BIOSCI LECTURE MONTHLYS REVIEWER (BOOK BASED)
CHAPTER 1 HUMAN ORGANISM
ANATOMY scientific discipline that investigates the
structure of the body; means to dissect; examines
relationship between structure and function
Systemic Anatomy study of the body by systems
Regional Anatomy study of the body by area
Surface Anatomy study of external features
Anatomical Imaging uses technology to create
pictures of internal structures
Gross/Macroscopic
Histology/Microscopic
PHYSIOLOGY scientific discipline that deals with
process or functions of living things
Human Physiology study of specific organism
Cellular and Systemic Physiology specific
organizational levels
*It is important to learn this for basis of understanding
diseases; understanding of how body works and
responds to stimuli
STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF
THE HUMAN BODY
1. Chemical Level smallest level
2. Cell Level basic unit of life; organelles included
3. Tissue Level group of similar cells
4. Organ Level group of tissue with a specific
function
5. Organ System Level group of organs classified as
units
6. Organism Level structures working together
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
Organization interrelationships among the parts
to perform specific functions
Metabolism ability to use energy
Responsiveness ability to sense change and adapt
Growth increase in size
Development change in organism
o Differentiation change in cell structure and
function from generalized to specialized
Reproduction formation of new cells
11 ORGAN SYSTEMS IN THE BODY
Integumentary regulates temp; prevents water
loss; vit. D
Skeletal protection and support; allows body
movements; produces blood cells; stores minerals
and fats
Muscular produces body movement; body heat
Lymphatic purifies blood and lymph; maintains
tissue fluid balance; absorbs fats from digestive
tract
Respiratory exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide; regulates blood pH
Digestive digestion
Nervous intellectual functions
Endocrine metabolism; growth; reproduction;
etc.
Cardiovascular transportation
Urinary removes waste products
Reproductive reproduction
HOMEOSTASIS maintenance of constant internal
environment
Variables conditions that change
Homeostatic Mechanisms helps maintains body
temperature
Set Point ideal; normal value
Negative Feedback mechanism that regulates PLANES
homeostasis; negative: deviation from set point;
stimulus changed variable Sagittal Plane separates body into left and right
Median Plane sagittal plane that passes in the
1. Receptor monitors value of variable middle
2. Control Center establishes set point Transverse Plane horizontal
3. Effector change value of variable Frontal Plane (coronal) anterior and posterior
Longitudinal Section cut through long axis of
Positive Feedback deviation from set point becomes
organ
greater; makes bad situation worse; rarely found in
Transverse Section (cross section) cut through
healthy people
long axis at right angle
BODY POSITIONS Oblique Section through long axis other than
right angle
Anatomical person standing erect with face
directed forward, arms at the side and palms facing BODY CAVITIES
front
Thoracic Cavity surrounded by the rib cage
Supine lying face up
Mediastinum divides thoracic cavity to left and
Prone lying face down
right
DIRECTIONAL TERMS Abdominal Cavity bounded by abdominal
muscles; stomach, intestines, liver, spleen,
Inferior below pancreas, kidneys
Superior above Pelvic Cavity enclosed by pelvic bone;
Anterior (Ventral) front Abdominopelvic Cavity
Posterior (Dorsal) back
Proximal closer to the point of attachment MEMBRANES
Distal away from the point of attachment
Serous Membranes line the trunk cavity and
Lateral away from the midline cover the organ of these cavities
Medial toward the middle o Visceral covers organs
Superficial towards the surface o Parietal lines cavity walls
Deep internal FOUND IN THE THORACIC: pericardial (around
heart) inflammation=pericarditis; pleural (each
BODY PARTS AND REGIONS
lung) inflammation=pleurisy
Trunk FOUND IN THE ABDOMINOPELVIC: peritoneal
o Head inflammation=peritonitis
o Neck Mesentries double-layered membrane that
o Thorax chest covers organs and anchors them to the body wall
o Abdomen divided in quadrants (u.r; l.r; l.l; u.l) o Retroperitoneal kidneys, adrenal glands,
divided into regions (epigastric; r&l pancreas, parts of intestines, urinary bladder
hypochondriac, umbilical; r&l lumbar;
hypogastric; r&l iliac)
o Pelvis
Limbs
o Arm and Forearm
o Thigh and Leg
