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The Good Life


Explorations into culture and policy:
Why transatlantic attitudes toward work and leisure
are not that different after all

Joseph R. Wood
The German Marshall Fund of the United States
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The Good Life
Explorations into culture and policy:
Why transatlantic attitudes toward work and leisure are not that different after all

Brussels Forum Paper Series

March 2010

Joseph R. Wood*
The German Marshall Fund of the United States

Joseph R. Wood is a senior resident fellow with the German Marshall Fund of the United States (GMF). His work covers Europe, Eurasia, and
*

transatlantic relations. From 2005 to November 2008, Mr. Wood was deputy assistant to the vice president for national security affairs at the
White House.
What is it to be happy? What is a good life? These and leisure might shape diverging and converging
two closely related questions have driven human contemporary policy choices in Europe and the
endeavors ranging from philosophical writing to United States.
material improvement since the earliest recorded
human experience. They dominate, one way or It is important to establish that this paper is not
another, the efforts and the results of art, literature, mainly about the generally held perception that
science, sports, and music as well as what we think Americans work harder and spend less time on
of as more practical domains such as economics, holiday than Europeans do. To the degree that
How one views the
engineering, architecture, medicine, and, indeed all such an assertion is true, it is a relatively new
nature, purpose,
of the ways of spending time that comprise human phenomenon reflecting recent policies rather
than deeply based transatlantic cultural fissures. and relationship
activity. For democratic states, or states that exist
In a study sponsored by the National Bureau for of work and
to serve their citizens rather than the reverse, they
Economic Research, Alberto F. Alesina, Edward L. leisure is central
provide the context for policy decisions about how
Glaeser, and Bruce Sacerdote conclude: to answering
to provide the means of happiness and a good
life or to permit their citizens to cultivate those the questions
Until World War I, work hours per employee of what it is to
means themselves. were actually lower in the United States than
be happy and to
Waking human activity can be divided into in most European countries, including France
have a good life.
two general categories: work and leisure. In and Germany (Huberman 2004). Work hours
As such, work
contemporary times, this division often seems to per employee started to fall a bit more rapidly
in Europe than in the United States, but up and leisure are
equate to time at the workplace and time not at
until the late 1960s, work hours per employee fundamental both
the workplace, getting and spending, productivity
were about the same in the United States to the decisions
and idleness, labor and fun. But all of these
and Europe, including Germany and France individuals
simplifications understate the importance of these
essential concepts, work and leisure, which form (Huberman 2003).1 make for
the basis of all culture and of civilization itself. How themselves and
These authors equate “leisure” with time away from
one views the nature, purposes, and relationship to the purposes of
work, a useful measure for economists but different
of work and leisure is central to answering governments.
from the more ancient concept of leisure that will
the questions of what it is to be happy and to be used here. That said, the two concepts of leisure
have a good life. As such, work and leisure are may be linked in ways not immediately obvious.
fundamental both to the decisions individuals make The same authors also conclude:
for themselves and to the purposes of governments.
And, by extension, attitudes about work and leisure Legally mandated holidays can explain 80
will play an important role in shaping public and percent of the difference in weeks worked
private values, using “value” literally as what a (among the employed) between the United
person, government, or society considers being of States and Europe and 30 percent of the
importance or valuable. difference in total labor supply between
the two regions. …The effect of generous
This paper will sketch the intellectual history of
pension systems, which reduced participation
the concepts of work and leisure in the European
and American, or Western, contexts. It will then
1
Alberto F. Alesina, Edward L. Glaeser and Bruce Sacerdote
explore briefly, in a slightly speculative way, (2006).“Work and Leisure in the U.S. and Europe: Why So Dif-
whether and how differing attitudes toward work ferent?” National Bureau of Economic Research, p. 3.

