Journal of Coastal Conservation

Evidences of coastal climate hazards and cliff-retreat since MIS-3 at Jaramij, central

coastal of Ecuador

Mara Quinez-Macas 1, Kervin Chunga2 and Theofilos Toulkeridis3

1
Secretara de Gestin de Riesgos, Direccin de Anlisis de Riesgos, Samborondn, Ecuador.
2
Universidad Estatal Pennsula Santa Elena UPSE, Departamento de Ingeniera Civil,

Ecuador.
3
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolqu, Ecuador

*Corresponding author: maria.quinonez@gestionderiesgos.gob.ec

Abstract

Stratigraphic, biological and geochemical analyzes have provided substantial information to

reconstruct the paleographic and climatic evolution of the coast at Jaramij, situated in the
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central Ecuadorian coast. Hereby, we identified and delineated a paleo sea-cliff with an C

age of about 43,245 460 B.P., belonging to the third Marine Isotope Stage (MIS-3).

Although MIS-3 is associated with a period of glaciation, our currently obtained data are

interpreted to indicate that the central coast of Ecuador had an interstadial phase

demonstrating warm years in a glacial stage. Due to the mapping and analysis and of two

further but younger paleo-coastal cliffs, we were able to reconstruct, that the Holocene

transgression modified the central coast of Ecuador and increased the level of coastal climate

hazard by a subsequent sea-level rise. Paleo-coastlines have been evidenced in the depth

contours of -5.5m and -7.6m, at 440 and 650 m distances from the current coastline. In the

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

study area, the rate of cliff-erosion and wave-cut platforms is in the order of 1.1 to 2.4 m/yr.

Such cliff-erosion rates may increase significantly if we consider mathematical models with

an estimated sea-level rise scenario to be in 2100 of about +1 to +1.4m.

Keywords: Coastal climate hazards, sea-level rise, cliff-retreat, Jaramij, Ecuador

1. Introduction

Climate change comprises well distinguished biochemical and mechanical processes

developed in and above the oceanic and continental crust (Endler and McLellan, 1988;

Murphy et al., 2004; Mller et al., 2008; Edwards et al., 2017). The rise and fall of sea level,

referred in this study for the Quaternary, is the most notorious effect of climatic variations

and coastal margin modeling (Rohling et al., 2008; Revell et al., 2011; Murray-Wallace and

Woodroffe, 2014; Morrison and Ellison, 2017). All these effects of changes, which occurred

in the past are recorded in the sediments and in the shaping of the terrain, depending on

sedimentary inputs or erosion processes, glacial and interglacial stages, which are defined as

Marine Isotope Stage, as well as intense precipitation or erosion by sea, river and wind

(Emiliani, 1958; Shackleton, 1967; Chappell & Shackleton, 1986; Martinson et al., 1987;

Braithwaite, 2016; Dura et al., 2016).

The changes in the terrain are mostly due to the contribution of sediments transported from

the continent, such as debris flows due to heavy rains and chaotic landslides. The

contributions of marine sediments to the continent are by sea level advancement, known as

Holocene transgression (Milliman and Emery, 1968; Isla, 1989). On the other hand, sea level

may rise in a very short period during the ENSO events in the order of 60 20cm (Cobb et

al., 2003; Levitus et al., 2009), and it is these local effects that accelerate the retreat rate of

coastal cliffs, particularly where rocky masses are of soft consistency such as claystones or

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

fractured siltstone (ie, soft bedrock), and Holocene sediments. For Ecuador, this historical

information began in 1955, with events occurring prominently in 1957 to 1958, 1969 to 1970,

1972 to 1973, 1982 to 1983, and 1997 to 1998 (Levitus et al., 2009). and the most recent

event of smaller magnitude from 2015 to 2016 (Mato and Toulkeridis, 2017; Wang et al.,

2017). The periods of recurrence of natural hazards associated with climate change have

generated multiple geological hazards over time (deMenocal, 2001), which has abruptly

modified the landscape including the central coast of Ecuador (Mulas et al., 2015; Chunga et

al., 2015). It is thus that the historical and prehistoric episodes that have displaced pre-

Columbian coastal cultures, such as the Mantea, Jama-Coaque, Guangala, Chorrera,

Machalilla and Valdivia have been evidenced on that ground (Zeidler and Pearsall, 1994;

Usselman, 2006).

