Manufacturing Process

Introduction
Whether from nature or industry materials cannot be used in their raw forms for
any useful purpose. So they need to be processed.

• The basic characteristic of any Manufacturing process is some form of energy and/or
mass transfer to alter the physical form and properties of an object.

• Manufacturing converts the raw materials to finished products to be used for

some purpose.

• The materials are then shaped and formed into different useful
components through different manufacturing processes to fulfill the needs
of day-to-day work.

The manufacturing system is therefore the design or arrangement of the

manufacturing processes.

Production system:
• A production system includes people, money, equipment, materials and
supplies, markets, management and the manufacturing system.

Manufacturing processes can be grouped as:

 Casting, foundry or molding processes.
 Forming or metal working processes.
 Machining (metal removal) processes.
 Joining and assembly
 Surface treatments (finishing).
 Heat treating
These groups are not mutually exclusive. For example, some finishing processes
involve a small amount of metal removal or metal forming.

 Cutting - separating materials is done by physically breaking bonds, or

more recently by melting .Cutting techniques have found particular favor
with sheets of material, such as metal plates, metal sheets, fabrics, etc.
 Metallurgical/Finishing - a variety of processes that do not significantly
alter the geometry of the object, but are required for product performance
or marketing. Consider heat treating processes that will heat a metal and
change the properties. Or painting that makes a part more attractive and
helps protect the metal surface.
 Molding/Casting - Molding and casting technologies have been used for
millennia, but they have recently begun to find interesting new techniques,
and materials that expand the applications, and techniques. In general this
 method uses material in a liquid form that solidifies into the shape of a
mold.
 Particulates - small particles of material have been used to manufacture
low cost parts of complex geometry at high production rates. In effect a
powder is put in a mold, pressed until solid, and then heated to make it
stronger. Materials include many metals, ceramics, glass, etc.
 Forming - The idea of reshaping objects has been done for long periods of
time (e.g. blacksmiths). Our knowledge of materials has allowed us to take
advantage of subtle properties. Certain materials can be worked past the
point that they would normally fracture. Materials can be bonded at an
atomic level, and entire parts can be made out of a single crystal.
 Joining/Cutting - By joining two or more parts we can create more
complex geometries and assemblies. Consider parts that are glued or
welded together. Parts may also be made by cutting larger parts into
smaller pieces.

There are various manufacturing processes by which a product can be made.

• Each process however has its own limitation and restriction and due to this
reason a particular process is adopted to certain specific applications.
• Thus while a product can be manufactured by two or more processes, the
real problem is to select the most economical out of them.
• A detailed understanding of various manufacturing processes is thus very
essential for every engineer. This helps in designing the proper product
required for him.
• He would be able to assess the feasibility of manufacturing from his designs.
• He may find that there are more than one process is available for
manufacturing a particular product and he can make a proper choice of the
process which would require lowest manufacturing cost.

Why new manufacturing processes are being developed?

 New materials that is not suitable by traditional machining methods.
 New approaches to design and manufacturing
 To accompany more complicated designs
 Tighter tolerances.
Machining Process
Machine tools are where the material removal or forming of the work piece
takes place.
Material removal is essentially done on machine tools, which may be Lathe,
Milling, Drilling, Shaping, Planing, Broaching and Grinding machines.

The functions of machine tools are:

 holding the work piece
 holding the tool
 moving the tool or the work piece or both relative to each other,
 Supply energy required to cause metal cutting.
 Every machine tool has a primary cutting tool for metal removal.
Cutting Speed: Cutting speed is the distance traveled by the work surface in
unit time with reference to the cutting edge of the tool, usually expressed in
m/min.
Feed: The feed is the distance advanced by the tool into or along the work
piece each time the tool point passes a certain position in its travel over the
surface.
In case of turning, feed is the distance that the tool advances in one revolution
of the work piece.
 Feed f is usually expressed in mm/rev. Sometimes it is also expressed
in mm/min and is called feed rate.

Depth of cut: It is the distance through which the cutting tool is plunged into the
work piece surface. Thus it is the distance measured perpendicularly between
the machined surface and the unmachined (uncut) surface or the previously
machined surface of the work piece. Depth of cut d is expressed in mm.

Orthogonal Cutting:
The cutting edge of the tool remains normal to the direction of tool feed or work
feed.
The direction of the chip flow velocity is normal to the cutting edge of the tool.
Here only two components of forces are acting: Cutting Force and Thrust Force.
So the metal cutting may be considered as a two dimensional cutting

Oblique Cutting:
The tool remains inclined at an acute angle to the direction of tool feed or work
feed.
• The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an angle with the normal to the
cutting edge of the tool. The angle is known as chip flow angle.
• Here three components of forces are acting: Cutting Force, Radial force and
Thrust Force or feed force. So the metal cutting may be considered as a three
dimensional cutting.
The cutting edge being oblique, the shear force acts on a larger area and thus
tool life is increased.
THE MECHANISM OF CUTTING
• Assuming that the cutting action is continuous we can develop a continuous
model of cutting conditions.
• Orthogonal Cutting - assumes that the cutting edge of the tool is set in a
position that is perpendicular to the direction of relative work or tool motion. This
allows us to deal with forces that act only in one plane.
• First, consider the physical geometry of cutting, work piece has relative motion
towards tool chip tool friction shear
Cutting Tool geometry for orthogonal cutting
Cutting tool angles and their significance
The rake angle has the following function:
• It allows the chip to flow in convenient direction.
• It reduces the cutting force required to shear the metal and consequently helps
to increase the tool life and reduce the power consumption. It provides keenness
to the cutting edge.
• It improves the surface finish.

Back rake angle:

•The back rake angle is the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel
to the base of the shank in a plane parallel to the side cutting edge.
•The back rake angle affects the ability of the tool to shear the work material and
form chip.
Side Rake Angles:
•It is the angle by which the face of the tool is inclined side ways.
The Rake Angle:
The rake angle is always at the topside of the tool.
The side rake angle and the back rake angle combine to form the effective rake
angle. This is also called true rake angle or resultant rake angle of the tool. The
basic tool geometry is determined by the rake angle of the tool. Rake angle has
two major effects during the metal cutting process.
One major effect of rake angle is its influence on tool strength. A tool with
Negative rake will withstand far more loading than a tool with positive rake.
The other major effect of rake angle is its influence on cutting pressure. A tool
with a positive rake angle reduces cutting forces by allowing the chips to flow
more freely across the rake surface.