The Good Life: Explorations into culture and policy 3


Why transatlantic attitudes toward work and leisure are not that different after all
rates among the elderly for older workers, is one who engages in the activities of “play,”
also strong. who is the civilized one.3

Widely reported gaps between U.S. and European Oakeshott describes human beings as “creatures
productivity are also a fairly recent phenomenon, of wants. This world—the whole of it, all its
growing more pronounced only since the mid components without exception—he is disposed to
1990s. Some analysts attribute this recent trend to think of as material for satisfying his wants. It is
To trace the Europe’s slower adoption of a knowledge economy something to be used. It is something upon which
development of rather than to worker habits or mores.2 When he may impose his own purposes. It is something
measured on an hourly rather than annual basis, to be subjected to himself. It is almost an enemy to
work and leisure
some European countries’ rates of productivity have be conquered, and, having been conquered, to be
in the West,
exceeded American rates in recent years. exploited.” This conquest and exploitation fall into
we can return the category of work.
to two of the Could some policies have a cultural basis involving
basic sources of the intellectual history of the relationship between On the other hand, play and leisure are endeavors
Western thinking, work and leisure? Can transatlantic differences that do not aim to satisfy wants or serve practical
classical Greece and, at least as important, similarities on a broader purposes. Aristotle used “play” to mean recreation
and Judeo- level be traced to underlying ideas about the value or refreshment; activities that were essential for
of each? laborers to continue to work effectively and thus
Christian tradition,
to be counted in the domain of work rather than
or in shorthand, Work and leisure: A brief intellectual history leisure. As such, play was purposeful as an enabling
Athens and
As with almost all interesting questions, vocabulary activity for work. Where Oakeshott uses the word
Jerusalem. “play” to describe activities beyond work with its
is important at the outset. The distinguished
political philosopher Michael Oakeshott wrote in aim of satisfying wants, Aristotle and others have
an essay published posthumously in 1995: used the word “leisure.”

My main point has been to suggest that, To trace the development of work and leisure
apart from “work,” the activity of using the in the West, we can return to two of the basic
world to satisfy human wants, mankind has sources of Western thinking, classical Greece and
Judeo-Christian tradition, or in shorthand, Athens
devised or stumbled upon other activities
and Jerusalem.
and attitudes towards the world, the activities
I have grouped together as “play.” It is in Aristotle wrote extensively on the relationship
these activities that human beings have of work and leisure. The Greek word for leisure,
believed themselves to enjoy a freedom and schole, is the origin of the Latin, German, and
an illumination that the satisfaction of wants English words for “school.”4 In other words,
can never supply. It is not Homo sapiens throughout the West, the word for “place of
and Homo laborans, the clever users of the learning” is directly related to the Greek idea of
resources of the world, but Homo ludens, the

3
Michael Oakeshott (1995). “Work and Play.” First Things, Jun./
Jul. 1995.
2
See Bart van Ark, Mary O’Mahoney, and Marcel P. Timmer
(2008). “The Productivity Gap between Europe and the United 4
For an excellent discussion of this origin and much of the
States: Trends and Causes,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, intellectual history recounted here, see Josef Pieper’s Leisure, The
Winter, Vol. 22, No. 1, p. 25. Basis of Culture.