CHAPTER 3 CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS Osmosis diffusion of water across a selectively
permeable membrane; higher to lower water
Cell smallest unit that has the characteristic of life concentration
Organelles performs specific functions in a cell Osmotic Pressure force required to prevent
Cytoplasm living material surrounding the nucleus movement of water
Hydrostatic Pressure forces water to move out
ORGANELLE LOCATION
Nucleus Middle of cell Hypotonic swells; out to in; lysis
Ribosomes Cytoplasm Isotonic equal
RER Cytoplasm Hypertonic shrinks; in to out; crenation
SER Cytoplasm Carrier-Mediated Transport Mechanisms carrier
Golgi Apparatus Cytoplasm molecules; specificity specific molecules are
Secretory Vesicle Cytoplasm transported
Lysosome Cytoplasm o Facilitated Diffusion moves substances from
Mitochondrion Cytoplasm
higher to lower conc.; ATP not required
Microtubule Cytoplasm
o Active Transport moves substances from
Centrioles Cytoplasm
Cilia On cell surface lower to higher conc.; ATP required; sodium-
Flagella Sperm cell surface potassium pump
Microvilli Extension of cell surface Cystic Fibrosis genetic disorder affecting
AT of Cl
o Secondary Active Transport AT of substance
FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL: establishing a concentration gradient
Contransport same direction
Cell Metabolism and Energy Use
Countertransport opposite direction
Synthesis of Molecules
Endocytosis uptake of material through cell
Communication chemical and electric signals
membrane by formation of vesicle; into the cell;
Reproduction and Inheritance genes
receptor-mediated endocytosis substance binds
Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane) outermost to receptor
component of cell; encloses cytoplasm; selectively o Phagocytosis large; solid particles
permeable; extracellular outside; intracellular o Pinocytosis small; liquid particles
inside Exocytosis release; out of the cell

Membrane Channels involved in movement of

substances in cells
Receptor Molecules enables cell recognition and
coordination

MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE

Diffusion higher to lower concentration; solutes

& solvents; channels: leak and gated; (oxygen;
carbon dioxide; Cl; urea)
Concentration Gradient difference in the conc.
of a solute in a solvent between two points
divided by distance between two points
ORGANELLES
Nucleus located at center; bounded by nuclear
envelope; nuclear pores; contains DNA; human
cells = 23 pairs of chromosomes (when loose:
chromatin)
Nucleoli diffuse bodies with no surrounding
membrane; ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA)
Ribosomes produces proteins
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum ribosomes are
attached; protein synthesizing
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum lipid synthesis;
detoxification of chemicals; stores Ca ions
Golgi Apparatus collects, modifies, packages,
distributes proteins and lipids manufactured by ER
Lysosomes membrane-bound vesicles from golgi;
enzymes for intracellular digestive systems
Peroxisomes enzyme that break down fatty acids,
amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide
Mitochondria ATP production
Cristae inner membrane folds
Cytoskeleton proteins that support cell, hold
organelles; enable cell to change shape
o Microtubules hollow structures from protein
subunits; assisting in cell division; cilia and
flagella
o Microfilaments small fibrils formed form
protein subunits; support cytoplasm; some are
involved in cell mocement
o Intermediate filaments mechanical support to
cell; fibrils from protein subunits; smaller than
tubules but bigger than filaments
Centrioles small, cylindrical organelle composed
of nine triplets (each has triple microtubules)
Centrosome microtubule formation; contains
two centrioles
Cilia extend from cell; composed of microtubules;
often in respiratory tract
Flagella propels sperm cell
Microvilli increase surface area; extensions from
cell membrane; often in intestine
WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY
Gene Expression DNA has info that directs
protein synthesis; Gene sequence of nucleotides
o Transcription making a copy (mRNA)
Codon nucleotides in groups of three
Cytosine Guanine
Thymine Adenine
* Uracil Adenine
o Translation changing of form; (rRNA)
Anticodon series of three nucleotides of
tRNA; *
Peptide Bond -> Polypeptide Chain
Cell Life Cycle
Cell Division formation of daughter cells from
single parent cell;
Mitosis = 46 chromosomes; 2 daughter cells
Interphase DNA replication