Positive Rake:
• Positive rake or increased rake angle reduces compression, the forces, and the
friction, yielding a thinner, less deformed and cooler chip.
• But increased rake angle reduces the strength of the tool section, and heat
conduction capacity.
• Some areas of cutting where positive rake may prove more effective are, when
cutting tough, alloyed materials that tend to work-harden, such as certain
stainless steels, when cutting soft or gummy metals, or when low rigidity of work
piece, tooling, machine tool, or fixture allows chatter to occur.
Negative Rake:
•To provide greater strength at the cutting edge and better heat Conductivity,
zero or negative rake angles are employed on carbide, Ceramic, polycrystalline
diamond, and polycrystalline cubic boron nitride cutting tools.
•These materials tend to be brittle, but their ability to hold their superior
hardness at high temperature results in their selection for high speed and
continuous machining operation.
•Negative rakes increases tool forces but this is necessary to provide added
support to the cutting edge. This is particularly important in making intermittent
cuts and in absorbing the impact during the initial engagement of the tool and
work.
•Negative rakes are recommended on tool which does not possess good
toughness (low transverse rupture strength).
•Thus negative rake (or small rake) causes high compression, tool force, and
friction, resulting in highly deformed, hot chip.
Relief angles are provided to minimize physical interference or rubbing contact
with machined surface and the work piece.
• Relief angles are for the purpose of helping to eliminate tool breakage and to
increase tool life.
• If the relief angle is too large, the cutting tool may chip or break. If the angle is
too small, the tool will rub against the work piece and generate excessive heat
and this will in turn, cause premature dulling of the cutting tool.
• Small relief angles are essential when machining hard and strong materials and
they should be increased for the weaker and softer materials.
• A smaller angle should be used for interrupted cuts or heavy feeds, and a larger
angle for semi-finish and finish cuts.
Side relief angle: The Side relief angle prevents the side flank of the tool from
rubbing against the work when longitudinal feed is given. Larger feed will require
greater side relief angle.
End relief angle: The End relief angle prevents the side flank of the tool from
rubbing against the work. A minimum relief angle is given to provide maximum
support to the tool cutting edge by increasing the lip angle.
The front clearance angle should be increased for large diameter works.
Side cutting edge angle:
The following are the advantages of increasing this angle:
• It increases tool life as, for the same depth of cut; the cutting force is
distributed on a wider surface.
• It diminishes the chip thickness for the same amount of feed and permits
greater cutting speed.
• It dissipates heat quickly for having wider cutting edge.
•The side cutting edge angle of the tool has practically no effect on the
Value of the cutting force or power consumed for a given depth of cut and feed.
•Large side cutting edge angles are lightly to cause the tool to chatter.
End cutting edge angle:
The function of end cutting edge angle is to prevent the trailing front cutting
edge of the tool from rubbing against the work. A large end cutting edge angle
unnecessarily weakens the tool.
Nose radius:
The nose of a tool is slightly rounded in all turning tools.
The function of nose radius is as follows:
• Greater nose radius clears up the feed marks caused by the previous shearing
action and provides better surface finish.
• All finish turning tool have greater nose radius than rough turning tools.
• It increases the strength of the cutting edge, tends to minimize the wear taking
place in a sharp pointed tool with consequent increase

Cutting Tool materials and their property

Cutting tool materials and their proper selection for a particular application are
the most important factors in manufacturing operations. A cutting tool material
must have certain characteristics in order to produce parts economically and with
good
quality.
Essential properties for cutting tool materials
The cutting tools need to be capable to meet the growing demands for higher
productivity and economy as well as to machine the exotic materials which are
coming up with the rapid progress in science and technology.
The cutting tool material of the day and future essentially require the following
properties to resist or retard the phenomena leading to random or early tool
failure:
i) high mechanical strength; compressive, tensile, and TRA
ii) fracture toughness – high or at least adequate
iii) high hardness for abrasion resistance
iv) high hot hardness to resist plastic deformation and reduce wear rate at
elevated temperature
v) chemical stability or inertness against work material, atmospheric gases and
cutting fluids
vi) resistance to adhesion and diffusion
vii) thermal conductivity – low at the surface to resist incoming of heat and high
at the core to quickly dissipate the heat entered
viii) high heat resistance and stiffness
ix) Manufacturability, availability and low cost.

Cutting Tool Materials

Type of material being cut: A harder material like cast iron may be machined by
smaller rake angle than that required by soft material like mid steel or aluminum.
• Type of tool material: Tool material like cemented carbide permits turning at
very high speed. At high speeds rake angle has little influence on cutting
pressure. Under such condition the rake angle can minimum or even negative
rake angle is provided to increase the tool strength.
• Depth of cut: In rough turning, high depth of cut is given to remove maximum
amount of material. This means that the tool has to withstand severe cutting
pressure. So the rake angle should be decreased to increase the lip angle that
provides the strength to the cutting edge.
• Rigidity of the tool holder and machine: An improperly supported tool on
old or worn out machine cannot take up high cutting pressure. So while
machining under the above condition, the tool used should have larger rake
angle.
TYPES OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIAL: -
The following materials are commonly used for manufacturing the cutting tools.
1. High carbon steels. 6. Stellite
2. Alloy steels 7. Diamond
3. High speed steels 8. Abrasives
4. Cemented carbides 9. Cubic Boron Nitride
5. Ceramics 10. Coated carbides.

1 .High Carbon Steels (Plain carbon steel):-

These are steels having carbon content ranging from 0.8 to 1.5% . These are
used for general applications like in turning, boring, shaping, etc. for machining
of ductile and soft materials like mild steel. Aluminum, copper etc.
Advantages –
Fabrication is easy and easy to harden.
Disadvantages-
Suitable only for machining of ductile material at low cutting speeds.
They are not able to withstand at high temperatures.
High Speed Steel (1900): The major difference between high speed tool steel
and plain high carbon steel is the addition of alloying elements (manganese,
Chromium, tungsten, vanadium, molybdenum, cobalt, and niobium) to harden
and strengthen the steel and make it more resistant to heat (hot hardness).
They are of two types: Tungsten HSS (denoted by T), Molybdenum HSS (denoted
by M).

2. Alloy steels:-
These steels have carbon content unto 1% and alloying elements used are
tungsten, vanadium molybdenum, and chromium. These elements impact certain
properties like high hot hardness, toughness and resistance to wear and
distortion.
Adv –
1. These tools work for medium cutting speeds.
2. Used for harder materials.
Disadv-
1. They can retain hardness up to 300c only
2. Due to inclusion of alloying elements the cost increases.
3. High Speed steels-
The widely use material are high speed steels(HSS).These tools can operate at
high cutting speed ,where temperature as high as 900c and can operate 2 to 3
times more speed than plain carbon steels.
There are 3 types HSS :-
1. High tungsten steel :- It imparts higher hot hardness.
2. High molybdenum Steel :- It retains sharp cutting edge.
3. High cobalt steels:- It provides high wear resistance.
High tungsten steel contains 18% tungsten , 4% chromium, 1% vanadium .
These are efficient high speed steel.
Molybdenum HSS (6-4-2) :-
It contains 6% Mo , 4% Cr, 2% V .They posses high toughness and cutting
strength.