4 The German Marshall Fund of the United States


leisure. Moreover, the Greek and Latin languages indeed, for that matter, on anything else—we
used words roughly translated as “not-at-leisure,” may cite the evidence of actual fact. Most of
negative opposites of leisure, to denote work, rather the states which make war their aim are safe
than positive words suggesting that work existed as only while they are fighting. They collapse as
a good to itself. soon as they have established an empire, and
lose the edge of their temper, like an unused
For Aristotle, leisure was not simply recreation as sword, in time of peace. The legislator is to
a moment necessary to rest in order to continue blame for having provided no training for the For Aristotle,
to work for practical purposes, nor was it idleness. proper use of leisure. leisure was not
Leisure was the purpose of a good life, the activity
of the cultivation of knowledge for its own sake, Encompassed within Aristotle’s discussion of leisure simply recreation
for the sake of truth and beauty, for philosophy. He are the virtues necessary to use it properly, in order as a moment
wrote, “… it is the power to use leisure rightly … to achieve its high purposes. necessary to
which is the basis of all our life. It is true that both rest in order to
occupation and leisure are necessary; but it is also The final end of men is the same whether continue to work
true that leisure is higher than occupation, and is they are acting individually or acting for practical
the end to which occupation is directed.” Work, collectively; and the standard followed
purposes, nor
then, is not an end unto itself, but a means to allow by the best individual is thus the same as
was it idleness.
and serve the higher purpose of leisure. the standard followed by the best political
Leisure was the
constitution. It is therefore evident that
Aristotle argued that governments should aim at the qualities required for the use of leisure purpose of a good
providing their citizens the possibility of this kind must belong to the state as well as to the life, the activity
of leisure. In describing the purposes of education, individual; for [these are the qualities of cultivation of
he wrote, “It is true that the citizens of our state which particularly matter, and], as we have knowledge for
must be able to lead a life of action and war; but repeatedly argued, peace is the final end of its own sake, for
they must be even more able to lead a life of leisure war, and leisure the final end of occupation. the sake of truth
and peace. It is true, again, that they must be able The qualities required for the use of leisure and beauty, for
to do necessary or useful acts; but they must be and the cultivation of the mind are twofold. philosophy.
even more able to do good acts.” He originates Some of them are operative in and during the
an important distinction between “liberal” and activity of leisure itself; some are operative in
“servile” arts, the latter serving practical purposes and during the activity of occupation. This
while the former do not. The liberal arts are worth is why a state must possess the quality of
pursuing for their own sakes. “…[T]here is a temperance, and why, again, it must possess
kind of education in which parents should have the quality of courage and endurance. …The
their sons trained not because it is necessary, or quality of courage and endurance is required
because it is useful, but simply because it is liberal for the activities of occupation; wisdom is
and something good in itself. …To aim at utility required for those of leisure: temperance and
everywhere is utterly unbecoming to high-minded justice are qualities required at both times
and liberal spirits.” He continues: and under both heads [government and
individual].
In support of the view that the legislator
should make leisure and peace the cardinal
aims of all legislation bearing on war—or,

The Good Life: Explorations into culture and policy 5


Why transatlantic attitudes toward work and leisure are not that different after all
This division of virtues bears emphasizing: work the purpose of leisure was to seek truth and beauty.
(or occupation), lower than leisure, demands For the Old Testament, the purpose is the same, but
courage and endurance; temperance and wisdom truth and beauty are captured in God, the creator.
are required for both the lower pursuit of work
and the higher pursuit of leisure; and wisdom is Christian teaching retains this perspective. Many
required for the pursuit of leisure. An individual of the most important moments in the story of
and a government need all these virtues, but the Jesus’ life occur during times of leisure: teaching
hierarchy of value for Aristotle is clear. in the Temple (resembling the Greek schole),
dinners, the Sabbath day of rest, wedding feasts,
Aristotle’s view of work and leisure represents prayer in isolation, and others. The story of Mary
the most comprehensive thought on the subject and Martha, where Jesus rebuked Martha for her
from one source of the Western tradition, classical worry about the work of domestic tasks, is usually
Athens. Another source, Jerusalem, offers a view interpreted to suggest the “better way” of Mary’s
as well. The creation story of Genesis describes a more contemplative and leisurely gestures of
divine relationship between work and leisure, seen listening and worshipping.
in the six days of creation followed by the day of
leisure, or contemplation of creation. This day of These views of Greek and Judeo-Christian tradition
leisure might be compared to Aristotle’s notion of mingled and mixed in the work of early Christian
leisure, in that it served no functional or practical thinkers such as Augustine, who brought Platonic
purpose; it was simply God contemplating his own thought into Christian doctrine. Their hierarchy
good work for its own sake. But the book of Genesis of work and leisure carried into medieval Europe,
also introduces Aristotle’s notion of work, or servile especially in monasteries and scholastic centers
arts. After the sin of the fall, Adam is told, “…in of learning. In his masterful book, The Love of
toil you shall eat of it, all the days of your life. … In Learning and the Desire for God, where the title
the sweat of your face you shall eat bread… .” For aptly makes the point, Jean Leclerque quotes the
God, labor produces the opportunity for the higher 12th century educator Conrad of Hirsau:
activity of leisure. For man, in the Old Testament, There is no greater happiness in this world
work is a burden to be borne, for the practical than to be nourished by God’s word; the soul
purpose of survival and satisfaction of wants. who believes, who hopes for rest after labor,
But the Old Testament raises the possibility of buries deep within him, at the beginning of
leisure, in order to allow contemplation of the good, his pilgrimage, the word of God as if it were
for man as well. Psalm 46 admonishes man to “Be “the repository of his hope,” and through
still, and know that I am God.” Some translations that very fact, the soul is already drawing
give this as “Be at leisure and know that I am God.” close to its homeland. Therefore we should
This can be seen as both a command to take leisure continually cultivate the philosophical
and a command on what to do in leisure. The disciplines, meaning those which consist of
theme recurs throughout the Psalms: “One thing realities and not merely words.
have I asked of the Lord, that will I seek after; that Thomas Aquinas, much of whose effort consisted
I may dwell in the house of the Lord all the days in integrating Aristotelian and Christian thinking,
of my life, to behold the beauty of the Lord, and to brought forward the distinction between practical
inquire in his temple. (Psalm 27).” For Aristotle, and liberal arts: “Every art is called liberal which

