
= 2e cos ,
r
so after reflection the far field electric field has the form
1 jkr kht hr
E = jA0 cos A (sin A y cos A z) 2e cos . (3.81)
r r
This differs from the line of sight field by a factor of 2 cos (kht hr /r ).
3 108 m/s
= c/ = = 0.33m, (3.82)
900 106 s1
so the cosine argument is
2 50 1.5
kht hr /r = = 0.28, (3.83)
0.33 5000.25
and the cosine adjustment to the field strength is
Noting that EIRP = Pt Gt , the Friis transmission equation, after adjusting for the
reflection effects, provides the power at the mobile
2
Pr = (Pt Gt ) Gr (1.92)2
4r
0.33
2 (3.86)
30 103 1.8 (1.92)2 W
=
4 5000.25
= 5.6 1012 W.
The total power received is just 5.6 pW, assuming no polarization losses (we know
the polarization at the mobile, but not for the base station.)
In an attempt to avoid calculator errors for this problem I scripted the numerical
calculations in ps2p5.jl. That wasnt entirely successful on submission, since I used 5
m instead of 1.5 m!
Exercise 3.3 Superposition of electric and magnetic dipoles. (2015 problem set 3, p1)
An infinitesimal electric dipole of electric current strength Ieo is oriented along the
x-axis. With this there is also an infinitesimal magnetic dipole of magnetic current
strength Imo but oriented along the y-axis.
a. Write down an expression for the total electric field radiated in the far zone.
b. Assume now that Ieo / Imo = o = 120. Simplify the electric field expression
found part a.
c. Plot in polar co-ordinates the normalized magnitude of the electric field in the
zy plane and for 0 < 2 (far zone).
Answer for Exercise 3.3
Part a. The far field electric field induced by the electric current can be calculated
with the transverse projection
Ee = j ProjT A
(3.87)
= j A (A k)k ,
where
3.12 problems 73
0 Ieo l jkr
A = x e . (3.88)
4r
To simplify this, note that the Cartesian to spherical coordinates mapping is
x = sin cos k + cos cos sin (3.89a)
l jkr
E = j e e0 cos cos + sin Ieo + cos sin cos Imo
4r
(3.96)
74 linear wire antennas
(a) (b)
Figure 3.13: Electric and magnetic infinitesimal dipole superposition, view from above and
below.
Part c. In the zy plane, = /2, and the electric field has only a component
0 Ieo l jkr
E = j e (1 + cos ) (3.98)
4r
The magnitude of the variation in the [0, 2] interval is plotted in fig. 3.14.
3.12 problems 75
Figure 3.14: Electric and magnetic infinitesimal dipole superposition, polar plot in ZY plane.
Exercise 3.4 Long thin wire dipoles. (2015 problem set 3, p2)
a. On a single diagram, plot the polar patterns for l = 0.5, l = 1.0, l = 1.25 and
l = 2.0 long thin wire dipole antennas.
b. Use numerical integration to calculate the maximum directivity for each dipole.
Make a table with your results. Which length corresponds to the highest direc-
tivity?
c. Use numerical integration to calculate the radiation resisistance of the l = 1.25
dipole. Do you expect this dipole to be capacitive or inductive?
Answer for Exercise 3.4
Part a. Assuming a z oriented dipole, in the far field, the electric field is
kl kl
I0 e jkr cos 2 cos cos 2
E j . (3.99)
2r sin
In fig. 3.15 F() = 8 2 U / | I0 |2 is plotted for {0.5, 1, 1.25, 2.0}. For = 1.25
some very small side lobes are just barely visible. For = 2 the single lobe di-
rectivity is lost, and a significant split of the radiation field along two different di-
rections can be observed. These individual features can be explored more easily in
http://goo.gl/OjK4oc which provides an interactive control for varying the l / ratio.
76 linear wire antennas
Figure 3.15: Polar plot of radiation intensities for some electric z-axis oriented dipoles.
The side lobes for the = 1.25 case do not show up very well in the plot above. The
log polar plot of fig. 3.17 shows this detail better.
3.12 problems 77
90
120 60
150 30
0dB
-10dB
-20dB
-30dB
-40dB
180 0
210 330
0.5
1.0
1.25
240 300 2.0
270
Figure 3.17: Log polar plot of radiation intensities for some electric z-axis oriented dipoles.
4 F()|max
D0 = . (3.101)
2 0 F() sin d
1
Prad = Ud = | I0 |2 Rr , (3.102)
2
or, with = 120,
78 linear wire antennas
2
Rr = Ud
| I0 |2
2
cos ( cos ) cos () 2
1 (3.103)
= 120 2 d sin d
4 0 0 sin
(cos ( cos ) cos ())2
= 60 d.
0 sin
The half-wavelength number calculated matches the value quoted in [5] eq. 4-93.
For the reactance, without calculating, I dont know an intuitive way to determine
whether it would be positive or negative for any given length. The graph of [5] fig. 8.17
appears to show that the reactance is roughly positive (inductive) in the [0.5, 1] in-
terval and negative (capacitive) in the [1, 1.5] interval.
A N T E N N A A R R AY S
4
4.1 chebyscheff polynomials
In ancient times (i.e. 2nd year undergrad) I recall being very impressed with Chebyscheff
polynomials for designing lowpass filters. Id used Chebyscheff filters for the hard-
ware we used for a speech recognition system our group built in the design lab. One
of the benefits of these polynomials is that the oscillation in the | x | < 1 interval is
strictly bounded. This same property, as well as the unbounded nature outside of the
[1, 1] interval turns out to have applications to antenna array design.
The Chebyscheff polynomials are defined by
Tm (x) = cos m cos1 x , |x| < 1 (4.1a)
Tm (x) = cosh m cosh1 x , | x | > 1. (4.1b)
Range restrictions and hyperbolic form. Prof. Eleftheriadess notes made a point to
point out the definition in the | x | > 1 interval, but that can also be viewed as a
consequence instead of a definition if the range restriction is removed. For example,
suppose x = 7, and let
cos1 7 = , (4.2)
so
7 = cos
e j + e j (4.3)
=
2
= cosh( j),
or
j cosh1 7 = . (4.4)
79
80 antenna arrays
The same argument clearly applies to any other value outside of the | x | < 1 range,
so without any restrictions, these polynomials can be defined as just
Tm (x) = cos m cos1 x . (4.6)
Polynomial nature. Equation (4.6) does not obviously look like a polynomial. Lets
proceed to verify the polynomial nature for the first couple values of m.
m = 0.
m = 1.
m = 2.
j cos1
x
= Re e
m
= Re cos cos1 x + j sin cos1 x
p m
= Re x + j 1 x2
m 1/2
= Re x +m
jx m1 1 x2
1
m m 2 2 2/2
m m 3 2 3/2
m m 4 2 4/2
x 1x jx 1x + x 1x +
2 3 4
m m 2 m m 4 2
= xm 1 x2 + 1 x2
x x
2 4
(4.10)
This expansion was a bit cavalier with the signs of the sin cos1 x = 1 x2 terms,
since the negative sign should be picked for the root when x [1, 0]. However, that
doesnt matter in the end since the real part operation selects only powers of two of
this root.
The final result of the expansion above can be written
b m /2c
m k
Tm (x) = 2k
(1)k x m2k 1 x2 . (4.11)
k=0
This clearly shows the polynomial nature of these functions, and is also perfectly
well defined for any value of x. The even and odd alternation with m is also clear in
this explicit expansion.
Some plots The first couple polynomials are plotted in fig. 4.1.
dTm (x)
0 = 1 x2 + mxTm (x) mTm1 (x) (4.12b)
dx
1 0
if m 6= n
1
Tm (x)Tn (x)dx = if m = n = 0 (4.12d)
1 1 x2
/2 if m = n, m 6= 0
In our text [5] is a design procedure that applies Cheybshev polynomials to the
selection of current magnitudes for an evenly spaced array of identical antennas
placed along the z-axis.
