Models and methods for learning and knowledge

management

Ikhaya Knowledge Integration

Stationstraat 13
7624 Paarl
Tel. 021-8631590

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Index

1. THE 4 COMPONENTS INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODEL (4C/ID) 3

2. CONTENT DEVELOPMENT METHOD 12

3. ACADEMY ORGANIZATION & DELIVERY METHOD 18

4. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT MODEL FOR GOVERNMENT 26

5. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT METHOD 34

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 1. The 4 Components Instructional design model
(4C/ID)
4C means four components, while ID means Instructional Design. During the design
phase the tasks to be learned are ordered sequentially according to task difficulty and then
scaffolds are added that support the learner's in their quest to gain new knowledge and skills.

The learning methods consists of complex problem solving coupled with completing
procedures that match authentic set of tasks. When it comes to delivery or implementation,
the tasks are practiced and performed by the learners in real or simulated environments,
while the level of support diminishes as the learner progresses. Task complexity also
increases within each level as the learners progress; however, each level of complexity adds
additional supportive information. This learning platform allows the learners to navigate the
increasingly complex learning environment by being supported by just-in-time external
support; in addition to the learners own increasing skill-set.

Merrinboer, Clark, and Croock (2002) wrote that the 4C/ID-model, addresses at least three
deficits in previous instructional design models. First, the 4C/ID-model focuses on the
integration and coordinated performance of task-specific constituent skills rather than on
knowledge types, context or presentation-delivery media. Second, the model makes a critical
distinction between supportive information and required just-in-time (JIT) information (the
latter specifies the performance required, not only the type of knowledge required). And third,
traditional models use either part-task or whole-task practice; the 4C/ID model recommends
a mixture where part-task practice supports very complex, whole-task learning."

The Four-Component Instructional Design model or 4C/ID-model working assumption is that

complex learning platforms can be described by four basic components (van Merrinboer,
Clark, et al., 2002), which in turn creates a blueprint for the design of the learning platform:

1. Learning Tasks concrete, authentic, whole task experiences that are provided
to learners in order to promote schema construction for non-recurrent aspects and,
to a certain degree, rule automation by compilation for recurrent aspects.
Instructional methods primarily aim at induction, that is, constructing schemata
through mindful abstraction from the concrete experiences that are provided by the
learning tasks.

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 Design steps:

- Design learning tasks

- Sequence task practice
- Set performance objectives
2. Supportive Information information that is supportive to the learning and
performance of non-recurrent aspects of learning tasks. It provides the bridge
between learners' prior knowledge and the learning tasks. Instructional methods
primarily aim at elaboration, that is, embellishing schemata by establishing
nonarbitrary relationships between new elements and what learners already know.

Design steps:

- Design supportive information

- Analyze cognitive strategies
- Analyze mental models

3. JIT Information information that is prerequisite to the learning and

performance of recurrent aspects of learning tasks. Instructional methods primarily
aim at compilation through restricted encoding, that is, embedding procedural
information in rules. JIT information is not only relevant to learning tasks but also
to Part-time practice.

Design steps:

- Design procedural information

- Analyze cognitive rules
- Analyze prerequisite knowledge

4. Part-task Practice practice items that are provided to learners in order to

promote rule automation for selected recurrent aspects of the whole complex skill.
Instructional methods primarily aim at rule automation, including compilation and
subsequent strengthening to reach a very high level of automaticity. Design step:

- Design part-task practice

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Approaches to Presenting Information and Examples

When presenting content, two approaches can be used:

o A deductive approach works by presenting the general information, followed by

examples.
o An inductive approach works in the opposite direction by first presenting the examples
to the learners, and then giving them the general information.

Closely related to the presentation methods are two strategies for helping the learners to
learn:

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 o Expository learning, which is presenting examples and information
o Inquisitory learning, in which the learners find examples or general information

The two approaches for presenting content and the two learning strategies gives us four
instructional design methods:

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Present the:

o information first and then the examples.

o examples first and then the information.
o information and then have the learners find or produce examples.
o examples and then have the learners find or produce the information.