6 The German Marshall Fund of the United States


is ordered to knowing; those which are ordered to century with their 40 hour week were just
some utility to be attained through action are called catching up with medieval counterparts; and
servile arts.”5 American workers at the end of this century
have fallen behind their medieval ancestors!
In some form, these notions of a higher goal than Our incredible growth in technology has
work persisted throughout Europe well beyond not resulted in a corresponding increase in
the medieval era. Chronicling a life of leisurely leisure.7
conversation in Life of Johnson, James Boswell
There is a
recounts Sir Joshua Reynolds’ 1773 defense of Twentieth-century philosophers noted and
widespread
the acting profession, “I do not perceive why the struggled with this sense. One example is the
profession of player should be despised; for the controversial thinker Martin Heidegger: “It is sense that
great and ultimate end of all the employments of enough to say, as Heidegger does, that we have industrialization
mankind is to produce amusement.”6 been thrown (geworfen) into the technological and technology,
world and, as a result, we invariably fall prey to its beginning
Such a thought would be widely considered flippant assumptions and habits, with its emphasis on speed, especially in the
in modern times. While many “lifestyle coaches” efficiency, usefulness, and productivity. As a result, 18th century,
would argue for a balance of work and leisure, there we have become fettered to busy-ness.”8 accelerated the
has been a shift in prevalent attitudes about the
pace of work
hierarchy of work and leisure and about the proper Oakeshott describes the changing patterns
and, in so doing,
aims of leisure. beginning some four centuries ago as follows:
reduced the
What has changed? First, it came to be believed that “work” (this opportunity for
activity of exploiting the natural resources leisure.
There is a widespread sense that industrialization of the world for the satisfaction of human
and technology, beginning especially in the 18th wants…) was not only typical of mankind
century, accelerated the pace of work and, in so but was our proper attitude and occupation.
doing, reduced the opportunity for leisure. And Indeed, it came to be believed that this ought
there is some historical basis for this sense. Thomas to be the exclusive attitude and engagement
Anderson explains: to which all else should be subordinated.
In Medieval Europe, holidays, holy days, took This belief, that human activity ought to be
directed [exclusively] towards promoting
up one-third of the year in England, almost
what John Locke called “the advantages and
five months of the year in Spain—even for
conveniences of life,”…is a moral belief, that
peasants. Although work was from sunrise to
is, it is a belief about how we ought to spend
sunset, it was casual, able to be interrupted
our lives. …Now this moral belief began to be
for a chat with a friend, a long lunch, a visit
partnered, [also] about four centuries ago, by
to the pub or the fishing hole—none of which
a second belief of a different sort—namely, an
a modern factory worker dare do. The fact is
that American workers of the mid-twentieth
7
Thomas C. Anderson (1997).“Technology and the Decline of
Leisure,” Proceedings of the American Catholic Philosophical As-
5
Thomas Aquinas. Commentary on Aristotle’s Metaphysics, I, p.3. sociation, Vol. 70, p. 1.
6
Quoted in James V. Schall, On the Unseriousness of Human Af- Kevin Aho (2007). “Recovering Play: On the Relationship
8

fairs, p. 100. Like Pieper’s book mentioned above, this book is an between Leisure and Authenticity on Heideger’s Thought,” Janus
excellent general discussion of work and leisure. Head, 10(1), p. 217.