Fig. 1: Location of the Jaramij canton and location of the sampling stations within the
continent and the sea floor. The Jaramij canton has an area of 96 km, bordering the other
cantons of Portoviejo, Montecristi and Manta.

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

For the paleo-climatic and paleo-geographic reconstruction, a site that fulfills all the

previously described sedimentary characteristics, is the coastal strip of the Jaramij canton in

the province of Manab (Fig. 1). Well-preserved quaternary stratigraphic sequences have been

analyzed in this study, and referred to as EJ-01 to EJ-05 sampling stations (Fig. 1).

Table 1: Outcrops of Quaternary stratigraphic sequences and geomorphological features.

Station X (mE) Y (mN) Terrain feature

EJ-01 543208 9895924 Beach cliff
EJ-02 541879 9891333 Paleo-cliff
EJ-03 550818 9888337 Alluvial terrace
EJ-04 545753 9890427 Alluvial valley
EJ-05 543767 9893072 High hill
In the current study, biological information (microorganisms and microfossils, molluscs and

bivalves), geological data (type of relief, sediments and Quaternary strata) and geochemistry

(14C dates, stable oxygen isotopes and paleo-temperature measurements of the oceans with

analysis of carbons and shell remains). The data, which have been used to analyze the change

in the coastline are topographic and bathymetric data at a scale of 1: 5,000. These data

provided details of geomorphological and stratigraphic indicators of the climatic changes

developed in this central zone of the coast of Ecuador.

2. Coastal geological characterization and erosive processes

The rocky basement is formed by brownish claystones rocks from the Dos Bocas Unit of the

Tosagua Formation (Figs. 2 and 3), above which, in some sectors of the abrasion platforms,

crop out very compact discontinuous layers of well cemented coquina, which belong to the

Tablazo Formation (Fig. 4), with thicknesses in the range of 2 to 10 meters (Thalman, 1946;

Tschopp, 1948; Bristow, 1975, Bristow and Hofstetter, 1977; Chunga et al., 2016). Upper

Pleistocene marine clays with thicknesses up to 5 meters cover the coquinas and claystones.

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

Subsequently, lie above recent sediments that have well conserved sedimentary and volcanic

Holocene sequences along the coastal cliffs and in some open quarries within the canton (ie,

EJ02, EJ04m EJ05). These sediments are formed by beach sands with ferrous oxidation and

abundant molluscs (Fig. 3), covered by volcanic ashes of secondary lahars and by fall-out

deposition that reach thicknesses of up to 0.6 m in some lithologic units (Mulas et al. 2015),

which themselves lie above uncemented grayish sands, which forms the lithology of many

beach ridges in the bay of Jaramij.

Fig. 2. Geological map of Manta, outlining sedimentary outcrops and volcanic ash layers on
the coastal edge of Jaramij (Bristow and Hoffstetter, 1977).

The entire stratigraphic sequence and in particular the Holocene, indicate a type of emergent

coast with progradational sedimentation, which means that this coastal strip is rising few

fractions of a millimeter every year (ie, 0.5 mm / year; Pedoja et al., 2006) or by sudden

tectonic lifting (~ 0.2-0.3m), like the recently documented in the Pedernales 2016 earthquake,

(Chunga et al., 2017; Toulkeridis et al., 2017). The terminologies of transgression and

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

progradation depend on the advance or withdrawal of the sea level, when the level of sea is

withdrawn is called regression and from the continent increases the rate of progradational

sedimentation. However, when the sea level advances towards the continent there are

contributions of marine sediments by transgression (Posamentier et al., 1992).

Fig. 3: Outcropping of sediments and rocks at station EJ-03, on the side of the Ideal dock.
Note the thickness of each lithological unit identified in this study. The lower unit of
claystone corresponds to the rocky basement, the upper ones are depositions of quaternary
sediments.
The Jaramij coast presents rapid changes scenarios, which correspond to marine processes

(wave dynamics and currents), stratigraphic (highly erodible rocks such as sandstone and

siltstone), tectonics (fracture in rocky massifs and structural alignment that are responsible for

the uprising or subsidence) and morphological (sea terraces in the process of erosion by river

processes), which, when combined with other factors such as meteorological factors (rainfall,

air temperature, wind and humidity) cause very sudden relief changes.