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A deductive-expository strategy works by first presenting information and then the examples.
Thus, all the content is presented to the learners. For example, you present the information
and then a case study that illustrates the information. It is normally the most time and cost
effective of the four methods.

It is best used if they have some experiences with concrete examples or cases that enable
them to understand the general information and a deep level of understanding is not
required. It works for simple declarative knowledge, such as facts and simple concepts and
models.

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The inductive-inquisitory strategy works by presenting examples and then the learners
produce the information. Thus, rather than just receiving the content, they now receive and
produce. For example, you present a case study and then the learners provide the general
information about the case study.

This method works best when the learners have little or no experience with concrete
examples or cases and their knowledge consists mostly of:

o simple or naive strategies

o simple or naive models

It is normally a time consuming strategy; however, it is probably one of the best method for
reaching a deep level of understanding. To reduce the amount of time it takes, use some
leading questions, which makes it a guided discovery learning method rather than strictly
exploratory.

This method works best with strategic knowledge, such as heuristics and systematic
approaches to problem solving.

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An inductive-expository strategy works by first presenting examples and then the information.
And again, all the content is presented to the learners. For example you present a case study
and then the information.

This method normally provides the learners with a deeper understanding than the deductive-
expository method, but is not as good as the inductive-inquisitory method, thus it provides a
middle-of-the-road method.

This also works best for simple declarative knowledge, such as facts and simple concepts
and models.

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The deductive-inquisitory strategy works by presenting the information to the learners and
then they produce some examples. For example, you present the information and then they
come up with a case study or model.

This strategy fits in with whole-task practice in complicated tasks that have many parts. That
is, once the learners have used the other three methods for learning the parts of a task, use
this method to bring the whole task together.

This method also works best with strategic knowledge, such as heuristics and systematic
approaches to problem solving.

5. References

van Merrinboer, J. J. G. (1997). Training Complex Cognitive Skills: A Four-Component

Instructional Design Model for Technical Training. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Educational Technology Publications.

van Merrinboer, J. J. G., Clark, R. E., de Croock, M. B. M. (2002) Blueprints for complex
learning: The 4C/ID-model. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 50 (2);39-
64, DOI: 0.1007/BF02504993

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 2. Content development method
Content is designed, developed and tested after the analysis of the working processes from
a bottom-up and a top-down perspective. Support and educational content are if necessary
developed in parallel.

Content Development Phase

Analysis Scope Design & Development Acceptance

Top-Down
Training Content Developers

Design & Develop

Educational content
Define Focus Area

User Acceptance
Define scope

Validation
Design & Develop
Performance support content
Bottom-up

Figure 1: Workflow Content Development Phase

1.Analysis

1.1. Define Focus Area

Focus areas are defined w.r.t. project management, product management and process
management aspects and eventually other knowledge domains.

1.2. Bottom-Up Analysis

Based on the focus area processes will be analysed in terms of critical and complex
processes which are relevant for the actors in the focus area. Also relevant issues will be the
result of the bottom-up analysis.

Activities:
Specify domain (focus area);
Define processes within the domain;
Define activities within the process;
Define deliverables related to the process / activity;
Services;
Products;
Analyse process dimensions (Type, Impact, Complexity);
Focus on primary, critical and complex processes;
Define resources related to the process;
Actors / Roles;
Systems;
Materials;
Information / Knowledge;
Analyse general resources;
Analyse actor / roles in terms of competencies;
Define relevant issues.

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 Deliverables:
List of critical, complex processes per domain including underlying activities and
deliverables;
List of competences per process;
List of relevant resources per process (templates, checklists, standards and
guidelines, cases, tips and hints);
Description of issues.

1.3. Top-Down Analysis

The top-down analysis operates from a methodological perspective. In this analysis the
characteristics of projects in combination with the related impact is analysed. The deliverable
of the analysis results in constraints of the project approach.