The Good Life: Explorations into culture and policy 7


Why transatlantic attitudes toward work and leisure are not that different after all
immense optimism about the success of this of nature and the exploitation of the knowledge
enterprise of compelling the natural world to that grew from that measurement, including
satisfy human wants. …[I]f we bent all our industrialization, rapid transportation and
energies and intelligence to it, …the human communications, and, ultimately, the information
race in a relatively short time would actually technologies of recent decades.
achieve… the sort of happiness that is to be
had from the satisfaction of wants. Together, these three movements or episodes
Both Europe and produced the profound shifts that Heidegger,
the United States A full account of this combination of changes is Oakeshott, and others noticed. Increasingly, the
well beyond the scope of this paper. But some brief West became focused more on the use of reason to
grew from the
speculation on its causes and effects, at the level of satisfy wants, the process of work, and less on what
same cultural
pop intellectual history, is potentially useful. had been the ultimate purpose of work, the leisure
and intellectual to contemplate truth, beauty, and God.
traditions. So, Three of the great intellectual movements or
one would expect moments in Western history contributed to the The transatlantic perspective
many similarities change. The first was the Renaissance. Although
the notion of the Renaissance as an abrupt and Both Europe and the United States grew from the
between European
clearly distinguishable break from the “dark ages” same cultural and intellectual traditions. So, one
and American would expect many similarities between European
no longer holds much scholarly sway, the period of
attitudes on work and American attitudes on work and leisure, or at
the 14th through 16th centuries saw, in the words
and leisure, or least a similar set of questions to be decided about
of Helen Gardner, “a slow turning away from the
at least a similar them. And that is in fact the case, at least at the
ideas and values of a supernatural orientation
set of questions to those concerned with the natural world and broadest level. Europeans and Americans generally
to be decided the life of man. The meaning of the world and accept that the market economy, in some form, is
about them. of human life came to be couched in terms not the best way to organize a society’s work, both for
exclusively religious.”9 the purpose of maximizing wealth and standard of
living (as measured empirically and quantitatively),
In the intellectual patterns of religion, the and for the purpose of permitting individuals to
Reformation had several effects. Most notably, choose their own goods, in the form of products
it rejected the idea of a central authority over and types of occupation. This fundamental
the church and increased the emphasis on the agreement has enabled the development of a
individual conscience as the final source of moral massive financial and trade relationship, the
decisions. This freed individuals to choose their largest in the world (over $1.5 trillion on the
own view of good and their own relationship to it. current account balance in 2008)10 with widespread
economic, political, and social ramifications for all
Intellectually, the Renaissance gave way to the countries involved. It has also opened possibilities
Enlightenment. This phase saw the growth of for policy cooperation in multilateral fora such
skepticism of authoritative institutions and a greater as the G7. This very basic and very powerful
emphasis on human reason. That emphasis, in turn, consensus on the organization of work at the
opened possibilities for scientific advancement broadest level overshadows any number of lesser
that were based on the empirical measurement differences.

9
Helen Gardner. Art Through the Ages, p. 396. William H.Cooper (2009). “EU-U.S.Economic Ties: Frame-
10

work, Scope, and Magnitude.” Congressional Research Service,


Mar. p. 2.