Prophase chromatin condenses to form
chromosomes (chromatids linked in
centromere); spindle fibers extend;
nucleolus disappear
Metaphase chromosomes align to center
Anaphase chromatids separate; movement
to opposite poles; cytoplasm begins to divide
Telophase formation of two separate
nuclei
Differentiation cells develop specialized
structures and functions; some DNA active and
inactive
Aptopsis natural cell death
CHAPTER 4 TISSUES
Tissue group of cells with similar structure and
function that have similar extracellular substances
between them
Histology microscopic study of tissues
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Epithelium epithelial tissue; covers external and
internal surface throughout the body
Free Surface not in contact with other cells
Basal Surface adjacent to basement membrane
(attaches epithelial cells to underlying tissues)
Basement Membrane secreted partly by
epithelial cells; meshwork of protein molecules
with other molecules; filter/barrier of movement of
cells
Functions of Epithelia:
Protecting underlying structure
(ex. outer layer of skin and epithelium of oral
cavity which protect underlying structures from
abrasion)
Acts as a barrier epithelium prevents many
substances from moving through it
(ex. epithelium of skin acts as water barrier and
reduces water loss)
Permitting the passage of substances epithelium
allows substances to move through epithelial layer
(ex. oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange
between air and blood by diffusion through
epithelium in the lungs)
Secreting substances sweat glands, mucous
glands, enzyme secreting potion of pancreas
Absorbing substances cell membranes of certain
epithelial tissues contain carrier proteins that
regulate absorption of materials
(ex. epithelial cells of intestines absorb digested
food molecules, vitamins, and ions)
Classification of Epithelia:
Simple Epithelium one layer
o Simple squamous epithelium single layer of
flat, thin cells; some substances easily pass
through while others do not (alveoli); prevents
abrasion in organs in pericardial, pleural, and
peritoneal cavities
o Simple cuboidal epithelium single layer of
cubelike cells that carry out active transport,
facilitated diffusion, or secretion (kidney
tubules)
o Simple columnar epithelium single layer of
tall, thin cells; contains organelles that enable
them to perform complex functions (small
intestines = mucus then absorb digested food)
o Psuedostratified columnar epithelium
special type of simple epithelium; appears
stratified but not because of some tall cells
that reach free surface; lines some glands,
ducts, auditory tubes, respiratory tract; mucus
covers surface area then are moved by cilia
Stratified Epithelium more than one layer of
epithelial cells, with some cells sitting on top of
other cells
o Stratified squamous epithelium thick
epithelium; deepest cells are buvoidal or
columnar and capable of dividing and
reproducing new cells; new cells become
flattened then are replaced by keratin then die;
nonkeratinized mouth mechanical barrier
and against abrasion
Keratinized squamous epithelium outer
layer
o Stratified cuboidal epithelium more than a
layer of cuboidal epithelial cells; rare;
absorption, secretion, protection; (sweat gland
ducts, ovarian follicular cells, salivary glands)
o Stratified columnar epithelium only surface
cells are columnar; deeper are cuboidal or
irregular; rare; secretion, protection, some
absorption; (mammary gland ducts, larynx;
male urethra)
 o Transitional epithelium special stratified
epithelium; can be greatly stretched; (urinary cavity, or blood
bladder); also protects structures from caustic
effects of urine
Unstretched 5 or more layers of cuboidal
or columnar cells; often dome-shaped at free
surface
Stretched low cuboidal or squamous
shape; less layers as more stretched
Structural And Functional Relationships:
Cell Layers and Cell Shapes reflects function; larger
cells mean they contain more organelles;
secretory vesicles secretes mucus; simple
columnar epithelium
Free Surface not in contact with other cells; faces
away form underlying tissues; characteristic can reflect
function
microvili cylindrical extensions of cell membrane;
increases surface area
cilia propel materials along free surface
goblet cells specialized mucus producing cells
Cell Connection
Tight Junction bind adjacent cells and form
permeability barriers (intestines and simple
epethelia)
Desmosomes mechanical link
Hemidesmosomes modified desmosomes; anchor