Activities:
Analyse project characteristics;
Define constraints per project type;
Analyse project approach / methodology.

Deliverables:
Project characteristics ;
Project constraints.

2. Scope
The deliverables of the analysis phase are input for the content development. In this activity
the scope is defined, so the development activities will be executed within time and budget.

2.1. Training Content Developers

For an effective development process the content developers will be trained. The training
focuses at the development of educational content and performance support content as well.
Deliverable:
Trained content developers.

2.2. Define Scope

Based on the results of the bottom-up and top-down analysis a detailed scope will be
defined. This will scope the design and development activities of educational and
performance support content.
Deliverable(s)
Detailed scope.

3.Design & Development

3.1. Design Performance Support Content

The design of the performance support content is based on the analysis. A process with
underlying activities will be supported by general information of the process, procedures, best
practices, issues and resources like templates.

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 Activities:
Design process flow;
Activities;
Actors;
Deliverables;
Design relevant resources;
Procedures;
Checklists;
Templates;
Best Practices;
Issues;
Design references between performance support components.

Deliverables:
Process flow with references to resources.

3.2. Develop Performance Support Content

Based on the design the performance support will be developed.

Activities:
Develop process flow as image;
Develop performance support content like: procedures, best practices, issues, etc.;
Develop templates;
Make performance support accessible in the portal;
Make references between performance support components

Deliverables:
Portal with performance support

3.3. Design Educational Content

Based on the deliverables of the analysis the educational content will be designed. The design
exists of the curriculum structure and learning content itself. The curriculum will describe the
learning modules with the scope of the related learning tasks at a global level the content
design will be applied at a more detail level with references to concepts and background
information.

Activities:
Specify curriculum design;
Specify content design;
Specify instruction design;
Design glossary of concepts;
Design test items;
Design resources;
Design hierarchical folder structure for the resources.

Deliverables:
Curriculum design;
Content design.

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 3.4. Develop Educational Content
Based on the design the learning content will be developed. The development can inititially
take place in an offline setting, using Word as editor based on templates. The final version of
the learning content will be inserted into the content management system.

Activities:
Develop learning tasks;
Task introduction;
Multiple choice questions (with answers and feedback);
Assignments;
Practice case;
Develop glossary;
Develop resources (background information);
Make references to glossary items and resources from the learning tasks;
Develop the learning course introduction.

Deliverables:
Learning tasks;
Glossary;
Resources in a hierarchical structure.

4. Acceptance
In the acceptance activity the deliverables are validated. The test result can be input for a
new version of the educational and performance support content.

Validation
The developed educational content and the performance support will be validated. Based on
the specifications, requirements and the acceptation criteria the deliverables of the design &
Development activity are validated.

User Acceptance
After the validation a user acceptance test can be initiated in order to get feedback of the end
user actors.

5. Delivery Phase
This phase will specify the organization of the mid office for delivery.

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 Configuration Delivery Phase
Scope Planning & Delivery
Training Trainers & Coaches

Planning & Delivery

Define Scope Delivery

Training

Planning & Delivery

Coaching

Figure 2: Workflow Delivery Phase.

5.1. Scope

Define Scope delivery

In this activity the scope of the mid office processes are defined in terms of responsibilities.
There will be a split between the delivery of the training and coaching.

Training Trainers and Coaches

Training and Coaching can be applied in an instructor-led, blended or e-learning context.
These different contexts have impact on the delivery of the training and coaching. The training
will focus on the characteristics of the contexts and the impact on training and coaching.

5.2. Planning & Delivery

Planning & Delivery Training

The training process is related to the education setting. The candidates (end users) will be
assigned to a relevant learning course in the learning environment. A supervisor monitors the
progress of the candidates. Teachers / assessors will support the candidates at task level by
giving feedback and grades.
Activities:
Configure learning course
Assign candidates to learning course
Assign teacher / assessors to task / candidate
Monitor progress candidate at learning course level (supervisor)
Monitor progress candidate at task level (teacher / assessor)
Grade task (teacher / assessor)
Grade learning course (supervisor)

Deliverables:
Active learning course

Planning & Delivery Coaching

The coaching process is related to the performance support setting. Via the portal a coach can
give support in a specific process. An end user can upload a deliverable in the document
management module that can be reviewed by the coach. The coach can also support the
candidates via the forum and chat functionalities.