Cobalt HSS :-
These are known as super high speed steels due to high hot hardness and wear
resistance at higher cutting speeds . It contains 15% cobalt, 10-20% tungsten, 2-
4% Cr,2-4%V.
Adv:- high machining performance with longer tool life.
Dis adv:- Very costly and difficult to fabricate.
• Cast cobalt alloys or Stellites (1915): It is a non-ferrous alloy consisting
mainly of cobalt, tungsten and chromium (38% to 53% Cobalt, 30% to 33%
Chromium, and 4% to 20% Tungsten). Other elements added in varying
proportions are molybdenum, manganese, silicon and carbon. It has good shock
and wear resistance properties and retains its harness up to 9000C. Stellite tools
can operate at speed about 25% higher than that of HSS tools.
4. Cemented carbides:- • Cemented Carbides or Sintered Carbides
(1926-30): These tools are produced by powder metallurgy. Carbide tools are
basically of three types: tungsten carbide (WC), tantalum carbide (TaC), and
titanium carbide (TiC).
The carbides or combined carbides are mixed with a binder of cobalt. They are
able to retain hardness to a temperature of about 10000C. So they can be used
at high speeds. Carbide tool are available as brazed tip tools (carbide tip is
brazed to steel tool) and inserts (inserts are of various shapes- triangular, square
diamond and round).
Coated cemented carbide (1960): Tool life to about 200 to 300 % or more. A
thin, chemically stable, hard refractory coating of TiC, TiN or Al2O3 is used. The
bulk of the tool is tough, shock resistant carbide that can withstand high
temperatures. Because of its wear resistance, coated tool can be used at still
higher speeds.
Carbides are formed by the mixture of tungsten, titanium with carbon
.The carbides in powder form mixed with cobalt which acts as a binder .Then
powder metallurgy process is applied for pressing and mixture is sintered at 550C
.This mixture is pressed is applied for pressing and mixture is pressed at pressure
from 1000kg/cm2 to 4200kg/cm2 into suitable blocks and then heated in
hydrogen. The amount of cobalt used will regulate the toughness of the tool.
Carbides tool have 82% tungsten carbide, 10% titanium and 8% cobalt.
Adv:-
1. Used for high cutting speeds.
2. Very high hardness and wear resistance.
Dis –adv-
1. They are costly.
Low toughness because of brittleness.
5. Ceramics:-
Ceramics tools are made by compacting aluminum oxide powder in a mould at
about 280 kg/cm2 .The part is then sintered at 2200C and this method is known
as cold pressing .This part is in the form of tool and is ready for use as a cutting
tool material. These tool tips are fastened to the shanks.
Adv-
1. high compressive strength.
2. high hardness
3. high wear resistance and longer tool life.
4. withstand stand upto 1200C temp.
Dis adv-
1. very brittle and not suitable for cutting under impact load.
2. low thermal conductivity.
• Cemented oxides or Ceramic Cutting Tools (1950s): Non-metallic
materials made of pure Aluminum oxide by powder metallurgy. The application
ceramic cutting tools are limited because of their extreme brittleness. The
transverse rupture strength (TRS) is very low. This means that they will fracture
more easily when making heavy interrupted cuts. However, the strength of
ceramics under compression is much higher than HSS and carbide tools. It has
high hot hardness (up to 1200 degree C), so capable of running at high speeds.
Cermets: Cermets are ceramic material in metal binders. TiC, nickel, TiN, and
other carbides are used as binders. Cermets have higher hot hardness and
oxidation resistance than cemented carbides but less toughness. They are used
for finishing operation. The main problem with cermets is that due to thermal
shock the inserts crack.
6. Diamond-
The diamond is the hardest known material and can be run at cutting
speeds about 50 times greater than HSS and at temperatures upto 1650C. This is
used when good surface finish and dimensional accuracy are desired.
Adv-
1. It is very hard and has very low co-efficient of friction.
2. Low thermal expansion and high heat conductivity.
Dis adv-
1. It is very costly
2. Because of its harness, it is very difficult to produce the required
shape(fabricate).
Applications:-
Diamonds are used for cutting very hard materials such as glass, ceramics,
abrasives and steels .It is also used for dressing the grinding wheel.

• Diamond: They are of two types - industrial grade natural diamonds, and
synthetic polycrystalline diamonds. Because diamonds are pure carbon, they
have an affinity for the carbon of ferrous metals. Therefore, they can only be
used on non-ferrous metals. Feeds should be very light and high speeds Rigidity
in the machine tool and the setup is very critical because of the extreme
hardness and brittleness of diamond.

7. Abrasive:-
These abrasives are mainly used for grinding harder material and where a
superior finish is desired in hardened material. In general two kinds of abrasive
are used aluminum oxide and silicon carbide.
The aluminum oxide abrasive are used for grinding all high tensile
materials,where as silicon carbide abrasives are more suitable for low tensile
materials and non-ferrous metals.
8. Stellites:-
Stellites is the trade name of a non-ferrous cast alloy composed of cobalt
,chromium and tugsten.The rabge of elements in these alloys is 40-48%
cobalt,30-
35% chromium,12-19% tungsten,1.8 to 2.5 % carbon.They cannot be forged to
shape ,but may be deposited directly on the tool shank in an oxy-acetylene
flame.
Adv-
1.they have wear resistance.
2.retain its hardness upto 1000C
3.It can be used at high cutting speeds.
Dis adv- It is brittle and cannot be used under impact machining conditions.
9. Cubic Boron Nitride(CBN) :-
Next to diamond, CBN is the hardest material currently available. It
consists of atoms of nitrogen and boron, produced by high pressure and high
temperature processing. As cutting tool materials CBN is used in the
polycrystalline form. It has much higher tensile strength as compared to
diamond.CBN being chemically inert is used as a substitute for diamond for
machining steel.
Adv-
1. CBN has high hardness and high thermal conductivity.
2. The life of a CBN tool is 4 to 5 times higher than that of a diamond tool.
Application-
As a grinding wheel on HSS tools for machining high temperature alloys,
titanium, nimonic stainless steel, stellites and chilled CI.
• Cubic Boron Nitride (1962): Cubic boron nitride (CBN) is similar to diamond
in its polycrystalline structure and is also bonded to a carbide base. With the
exception of titanium, or titanium-alloyed materials, CBN will work effectively as
a cutting tool on most common work materials. However, the use of CBN should
be reserved for very hard and difficult-to machine materials.
10. Coated Carbides-
Coated carbides have a thin coating of TiC on all faces of the tip. The coating
thickness is of the order of a few micros(0.0025 to 0.005).These tools resist the
diffusion wear on the crater and give a tough shock resistance tool.
Oxide coating-
The diffusion of atoms btw the tool and chip material can be retorted by coating
the tool surface of the carbide tools with oxides of aluminium and zirconium.This
considerably increases the tool life.Coated carbides are used for
machining super alloys.
Cutting fluids;-
Cutting fluids ,sometimes referred to as lubricants coolants are liquids and gases
applied to the tool and w/p tot assist on the cutting operations.
Purpose of cutting fluid (Functions)
1. To cool the tool:-
Cooling the tool is necessary to prevent metallurgical damage and to assist in
decreasing friction at the tool-chip interface and at the tool workpiece
interface.
2. To Cool the w/p:-
The role of the cutting fluid in cooling the w/p is to prevent its excessive
thermal distortion.
3. To wash the chip away from the tool.
4. To improve surface finish and tool life.
5. Reduces force and energy consumptions.
6. To cause chips break up into small part.
7. To protect the finished surface from corrosion.
Properties of cutting fluids:-
A cutting fluid should have the following properties
1. Good lubricating qualities to produce low-co-efficient of friction.
2. High flash point so as to eliminate the hazard of fire.
3. High heat absorption for readily absorbing the heat developed.
4. Harmless to the skin of the operators.
5. Non-corrosive to the work or the m/c.
6. Low priced to minimize production cost.
7. Low viscosity to permit free flow of the liquid.
8. Harmless to the bearings.
9. Should be chemically natural inert.
10. Transparency so that the cutting action of the tool may be observed.
Types of cutting fluids:-
The types of cutting fluid to be used depends upon the work material and
the characteristic of the machining process.