8 The German Marshall Fund of the United States


A second area of increasing agreement is that the relentless drive for material progress (including
output of work, or the fruits of labor, should be catastrophic exploitation of natural resources and
measured more broadly than in the past. There is efforts at genetic engineering to improve the gene
a growing sense that a focus on Gross Domestic stock), attempted to motivate their populations
Product (GDP) as a proper, exclusive measure of by appeals to values beyond the better economic
the work a nation accomplishes is incomplete and lifestyle that they failed to produce.
distorts the broader aims of work. This movement
reflects the basic notion that work and its practical So there is much transatlantic common ground
results are only one part of a good life. One example in attitudes about work and leisure. But there are
of this trend is the Legatum Institute’s Prosperity lesser differences as well, and it is worth exploring
Index, an attempt to look beyond GDP at more how varying perceptions of work and leisure
full descriptions of happiness that include political might in part drive those differences. To begin this
freedom and quality of governance, strength of experiment, we might posit some generalizations
communities, and domestic and international or tendency statements about Europeans
security. Legatum’s 2008 report includes the famous and Americans.
quotation from Robert Kennedy that “…the Gross
First, European states emerged into democracy
National Product does not allow for the health of
from a history of divine right royal rule. The United
our children, the quality of their education or the
States began its history in revolution against such
joy of their play. It does not include the beauty of
autocracy. The result has been a tendency toward
our poetry or the strength of our marriages, the
egalitarianism in the United States as against a
intelligence of our public debate or the integrity of
tendency toward greater respect for elites and their
our public officials… it measures everything, in
wisdom in Europe. As with all tendency statements,
short, except that which makes life worthwhile.”
this one is far from universally or absolutely true.
The Legatum data suggests that the material Americans are to some degree guided by elites, and
product of work does not produce happiness, but Europeans are often skeptical of their elites. And
some level of economic prosperity is essential this is not the same as suggesting that Europeans or
in order to permit people to engage in more Americans are more or less respectful of authority.
fulfilling, non-economic pursuits. Contemporary Rather, the questions are where each group tends
social science thus supports the broad conclusion to locate authority and whether such authority
that work is essential for practical reasons, but proceeds “from the bottom up” (in America) based
something beyond work—leisure in some form, on talent and work, or whether it derives “from the
profound or shallow—is essential to what most top down” (as in Europe) based on greater respect
people on either side of the Atlantic consider to be for tradition, social station, intellectual merit as
a happy, prosperous existence. There is no surprise measured empirically through tests or other factors.
in that.
Second, Americans tend to believe that the role of
Of course, no society has ever focused exclusively government is to assure equality of opportunity.
on GDP to measure itself. Perhaps the closest The results of that opportunity are left to the
any nation ever came to such pure materialism effort and skill of the individual, as well as to
were those who took the disastrous detour into chance. Thus, the United States was early to the
the totalitarian traps of national socialism and provision of public education and large-scale
communism. But even those regimes, with their university availability, later offering a more limited