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 Activities:
Monitor progress candidates;
Review deliverables candidates;
Moderate forum;
Abstract issues candidates to FAQ and other knowledge types.

Deliverables:
Reviews;
Knowledge types.

6. Evaluation Phase

Evaluation Phase
Evaluation
Evaluation

Figure 3: Workflow Evaluation Phase.

Activities:
Evaluate implementation for the local context
Evaluate implementation for use in a broader / generic context
Define next steps / plateaus

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 3.Academy organization & delivery method
The delivery organization is based on a central organization (Academy) in interaction with
de-centralised (operating) Training Providers. (TPs). The workflow of such an organisation
and competencies required can be summarised and visualised as follows:

subscription
intake assessment
learning and coaching
content development
examination and certification
reporting and archiving

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Central and de-central organization

Such a blended learning approach supports:

Large scale delivery, partly independent of time and place

Central learning management, including assessment and reporting
Central quality management
Central financial management, monitoring and reporting (accountability)
De-central delivery flexibility
De-central customization flexibility of curricula
Support for training providers

So the combination of a central academy and decentral operating training providers

guarantee optimal efficiency, flexibility, quality and re-usability of materials.

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 Example: training & support for emerging farmers

In order to describe the context, a number of departing points are described. In most cases
further decision making on the scope is necessary in order to create a final plan of action in
terms of activities and deliverables.

Academy as central and TPs as de-central actors

The Academy selects, trains manages and supports TPs.; in order to manage these
processes for every TP a learning environment will be configured on the internet, so
that the Academy has an overview of all TPs and can add and replace TPs when
needed. A TP only has access to its own learning environment. A central support
desk will be installed by Academy and de-central support desks by the TPs
(supported by the ICT-application).TPs access the central support desk; clients can
access the TPs support desk.

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 Allocation of users

The Academy allocates clients to TPs or TPs allocate clients, while the Academy
has access to all information about clients. So, on beforehand there is a TP available
for all client groups. Clients would subscribe or assign the information of learners via
a simple Excel template, which can be imported into the learning environment.

Blended learning

The dominant learning modalityor instructional strategy for training the trainers is
blended learning: e-learning combined with workshop or instructor led training. This is
true too for end users, where blended learning is the starting point, however a trainer
may go for completely instructor led in case there is a need (no access to computers
or no computer literacy, language problems or even in case of for instance
management training that given the complexity a workshop based approach is
preferred). In general especially the development of knowledge can be conveyed
quite well with e-learning, while skills development and behavior / culture
development are conveyed preferably via a workshop based approach.

Three types of learning

In addition to the formal learning process informal learning and action learning can be
supported, so we have 3 learning modalities:

Formal learning

Learning based on a defined curriculum and eventually with an intake via

Recognition of Prior Learning, coaching and certification. The existing learning
environment supports all these processes. Learning will be primarily blended
learning, a combination of instructor led and e-learning.

Informal learning

Having access to a knowledge portal, eventually with alerting of new, relevant

information and knowledge and knowledge sharing functionalities (blogs, forums,
chats) supports informal learning

Action learning

This option is available in case projects create and share for instance cases, best
practices and issues in a project context. Also coaching and mentoring can be
supported. In addition advice and support functionalities in the portal can support
the action learning process.

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 Organization of learners by a TP

There can be a need to cluster groups, primarily in case of participants belonging

to one organization in case one wants to manage the learning processes for the
participants.
So, in principle for every municipality or group one could make a separate training
product (containing all course modules needed), which enables management,
trainers, supervisors and coaches to address that group.
In case groups become too small, i.e. smaller than 10, this does not make sense
from a logistical planning perspective: a classroom session could have too few
participants.
So, optionally we suggest to cluster smaller groups into larger groups.