1. Water:-
It is principally a coolant and not a lubricant water with alkali, salt or water
soluble additive and little soap are sometimes used as a coolant. But water
alone is objectionable for its corrosiveness.
2. Soluble Oils:-
These are emulsions composed of around 80% or more of water, soap and
mineral oil. The soap acts as an emulsifying agent which break the oil into
minute particles to disperse them throughout water. The water increases the
cooling effect, and the oil provides the best lubricating properties and ensures
freedom from rust.
3. Straight Oils:-
These sare straight mineral oils (petroleum), Kerosine, low viscosity
petroleum factions. Straightr fixed or fatty oils consisting of animal,
vegitable, lard oil etc. They have both cooling and lubricating properties and
are used in light machining operations.
4. Mixed oils:-
This is a combination of straight mineral ands straight fatty oil. This makes an
excellent lubricant and coolant for automatic screw m/c work and where
accuracy and good surface finish are of prime importance .
(a) Chemical additive oil:-
Straight oil or mixed oil when mixed with sulphur or chlorine
Is known as chemical additive oil.Sulphur and chlorine are
used to increase both the lubricating and cooling qualities of the various oils
with which they are combined.
(b) Chemical compounds:-These consist mainly of sodium nitrate mixed
with a high percentage of water. These compounds act as coolants
particularly in grinding.
(c) Solid lubricants:-
Stick waxes and bar soaps are sometimes used as a convenient means
of applying lubrication to the cutting tool.
Selection of cutting fluid:-
Cutting fluid should be carefully chosen. The selection of particular type
of cutting fluid depends on factors listed below.

• The tool-chip and chip-work interface are exposed to severe conditions that
adhesive and abrasion wear is very common. Wear resistance means the
attainment of acceptable tool life before tools need to be replaced.
• Low friction: The coefficient of friction between the tool and chip should be low.
This would lower wear rates and allow better chip flow.
Essential properties for cutting tool materials
The cutting tools need to be capable to meet the growing demands for higher
productivity and economy as well as to machine the exotic materials which are
coming up with the rapid progress in science and technology.
Mechanics of cutting tool
Practice questions
1. What roles do rake and relief angles play in cutting tools?
ans. the rake angle will change the basic cutting parameters. A positive rake (sharp tool) will give
lower cutting forces, but less edge strength. A negative or neutral rake will give higher cutting forces,
but more strength. The relief angle provides a gap behind the cutting edge so that the tool does not rub
the work.
Tool failure:-
During the operation, cutting tool may fail due to one more of the following
reasons.
1. Thermal cracking and softening.
2. Mechanical chipping.
3. Gradual wear.
1. Thermal cracking and softening.
Due to heat generated in the metal cutting process, the tool tip and the area
closer to the cutting edge becomes very hot and if this heat crosses the high
temp, at which the tool losses its hardness the tool material starts deforming
plastically. This is said to have failed due to softening.
The factors responsible for this are cutting speed, high feed rate, and excessive
depth of cut, smaller nose radius and the choice of a wrong tool material.
2. Mechanical chipping:-The mechanical chipping of the nose and the cutting
edge of the tool are commonly observed causes of tool failure.
The factors responsible for this are too high cutting pressure. Mechanical impact,
excessive wear, too high vibrations and chatter, weak tip and cutting edge etc
3. Gradual wear:-The following two types of wears are generally found to occur in
cutting tools.
(b) Crater wear: - This type of wear takes place in a cutting its face, at a small
distance from its cutting edge.
This type of wear takes place while machining ductile material like steel alloys, in
which continuous chip is produced. The resultant feature of this type of wear is
the formation of a crater or a depression at the tool-chip interface. Higher feeds
and lack of cutting fluids increases the rate of crater wear.
(c) Flank wear: - This type of wear occurs in the flank below the cutting edge. It
Occurs due to abrasion btw the tool flank and the w/p excessive heat generated
As a result of the same.
The magnitude of this wear mainly depends upon the relative harnesses of the
w/p tool material at the time of cutting and also the extent of strain hardness of
the chip.
MECHANISMS OF WEAR:-
1. Abrasive wear:-Hard particles on the underside of the sliding chip,which are
harder than the tool material plough into the relatively, softer material of the tool
face and remove metal particles by mechanical action. The material of the tool
face is softened due to the high temperature. The hard particles present on the
underside of the chip
may be,
a) Fragments of hard tool material.
b) Broken pieces of built up edge, which are strain hardened.
c) Extremely hard constituents, like carbides, oxides, scales, etc
.present in the work material.
2. Attrition wear:-
At relatively low cutting speeds, the flow of the material past the cutting edge is
irregular and fewer streams lined. Sometimes bue may be formed and contact
with the tool may not be continous.Under these conditions, Fragments of the tool
are torn intermittently from the tool surface. This phenomenon is called attrition.
This type of wear progresses slowly in the case of continuous cutting, but with
interrupted cutting or where vibrations are severe due to lack of rigidity of the
machine tool or uneven work surfaces, it leads to rapid destruction of the cutting
edge. As the cutting speed is increased, the flow of metal becomes uniform and
attrition disappears.
3. Diffusion wear:-This occurs because of the diffusion of metal and carbon
atoms from the tool surface into the work material and the chips. Wear by
diffusion is due to the high temperature and pr developed at the contact surfaces
in metal cutting and rapid flow of the chip and the work surfaces past the
tool.The rate of diffusion wear depends upon the metallurgical relationship btw
the tool and the work material. It is one of the major causes of wear and is of
special significance in case of carbide tools.
4. Plastic deformation:-
When high compressive stresses act on the tool rake face, the tool may be
deformed downwards and this deformation takes place primarily in the nose area
of the insert and reduces the relief angle. This is a deformation rather than a
wear process, but it accelerates other wear processes which reduce the life of the
tool.
Deformation leads to the sudden failure of the tool by fracture or localized
heating.
i) high mechanical strength; compressive, tensile, bending to accommodate
the force created during the cutting action.
ii) fracture toughness – high or at least adequate : Inspite of the tool being
tough, it should have enough toughness to withstand the impact loads that come
in the start of the cut to force fluctuations due to imperfections in the work
material. Toughness of cutting tools is needed so that tools don’t chip or fracture,
especially during interrupted cutting operations like milling.
Wear Resistance:
iii) High hardness for abrasion: The tool material must be harder than the
work piece material. Higher the hardness, easier it is for the tool to
penetrate the work material. . Co – efficient of friction- The coefficient of friction
‘μ’ for tool material must be low, so that the tool wear will be minimum and result
in a good surface finish.
iv) high hot hardness to resist plastic deformation and reduce wear rate at
elevated temperature ; Hot Hardness is the ability of the cutting tool must to
maintain its Hardness and strength at elevated temperatures. This property is
more important when the tool is used at higher cutting speeds, for increased
productivity
v) Chemical stability or inertness against work material, atmospheric gases and
cutting fluids. The tool should not chemically react with the work material
vi) resistance to adhesion and diffusion
vii) thermal conductivity – low at the surface to resist incoming of heat and high
at the core to quickly dissipate the heat entered
viii) high heat resistance and stiffness
ix) Manufacturability, availability and low cost.