For an even number 2M of identical antennas placed at positions rm = (d/2) (2m 1) e3 ,
the array factor is
N
AF = Im e jkrrm . (4.13)
m= N
Assuming the currents are symmetric Im = Im , with r = (sin cos , sin sin , cos ),
and u = d
cos , this is
4.1 chebyscheff polynomials 83
N
AF = Im e jk(d/2)(2m1) cos
m= N
N
Im cos (4.14)
=2 k(d/2)(2m 1) cos
m=1
N
=2 Im cos ((2m 1)u) .
m=1
This is a sum of only odd cosines, and can be expanded as a sum that includes
all the odd powers of cos u. Suppose for example that this is a four element array
with N = 2. In this case the array factor has the form
The design procedure in the text sets cos u = z/z0 , and then equates this to
T3 (z) = 4z3 3z to determine the current amplitudes Im . That is
2I1 6I2 8I2
z + 3 z3 = 3z + 4z3 , (4.16)
z0 z0
or
The currents in the array factor are fully determined up to a scale factor, reduc-
ing the array factor to
1 1
cos u = cos m+
z 3 2
(0 ) (4.20)
3
= 0, .
2z0
showing that the scaling factor z0 effects the locations of the zeros. It also allows
the values at the extremes cos u = 1, to increase past the 1 non-scaled limit
values. These effects can be explored in http://goo.gl/KPqcjX, but can also be
seen in fig. 4.2.
The scale factor can be fixed for a desired maximum power gain. For RdB, that
will be when
20 log10 cosh(3 cosh1 z0 ) = RdB, (4.21)
or
R
1 1
z0 = cosh cosh 10 20 . (4.22)
3
90 90
120 60 120 60
150 30 150 30
1.0 0dB
0.8 -10dB
0.6
-20dB
0.4
0.2 -30dB
180 0 180 0
d/ =1/8 d/ =1/8
d/ =1/4 d/ =1/4
240 300 d/ =1/4 240 300 d/ =1/4
270 270
(a) (b)
Figure 4.3: T3 fitting of N = 4 array in linear and dB scales.
Dolph-Cheybshev design procedure from class notes. Prof. Eleftheriades described a Cheyb-
shev antenna array design method that looks different than the one of the text [5].
Portions of that procedure are like that of the text. For example, if a side lobe level
of 20 log10 R is desired, a scaling factor
1 1
x0 = cosh cosh R , (4.24)
m
0
xm r = cos (2(m r) 1)
2m
= cos (2r + 1)
2m
(4.28)
= cos (2r + 1)
2m
= cos (2(r + 1) 1)
2m
0
= xr+1 .
This has a factor of two that does not appear in the Balanis design method. It seems
plausible that this factor of two was introduced so that the roots of the array factor zn
are conjugate pairs. Since cos1 (z) = cos1 z, this choice leads to such conjugate
pairs
0
xm
r
ju0mr 1
exp = exp j2 cos
x
00
x
= exp j2 cos1 r+1 (4.30)
x0
0
1 xr+1
= exp j2 cos
x0
= exp jur+1 .
When m is even, there will only be such conjugate pairs of roots. When m is odd,
the remaining factor will be
1
z e2j cos (0/ x0 ) = z e2j /2 = z e j = z + 1. (4.32)
However, with this factor of two included, the connection between the final array
factor polynomial eq. (4.31), and the Cheybshev polynomial Tm is not clear to me.
How does this scaling impact the roots?
With
z = e j(u+u0 ) (4.36)
= e jkd cos +jku0 ,
AF = e j3kd cos +j3ku0 + 2.33089e j2kd cos +j2ku0 + 2.33089e jkd cos +jku0 + 1. (4.37)
This array function is highly phase dependent, plotted for u0 = 0 in fig. 4.4.
88 antenna arrays
(a) (b)
Figure 4.4: Plot with u0 = 0, d = /4.
This can be directed along a single direction (z-axis) with higher phase choices
as illustrated in fig. 4.5.
4.1 chebyscheff polynomials 89
90 antenna arrays
(a)
(b)
4.2 problems 91
4.2 problems
Part a. This problem can be tackled with the image theorem, which requires place-
ment of sources as in fig. 3.10.
92 antenna arrays
s1 = h (1, 1, 0)
s2 = h (1, 1, 0)
(4.38)
s3 = h (1, 1, 0)
s4 = h (1, 1, 0)
r m = | r sm |
1/2
= r2 + s2m 2r sm
1/2
s2
r
= r 1 + m2 2 sm
r r
(4.39)
2
1 sm r
r 1+ sm
2 r2 r
1 sm2
=r+ r sm
2 r
r r sm .
r s2 = h sin ( cos + sin ) = 2h sin cos ( + /4) (4.40b)
r s3 = h sin (cos + sin ) = 2h sin cos ( /4) (4.40c)
r s4 = h sin (cos sin ) = 2h sin cos ( + /4) (4.40d)
Suppose the magnetic vector potential has the structure of an infinitesimal dipole
0 I0 jkrm
Am = e z. (4.41)
4rm
4.2 problems 93
In the far field, the direction vectors for all the fields will be approximately
The far field electric field for each image source is approximately
Em = jAT
0 I0 jkrm
= j e sin (4.43)
4r
I0 jkrm
= jk e sin .
4r
Writing s = 2h for the distance from the origin to each of the image sources, the
superposition of all the image sources is
I0 jkr
E = jk e sin e jks sin cos( /4) e jks sin cos(+ /4) + e jks sin cos( /4)
4r (4.44)
jks sin cos(+ /4)
e ,
or
I0 jkr
E = 2jk e sin (cos (ks sin cos ( /4)) cos (ks sin cos ( + /4))) .
4r
(4.45)
AF = 2I0 (cos (ks sin cos ( /4)) cos (ks sin cos ( + /4))) . (4.46)
2
1 kI0
U= sin2 |AF|2 = B0 sin2 |AF|2 . (4.47)
2 4
This holds for both isolated antenna with AF = 1, and the corner cube with |AF|2
given by eq. (4.46).
For the isolated antenna, the radiation intensity is maximized at = /2, so
94 antenna arrays
4 1
D0,iso =
2 0 sin3 d
2 (4.48)
=
4/3
3
= .
2
For the corner cube the maximization problem is trickier. As a first approximation,
if ks is assumed to be small, then all the cosines in eq. (4.46) are close to unity, and
the array factor is zero. The next order in ks expansion of the cosines is required
so for small ks
U = B0 (ks)4 sin6 sin2 (2). (4.50)
U0 = B0 (ks)4 (4.51)
/2
Prad = B0 d d sin U(, )
0 0
/2
B0 (ks)4 d sin2 (2) d sin7
0 0 (4.52)
32
4
= B0 (ks)
4 35
2
= B0 (ks)4 4 .
35
The approximate directivity of the corner cube is
4 B0 (ks)4 35
D0,ccube 2
= 17.5. (4.53)
B0 (ks)4 4 35 2
4.2 problems 95
4 B0 (ks)4
D0,ccube 1
= 15. (4.55)
B0 (ks)4 4 15
Note that the baseline directivity without the sin2 element factor is unity, since
4 /2 sin d = 1, (4.56)
0
1
Prad = | I0 |2 Rr , (4.57)
2
so the ratio of radiation resistance will just be the ratio of the radiated powers
90 90
120 60 120 60
150 30 150 30
1.0 0dB
0.8 -5dB
0.6 -10dB
0.4 -15dB
0.2 -20dB
180 0 180 0
270 270
(a) (b)
Figure 4.8: Polar plot of AF in XY plane for various values of = s/.