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

The cliffs that are evident in the coast are in the process of a rapid marine erosion forming the

rocky platforms of abrasion that have been left by the retreat of the same. Therefore, the hills

were eroded and transformed into rocky plains (Soledispa, 2012). This is due to the action of

the surge and to the increase of the sea level, which arrive directly, eroding and destabilizing

the slopes, causing landslides in the beach zone. These cliffs are of low to medium height and

of sandy beaches with a slope of 5 to 15. The bay of Jaramij presents coasts with low hills,

being cut like coastal cliffs, with heights between 4 and 20 m.a.s.l., while further inland they

display average hills with heights between 20 and 82 m.a.s.l. Additionally, this bay also has

high hills in the boundaries of the Montecristi canton, reaching heights of up to 175 m. In

Jaramij, sedimentary levels associated with a sedimentation of transgression have been

found from the foot of the cliff to the high hills that have been later raised by the active

tectonics of the region (Pedoja et al., 2006). The marine terraces on the site have been eroded

by climatic factors such as the excess of high precipitation that occurred at some point on the

bay of Jaramij. These are nowadays evident on the land surface and in the river sections.

Fig. 4: Outcrop in the Jaramij Bay of bivalve strata (coquina) of the Tablazo Formation,
eroded by sea waves dynamics (Coordinates UTM 545.395mE, 9.897.001mN).
The geomorphological landscape tends to be combined with active tectonics, since it is usual

to observe the marine terraces and their strata formed of marine molluscs, raised with slopes

of altitudes in the form of a ladder (Pedoja et al., 2006). In Holocene time during a postglacial

period, the climatic conditions varied little compared to the other interglacial stages recorded

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

in the past (Burbank and Anderson, 2001). Therefore, these climatic cycles may have left

strong traces in the landscape, as evidenced in Jaramij when there are very marked river

incisions and rapid erosion in the relief.

3. Cliff retreat and Holocene Transgression

During data compilation in the field, we evidenced multiple landslides along the coastal

margin. The dynamics of the sea waves eroded the coastal cliff that indicated a height

between 10 and 18 m, which gradually collapsed the base of the slope and in this way the

ocean-continent contact line recedes from its position. At the Jaramij Naval Base

(BASJAR), there has been evidence of a quay being destroyed and its concrete walls torn

from its foundations due to sea level rise. In addition, in this coastal strip (except for the craft

pier) there are no engineering works and constructions of breakwaters to counteract the

effects of erosion dynamics by sea waves. Such cliff retreat by the Holocene transgression

reveals new well-preserved stratigraphic evidence of sedimentary sequences of the Holocene

(Fig. 5) and of volcanic ash deposited in two directions (Fig. 3), by secondary lahars and of

ashes by fall-out.

Figura 5. Affection of houses due to the cliff retreat generated by the sea level rise
(Soledispa, 2012).

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

Fig. 6. Retreat rate (in meters) of the cliff in Jaramij from position of the coastal lines of
2004 and 2014.
Topographic data generated by the Ecuadorian National Oceanographic Institute of the Navy

(INOCAR) from 2004 and 2014, through the RTK Tramble TM GPS equipment, allowed to

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

obtain data with an accurate altimetry in the field, demonstrating the evidence proposed in

this cliff retreat study (INOCAR, 2014; Chunga et al., 2015). In addition, the analysis of

aerial photos of the year 1965 has been compared with the satellite images provided by

GoogleEarthTM of the year 2013, indicating a notorious cliff retreat. All these topographic

data of altimetry and analysis of aerial photos allowed to establish the fast rate of the retreat

of this coastal margin being of 11 to 24 meters every 10 years or of 1.1 to 2.4 m per year,

which indicates the fast rate of erosion of the cliff formed lithologically by rocks as well as

soft sediments and of easy rippability (Fig. 6).

4. Reconstruction of paleo-coasts

We applied a vessel of a sediment sampling instrument "van veen" for the extraction in the

marine floor reaching the counter of -10 meters below the sea level. The depth of the water

column has been determined with the weight and rope technique. Hereby, in order to obtain

31 samples of sediments on the Jaramij sea floor and in the intertidal zone, we used a GPS

Magallan brandTM with high precision (Fig. 7). The GPS allowed to locate the coordinates

UTM WGS 1984 datum 17 S, along the internal coastal platform. The position of coordinates

and sampling have an approximate meshing between 50 and 100 m. All these samples have

been listed with the abbreviations from P1 to P31 (Fig. 7).