TOOL LIFE

Te length of the period for which a tool can be used is called the tool life.
When the wear reaches certain values the tool is not capable of further cutting
unless
it is resharpened .Tool life is the most important criterion for assessing the
performance of a tool material,machinibility of work material and for determining
cutting conditions.
There are three common ways of expressing tool life.
1. As time period in minutes btw two successive grindings.
2. In terms of number of components machined btw 2 successive grindings. This
mode is commonly used when the tool operates continuously, as in case of
automatic machine.
3. In terms of the volume of material removed btw two successive grindings. This
mode of expression is commonly used when the tool is primarily used for heavy
Stock removed.
Factors affecting the cutting tool life
1. Cutting speed
2. Feed rate
3. Depth of cut
4. Cutting tool material
5. W/p material
6. Velocity of cutting fluid
7. Expected tool life.
8. Cost of the cutting fluid.
9. Life of cutting fluid and loss of cutting fluid during operation.
Machinability:-
The case with which a given material may be worked with a cutting tool is
machinability. Machinability depends on:
1. Chemical composition of w/p material.
2. Micro structure
3. Mechanical properties.
4. Physical properties.
5. Cutting conditions.
Factors affecting machinability:-
Common machine variables affecting ease of cutting are.
1. Cutting speed
2. Dimensitions of the cut.
3. Tool material
4. Tool form (angles, radii, etc.,)
5. Cutting fluid
6. Nature of engagement of tool with the work.
Common work material variables affecting ease to cutting:-
1. Hardness
2. Tensile properties
3. Chemical composition
4. Microstructure
5. Degree of cold work
6. Strain hare ability
7. Shape and dimensions of work.
8. Rigidity of work piece.

Shaper Machine
Grinding
The grinding process consists of removing material from the workpiece by the
use of a rotating wheel that has a surface composed of abrasive grains. Grinding
is considered to be the most accurate of the existing machining processes.
Grinding processes are used when high accuracies, close dimensional tolerances,
and a fine surface finishes are required. Grinding processes also allow for high
production rates. This allows for a lowered cost of production. Hard materials can
also be machined with this type of process.
Grinding may be classified as non-precision or precision, according to purpose
and procedure.
 Non-precision grinding: The common forms are called, snagging and offhand
grinding. Both are done primarily to remove stock that can not be taken off as
conveniently by other methods. The work is pressed hard against the wheel or
vice versa. The accuracy and surface finish are of secondary importance.
 Precision grinding: Precision grinding is concerned with producing good surface
finishes and accurate dimensions. Three types of precision grinding exists
External cylindrical grinding
Internal cylindrical grinding
Surface grinding

Grinding Operations
Surface grinding is most common of the grinding operations. A rotating wheel is
used in the grinding of flat surfaces. Types of surface grinding are vertical spindle
and rotary tables.
Forming Process
Forging process

Introduction
Forging is defined as the process in which metal is plastically deformed with application
of temperature and pressure. It is used to change not only the shape but also the
properties of the metal because it refines the grain size and therefore improves its
structure. Forging is a cost-effective way to produce net-shape or near-net-shape
components. Forged parts are used in high performance, high strength and high reliability
applications where tension, stress, load and the human safety are critical considerations.
They are also employed in a wide range of demanding environments, including highly
corrosive and extreme temperatures and pressures.
Various parameters such as complexity of the part, friction between dies and workpiece,
type of press, die and workpiece temperature, material of workpiece govern the forging
process. Forging process is said to be successful if die cavity is completely filled and
stress in the workpiece is less than ultimate stress corresponding to the workpiece
material, with minimum force.\

Bending of Metals

An approximate formula for the bend allowance is

Bending deformation terminology
Residual stress
 Bending causes residual stresses in the work piece.
 The smaller the bending radius relative to the sheet metal thickness, the greater these
stresses are.
 When a subsequent heat treatment is used to reduce residual stresses in the workpiece, it is
important to remember that heat treatment alters the work piece radii and the angles. So bending is
done considering the geometrical change (radius of bend) that will be produced by heat treatment.
Welding Process
 As we all know that whatever the product that is impossible to manufacture as a single
piece.
 Welding is a process which is used to join the two parts to get a desired product.
 Welding is a joining process. The types of welding processes are:-

Fusion welding is defined as the melting together and coalescing of materials by means of heat
(usually provided by chemical or electrical means); filler metals may or may not be used. This process
constitutes a major category of welding; it comprises consumable or non consumable electrode arc
welding and high energy beam welding processes .The welded joint undergoes important metallurgical
and physical changes which in turn have a major effect on the properties and performance of the
welded component or structure.
In solid-state welding joining takes place without fusion; consequently there is no liquid (molten)
phase in the joint. The basic categories are diffusion bonding, ultrasonic, cold, friction, resistance, and
explosive welding. Diffusion bonding, combined with super plastic forming, has become an important
manufacturing process for complex shapes. Brazing and soldering use filler metals and involve lower
temperatures than welding; the heat required is supplied externally.
Another classification of welding processes is given below:
1. Heating the metal joint to a temperature below the solidus temperature and applying pressure.
• Forge welding
2. Melting of the metal at the joint (fusion welding).
• Gas welding
• Arc welding
• Thermit welding
• Flow welding
3. Melting the metal at the joint and applying pressure.
• Pressure-gas welding
• Stud welding
• Flash welding
• Resistance welding
• Induction welding
4. Applying pressure only to the metal joint (done at room temperature).
• Cold welding