To plot the squared array factor, the physically significant range [0, /2] can be
used, because all of the negative sign contributions from quadrant III will be flipped
into quadrant I.
4.2 problems 97
Its more fun to visualize this in 3D as in, and a manipulate control for visualizing
|AF|2 is available at http://goo.gl/IVaiw2. This is plotted in fig. 4.10 for = 0.69.
Part e. The code for the numerical calculations can be found in ps3:ps3Q3plotsCorrected.nb.
The results are
D0 [h = /8] = 17.1
D0 [h = /4] = 15.9 (4.60)
D0 [h = /2] = 14.3.
98 antenna arrays
If the sin2 contribution of the element factor is omitted (as the posted solution
does in the directivity approximation), the directivities are all slightly less
D0 [h = /8] = 14.6
D0 [h = /4] = 13.2 (4.61)
D0 [h = /2] = 15.1.
x = cos . (4.62)
cos(a + b) = Re e j(a+b)
= Re e ja e jb (4.64)
= Re cos a + j sin a cos b + j sin b
= cos a cos b sin a sin b.
Applying this gives
!
2xTm1 Tm2 = 2 cos cos(m) cos + sin(m) sin
!
cos(m) cos(2) + sin(m) sin(2)
!
= 2 cos cos(m) cos + sin(m) sin )
!
cos(m)(cos2 sin2 ) + 2 sin(m) sin cos
= Tm (x).
(4.65)
4.2 problems 99
x = cos . (4.66)
Observe that
d
1 = sin , (4.67)
dx
so
d d d
=
dx dx d (4.68)
1 d
= .
sin d
Plugging this in gives
d
1 x2 Tm (x) + mxTm (x) mTm1 (x)
dx
1 d
2
= sin cos(m) + m cos cos(m) m cos((m 1)) (4.69)
sin d
= sin (m sin(m)) + m cos cos(m) m cos((m 1)).
Applying the cosine addition formula eq. (4.64) gives
m (sin sin(m) + cos cos(m)) m (cos(m) cos + sin(m) sin ) = 0. (4.70)
dTm (x) 1 d
= cos(m)
dx sin d
1 (4.71)
= (m) sin(m)
sin
1
=m sin(m),
sin
100 antenna arrays
d2 Tm (x) 1 d 1
2
= m sin(m)
dx sin d
sin (4.72)
1 cos 1
= m 2 sin(m) + m cos(m) .
sin sin sin
1
1
h T0 , T0 i = 1/2 dx
1 x2
1
0
(4.74)
1
= sin d
sin
= 0 ()
= .
Note that since the [, 0] interval was chosen, the negative root of sin2 = 1 x2
was chosen, since sin is negative in that interval.
The m,m inner product with m 6= 0 is
4.2 problems 101
1
1
h Tm , Tm i = 1/2 (Tm (x))2 dx
11 x2
0
1
= cos2 (m) sin d
sin
0
(4.75)
= cos2 (m)d
1 0
= (cos(2m) + 1) d
2
= .
2
So far so good. For m 6= n the inner product is
0
h Tm , Tm i = cos(m) cos(n)d
1 0 jm
= e + e jm e jn + e jn d
4
1 0 j(m+n)
= e + e j(m+n) + e j(mn) + e j(m+n) d (4.76)
4
1 0
= (cos((m + n)) + cos((m n))) d
2
1 sin((m + n)) sin((m n)) 0
= +
2 m+n mn
= 0.
Exercise 4.6 Schelkunoff z-axis array, binary array. (2015 problem set 4, p1)
A three-element array is placed along the z-axis. Assume that the spacing between
the elements is d = /2 and the relative amplitude excitations are I1 = I3 = 1 and
I2 = 2
Use the Schelkunoff method to
a. Determine the angles of the nulls when the corresponding progressive phase
shifts ad are 0, /2, , 3 /2. Do this for each case.
b. For each case plot the corresponding array factor
Answer for Exercise 4.6
102 antenna arrays
Part a. With the array elements placed at rm = mdz, m [0, 2], the array factor is
0 1 2
AF = 1 e j(kd cos +ad) + 2 e j(kd cos +ad) + 1 e j(kd cos +ad) . (4.77)
AF = 1 + 2z + z2 = (1 + z)2 . (4.78)
This is a binary array with nulls located at z = 1. The angles where that is the case
are
2
cos + ad = (2N + 1), (4.80)
2
or
1 ad
= cos 2N + 1 . (4.81)
1. Case I: ad = 0.
Here
= cos1 1 = 0
(4.83)
= cos1 (1) = = 180 .
4.2 problems 103
1 1
= cos 2N + 1 , (4.84)
2
= cos1 0 = /2 = 90 . (4.87)
1 1
= cos 2N , (4.88)
2
90 1 90 1
120 60 120 60
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
150 30 150 30
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
180 0 180 0
90 1 90 1
120 60 120 60
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
150 30 150 30
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
180 0 180 0
Exercise 4.7 Schelkunoff z-axis, zero phase shifts. (2015 problem set 4, p2)
Use the Schelkunoff method to design a linear array of isotropic elements placed
along the z-axis such that the zeros of the array factor are located at = 0 , 60 , 120 .
The inter-element spacing is d = /2 and the progressive phase shift is zero degrees.
a. What is the required number of the elements?
b. Determine the corresponding current excitation coefficients
c. Find the array factor
4.2 problems 105
Part a. With d = /2, we write z = e j cos . The zeros of the array factor occur at
cos 0 =
cos( /3) = /2 (4.90)
cos(2 /3) = /2,
= z2 + 1 + z3 + z.
Normalized this is
1
1 + z + z2 + z3 .
AF(z) = (4.92)
4
1
I0 =
4
1
I1 =
4 (4.93)
1
I2 =
4
1
I3 = .
4
Part c. A phase term may be factored out of the array factor to put it in real form
z 3/2 3/2
AF = z + z 1/2 + z 1/2 + z 3/2 . (4.94)
4
106 antenna arrays
Substituting z = e j cos , and discarding the leading z3/2 term, the array factor is
1 3 1 sin (2 cos )
AF = cos cos + cos cos = . (4.95)
2 2 2 4 sin 2 cos
Part d. This is plotted in fig. 4.12, which also clearly shows the zeros at = 0, 60 , 120
as desired.
90 90
120 60 120 60
150 30 150 30
1.0 0dB
0.8
0.6 -10dB
0.4 -20dB
0.2
180 0 180 0
270 270
(a) (b)
Figure 4.12: Array factor for specified zeros.
2
AF = Im e jkrm r
m=2 (4.96)
2
= Im e jkdm cos .
m=2
Part b. With z = e jkd cos , we can assume a binomial representation of the form
2
4
AF = e jkdm cos
m=2 m + 2
2 (4.99)
4 4
= +2 cos (kdm cos )
2 m=1
m+2
= 6 + 2 (4 cos (kd cos ) + cos (2kd cos )) .
108 antenna arrays
1
AF = (3 + 4 cos u + cos 2u) = cos4 (u/2), (4.100)
8
where u = 5 cos /4. The substitution u = j ln z, puts the array factor in explicit
polynomial form
1
AF(z) = (1 + z)4 . (4.101)
16z2
The leading 1/z2 factor, which introduces negative power polynomial terms but
does not change the roots, is because the expansion eq. (4.99) effectively factored
out a pure phase term. This does not impact the power array factor |AF|2 . Had the
array elements not been placed symmetrically about the origin, instead being located
at rm = mdz, m {0, 1, 2, 3, 5}, this factor would have been eliminated. A leading z N
factor in AF(z) is seen to be associated with the location of the origin of the coordinate
system.