The Good Life: Explorations into culture and policy 9


Why transatlantic attitudes toward work and leisure are not that different after all
welfare apparatus to provide a minimum level of the church and private associations. Reliable data
sustenance for the poorest who had missed the best on religious belief and practice are difficult to
of available opportunities. This ethic in the United obtain, and of course within Europe there are wide
States stems in part from the fact that America is variations in religious praxis. But the best available
a nation of immigrants, populated by those who data suggests that in the United States, some 60
undertook (or whose ancestors undertook on their percent of Americans agreed that religion plays a
behalf) substantial risk and discomfort in search “very important role” in their lives, compared to 21
Europeans thus of a better opportunity. One outcome of this in percent in Europe. Around 40 percent of Americans
seem more America may be that work is seen as rightly and reported some form of weekly church attendance,
inclined to turn justly determinative of economic and material compared to below 20 percent on average in Europe
to the state to outcomes, including the possibilities of social (and one suspects that the difference between the
provide greater mobility. Work allows the American to decide his number of occasional church goers on the two
support both or her own place and role in society, at least in continents is even greater).11 Thus, Americans are
theory and according to the prevalent norms of more inclined to use their leisure for some form
for the equal
the nation, however imperfectly those norms may of contemplation of the divine in a formal setting,
distribution of
obtain in practice. As such, both the value and and to believe that such use of leisure plays an
the material prominence of work itself, not just as an enabler of important part in their lives.
fruits of work leisure but as a useful end to itself, may be greater
and for guidance in American society. It is important to note here that, while the
and support for “Protestant work ethic,” which is often cited as a
leisure. Europe, on the other hand, tends to place a greater decisive factor in American culture may be real and
emphasis on the importance of equality of outcome. even significant, it is far from comprehensive as an
At least in the second half of the 20th century, this explanation of transatlantic differences. In his book,
view permitted the development of a substantial From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western
welfare state with higher rates of taxation and Cultural Life, Jacques Barzun writes:
income redistribution. It also suggests a greater
role for government in all aspects of work and The sociologist Max Weber and the socialist
leisure. The European Commission and most R. H. Tawney wrote quasi-classic books
European governments include a cabinet-level that gave complementary accounts of this
minister for culture (sometimes combined with supposed cultural connection [between
sports or education), which could actually be called Protestantism and entrepreneurial
a “ministry of leisure.” Although the United States capitalism]. …Weber and Tawney based their
has national endowments for the arts and the thesis on social and psychological grounds:
humanities, and a National Science Foundation, Protestantism, by leaving the believer in
these agencies are seen as mainly supporting private doubt about his salvation, yet holding out the
arts and science efforts, often in collaboration (and chance of grace, encourages him to act as if
sometimes competition) with private foundations. already elect—sober, earnest, hardworking.
His moral code makes him calculating at
Europeans thus seem more inclined to turn to the every turn, the ideal man of business. …
state to provide greater support both for the equal The Catholic, by comparison, is easy-going,
distribution of the material fruits of work and for
guidance and support for leisure. For the latter, Philip Jenkins. God’s Continent: Christianity, Islam, and
11

Americans turn more frequently to two institutions, Europe’s Religious Crisis, pp. 27–28.

10 The German Marshall Fund of the United States


pays his way spiritually by symbolic “works,” when Americans became more open to such
most of which have no practical effects on regulation). But how might different attitudes on
earth. Far from praising real work, he sees work and leisure affect other policy choices in less
it as Adam’s curse. But neither Weber’s nor obvious ways? Two highly speculative examples
Tawney’s somewhat different demonstrations provide food for thought.
has stood up to criticism. For example,
Weber’s notion of Puritan “asceticism” is an The controversy over genetically modified
exaggeration, both verbal and actual; and organisms (GMOs) has pitted American
more important, Capitalism long antedates agricultural firms against European regulators.
the Protestant revolution and hence must Europe has been highly resistant (despite World
have had a “spirit” at that earlier time.12 Trade Organization rulings) to permit American
seeds and crops that have been genetically
Beyond their religious leanings, Americans are also engineered to carry a variety of advantages such
more likely to rely on small groups or people with as resistance to disease. Objective observers agree
similar interests as ways of spending leisure time. that no scientific basis exists to suggest that the
Alexis de Tocqueville considered these “voluntary new crops are a health hazard. But Europe has
associations,” as well as religion, to be essential to seen a risk in these crops that seems to transcend
the American form of free society and government, laboratory results. While some attribute European
and he contrasted them with the state-supported policy simply to a desire to avoid agricultural
religions of Europe and the more state-centered competition, there is also genuine concern at a
prevailing views there. very fundamental level. It is at least imaginable that
part of this concern relates to the traditional role
Both of these generalizations, on the relative that food plays in leisure. It is not just imagination
importance of elites and the relative importance of that spending a long and unhurried evening or
the state to perspectives on work and leisure, were lunch in a European restaurant is more pleasant
never absolutely true, and to the degree they were than facing the “hurry up” tactics of American
true at one time, they were probably more accurate restaurants aimed at getting as many customers to
as descriptions of society in the 19th and early their tables and out their doors as possible. But this
20th centuries than today. But they do provide the difference could carry into higher order decisions
outlines of basic cultural differences on work and such as GMO restrictions. Americans eat to live; if
leisure that remain influential. genetically modified foods better support work and
are scientifically shown to be healthy, they are good,
Work, leisure, culture, and policy
or at least acceptable. Europeans live to eat, not just
In the realm of economic and financial policy, for material pleasure. Food provides an ancient
differing attitudes to work and leisure are fairly well means to enjoy leisure and a link to a cultural past
acknowledged as affecting policy choices ranging and tradition that viewed the feast as the great
from higher numbers of vacation days in Europe, manifestation of leisure, often as part of divine
to more extensive work and health benefits in worship. Food is not lightly to be tampered with for
Europe, to greater European acceptance of financial cultural as well as scientific risk reasons.
regulation (at least until the 2008 financial crisis,
Interestingly, views on human genetic engineering
Jacques Barzun. From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of
12 run in the opposite direction. While the Obama
Western Cultural Life, pp. 36–37. administration has revoked some of the restrictions