Intake and personal development plan

The intake of Learners, as well TPs as end users, can be supported by:

RPL, Recognition of prior learning (a self-assessment on knowledge and

experience)
Port-folio: uploading documents as proof of evidence (CVs, diplomas, etc.)
Interview: (eventually via 2 assessors, making use of structured reporting
facilities)
Personal development plan: for each candidate (TP or end-user) a personal
development plan can be put in and updated over time.

Planning in case of classroom sessions

In case of blended learning (regarding classroom sessions) or instructor led, one can
choose from a list of available classroom sessions by selecting place/date/time for the
event. (the supervisor of the course defines the maximum number of participants; the
planning system closes an event when full, but this can be overruled by the
supervisor).

(Option) Virtual classroom

In principle one could also present classroom based sessions via the internet, so in
the form of a virtual classroom. (with presentation and interaction possibilities).
Presentations can be recorded and played afterwards (this demands for a higher level
of bandwidth then regular e-learning).

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 Coaching

As well during or after the training process coaching interventions can be supported
by:
Planning the intervention
Making comments by the coach
Grading
Uploading documents (i.e. assignments or reports)

Certification and examination

There are 4 certification and examination options: (for as well the training providers as
the end users)
Official examination or certification via a central examination solution

The Academy can develop and maintain an examination facility making use of an
assessment system (QuestionMark Perception as part of the overall learning
environment. The Academy develops and maintains an item bench and based on the
curriculum generates central examinations as:
o Closed examination, with multiple choice, multiple selects,
matching , drag and drop and other question types with automatic
grading
o Open questions or assignments: to be reviewed by an assessor
o Combination of open and closed

The item bench is structured according to topics; by randomly selecting from these topics
and presenting answers in different sequences a high level of unpredictability is
guaranteed in the structure and content of the examination, especially if there are enough
items.
A candidate has to go to a place where he can identify himself or where a manager in the
working environment also logs in as proof of identification.
Certificate with test

A certificate can be generated automatically after passing a multiple choice

test, this is a facility which can be planned by the TP. Optionally one first must
do a number of assignments with open question, which are monitored.
Certificate without test

One can get a certificate after one has done a number of assignments in the
e-learning mode, with registration of answers but without assessment. This is
just a confirmation of having done the course assignments (one can review the
answers, so there is the option of not accepting the assignment afterwards).
Verbal examination
A candidate has an interview with an assessor; the assessor documents the
outcomes in the learning environment as proof of evidence.

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 Content development and maintenance

The Academy develops and maintains train-the-trainer and end-user materials; TPs
can add their own materials in their learning environment; there are options for
sharing content, whereby the central organization operates as a Trusted Third Party,
managing and protecting intellectual property rights of all partners.

Logistics

The TPs organize the training processes in terms of subscription, intake, planning,
training, coaching, certification themselves also by making use of the internet based
learning & learning management environment

Registration

In all learning modalities there has to be some form of registration and reporting of
activities possible (which are supported by the learning management system, so
Academy can monitor activities of the TPs, next to physical inspection):
the minimum is registration of presence
registration by a trainer of activities during the workshop
assignments done in a workshop
in the e-learning modality everything is automatically registered

Reporting

TPs report to their clients;

The Academy can report at all levels (municipal, district, provincial, national)
on a regular basis or on-demand basis.

Client management can get access to all registered information via the internet
about activities of learners and TPs. ( here privacy aspects might be relevant,
especially in case of archiving)

Contract management

In case TPs do not function correctly according to quality or governance standards

defined by Academy, they can be replaced by the Academy. So Service Level
Agreements have to be made between TPs and clients, and monitored by Academy.

Financial management

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 TPs are paid in relation to the number of users who are trained and/ or have passed
at the minimum a certification test. The learning environment enables automatic
reporting of new users for instance per month.