Part d. Solutions for the nulls are found for integer N solutions of
5
cos = (1 + 2N), (4.102)
4
Two solutions in the visible range can be found
= cos1 4/5 ,
(4.103)
or
{143.1 , 36.9 } . (4.104)
The power array factor is plotted in fig. 4.14, and fig. 4.15.
90 90
120 60 120 60
150 30 150 30
1.0 0dB
0.8 -10dB
0.6 -20dB
0.4 -30dB
0.2 -40dB
180 0 180 0
270 270
(a) (b)
4.2 problems 109
Figure 4.15: Spherical polar plot of 5 element binomial power array factor.
or
1
x0 = cosh cosh1 R = 2.01. (4.107)
4
AF(u) = T4 (x)
= T4 (x0 cos(u/2)) (4.108)
= 8x04 cos4 (u/2) 8x02 cos2 (u/2) + 1.
Since
1
cos2 (u/2) = (cos(u) + 1)
2 (4.109)
1
cos4 (u/2) = (cos(2u) + 4 cos(u) + 3) ,
8
the array factor can be expanded in cos(mu), as
I2 = = 0.082
2
I1 = = 0.25
2
I0 = = 0.34 (4.112)
I1 = = 0.25
2
I2 = = 0.082.
2
Part b. The array factor is defined by eq. (4.111), eq. (4.112), where u = sin cos .
Part d. The zeros of the array factor occur where the argument of
equals /2 + n, or
1 1
u = 2 cos cos (2n 1) . (4.114)
x0 2m
Compare this to the zeros of the uniform array factor, which was
N 1
1 zN z N /2 z N /2
AF(z) = zn =
1z
= z(N 1)/2 1/2
z z 1/2
(4.115)
n=0
2n
u= , n 6= 0 Z. (4.117)
N
These two sets of zeros are plotted on the unit circle in the z-domain in fig. 4.16.
112 antenna arrays
Figure 4.16: Zeros of five element Chebyshev and uniform array elements on z-domain unit
circle.
The Chebyshev and uniform array factors are plotted the z-x plane for u = kd sin cos(0)
in dB in fig. 4.17.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.17: Chebyshev and uniform power array factor in z-x plane (dB).
For the Chebyshev array the zeros are found to be at {44 , 61 , 119 , 136 }, so the
null to null beamwidth is 88 . The 3 dB beamwidth for the main lobe is found to be
28 .
For the uniform array the zeros are found at {24 , 53 , 127 , 156 } so that arrays
null to null beamwidth is 48 .
Part f. This array configuration has a donut shaped power pattern, as shown in
fig. 4.18.
The two array factor power patterns (normalized) are plotted in fig. 4.19.
90 90
120 60 120 60
150 30 150 30
1.0 0dB
0.8 -10dB
0.6 -20dB
0.4 -30dB
0.2 -40dB
180 0 180 0
270 270
(a) (b)
Figure 4.19: Plots of 5 element Chebyshev and uniform array power patterns for u =
kd sin cos 0.
A P E R AT U R E A N T E N N A S
5
5.1 problems
1. An expression for E (, )
2. An expression for E (, )
Ms = 2z y cos x = 2x cos x . (5.2)
a a
producing an electric vector potential that is approximately
115
116 aperature antennas
a /2 b /2
e 0 0
F= dx dy0 Ms e jk(rrr )
4r a /2 b /2
a /2 b /2
e jkr 0
0
= e x dx dy0 cos
x 0 e jkrr
2r a /2 b /2 a
a /2 b /2
e jkr 0 jk sin (cos x0 +sin y0 )
= e x dx 0 dy0 cos x e
2r a /2 b /2 a
a /2 b /2
e jkr 0 0 0 0 0
= e x dx 0 e jk sin cos x +jx /a + e jk sin cos x jx /a dy0 e jk sin sin y .
4r a /2 b /2
(5.3)
A symmetric interval around the origin has been chosen to avoid the introduction
of complex phases.
Each of these integrals is of the form
c /2 c /2
jz0 e jc/2 e jc/2 sin c/2
0 jz 0 e
dz e = = = . (5.4)
j j /2
c /2
c /2
With
X = k sin cos (5.5a)
Since
sin(z + /2) + sin(z /2) = 0 (5.7a)
this reduces to
eab jkr cos Xa/2 sin Yb/2
F= e x . (5.8)
4r (Xa/2)2 ( /2)2 Yb/2
5.1 problems 117
H = jFT
eab jkr cos Xa/2 sin Yb/2
= jkc e (x (x r) r) 2 2 (5.9)
4r a X /4 ( /2)2 Yb/2
jkab jkr cos Xa/2 sin Yb/2
= e (x (x r) r) .
4r (Xa/2)2 ( /2)2 Yb/2
Since
x = sin cos r + cos cos sin , (5.10)
This can be related to the electric field noting that that the dual of the far field
relationship
1
HA = r E A , (5.12)
is
EF = r HF , (5.13)
E = r H
(5.14)
jkab jkr cos Xa/2 sin Yb/2
= e r x .
4r (Xa/2)2 ( /2)2 Yb/2
That electric field direction is
Note that the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular, as expected.
118 aperature antennas
jkab jkr cos Xa/2 sin Yb/2
E = e sin . (5.17)
4r (Xa/2)2 ( /2)2 Yb/2
3. Now for the plots and numeric values requested for the given aperture size and
source frequency.
The electric field power pattern for an aperture of dimensions a = b = 10cm at
f = 9.8GHz is plotted in dB scale from 0 dB down to 40 dB in fig. 5.1.
1 1
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
0 /4 /2 3 /4 0 /4 /2 3 /4
(a) (b)
Figure 5.2: E-H-plane (power) for = 0.
These fields are also plotted on a log scale in fig. 5.3 , from 0 dB down to -50 dB.
90 0 90 0
120 60 120 60
-10 -10
-20 -20
150 30 150 30
-30 -30
-40 -40
180 0 180 0
(a) (b)
Figure 5.3: E,H-plane (power) for = 0, dB scale.
Part b. For the E-plane the zeros are found at 27 , 50 , 90 , 130 , and 153 .
For the H-plane the zeros are found at 18 , 38 , 67 , 113 , 142 , 162 .
These were determined numerically, but these can also be visually verified against
the dB power plots above, which are marked in degrees.
Part c. For the E-plane the sidelobe peaks are found at 35 , 60 , 120 , 145 , with
respective levels (dB) of -25, -37, -37, -25.
For the H-plane the sidelobe peaks are found at 26 , 49 , 90 , 131 , 154 , with
respective levels (dB) of -13.2666, -17.8436, -22.8361, -17.8436, -13.2666.
These were also calculated numerically, but can also be visually verified against the
dB power plots above.
120 aperature antennas
Part d. The -3 dB point of the main lobe is found where |E| = 103/20 . For the
E-plane this is at 10 , and for the H-plane this is found at 8 .
MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS
6
6.1 problems
Zs + jZ0 tan(L)
Zin2 = Z0 (6.1)
Z0 + jZs tan(L)
where = k0 eeff is the effective propagation constant, and use Z0 = 26 as
the characteristic impedance of the microstrip line. What is the value of Zin2
and Yin2 = 1/ Zin2 .
g. Based on the above, calculate the total input impedance of the patch antenna
Zin at the terminals of the first slot.
h. If the imaginary part of Zin is not zero, adjust the length parameter m (in part
d) between 0 < 3 < m to make the patch resonant (i.e. make the imaginary
part of Zin vanish). What is the new input impedance in this case?
Answer for Exercise 6.1
121
122 microstrip antennas
Part a.
r
1 2
W=
2 f 0 0 e0 e r + 1
r
c 2
= (6.2)
2 f 0 2.2 + 1
r
3 108 m/s 100cm/m 2
=
(2)10 109 s1 2.2 + 1
= 1.186cm.