These data allow the generation of a bottom sediment distribution map (Fig. 7) and a detailed

bathymetry map (Fig. 8). The work at sea compiles 25 samples of silt, sandy silt, silty sand

and moderately sorted medium sand bottom sediments with abundant molluscs, and six

samples of beach sand on the mainland (Fig. 7). During the sediment extraction phase using

the "van veen" instrument, no samples have been obtained in rocky areas, while the little

coarse-grained sandy material indicates that it is coquina type rock (belonging to the

geological formation Tablazo) found in high sea floor bathymetry (see Fig. 8, bottom

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

sediment distribution map). It follows that these rocky strata are covered by a thin layer of

sandy sediments.

Fig. 7: Location of sediment sample stations of depths obtained with the "van veen"
instrument, on the sea floor in the bay of Jaramij. Samples P26 to P31 correspond to the
intertidal beach zone.

4.1 Sediment distribution and paleo-coastline map

According to the macroscopic analyzes of the granulometry performed on the 25 obtained

samples in the sea floor and to the corresponding position of the UTM geographical

coordinates, a sediment distribution map has been generated. There, a sedimentological

change has been evidenced while entering the sea floor, as in the coast line there has been a

predominance of fine to medium sized sand, which is representative along the beach strip

(Fig. 8). In the depth isobaths (Fig. 9) between -1.5 meters to -3.5m the sediment is of silty

sand, is reducing its granulometry to sandy silt in the bathymetric contour of -3.5m to -5.5m.

At a distance of -5.5m to -5.8m a narrow strip of silty sand indicates an increase in sediment

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

grain, while from-5.8m to -6.2 there is predominance of fine sand. Between the contours of -

6.2 to -7m there are variations of fine sediments between silty sand and sandy silt. From -7m

to -8.2m there is predominance of sediment silty sand. The medium to heavy grain sediments

are to the northwest of the site and an isolated sector to the northeast between the contours -

7.5m to -8m. High rocky parts in the shallow water column (contours -1m to 1.5m) have been

encountered to the southwest near the coastline and to the craft pier of Jaramij (marked as

rock in the map; Fig. 8).

Fig. 8: Sediment distribution map from the contours 0 m.a.s.l. up to - 8 m and delineation of
paleo-coasts in the contours of -5.5 and -7.6 m.

With the depth isobath data of the water column obtained in the field phase, and applying the

kriging technique of the Surfer10TM and GIS ArcMapTM software, we have interpolated depth

values for the generation of a bathymetric map (Fig. 9). For a better visualization of the study

site, we extracted a satellite image of GoogleEarthTM, which has been subsequently

georeferenced in a GIS platform with the program ArcMap TM.

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

Fig. 9: Bathymetry map in the sector of the Ideal dock and the Jaramij river. Note at the
western sector the artisanal fishing pier of Jaramij. The depth isobaths are expressed in
meters.

The bathymetric profile A-B (Fig. 10) indicates from the present beach line to the contours of

-5m there is a narrow strip, which has been geomorphologically attributed to a zone of a steep

slope with an inclination of 16 to 35. From the -5m to the -6.5m there is a coastal slope with

a gentle inclination between 2 to 4, which is possibly attributed to an old coastline or paleo-

coast (Fig. 8). From -6.5m to -7m the steep inclined slope to a moderately steep slope reaches

inclinations between 8 to 16. In the contours of -7m develops a new narrow coastal terrace

sloping slope between the 4 to 8, which form also represents a paleo-coast. From -7m to -

8.2, a moderately steep slope between the 8 and 16 slope is again evident (Fig. 10).

Interpreting this bathymetric profile, we are able to indicate that: (a) the two coastal terraces

are associated with paleo-coastlines and the inclined slope is the accelerated increase of sea

level rise, the distance between one of the other is a consequence of the variations recorded

by the Holocene transgression in the MIS-1 (Fig. 11). However, something significant has

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

been evidenced in the upper slope due to the rapid increase in sea level near the present

coastline (last advance of Holocene transgression, Fig. 10).

Fig. 10: Bathymetric profile of the Jaramij site (profile A-B) started at UTM coordinates
540.989mE - 9.895.358mN and finished at sea at coordinates 541.153mE - 9.896.088mN,
total profile length is 760 meters (Fig. 9). Note the paleo-lines of the coasts at contours of -5.5
m and -7.6 m.