cells to basement membrane (stratified squamous
epithelium of skin)
Gap junctions small channels that allow small
molecules and ions to pass from epithelial cell to an
adjacent one
Glands structure that secrets substances into surface,
Exocrine glands with ducts
o simple no branch
o compound many branches with ducts
[tubular acinus (saclike) or alveolus]
Types of Excretion:
o merocrine preoducts are released but no
actual cellular material is lost
o apocrine released as fragments of gland cell
o holocrine shedding of entire cells
Endocrine no ducts; empty secretions into blood;
hormones
CONNECTIVE TISSUE large amounts of extracellular
material that separates cells from one another;
macrophage wbc capable of ingesting; mast cells
nonmotile that release chemicals
Extracellular Matrix
o Protein fibers:
Collagen fibers resembles microscopic
ropes; flexible but resist stretching
Reticular fibers very fine, short collagen
that branch to form supporting network
Elastic fibers recoils after being stretched
o Ground substances shapeless background
against which cells and collagen fibers can be
seen when using a light microscope; highly
structured
Proteoglycans resemble limbs of pine
trees; proteins are branches while
polysaccharides are pine needles
o Fluids
Suffixes:
-blast : produces matrix; fibroblast forms fibers
in cellular matrix of fibrous connection;
osteoblasts form bone
-cyte : maintain it; fibrocyte; osteocytes
-clast : break it down for remodeling; osteoclasts
Function of Connective Tissue:
Enclosing and separating other tissues
Connecting tissues to one another tendons
attach muscles to bones
Supporting and moving parts of the body joints
and bones
Storing compound adipose tissue (fat)
Cushioning and insulating adipose tissue
Transporting blood
Protecting cells of immune system, blood, bones
Classification of Connective Tissue major categories:
embryonic and adult
Connective Tissue Proper
o Loose connective tissue few protein fibers
that form lacy network; numerous spaces filled Membranes layer of tissue that covers structure or
with ground substances and fluids; fibroblast lines of cavity
produces matrix; loose packing
Areolar collagen fibers and few elastic
fibers
Adipose adipocytes; lipid for energy
storage
Reticular
o Dense connective tissue large protein fibers
that form thick bundles; tendons and ligaments
Dense collagenous connective tissue
collagen fibers
Dense elastic connective tissue elastic
fibers among collagenous fibers
Supporting Connective Tissue
o Cartilage chondrocytes (cartilage cells);
lacunae (space)
Hyaline cartilage most abundant; covers
end of bones to form joints; respiratory
tract, nasal, costal
Fibrocartilage more collagen; resist
tearing forces; disks in vertebrae, knee, jaw
joints
Elastic cartilage elastic fibers; recoils;
external ear, epiglottis, auditory tube
o Bone compact and spongy bones
Fluid Connective Tissue blood
Muscle Tissue muscle cell = muscle fibers
Skeletal muscle meat; attaches to skeleton;
enables body to move; voluntary
Cardiac muscle muscle of the heart; intercalated
disks branch and connect cardiac muscle
Smooth muscle walls of hollow organs; skin and
eyes
Nervous Tissue brain, spinal cord, nerves; coordinates
and control
Action potentials electrical signals
Cell body nucleus
Dendrites receiver
Axons other end of nerve cell processes
Neuroglia support cells; nourish, protect, insulate
neurons
Mucous Membranes kinds of epithelium resting
on a thick layer of loose connective tissue
Serous Membranes line the trunk cavity and
cover the organ of these cavities
FOUND IN THE THORACIC: pericardial (around
heart) inflammation=pericarditis; pleural (each
lung) inflammation=pleurisy
FOUND IN THE ABDOMINOPELVIC: peritoneal
inflammation=peritonitis
Synovial Membranes only connective tissue; line
inside joint cavities; synovial fluid makes joints
slippery
Tissue Damage And Inflammation
Inflammation tissues are damage; virus
Chemical mediators activated in injured tissues
and adjacent blood vessels; produces histamine
and prostaglandins
Edema swelling when water, protein, other
substances move into the tissue
Neutrophil phagocytic wbc
Pus dead neutrophils + other cells and fluid
Chronic Inflammation results when agent
responsible for Injury is not removed or something
interferes with healing
Tissue Repair - substitution of viable cells for dead cells
Regeneration new cells have same type as ones
destroyed
Fibrosis new cells have different type
Stem cells self-renewing, undifferentiated cells
continuously dividing throughout life