Part b.
1/2
er + 1 er 1
12h
eeff = + 1+ (6.3)
2 2 W
= 1.9716.
Part c.
0
L0 =
2
c (6.4)
=
2 f 0 eeff
= 1.068cm.
Part d.
W
L e + 0.3 h + 0.264
= 0.412 eff W (6.5)
h eeff 0.258 h + 0.8
= 0.5108.
L = 0.5108h (6.6)
= 0.081cm.
L = L0 2L (6.7)
= 0.9061cm
6.1 problems 123
Part e.
0 = c / f 0 (6.8)
= 3cm.
2
k0 = (6.9)
0
= 2.0944cm1
h
= 0.053
0 (6.10)
1
< ,
10
which is satisfied, so
W 1 2
G= 1 (k0 h) (6.11)
1200 24
= 0.0033f.
W
B= (1 0.636 ln (k0 h)) (6.12)
1200
= 0.0056f.
Ys = G + jB
= 0.0033 + 0.0056j f (6.13)
= 0.00649 60 f.
Zs = 78 133j
(6.14)
= 154 59 .
Part f.
Zin2 = 19 + 71j
(6.15)
= 73 75 .
Yin2 = 0.0036 0.0131j f (6.16)
= 0.0136 75 f.
124 microstrip antennas
Part g.
1
Zin =
Ys + Yin2 (6.17)
= 66 + 73j
= 98 48 .
60
40
20
Im(Zin )
-20
-40
-60
-80
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
m
GEOMETRIC ALGEBRA
6.1 problems 127
The point of this Geometric Algebra section is to explore how Maxwells equations
with magnetic sources to the Geometric algebra formalism. Notation and conventions
have been borrowed from [8], with modifications for SI units.
ELECTRIC SOURCES
7
In [5] 3.2 is a demonstration of the required (curl) form for the magnetic field, and
potential form for the electric field.
I was wondering how this derivation would proceed using the Geometric Algebra
(GA) formalism.
D
H=J + (7.1b)
t
D = (7.1c)
B = 0. (7.1d)
B = 0 J + je0 0 E (7.2b)
E = / e0 (7.2c)
B = 0. (7.2d)
These four equations can be assembled into a single equation form using the GA
identities
fg = f g + f g = f g + If g. (7.3a)
129
130 electric sources
I = xyz. (7.3b)
I
cB = J + jkEI (7.4b)
e0 c
where = kc, and 1 = c2 e0 0 have also been used to eliminate some of the mess of
constants.
Summing these (first scaling eq. (7.4b) by I), gives Maxwells equation in its GA
phasor form
1
( + jk) (E + cBI ) = (c J) . (7.5)
e0 c
The arguments of the text showing that a potential representation for the electric and
magnetic fields is possible easily translates into GA. To perform this translation, some
duality lemmas are required
First consider the cross product of two vectors x, y and the right handed dual yI
of y, a bivector, of one of these vectors. Noting that the Euclidean pseudoscalar I
commutes with all grade multivectors in a Euclidean geometric algebra space, the
cross product can be written
(x y) = I (x y)
1
= I (xy yx)
2 (7.6)
1
= (x(yI) (yI)x)
2
= x (yI) .
The last step makes use of the fact that the wedge product of a vector and vector is
antisymmetric, whereas the dot product (vector grade selection) of a vector and bivec-
tor is antisymmetric. Details on grade selection operators and how to characterize
7.3 constructing a potential representation 131
symmetric and antisymmetric products of vectors with blades as either dot or wedge
products can be found in [13], [8].
Similarly, the dual of the dot product can be written as
1
I (x y) = I (xy + yx)
2
1 (7.7)
= (x(yI) + (yI)x)
2
= x (yI) .
These duality transformations are motivated by the observation that in the GA form
of Maxwells equation the magnetic field shows up in its dual form, a bivector. Spelled
out in terms of the dual magnetic field, those equations are
E = jBI (7.8a)
E = / e0 (7.8c)
(BI) = 0. (7.8d)
The starting point of the argument in the text was the observation that the triple
product ( x) = 0 for any (sufficiently continuous) vector x. This triple product
is a completely antisymmetric sum, and the equivalent statement in GA is x =
0 for any vector x. This follows from a a = 0, true for any vector a, including the
gradient operator , provided those gradients are acting on a sufficiently continuous
blade.
In the absence of magnetic charges, eq. (7.8d) shows that the divergence of the dual
magnetic field is zero. It it therefore possible to find a potential A such that
BI = A. (7.9)
E + jA = , (7.11)
for some scalar . Unlike the BI = A solution to eq. (7.8d), the grade of is
fixed by the requirement that E + jA is unity (a vector), so a E + jA = , for a
higher grade blade would not work, despite satisfying the condition = 0.
Substitution of eq. (7.11) and eq. (7.9) into Amperes law eq. (7.8b) gives
( A) = 0 J + je0 0 ( jA)
(7.12)
2 A ( A) =
Rearranging gives
2 2 k
A + k A = 0 J A + j . (7.13)
c
The fields A and are assumed to be phasors, say A = Re Ae jkct and = Re e jkct .
Grouping the scalar and vector potentials into the standard four vector form A =
(/c, A), and expanding the Lorentz gauge condition
0 = A e jkct
1
a jkct jkct
= a A e + e
c t c (7.14)
1
= Ae jkct + jke jkct
c
= A + jk/c e jkct ,
shows that in eq. (7.13) the quantity in braces is in fact the Lorentz gauge condition,
so in the Lorentz gauge, the vector potential satisfies a non-homogeneous Helmholtz
equation.
2 A + k2 A = 0 J. (7.15)
The four vector form of Maxwells equation follows from eq. (7.5) after pre-multiplying
by 0 .
With
A = A = (/c, A) (7.16a)
7.4 maxwells equation in four vector form 133
1
F = A = (E + cBI ) (7.16b)
c
= = 0 ( + jk) (7.16c)
J = J = (c, J) , (7.16d)
Maxwells equation is
F = 0 J. (7.17)
Here is used as the basis of the four vector Minkowski space, with 02 = k2 =
= 0 + jk e jkct
This allows the operator identification of eq. (7.16c). The four current portion of the
equation comes from
c J = 0 0 c 0 a 0 J a
= 0 0 c + a J a
(7.19)
= 0 J
= 0 J.
A = a a + 0 jk 0 /c + b Ab
= a a /c + a b a Ab jkb Ab
= a a /c + a b a Ab jkb Ab (7.20)
1
= jA + c A
c
1
= (E + cBI) .
c
Substituting all of these into Maxwells eq. (7.5) gives
1
0 cF = 0 J, (7.21)
e0 c
which recovers eq. (7.17) as desired.
It is easier to find eq. (7.15) from the GA form of Maxwells eq. (7.17) than the tradi-
tional curl and divergence equations. Note that
F = ( A)
= ( A) + (
(( (
(((
(
A) (7.22)
= 2 A ( A) ,
however, the Lorentz gauge condition A = A = 0 kills the latter term above.
This leaves
F = 2 A
= 0 + jk 0 + jk A
= 02 + jk + jk A (7.23)
= 2 + k 2 A
= 0 J.
B
E = M (8.1a)
t
D
H= (8.1b)
t
D =0 (8.1c)
B = m . (8.1d)
Assuming linear
jt
media B = 0 H, D = e0 E , and phasor relationships of the form
E = Re E(r)e for the fields and the currents, these reduce to
E = jB M (8.2a)
B = je0 0 E (8.2b)
E=0 (8.2c)
B = m . (8.2d)
135
136 magnetic sources
These four equations can be assembled into a single equation form using the GA
identities
fg = f g + f g = f g + If g. (8.3a)
I = xyz. (8.3b)
E = (M + jkcB) I (8.4a)
cB = cm + jkEI (8.4b)
where = kc, and 1 = c2 e0 0 have also been used to eliminate some of the mess of
constants.