Quality management

Quality management addresses:

The quality of the learning materials (including tests)
o item analysis of tests
o analysis of assignments and open questions
o interviews with users and TPs
The quality of the TPs
o analyzing activities (internet and physical inspections)
o analyzing results
o evaluation forms of users (client satisfaction), supported by the
learning environment

Target audiences

There are in general different target audiences, this has to be elaborated per project.

Curriculum and learning objectives

Per category has to be defined as part of a global analysis:

Types of learning objectives: knowledge, skills, behavior/ culture related
Type of knowledge relevant:
o Models and methods
o Facts and procedures
o Values and culture
o Experiences, innovation, ideas

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4.Knowledge management model for local, provincial and national
government
This model addresses a knowledge management framework applicable in local, provincial and
national government.
Starting points for the analysis and design of a framework and a strategy are Integrated Development
Plans and Performance Management plans.

1. Knowledge management framework

A lot of knowledge management frameworks, models and methods exist. Knowledge management for
government is to be seen as a (learning organization) process in context of the activities of
governmental institutions.
A choice has been made in this model to introduce and elaborate on:

concepts of knowledge types and three basic knowledge processes

A model describing knowledge processes as they are available for users (9 knowledge
services for users) addressing the WHAT

a model for organizational development as a reference for defining the needs (8 aspects of
organizational development) , addressing the needs (WHY)

a model for knowledge management (KM) solutions development , including a method for
managing the analysis, design, development and implementation processes (7 phases of
solutions development), addressing the HOW to do it.

The combination of the three models in which one relates WHY, WHAT and HOW is introduced as the
framework for knowledge management.

2. A model for organizational development and knowledge management

Organizational development is characterized by four main components, strategy, primary processes,
people and infrastructure implemented also via programs and projects and to be supported by
leadership and ownership of people and culture.
Infrastructure related to knowledge management addresses the methodology, the technology and
the organizational structure.
All these 8 aspects can be related to the needs of creating, structuring and sharing knowledge. For
instance people aspects are dealing with knowledge and skills development, where practical
experiences have to be aligned with formal and more theoretical aspects. Experiences with
Leadership and ownership & culture change are important to share.
On the side of service delivery in the form primary processes or services, and management of
programs and projects a conclusion is that government is dealing with a number of different activity
types.

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 3. Different activity types for service delivery in government
Because government not only deals with policy making and strategic knowledge creation and sharing
but also organizes service delivery via services, projects and programs, a distinction - based on the
IDP development programs - in 6 different contexts for applying knowledge management in a
governmental context has been made in order to address typical differences such as:

Manage the vision

1. Democratic participation
2. Strategic services
Manage effectivity
3. Community development programs
4. Programs
Manage efficiency
5. Projects

6. Services

The organizational development model is the reference model for identifying needs.

4. A model for knowledge services

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Knowledge services are delivered via three channels:
Knowledge accessibility, making information and knowledge available, primarily supporting the
6 activity types

Knowledge sharing, addressing creating, structuring and validation of experience based

knowledge and sharing this knowledge via informal and formal channels such as communities
of interest and communities of practice

Knowledge assimilation, addressing knowledge creating and transfer in the context of

knowledge and skills development, team learning and culture development

Distinguishing between the upper or formal level and the bottom or informal level of the organization
and the intermediate level of interaction between the two levels, one gets a model of 3*3 knowledge
services.
All knowledge services for users are supposed to be put into one or more of these containers.
This means that an analysis of the 8 components of the organizational model (why) leads to solutions
in one or more of the 9 knowledge services. (what)

5. A model for knowledge management solutions development

Having analyzed the needs and possible knowledge services at a global level, knowledge
management solutions development will demand for a detailed analysis, design and development
process.

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Context for solutions development is the organizational model for strategy, processes, people and
infrastructure (and program/project management of KM projects) and leadership/ownership &culture
development aspects of Km projects.
So, one defines:
KM strategy

KM processes

o Knowledge accessibility,- sharing, and assimilation as primary processes and

knowledge creation&modeling, - storage, - maintenance, - security, - measurement

KM people: roles, responsibilities, competencies

KM infrastructure:
KM Method: 7 phases to be applied per KM program or KM project

ICT: initially based on the demo knowledge portal solution

Organizational structure: embedding responsibilities in the municipal organization

The knowledge management solutions development addresses the HOW.