Clot threadlike protein fibrin; binds edges of
wounds to stop bleeding
Scab dried clot
Granulation tissue granular-appearing connective
tissue consisting of fibroblasts, collagen, and
capillaries
Wound contracture result of the contraction of
fibroblasts in the granulation tissue
Effects of Aging on Tissues
Cell division is slower when aging; injuries heal
slower
Extracellular matrix containing collagen and elastic
fibers becomes less flexible and less elastic;
wrinkles
CHAPTER 5: INTEGUMENTARY SKIN
Integumentary Skin consists of skin and accessory
structures (hair, glands, nails)
Major Functions of Integumentary System:
Protection skin provides protection against
abrasion; prevents microorganisms from entering
body; reduces water loss
Sensation sensory receptors (heat, cold, touch,
pressure, pain)
Vitamin D Production exposure to UV light let
skin produce molecule that can be transformed to
vitamin D2 (calcium homeostasis)
Temperature Regulation blood flow and activity
of sweat glands
Excretion small amount of waste products are
lost through skin and gland secretions
Two Major Tissue Layers:
Epidermis most superficial layer of skin
Keratinization process of replacement of old
cells with new ones in the skin; fills them with
keratin
Strata layers of the skin
o Stratum Basale deepest; undergoes mitosis
about every 19 days
o Stratum Spinosum
o Stratum Granulosum
o Stratum Lucidom only in thick skin
o Stratum Corneum thickest layer; most
superficial; dead squamous cells; callus; corn
cone-shaped thickened structure
Dermis layer of dense, connective tissues
o Dermal Papillae projections in the upper
part of dermis
Cleavage lines tension lines; skin is most
resistant to stretch
Stretch marks result of overstretching
Skin Color:
Melanin black pigment; produced by
melanocytes; vesicles are called, melanosomes
Albinism absence of melanin; recessive trait
Cyanosis bluish color of skin due to decrease in
blood oxygen content
Carotene yellow pigment found in plants (squash
and carrots); lipid soluble
Subcutaneous Tissue connects skin to underlying
muscle or bone; also known as hypodermis
Hair found everywhere except at certain places arises
from hair follicle
Shaft part of hair that protrudes outside the
surface of skin
Root and Hair bulb under the surface
Cortex hard
Cuticle covers the cortex
Medulla soft
Arrector pilli associated with hair follicle; smooth
muscle; goose bumps
Glands
Major Glands:
Sebaceous gland produces sebum (oily white
substance rich in lipids; lubrication and coating)
Sweat glands
o Eccrine release sweat by merocrine secretion
o Apocrine produce a thicker secretion;
holocrine secretion; more prone to body odor
Nail thin plate consisting of layers of dead stratum
corneum cells (very hard type of keratin)
Nail body visible part
Nail root covered by skin; extends distally from
the nail matrix
Eponychium (cuticle) stratum corneum that
extends onto nail body
Nail bed where the nail is attached
Lunula whitish, crescent-shaped area
Physiology of the Integumentary System
Protection
o Reduction of water loss
o Prevention of microorganisms
o Against abrasions
o UV light absorption
o Hair as heat insulator
o Nails can be used in defense
Sensation lets the skin feel sensation
Vitamin D production produced when skin is
exposed to UV light
Temperature regulation temperature
maintenance (37O Celsius)
Excretion removal of waste products in the body
Integumentary System as Diagnostic Aid can be used
as indicator
Jaundice liver-damaged disease
Burns injury to a tissue caused by heat
Partial-thickness burns part of stratum basale
remains visible; regeneration occurs within the
burn area
o First-degree burn red and painful; slight
edema (swelling); only in epidermis
o Second-degree burn both epidermis and
dermis; redness, pain, blisters; healing is
around 2 weeks
Full-thickness burns known as third degree burn;
epidermis and dermis are completely destroyed
Skin Cancer most common type of cancer; often
associated with exposure to UV light
Three Main Types of Skin Cancer:
Basal cell carcinoma most frequent type; begins
with cells in the stratum basale and extends into
the dermis to produce open ulcer; cured by surgery
and radiation
Squamous cell carcinoma superficial to stratum
basale; produce keratin; undergoes cell division
Malignant melanoma rare; arises from
melanocytes usually in a preexisting mole
Effects of Aging on the Integumentary System skin is
more easily damaged;
Age spots number of melanocytes increases;
melanin production decreases
Freckles increase in melanin production