Summing these (first scaling eq. (8.4b) by I), gives Maxwells equation in its GA
phasor form
The arguments of the text showing that a potential representation for the electric and
magnetic fields is possible easily translates into GA. To perform this translation, some
duality lemmas are required
First consider the cross product of two vectors x, y and the right handed dual yI
of y, a bivector, of one of these vectors. Noting that the Euclidean pseudoscalar I
commutes with all grade multivectors in a Euclidean geometric algebra space, the
cross product can be written
(x y) = I (x y)
1
= I (xy yx)
2 (8.6)
1
= (x(yI) (yI)x)
2
= x (yI) .
8.3 constructing a potential representation 137
The last step makes use of the fact that the wedge product of a vector and vector is
antisymmetric, whereas the dot product (vector grade selection) of a vector and bivec-
tor is antisymmetric. Details on grade selection operators and how to characterize
symmetric and antisymmetric products of vectors with blades as either dot or wedge
products can be found in [13], [8].
Similarly, the dual of the dot product can be written as
1
I (x y) = I (xy + yx)
2
1 (8.7)
= (x(yI) + (yI)x)
2
= x (yI) .
These duality transformations are motivated by the observation that in the GA form
of Maxwells equation the magnetic field shows up in its dual form, a bivector. Spelled
out in terms of the dual magnetic field, those equations are
(EI) = jB M (8.8a)
H = je0 EI (8.8b)
(EI) = 0 (8.8c)
B = m . (8.8d)
The starting point of the argument in the text was the observation that the triple
product ( x) = 0 for any (sufficiently continuous) vector x. This triple product
is a completely antisymmetric sum, and the equivalent statement in GA is x =
0 for any vector x. This follows from a a = 0, true for any vector a, including the
gradient operator , provided those gradients are acting on a sufficiently continuous
blade.
In the absence of electric charges, eq. (8.8c) shows that the divergence of the dual
electric field is zero. It it therefore possible to find a potential F such that
e0 EI = F. (8.9)
H + jF = m , (8.11)
for some scalar m . Unlike the e0 EI = F solution to eq. (8.8c), the grade of m
is fixed by the requirement that E + jF is unity (a vector), so a E + jF = , for a
higher grade blade would not work, despite satisfying the condition = 0.
Substitution of eq. (8.11) and eq. (8.9) into eq. (8.8b) gives
( F) = e0 M je0 0 (m jF)
(8.12)
2 F ( F) =
Rearranging gives
2 2 k
F + k F = e0 M + F + j m . (8.13)
c
The fields F and m are assumed to be phasors, say A = Re Fe jkct and = Re m e jkct .
Grouping the scalar and vector potentials into the standard four vector form F =
(m /c, F), and expanding the Lorentz gauge condition
0 = F e jkct
1
a jkct m jkct
= a F e + e
c t c (8.14)
1
= Fe jkct + jkm e jkct
c
= F + jkm /c e jkct ,
shows that in eq. (8.13) the quantity in braces is in fact the Lorentz gauge condition,
so in the Lorentz gauge, the vector potential satisfies a non-homogeneous Helmholtz
equation.
2 F + k2 F = e0 M. (8.15)
The four vector form of Maxwells equation follows from eq. (8.5) after pre-multiplying
by 0 .
8.4 maxwells equation in four vector form 139
With
F = F = (m /c, F) (8.16a)
G = F = e0 (E + cBI ) I (8.16b)
= = 0 ( + jk) (8.16c)
M = M = (cm , M) , (8.16d)
Maxwells equation is
G = e0 M. (8.17)
Here is used as the basis of the four vector Minkowski space, with 02 = k2 =
= 0 + jk e jkct
This allows the operator identification of eq. (8.16c). The four current portion of the
equation comes from
cm M = 0 0 cm 0 a 0 M a
= 0 0 cm + a M a
(8.19)
= 0 M
= 0 M.
140 magnetic sources
It is easier to find eq. (8.15) from the GA form of Maxwells eq. (8.17) than the tradi-
tional curl and divergence equations. Note that
G = ( F)
= ( F) + (
(( (
(( F)
(
( (8.22)
= 2 F ( F) ,
however, the Lorentz gauge condition F = F = 0 kills the latter term above.
This leaves
G = 2 F
= 0 + jk 0 + jk F
= 02 + jk + jk F
(8.23)
= 2 + k 2 F
= e0 M.
The timelike component of this gives
2 + k2 m = e0 cm ,
(8.24)
and the spacelike components give
2 + k2 F = e0 M,
(8.25)
recovering eq. (8.15) as desired.
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC SOURCES
9
Separate examinations of the phasor form of Maxwells equation (with electric charges
and current densities), and the Dual Maxwells equation (i.e. allowing magnetic charges
and currents) were just performed. Here the structure of these equations with both
electric and magnetic charges and currents will be examined.
B
E = M (9.1a)
t
D
H=J + (9.1b)
t
D = (9.1c)
B = m . (9.1d)
E = jkcB M (9.2a)
H = J + jkcD (9.2b)
D= (9.2c)
B = m . (9.2d)
Switching to E = D/e0 , B = 0 H fields (even though these arent the primary fields
in engineering), gives
E = jk(cB) M (9.3a)
141
142 electric and magnetic sources
J
(cB) = + jkE (9.3b)
e0 c
E = / e0 (9.3c)
(cB) = cm . (9.3d)
Finally, using
fg = f g + If g, (9.4)
the divergence and curl contributions of each of the fields can be grouped
E = /e0 jk(cB) + M I (9.5a)
J
(cBI) = cm I + jkE , (9.5b)
e0 c
or
J
(E + cBI) = /e0 jk(cB) + M I + cm I + jkE . (9.6)
e0 c
Regrouping gives Maxwells equation including both electric and magnetic sources
1
( + jk) (E + cBI ) = (c J) + (cm M) I. (9.7)
e0 c
It was observed that these can be put into a tidy four vector form by premultiplying
by 0 , where
J = J = (c, J) (9.8a)
M = M = (cm , M) (9.8b)
J
(E + cBI ) = + MI. (9.9)
e0 c
9.3 trial potential solution 143
When there were only electric sources, it was observed that potential solutions were
of the form E + cBI A, whereas when there was only magnetic sources it was
observed that potential solutions were of the form E + cBI ( F)I. It seems rea-
sonable to attempt a trial solution that contains both such contributions, say
E + cBI = Ae + ( Am ) I. (9.10)
Without any loss of generality Lorentz gauge conditions can be imposed on the
four-vector fields Ae , Am . Those conditions are
Ae = Am = 0. (9.11)
Since X = X + X, for any four vector X, the trial solution eq. (9.10) is
reduced to
E + cBI = Ae + Am I. (9.12)
J
+ MI = 2 (Ae + Am I)
e0 c
= 0 + jk 0 + jk (Ae + Am I) (9.13)
= + jk + jk (Ae + Am I)
= 2 + k2 (Ae + Am I) .
Notice how tidily this separates into vector and trivector components. Those are
J
2 + k 2 Ae =
(9.14a)
e0 c
2 + k2 Am = M.
(9.14b)
The result is a single Helmholtz equation for each of the electric and magnetic four-
potentials, and both can be solved completely independently. This was claimed in
class, but now the underlying reason is clear.
144 electric and magnetic sources
Because a single frequency phasor relationship was implied the scalar components
of each of these four potentials is determined by the Lorentz gauge condition. For
example
0 = Ae e jkct
01 k
0 jkct m jkct
= + 0 A e e + m A e e
c t x k (9.15)
r
0
0 A0e + s Aes e jkct
= jk + r
x
= jkAe + Ae e jkct ,
0
so
j
A0e = Ae . (9.16)
k
The same sort of relationship will apply to the magnetic potential too. This means
that the Helmholtz equations can be solved in the three vector space as
J
2 + k 2 Ae =
(9.17a)
e0 c
2 + k2 Am = M.