6. The framework for knowledge management

The framework for knowledge management is the combination of the three models:
Organizational development model: WHY?

Knowledge services model: WHAT?

Knowledge management solutions development: HOW?

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 7. KM strategy and implementation

Given the framework a strategy can be developed. The proposed strategy is to implement knowledge
management in possibly overlapping plateaus if one addresses local government:

1. Knowledge management in each of the directorates plus the domain of democratic participation
2. Knowledge management across directorates, especially relevant in projects and programs
3. Knowledge management across local, district, provincial, national government
4. Knowledge management with other external partners

The implementation is organized around stakeholders focusing on why, what and how:

Why?
Executive management sets the scope and evaluates outcomes of the implementation

What?
KM champions define and manage what has to be achieved (employees who are driving the initiative
in terms of project and process management)

How?
KM development teams develop and implement the solutions based on good project management and

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within the scope of product- and process management of the KM champions

8. Knowledge management implementation

In order to make a start with the first ambition level a knowledge management strategy can be defined
by analyzing needs with the organizational development model applied to the knowledge services.
The assessment of existing knowledge services can start from three different entry points:
From knowledge accessibility perspective:
Methods and standards (1): are methods and standards up-to-date and practical?

Support and help desk (2): is structured support available and can it be improved?

From knowledge assimilation perspective:

Formal learning (7): Are knowledge and skills of people appropriate?

Action learning (8): Does team learning take place based current on services, projects,
programs

From the perspective of the informal organization:

Does informal knowledge sharing take place? (6)

Does informal and ad-hoc support happen? (3)

Does informal learning take place (9)

In the next phase one can assess within the informal organization, scenarios for improvement starting
with informal knowledge sharing, and via structuring creating best practices, setting up communities of
practice (5), in interaction with action learning (8) and structured support (2). Finally validation of
structured knowledge (4) can lead to updates in methods, standards and competency models.

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 9. Knowledge portal (demo for municipality)
The (demo) knowledge portal consists of 6 sub-portals, for each of the 5 directorates plus one sub-
portal democratic participation knowledge management.
It has a number of functionalities supporting the implementation of the 9 knowledge services:
Methods/techniques: knowledge base

Helpdesk: structured access to experts

Question & answer /Frequently asked questions: informal knowledge sharing

Forum/ chat: informal knowledge sharing

Cases/ issues: document management (structuring experiences, ideas, opinions)

News/ polls: informal and formal knowledge sharing

Human resources: learning management and learning environment with Recognition of Prior
Learning, personal development plan, coaching and certification

Project management: knowledge base to be filled with generic methods (project management,
program management, change management, quality management)

Knowledge security is managed by making all information accessible or hidden on the basis of ones
user profile.
The knowledge portal is initially empty (filled with a few examples), and can gradually be filled with
content. Optional is content of the knowledge portal also to be provided via mobile phones, i.e. content
of knowledge bases or simple learning content.

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 5.Knowledge management design and development
method
Ikhaya's knowledge management & integration method is an integration of methods from:

business transformation, including organizational development and change

human resource management and human resource development
design and development of information and knowledge, including learning materials
development
ICT configuration and development with a strong focus on learning technology and portal- and
content management technology

The methodology comprises seven phases and four abstraction levels. (see the V-model in the figure)

Most development is incremental going from business context analysis, to services and product design
and development of ICT and content.
The publishing phase also evaluates the product design (is this the product we designed?). The
implementing phase evaluates the services design (is this the context and the type of use we were
foreseeing?) The enhancing phase evaluates the initial business context analysis (did this service
bring the improvement with regard to the specified business and human performance indicators)