ARC WELDING
• Basically, an electric arc is used to heat base metals and a consumable filler rod.
• This is the most common form of welding and is used in about half of all applications.
• A power supply is used to create a high potential between an electrode (guided by the welder)
and a metal work piece. When moved close enough electrodes break down the air and start to
flow. The local current of the flow is so high that it heats metals up to 30000C or 54000F.
• Material is added during this welding process.This material can come from a consumable electrode,
or from a rod of material that is fed separately.
• The electrodes/rods are often coated. This coating serves a number of functions,
- it protects the welder from contact
- it deoxidizes and provides a gas shield
• Problems that arise in this form of welding is contamination of the metal with elements in the
atmosphere (O, H, N, etc.). There can also be problems with surfaces that are not clean. Solutions to
this include,
Gas shields - an inert gas is blown into the weld zone to drive away other atmospheric gases.
metal welding table power welding stick work piece supply electric arc current flows in a loop through
the metal
Flux - a material that is added to clean the surface, this may also give off a gas to drive away
unwanted gases.
 filler metal or material
material added to fill-up the space in between two welding pieces during the welding process
 Two types of filler metals commonly used
• welding rods
• welding electrodes.
 welding rod refers to a form of filler metal that does not conduct an electric current during
welding process
• The purpose of a welding rod is to supply filler metal to the joint.
• used for gas welding.
 Electrode
• component that conducts the current from the electrode holder to the metal being
welded.
• Electrode types:
• consumable and non-consumable.
 Consumable electrodes
 provide a path for the current and also supply filler metal to the joint.
• Eg.electrode used in shielded metal-arc welding.
 Non-consumable electrodes
• used as a conductor for the electrical current-GTAW
• filler metal for GTAW, hand fed consumable welding rod.
Fluxes
 Base metal has always impurities, called oxides
 result from oxygen combining with metal & other contaminants in the base metal.
 if these oxides are not removed a faulty weld may result
 Fluxes
 Cleaning agents that dissolve oxides and release trapped gases
 combines with impurities in the base metal, floating them away in the form of a heavy slag
which shields the weld from the atmosphere.
 allow the filler metal and the base metal to be fused
 formulated for a specific base metal on the expected welding temperature
 Available in the form of a paste, powder, or liquid

• Common types of processes include,

SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding)/Stick Welding - A consumable electrode with a
coating that will act as a flux to clean the metal, and to create a gas shield.
  performed by striking an arc between a coated-metal electrode and the base metal.
 molten metal from the tip of the electrode flows together with the molten metal from the edges
of the base metal to form a sound joint, process known as fusion
 The coating from the electrode forms a covering over weld deposit, shielding it from
contamination
 common types of welding
 Oxy-fuel gas welding (OFW)
 arc welding
 resistance welding
 high-quality welds are made rapidly at a low cost
 Weld surfaces have valleys and ripples
 Makes interpretation difficult
 Discontinuities have random orientation in the weld with other welding processes
 Contains entire spectrum of weld discontinuities

MIG (Metal Inert Gas) - A consumable electrode in a gas shield. In addition to simple
materials, this can handle aluminum, magnesium, titanium, stainless steel, copper,
etc. This torch is normally water or air cooled.
TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) - A non consumable tungsten electrode is used with a filler rods
and a gas shield. This can handle aluminum, titanium, stainless steel, copper, etc.
This torch is normally water or air cooled.
SAW (Submerged Arc Welding) - A normal wire is used as a consumable electrode, and
the flux is applied generously around the weld. The weld occurs within the flux,
and is protected from the air.
• Process variables include,
- electrode current 50-300A is common
- voltage
- polarity
- arc length
- speed
- materials
- flux
- workpiece thickness
 common to all arc-welding processes
 a heat source, filler metal, and shielding
 source of heat
 by arcing of an electrical current between two contacts.
 concentration of heat
 less heat spread reduces buckling and warping
 increases depth of penetration and
 speeds up welding operation
 A distinct advantage of arc welding over gas welding
 more practical and economical than gas welding
 In gas welding flame spreads over a large area, causing heat distortion
GAS WELDING
• Basically, filler and base materials are heated to the point of melting by a burning a gas.
• Two common types are, - oxygen-acetylene
- mapp gas
• These are suited to a few applications, but they produce by-products that can contaminate the final
weld.
• Typically the flame is adjusted to give a clean burn, and this is applied to the point of the weld.
• A welding rod will be fed in separately to melt and join the weld line.
• Flux can be used to clean the welds.
• Process variables include,
- gas and oxygen flow rates
- Distance from surface
- Speed
- Material types
- Surface preparation of materials

GAS Metal Arc WELDING

 source of heat
 oxy-fuel gas, such as acetylene, mixed with oxygen
 used in maintenance and repair works
 Primary gases used
 helium, argon, carbon dioxide or a mixture of these gases
 Difference between SMAW & GMAW
 type of shielding
 Gas metal arc welding
 No flux used
 Suitable for thin wall sections < 10 mm
 Has Low base metal penetration

 GTAW
 both the arc and the molten puddle covered by a shield of inert gas.
 The shield of inert gas prevents atmospheric contamination-producing a better weld.
 Gas Tungsten arc welding
 High quality welds with good base metal penetration with operator skill
 Discontinuities common to GTAW
 Incomplete fusion
 Cold lap
 Porosity -if loss of shielding occurs
 Tungsten inclusions

TITANIUM WELDING
• Titanium as a metal
- above 885°C the material undergoes beta phase transition to body centered cubic
arrangements
- melts at 1800°C
- resistance to corrosion
- high affinity for carbon
- soft and ductile when annealed
• Above 260°C titanium absorbs oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen. This causes when welding,
because in excess they make titanium brittle.
• Titanium welding requires,
- a very clean environment with no contaminants or other materials.
- no drafts
- the correct welding equipment
• To eliminate unwanted gases and moisture from being absorbed, a gas shield is used on both
sides of the weld.
• The weld must be shielded until the temperature drops below 427°C.
page 222
• Gas tungsten arc welding,
- gas is used to cover the tip of the torch, electrode and workpiece.
• The torch is,
- a split copper collect holding a tungsten electrode. A nut tightens the collet and holds the
electrode. The collet also serves to conduct current to the electrode.
- tubes delivers gas to the torch, and it is channeled to the electrode in such a way as to
ensure uniform coverage.
• Gas cups are,
- Ceramic, metals or high temperature glass is used to direct the gas about the electrode.
The size typically effects the gas consumption.
• An optional trailing shield focuses gas on the now welded joint, to allow proper cooling time.
• The electrode stickout (or electrode extension) is the distance that the electrode protrudes out the end
of the collet. A larger stickout is proportional to the energy delivered, and the size of the gas cap, and
it allows better visibility of the work.
• A gas lens can be used to focus/balance the flow of gases, it can be used without a gas cup, or
with one to improve gas coverage.
• Gas backups are placed on the back of the weld seam, purging is used when the back of the weld is
enclosed (eg tubes).
• Typical welding parameters,
Torch
Electrode
Primary Arc
Trailing
Gas Shield
Casting Process
SAND CASTING
• Sand casting is one of the older techniques. In this form a mold is made from sand, and the part is
cast into it. When the metal has hardened and cooled the part is removed, and the sand
removed.