The Good Life: Explorations into culture and policy 11


Why transatlantic attitudes toward work and leisure are not that different after all
on embryionic stem cell research, it has done so Leisure—not as simple as it seems
cautiously and in the face of criticism from those
who see the dangers of eugenics. Europeans seem The desire to get the relationship between work
less concerned with these dangers. and leisure “right” has been a key aspect of
Western history both as a matter of philosophical
Another issue where views on work and leisure and theological teaching and as a matter for
may have an effect is climate change. Europeans governments and policymakers. The importance of
When common view Americans as reluctant to part with their this relationship in culture is hard to overestimate,
routines and gas-guzzling cars despite what Europe sees as but it is far more complex than a simple question
overwhelming evidence that the planet faces of an annual number of days of vacation or
public approval
disaster in the absence of immediate action to curb productivity numbers. To conclude with Jacques
foster only Work,
carbon emissions. Americans tend to view the Barzun, as he described the artistic and scientific
leisure becomes scientific evidence in this case as more uncertain flowering of the 16th and 17th centuries:
the exception, and, even if the data is persuasive, the crisis is
an escape to be seen as less urgently demanding of drastic action. The prerequisite for these activities was
contrived over Many factors play into this difference. One factor leisure. Nobles and their kept artists, not
and over. It is then might be differing views of work and leisure. The being workers captive to the nine-to-five,
an individual’s American celebration of work and the view that enjoyed freedom not at stated times but in
privilege, not exploitation of the earth for material gain is a scattered fragments throughout the day. …
good contrast with a greater European tendency But leisure is not the simple thing it seems.
a custom, and
to value the environment not just for its practical The people who supported 16th century
it breeds the
value in survival, but as part of a world that is to be culture were embroiled in politics, love
specialized intrigues, and vendettas; they fought wars,
enjoyed beyond the realm of work, in the realm of
recreations and and bore the usual burden of managing their
leisure, and should be preserved accordingly. The
addictions of our estates and adding to them by complicated
danger in America is that work will prove self-
time. marriages and long-drawn-out negotiations.
destructive by degrading the environment in which
work must necessarily transpire and on which They were not idlers or free of worries.
both the satisfaction of wants and leisure depend. Yet they did things that appear impossible
The danger in Europe is that the environment is without casual far niente. The paradox has
elevated into a divine entity placed above both only one explanation: leisure is a state of
human wants and the best purposes of leisure. mind, and one that the modes of society
must favor and approve. When common
Again, views of work and leisure do not determine routines and public approval foster only
all policies on unemployment, science, and climate. Work, leisure becomes the exception, an
But they may have an effect on these policies escape to be contrived over and over. It is
beneath the surface in ways that could help explain then an individual’s privilege, not a custom,
why Europe and America so often seem to look and it breeds the specialized recreations and
across the Atlantic with bewilderment. Attention addictions of our time.13
to how work and leisure are arranged in the values
of each society (and in different societies within This caution is well worth remembering on both sides
Europe) could help reduce confusion, smooth of the Atlantic as we work our way into the future.
cooperation, and allow policymakers to understand
their and others’ constituencies a bit more 13
Ibid, pp. 80–81.
completely than they do now.

12 The German Marshall Fund of the United States


Offices
Washington • Berlin • Bratislava • Paris
Brussels • Belgrade • Ankara • Bucharest
www.gmfus.org

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