1. Business context analysis

Three types of context analysis are carried out:
strategic: the business goals and key performance indicators and critical success factors form
the driving force behind the design of knowledge services
business processes: the business processes are analyzed in terms of tasks of people and
tasks being critical and/ or complex
target audiences (and culture): the solutions have to support different target audiences given
roles and responsibilities, educational background, preferences. This analysis is the basis for
user profiling

The outcome of the business context analysis is:

specification of key performance indicators and critical success factors
identification of most critical, frequent and complex tasks
definition of relevant target audience characteristics, including competencies, and
organisational culture

2. Services design

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Services design is the global design of solutions with regard to the support of working, learning and
knowledge sharing on the basis of an analysis of cognitive and affective processes from people.
Also the interaction between people as far as it is relevant for their performance is taken into account.
So the services design models as well products (but still at a global level) and the processes between
people.
The outcome of the services design is:
analysis of cognitive and affective processes individually and in terms of group processes
global design of the functions supporting working, learning and knowledge sharing
outline of content per function identified
global specification of IT functionality per function
identification of change processes to be implemented in the implementation phase

3. Product design
Product design is decomposed into:
ICT design, in ICT terms the functional design
the structuring of the content (information design)
description of different presentation/ interaction modalities (interaction design) on the basis of
an overall user interface design
the design of multi media components such as graphics, animations, audio, video (multi media
design)
the detailed description of the content

The modelling of the content consisting of the structuring and the detailed description is the outcome
(or compromise) of a joint activity of preferably:
a subject matter expert with a strong not only on relevancy but also on completeness,
correctness and typicality
a (super) user with a focus on relevance, variety, communication and typicality
a knowledge engineer with a focus on relevancy, structure and communication and
presentation aspects (see figure)

4. Product development

Product development addresses:

ICT technical design and realization or (just) configuration
For the realization tools have to be selected (and integrated). In general there is a need for good

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content management in the back end of these solutions. The front end should support typical
knowledge management functionalities such as dynamic creation of specific knowledge types such as
Frequently Asked Questions, issues, cases, but also in case of interactive learning well known e-
learning functionalities (see Sophia learning environment).
Primary criteria for selecting tools are:
efficiency of development
flexibility to implement a broad range of functions
learning time
openness to integrate with other tools and information systems

Content development
Content development is primarily a matter of creative as well as structured writing, so it is hard work
and authors have to be facilitated as much as possible. Therefore content development and
integration are supported by structure and content editors. The content development process is
organized on the basis of a pre-defined authoring and approval process.

Multi media development

Multi media development addressing graphics, animations, audio, video
integration of content and multi media into the ICT environment

5. Publishing

Publishing (in portal terminology) follows two phases:

pilot testing for a selected audience on the basis of defined acceptance criteria
full publishing for the broader audience

The pilot testing criteria are derived from the product specifications as described in the product design.
The design process followed the steps knowledge creation, knowledge validation, knowledge
integration and knowledge transfer. One can evaluate with (pilot) users all these aspects.
Because as well pilot testing as full publishing demands for fast responses to unclarities and
inconsistencies in content, one must already be prepared for content updates. In this phase one can
therefore also test the most appropriate methods, techniques and tools for content editing and content
management.

6. Implementation

Implementation issues are initially derived from the context description in the services design.
One could see the implementation process as the integration of:
a change management process consisting of:
communicating the vision, models and strategy
educating the how and what of knowledge management
coaching the way of applying it in practice
leadership, showing the attitude of knowledge sharing

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the development of the infrastructure for knowledge management consisting of:
development of competencies
setting up organizational procedures for knowledge management
setting up the helpdesk

7. Enhancement

After implementation projects often stop. However due to evaluations of usage or external factors such
as a change in strategy or business processes a need may arise for adapting and enhancing the
products and services.
A minimum demand for being able to adapt and enhance are:
well defined maintenance and evaluation methods and techniques
maintenance tools
people being available and competent
Enhancement reflects back to the performance indicators and business goals as identified in the
business context analysis.
Enhancement can be triggered by regular quick scans or audits.

Colofon

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