• Typical stages of operation include,

1. Patterns are made. These will be the shape used to form the cavity in the sand.
2. Cores may also be made at this time. These cores are made of bonded sand that will be broken out
of the cast part after it is complete.
3. Sand is mulled (mixed) thoroughly with additives such as bentonite (clay) to increase bonding and
overall strength.
4. Sand is formed about the patterns, and gates, runners, risers, vents and pouring cups are added as
needed. A compaction stage is typically used to ensure good coverage and solid molds. Cores may
also be added to make concave, or internal features for Pattern pushed into sand to make cavities. A
runner gate and the patterns are matched, and system will also be formed at this time. The same will
happen with the pouring cup facing up. Metal is heated and prepared metallurgical. It is put into
crucible / tundish/ etc for pouring. Molten metal is poured into the die finally.
The part is allowed to sit and cool (large parts may take days),next
The part is removed from the sand with the runner/gate/etc after the casting process it will continue to
further finishing process.
The part is finished and the surface is cleaned.
Alignment pins may also be used for mating the molds later. Chills
may be added to cools large masses faster.
5. The patterns are removed, and the molds may be put through a baking stage to increase strength
(which finishing by Heat Treatment).
6. Mold halves are mated and prepared for pouring metal.
7. Metal is preheated in a furnace or crucible until it is above the liquidus temperature in a suitable
range (we don’t want the metal solidifying before the pour is complete).The exact temperature may be
closely controlled depending upon the application.
Degassing, and other treatment processes may be done at this time, such as removal of impurities (i.e.
slag). Some portion of this metal may be remelted. Scrap from previously cast parts - 10% is
reasonable.
8. The metal is poured slowly, but continuously into the mold until the mold is full.
9. As the molten metal cools (minutes to days) the metal will shrink. As the molten metal cools the
volume will decrease. During this time molten metal may backflow from the molten risers to feed the
part, and maintain the same shape.
10. Once the part starts to solidify small dendrites of solid material form in the part. During this time
metal properties are being determined, and internal stresses are being generated. If a part is allowed to
cool slowly enough at a constant rate then the final part will be relatively homogenous and stress free.
11. Once the part has completely solidified below the eutectic point it may be removed with no
concern for final metal properties. At this point the sand is simply broken up, and the part removed. At
this point the surface will have a quantity of sand adhering to the surface, and solid cores inside.
12. A bulk of the remaining sand and cores can be removed mechanically by striking the part. Other
options are to use a vibrating table, sand/shot blaster, hand labor, etc.
13. The final part is cut off the runner gate system, and is near final shape using cutters, torches, etc..
Grinding operations are used to remove any remaining bulk.
14. The part is taken down to final shape using machining operations. And cleaning operations may be
used to remove oxides, etc.

Molds
• The basic components found in many molds are shown below,
• The terms for the parts of a mold are,
Pouring cup - the molten metal is poured in here. It has a funnel shape to ease pouring accuracy
problems.
Runner/sprue - a sprue carries metal from the pouring cup to the runners. The runners distribute metal
to the part.
Gate - a transition from the runner to the cavity of the part
Riser - a thermal mass where excess metal will remain in a liquid state while the part cools. As the
cooling part shrinks, the molten metal in the riser will feed or fill in the shrinkage. Risers can also be
used to collect impurities that rise in molten metal.
Mold cavity - this is the final shape of the part.
Vent - a narrow escape passage for gases that would otherwise be trapped in the mold.
Parting line - a line of separation that allows the mold (made in two pieces) to be put together to make
a full cavity. Note that this line does not have to be a straight line, and is often staggered to make the
mold making easier.
cope - the upper part of a casting mold
drag - the lower part of a casting mold

• There are a number of interesting points about patterns,

- molds are made by compacting sand around the shape of the pattern.
- patterns are made of wood, metal and plastics - the material must be stronger if a large number of
molds are to be made.
- a parting agent can be used on a pattern to allow easy removal after the mold is made.
- pattern types include
One piece patterns (loose or solid patterns) - low quantity simple shapes
Split patterns - for complex shapes made in two patterns for each half of the part.
Match plate - the split patterns are mounted in a single plate. This allows gating on the drag side to
match up with the runners on the cope.

Design of the patterns

should include consideration of shrinkage
- a slight taper should be added to the sides all patterns this will make them easy to remove from the
completed mold. i.e. a cone is easier to remove than a cylinder.
• Cores are typically used for more complex shapes. Some point of interest,
- Cores allow features that could not be easily formed into a sand core.
- Cores are made with techniques similar to those for making sand molds.
- The cores may need structural support in the mold - these metal supports are called chaplets.
- The cores are added when the cavities are made, and they act as part of the mold during casting, but
they are rigid enough to allow internal features on parts.
- Cores can be made easily in automated settings.

• A mold might undergo a hardening process,

Green sand - no hardening, just moist
Cold-box - binders are mixed with the sand to increase dimensional accuracy
No-bake - liquid resin binders harden the sand at room temperature
Skin-dried - the sand is hardened by drying in an oven or air. Higher strength, but distortion and lower
collapsibility.
Baking - the molds are baked before casting to harden the entire mass
• When the pattern and cores have been inserted into the sand it is compacted. There are a number of
techniques for doing this,
Squeeze Molding Machines - automatically insert and compact sand. The processes used are designed
to produce a uniform compaction. Jolting is sometimes used to help settle the sand. These molds are
made in flasks.
- conventional flat head
- profile head
- equalizing pistons
- flexible diaphragm
Vertical Flask less Molding - the molds halves are made by blowing sand against a vertical
Mold. High production rates are possible.

Sand slingers - A high speed stream of sand into the flask tends to pack the sand effectively.
Impact molding - an explosive impulse is used to compact the sand. The mold quality with this
technique is quite good.
Vacuum molding - an envelope of plastic is created about the sand using plastic sheeting.Air is drawn
from the sand, and the vacuum leads to compaction.