(9.17b)
1
Ae = ( Ae Ae )
2
1
0 + jk 0 A0e Ae 0 A0e Ae 0 + jk
=
2
1 (9.18)
+ jk A0e Ae A0e + Ae + jk
=
2
1
2 A0e + 0 0
= jkA e
jkA e + Ae Ae 2jkAe
2
= A0e + jkAe + Ae
9.5 recovering the fields 145
In the above expansion when the gradients appeared on the right of the field com-
ponents, they are acting from the right (i.e. implicitly using the Hestenes dot conven-
tion.)
The electric and magnetic fields can be picked off directly from above, and in the
units implied by this choice of four-potential are
1
A0e
Ee = + jkAe = j Ae + kAe (9.19a)
k
cBe = Ae . (9.19b)
( Ae ) I = A0e + jkAe I Ae ,
(9.20)
1
A0m
cBm = + jkAm = j Am + kAm (9.21a)
k
Em = Am . (9.21b)
1
E = Am j Ae + kAe (9.22a)
k
1
cB = Ae j Am + kAm (9.22b)
k
This smells like something that can probably be related to a combined electromag-
netic field multivectors in some sort of structured fashion. Guessing that this is related
to the antisymmetric sum of two electromagnetic field multivectors turns out to be
correct. Let
F(a) = E(a) + cB(a) I (10.2a)
This has two components, the first is a bivector (pseudoscalar times vector) that
includes all the non-mixed products, and the second is a vector that includes all the
mixed terms. We can therefore write the antisymmetric difference of the reciprocity
theorem by extracting just the grade one terms of the antisymmetric sum of the com-
bined electromagnetic field
1 D (a) (b) E
E(a) H(b) E(b) H(a) = F F F(b) F(a) . (10.4)
2c0 1
147
148 reciprocity theorem
Observing that the antisymmetrization used in the reciprocity theorem is only one
portion of the larger electromagnetic field antisymmetrization, introduces two new
questions
1. How would the reciprocity theorem be derived directly in terms of F(a) F(b)
F(b) F(a) ?
F = MI. (11.2b)
The electric source equation can be unpacked into tensor form by dotting with the
four vector basis vectors. With the usual definition F = A A , that is
( F) = ( ( A))
= A
= A
1
= F (11.3)
2
1
= [] F
2
1 1
= F F
2 2
= F .
149
150 relation to tensor form
1
F = J . (11.4)
ce0
To unpack the magnetic source portion of Maxwells equation, put it first into dual
form, so that it has four vectors on each side
M = ( F) I
1
= ( F + F ) I
2 (11.5)
1
= ( FI FI )
2
= (FI) .
M = ( ( FI))
1
= IF (11.6)
2
1 D E
= I F .
2
This scalar grade selection is a complete antisymmetrization of the indexes
D E
I
D E
= 0 1 2 3
D E (11.7)
= 0 1 2 3
= 3210
= e ,
1
e F = M . (11.8)
2
relation to tensor form 151
Relating the tensor to the fields The electromagnetic field has been identified with the
electric and magnetic fields by
F = E + c0 H I, (11.9)
or in coordinates
1
F = E a a 0 + c0 H a a 0 I. (11.10)
2
By forming the dot product sequence F = ( F ), the electric and magnetic
field components can be related to the tensor components. The electric field compo-
nents follow by inspection and are
E b = 0 b F (11.11)
b0
=F .
Frs = Frs
= s r c0 H a a 0 I
= c0 H a hs r a 0 I i
D E (11.12)
= c0 H a
0 1 2 3
s r a
0
= c0 H a sra
[321]
a
= c0 H esra .
or
152 relation to tensor form
E1 = F10
E2 = F20
E3 = F30
1 23
H1 = F (11.14)
c0
1 31
H2 = F
c0
1 12
H3 = F .
c0
Recover the vector equations from the tensor equations Starting with the non-dual Maxwell
tensor equation, expanding the timelike index gives
1 0 1
J =
ce0 e0 (11.15)
= F 0
= 1 F10 + 2 F20 + 3 F30
E = / e0 . (11.16)
1 1
J = F 1
ce0
1
= t F01 + 2 F21 + 3 F31
c (11.17)
1
= E1 + 2 (c0 H 3 ) + 3 (c0 H 2 )
c
1 E
= + c0 H e1 .
c t
Extending this to the other indexes and multiplying through by e0 c recovers the
Ampere-Maxwell equation (assuming linear media)
D
H = J + . (11.18)
t
relation to tensor form 153
The expansion of the 0th free (timelike) index of the dual Maxwell tensor equation
is
1 0
M0 = e F
2
1
= e0 F
2
1 (11.19)
= (1 (F23 F32 ) + 2 (F31 F13 ) + 3 (F12 F21 ))
2
= (1 F23 + 2 F31 + 3 F12 )
= 1 (c0 H 1 ) + 2 (c0 H 2 ) + 3 (c0 H 3 ) ,
but M0 = cm , giving us Gausss law for magnetism (with magnetic charge density
included)
H = m / 0 . (11.20)
For the spacelike indexes of the dual Maxwell equation, only one need be computed
(say 1), and cyclic permutation will provide the rest. That is
1 1
M1 = e F
2
1 1 1
= (2 (F30 F03 )) + (3 (F02 F02 )) + (0 (F23 F32 ))
2 2 2
= 2 F30 + 3 F20 + 0 F23 (11.21)
1
= 2 E3 + 3 E2 + c0 H 1
c t
H
= E + 0 e1 .
t
Extending this to the rest of the coordinates gives the Maxwell-Faraday equation
(as extended to include magnetic current density sources)
H
E = M 0 . (11.22)
t
This takes things full circle, going from the vector differential Maxwells equations,
to the Geometric Algebra form of Maxwells equation, to Maxwells equations in ten-
sor form, and back to the vector form. Not only is the tensor form of Maxwells
equations with magnetic sources now known, the translation from the tensor and vec-
tor formalism has also been verified, and miraculously no signs or factors of 2 were
lost or gained in the process.
PA R A L L E L P R O J E C T I O N O F E L E C T R O M A G N E T I C F I E L D S
12
When computing the components of a polarized reflecting ray that were parallel or
not-parallel to the reflecting surface, it was found that the electric and magnetic fields
could be written as
E = (E p) p + (E q) q = Ek p + E q (12.1a)
H = (H p) p + (H q) q = Hk p + H q. (12.1b)
where a unit vector p that lies both in the reflecting plane and in the electromagnetic
plane (tangential to the wave vector direction) was
k n
p = (12.2a)
k n
q = k p. (12.2b)
E1 = (E p) p = Ek p
(12.3)
H1 = (H q) q = H q,
and one with the magnetic field parallel to the reflection plane
H2 = (H p) p = Hk p
(12.4)
E2 = (E q) q = E q.
155
156 parallel projection of electromagnetic fields
Expressed in Geometric Algebra form, each of these pairs of fields should be thought
of as components of a single multivector field. That is
F1 = E1 + c0 H1 I (12.5a)
F2 = E2 + c0 H2 I (12.5b)
F = E + c0 HI. (12.6)
In eq. (12.5a) we have a composite projection operation, finding the portion of the
electric field that lies in the reflection plane, and simultaneously finding the com-
ponent of the magnetic field that lies perpendicular to that (while still lying in the
tangential plane of the electromagnetic field). In eq. (12.5b) the magnetic field is pro-
jected onto the reflection plane and a component of the electric field that lies in the
tangential (to the wave vector direction) plane is computed.
If we operate only on the complete multivector field, can we find these composite
projection field components in a single operation, instead of working with the indi-
vidual electric and magnetic fields?
Working towards this goal, it is worthwhile to point out consequences of the as-
sumption that the fields are plane wave (or equivalently far field spherical waves).
For such a wave we have
1
H= k E
0
1
= ( I) k E
0 (12.7)
1
= ( I) kE k E
0
I
= kE,
0
or
0 HI = kE. (12.8)
This made use of the identity a b = I (a b), and the fact that the electric field is
perpendicular to the wave vector direction. The total multivector field is
parallel projection of electromagnetic fields 157
F = E + c0 HI
(12.9)
= 1 + ck E.
0 H = 0 H q
D E
= kEI q
D E
= kEI k p
D E
= kEI I k p (12.10)
D E
= kEkp
D E
= kkEp
= E p,
so
F1 = (p + cI q)E p. (12.11)
Since qkp = I, the component of the complete multivector field in the p direction is
F1 = (p cpk)E p
= p(1 ck)E p (12.12)
= (1 + ck)pE p.
It is reasonable to expect that F2 has a similar form, but with p q. This is verified
by expansion
F2 = E q + c 0 Hk pI
D E
= (E q) q + c kEI kqI kqI I
D E
= (E q) q + c kEkq kq(1)
D E (12.13)
= (E q) q + c kE(qk) kq(1)
D E
= (E q) q + c kkEq kq
= 1 + ck q (E q)
158 parallel projection of electromagnetic fields
This and eq. (12.12) before that makes a lot of sense. The original field can be written
F = E + c k E I E E, (12.14)
where the leading multivector term contains all the directional dependence of the
electric and magnetic field components, and the trailing scalar has the magnitude of
the field with respect to the reference direction E.
We have the same structure after projecting E onto either the p, or q directions
respectively
F1 = p + c k p I E p (12.15a)
F2 = q + c k q I E q. (12.15b)
The next question is how to achieve this projection operation directly in terms of F
and p, q, without resorting to expression of F in terms of E, and B. Ive not yet been
able to determine the structure of that operation.
Part III
F I E L D S A N D WAV E S
F I E L D S A N D WAV E S
13
13.1 coupled wave equation in cylindrical coordinates
In [2], for a sourceless configuration, it is noted that the electric field equations 2 E =
2 E have the form
E 2 E
2 E = 2 E (13.1a)
2 2
E 2 E
2 E 2
+ 2 = 2 E (13.1b)
2 Ez = 2 Ez , (13.1c)
where
1 2 2
1
2 = + + . (13.2)
2 2 z2
He applies separation of variables to the last equation, ending up with the usual
Bessel function solution, but the first two coupled equations are dismissed as coupled
and difficult. It looks like separation of variables works for this too, but we have to
prep the system slightly by writing = E + jE , which gives
2j
2 + = 2 , (13.3)
2 2
or
1 2 2
1 2j
+ + 2+ 2 = 2 . (13.4)
2 2 z2
1 2 g 1 2 h
1 f 1 2j g
+ 2 + 2+ 2 = 2 . (13.5)
f g 2 z z2 g
161
162 fields and waves
1 2 h
= 2 , (13.6)
z z2
the PDE is reduced to an equation in two functions
1 f 1 1
g + 2jg + 2 2 2 = 0,
+ 2 (13.7)
f g
or
f 1
g + 2jg + 2 2 2 = 1.
+ (13.8)
f g
1
g + 2jg = 1 2 ,
(13.9)
g
for
f
2 + 2 2 2 = 0.
(13.10)
f
Im not sure off hand if these can be solved in known special functions, especially
since the constants in the mix are complex.
In our final problem set we used the impedance transformation for calculations re-
lated to a microslot antenna. This transformation wasnt familiar to me, and is appar-
ently covered in the third year ECE fields class. I found a derivation of this in [4], but
the idea is really simple and follows from the reflection coefficient calculation for a
normal reflection configuration.
Consider a normal field reflection between two interfaces, as sketched in fig. 13.1.
The fields are
Ei = xE0 e jk1 z (13.11a)
E0 jk1 z
Hi = y e (13.11b)
1
E0 jk1 z
Hr = y e (13.11d)
1
E0 jk2 z
Ht = y Te . (13.11f)
1
The field orientations have been picked so that the tangential component of the
electric field is x oriented for all of the incident, reflected, and transmitted components.
Requiring equality of the tangential field components at the interface gives
1+ = T (13.12a)
1 T
= . (13.12b)
1 1 2
2
T=
1 + 21
(13.13)
22
= ,
2 + 1
=T1
22 1 2
=
2 + 1 (13.14)
2 1
= .
2 + 1
E0 jk1 (l)
Hi + Hr = y e e jk1 (l) . (13.15b)
1
The ratio of the electric field strength to the magnetic field strength is defined as
the input impedance
Ei + Er
Zin i . (13.16)
H + H r z=l
That is
e jk1 l + e jk1 l
Zin = 1
e jk1 l e jk1 l
1 + 2 e jk1 l + 2 1 e jk1 l
= 1 (13.17)
1 + 2 e jk1 l 2 1 e jk1 l
2 cos(k1 l) + 1 j sin(k1 l)
= 1 ,
2 j sin(k1 l) + 1 cos(k1 l)
or
2 + j1 tan(k1 l)
Zin = 1 . (13.18)
1 + j2 tan(k1 l)
13.3 problems
13.3 problems 165
Exercise 13.1 x oriented plane wave electric field ([2] ex. 4.1)
A uniform plane wave having only an x component of the electric field is traveling in
the +z direction in an unbounded lossless, source-0free region. Using Maxwells equa-
tions write expressions for the electric and corresponding magnetic field intensities.
Answer for Exercise 13.1
The phasor form of Maxwells equations for a source free region are
E = jB (13.19a)
H = jD (13.19b)
D = 0 (13.19c)
B = 0. (13.19d)
Since E = xE(z), the magnetic field follows from eq. (13.19a)
jB = E
x y z
(13.20)
= x y z
E 0 0
= yz E(z) z E(z),
y
or
1
B= z E. (13.21)
j
This is constrained by eq. (13.19b)
1
jexE = B
x y z
1
(13.22)
= x y z
j
0 z E 0
1
= (xzz E + z x z E)
j
166 fields and waves
zz E = 2 eE = k2 E. (13.23)
This is the usual starting place that we use to show that the plane wave has an
exponential form
E(z) = x E+ e jkz + E e jkz . (13.24)
j
B= jkE+ e jkz + jkE e jkz
(13.25)
1
= E+ e jkz E e jkz ,
c
or
1
H= E+ e jkz E e jkz
c (13.26)
1 jkz jkz
= E+ e E e .
A solution requires zero divergence for the magnetic field, but that can be seen to
be the case by inspection.
Part IV
APPENDICES
P R O F. E L E F T H E R I A D E S H A N D W R I T I N G D E C O D E R R I N G
A
I found Prof. Eleftheriades handwriting tricky to decode in a number of cases. Heres
a handy dandy codex should anybody else have the same troubles
(a) Greek letter is written as a circle floating above a face up square bracket.
169
M AT H E M AT I C A N O T E B O O K S
B
These Mathematica notebooks, some just trivial ones used to generate figures, others
more elaborate, and perhaps some even polished, can be found in
https://github.com/peeterjoot/mathematica/tree/master/.
The free Wolfram CDF player, is capable of read-only viewing these notebooks to
some extent.
Files saved explicitly as CDF have interactive content that can be explored with the
CDF player.
171
172 mathematica notebooks
175
176 julia notebooks
177
178 matlab notebooks
INDEX
INDEX
181
182 Index
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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