Shell Mold Casting

• The basic process for these molds is,
1. Create two mating patterns of desired shape.
2. Coat the molds with a shell (sand and binders, such as a resin) until desired thickness and other
properties are obtained.
3. Cure the molds and remove the patterns.
4. The mold halves are mated and held firm while metal is poured.
5. The final part(s) is removed.
• This technique can be very economical.
• Special care must be taken to assure venting for gasses, as the mold media is less porous.
• This method can easily use cores and chills to make complex molds.
• Graphite molds can be used for materials that would normally react with other materials used for the
molds.
Lost Foam Casting (Expandable Pattern)
• This process has a number of basic steps,
1. Make a mold for producing Styrofoam patterns.
Start

Investment Casting
• The basic steps are,
1. An expendable mold of a part is made in wax, plastic, etc.
2. The part has a gate and runner attached to it, and all are dipped in a ceramic slurry.
3. The slurry is hardened, and the core is melted and/or burned out.
4. The core is burned out and the mold is preheated to the temperature of the molten metal
- 644°C for aluminum
- 1040°C for ferrous alloys
- etc.
5. Molds are filled by pressure, vacuum or centrifugal force.
6. After cooling, the mold is broken off, the sprues are cut off, and stubs are ground off.
• Many parts can be made at the same time by attaching them to a common gating system.
• Parts can be glued together to make shapes that would normally be too complex to mold.
• Typical methods used are,
- cast iron
- steel
- aluminum alloys
- brass
- bronze
- magnesium
- zinc
• The die used to make the mold cores can be used for thousands of parts.
• Typical large applications are,
- large propellers
- large frames
- nozzles
- cams
- valve parts
• Typical small applications are,
- dental
- jewelry
- orthopedic surgical implants
- camera components
• Advantages,
- fine details can be made
- thin sections are possible
- high accuracy
- weights from <1 ounce to > 100 lb.
- any castable metal can be used
- no parting lines
- good surface finish (60-220  i n.)
- can be automated
- many parts can be made at once providing lower per piece cost
- high melting point metals can be used
• Disadvantages,
- less strength than die cast parts
- process is slow
- changes to the die are costly
- more steps are involved in production

Die Casting
• The basic process is,
1. two permanent mold halves of a die (mounted in a press) are brought together.
2. the molten metal is injected through a runner and gate with pressures up to 100 ksi -2000-5000 psi
is common.
3. air escapes into overflow wells, and out vents, and metal fills the molds
4. the mold is chilled, and the injected metal freezes
5. the mold is separated, and knockout pins eject the part
6. the parts are cut off the runners and sprues
• Used for low melting point (non-ferrous) metals such as,- zinc- aluminum- magnesium- copper-
lead- and tin
• Can produce complex shapes at mass production rates.
• Metal dies,
- must withstand high pressures
- die life is shortened by extreme temperature fluctuations
- dies often made with carbon or special alloys
- multiple cavities can be used in the die
• Applications,- automotive parts- appliances- office machines- bathroom fixtures
- outboard motors- toys- clocks- tools
• Die casting machines can use,
- hot chambers with a plunger - a reservoir of molten metal is used to directly feed the machine.
- a cold chamber - metal is ladled into the machine for each shot.
• Hot chamber machines are,
- good for low temperature zinc alloys (approx. 400°C)
- faster than cold chamber machines
- cycle times must be short to minimize metal contamination
- metal starts in a heated cylinder
- a piston forces metal into the die
- the piston retracts, and draws metal in
• Cold chamber machines,
- casts high melting point metals (>600°C)
- high pressures used
- metal is heated in a separate crucible
- metal is ladled into a cold chamber
- the metal is rapidly forced into the mold before it cools
• All die casting processes require a large press to hold mold halves together during a cycle.
• Advantages,
- intricate parts possible
- short cycles
- inserts feasible
- cycles less than 1 minute
- minimum finishing operations
- thin sections, high tolerances, good surface finish
• Disadvantages,
- metal die is costly
- porous parts
- not suited to large parts
- long setup times
- $5000-200,000 for machine
- metal melting point temperature must be lower than die
45.3.3 Centrifugal Casting
• The basic process is,
1. a mold is set up and rotated along a vertical (rpm is reasonable), or horizontal (200-1000 rpm is
reasonable) axis.
 2. The mold is coated with a refractory coating.
3. While rotating molten metal is poured in.
4. The metal that is poured in will then distribute itself over the rotating wall.
5. During cooling lower density impurities will tend to rise towards the center of rotation.
6. After the part has solidified, it is removed and finished.
• There are three variants on this process,
true centrifugal casting - long molds are rotated about a horizontal axis. This can be used to make long
axial parts such as seamless pipes.
semi centrifugal casting - parts with a wide radial parts. parts such as wheels with spokes can be made
with this technique.
centrifuging - the molds are placed a distance from the center of rotation. Thus when the poured metal
reaches the molds there is a high pressure available to completely fill the cavities. The distance from
the axis of rotation can be increased to change the properties
• Centrifugal and semicentrifugal casting used for axisymmetric parts (internally).
• Parts from 6” to 5’ in diameter can be made, but typical diameters are 10’ to 30’.
• Long tubes can be made that could not normally be rolled.
• Typical metals cast are,- steel- nickel alloys- copper- aluminum
• Typical applications are,
- train wheels
- jewelry
- seamless pressure tubes/pipes
• Advantages,
- good uniform metal properties
- no sprues/gates to remove
- the outside of the casting is at the required dimensions
- lower material usage
- no parting lines
- low scrap rates
• Disadvantages,
- Extra equipment needed to spin mold
- the inner metal of the part contains impurities

Furnaces
• Some of the types include,
- coreless induction - magnetic fields induce eddy currents throughout the entire furnace, resulting in
melting
- core induction - magnetic fields induce eddy currents in a small section of the furnace, resulting in
melting
- gas fired crucible - uses ignited gas and air to heat crucible in enclosed oven
- electric arc - arcs are used to heat metals
- cupolas - layers of metal and ore are placed in this refractory lined vessel, and ignited to produce
large volumes of metal.
Inspection of Casting
• General problems with castings are,
- Cavities
- Projections
- Discontinuities
- Defective surfaces
- Incomplete casting
- Incorrect dimensions
- Inclusions
• Typical inspection methods are,
- Polishers & microscopes to look at microscopic structures
- Metal analyzer to determine chemical composition
- X-rays are used to examine hidden cracks and blowholes

Design of Castings
• When designing casting the most important consideration is the effects of shrinkage during cooling.
Other important factors include metal flow, and porosity.
• Some general rules of thumb are,
- Avoid sharp corners - they can lead to hot tearing during cooling.
- Use fillets cautiously - they lead to stresses as they shrink a radius of 1/8” to 1” are acceptable.
- Avoid large masses - they will cool more slowly, and can lead to pores and cavities in the final part.
Cores can be used to hollow out these large volumes. Metal padding
‘chills’ can also be placed inside the mold near large masses to help increase cooling rates.
- Use uniform cross sections -this will keep the cooling rate relatively uniform and avoid stresses.
- Avoid large flats - large flat areas tend to warp.
- Allow some give as the part cools - by allowing the shrinkage of one part to deform another slightly,
the internal stresses will be reduced. Figures of 1-2% shrinkage are common.
- Put parting lines near corners - this will hide the flash.
- Straight Parting Lines - where possible a straight parting line will allow easier mold making.
- Use a Draft angle - A small angle of 0.5-2° on the vertical walls will make the pattern easier to
remove.
- Machining Allowances - allow excess material for later machining of critical dimensions
- Wide Tolerances - because shrinkage occurs as the part cools it will be very hard to keep tight
tolerances.
- Avoid thin sections - These will be very hard to fill, and will tend to harden quickly.
- Avoid internal features - These will require extra steps in mold making, and may create
Metal flow problems.