Fig. 11: Holocene transgression and sea level variation over the last 10,000 years (Fairbridge,
1961; Shepard, 1963; Morner, 1982).

4.2 Paleo-environment and paleo-climatic reconstruction

This research focuses on the reconstruction of the paleo-geographic and climatic evolution of

the site, whose deposits or sedimentary contributions have been presented during the MIS 3

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

(range of ages 59,000 to 24,000 BP) to MIS 1 (range 18,000 years ago to the present)

(Martison et al., 1987). The Jaramij study site has a high paleo-climatic record where a

paleo-cliff has been able to be encountered 4 km away from the coastline (Fig. 12) raised up

to an altitude 30 to 35 meters above sea level. Such stratigraphic records document a possible

intertidal deposit (Sampling station EJ-02) of an age 14C of approximate 43,245 460 years

BP.

To delineate the paleo-coast with an estimated age of about 43,245 460 years B.P., the use

of orthophotos and digital model of the terrain in GIS platform has been used. Reliefs of

average hills or paleo-cliffs are encountered with heights between 20 to 45 m.a.s.l. (Fig. 14).

This landscape has been rapidly modified by subsequent flows of debris or landslides such as

those observed in the EJ-02 stratigraphic column (Fig. 12). In order to better understand the

paleo-geographic evolution, a topographic profile has been elaborated indicating the terraces

or tectonic uplift of our study, including additional information provided by Pedoja et al.

(2006).

Fig. 12: Lithological units at station EJ-02 deposited in a canal and paleo-cliff zone, at the
basal marine clay.

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

From the cliff cut of the EJ-03 station and the 4 kilometers to the interior of the continent,

from stations EJ-02, EJ-04 and EJ-05 (Fig. 1), a sandy level with abundant remains of

ichnofacies has been evidenced. These ichnofacies are structures that reflect the activity of

organisms such as perforations, trails, tracks, burrows and pellets, and are used as clues to

identify some deposit conditions and also to provide useful information for any paleo-

environmental interpretation. The development of these benthic communities is controlled by

several ecological factors such as oxygen availability, salinity, temperature, luminosity,

substrate consistency, turbulence and background water energy, reservoir velocity and, by

events that alter them such as storms, turbidity currents, ash rain among others (Seilacher,

1967). The ichnofacies are best preserved in sandstones and sands, as both grain size and

deposit conditions contribute to their preservation.

Fig. 13: Location of the profile A-B for the paleo-geographic reconstruction of a paleo-cliff
(~ 43,245 years 460 B.P., marked with a black line with a NW-SE trend).

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

This sandy level of ichnofacies (AB profile of Fig. 13) may represent the sublittoral zone

likely to occur during the MIS 5e interglaciation period, when the sea level reached +8 meters

above the current sea level some ~ 120,000 years ago (Martison et al., 1987; Fig. 14). The

estimated tectonic uplift rate for Jaramij in this study, based on altimetry data confronting

the ages of the coastal terraces and paleo-cliffs, has been of 0.5 to 0.98 mm per year

(Quinez-Macas, 2016). Pedoja et al. (2006) estimated a rate of 0.31 to 0.39 mm per year,

considering marine terraces between 120,000 years (MIS 5e), 220,000 years (MIS 7) and

330,000 years (MIS 9).

The sedimentary levels analyzed comprise deposits from MIS 3 to MIS 1. The sandy stratum

level EJ-2E is dated from Cal. BC 41.295 to 40.140 years (Cal. BP 43.245 to 42.090 years).

We refer to the age 43,245 years 460 B.P., where the coastline of that time was 4 kilometers

away from the current coast (Fig. 14).

For a batter data compilation for the paleo-geographic reconstruction, the geological scenario

may be considered, as the site of Jaramij has sedimentary contributions by the marine

transgressions of the interglacial period and significant progradational contributions during

the proglacial periods. This latter contribution may be associated to the extensive colluvial

landslides, secondary debris flows or secondary ash lahars from the mid and upper hills of the

southern and southeastern part of the Jaramij canton (Figs. 12 and 13).

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

Fig. 14: Marine terraces scheme for the Jaramij site and confrontation with MIS 1 to 3.
Above: Sea level variation of the last 200,000 years (Shackleton, 1978; Martinson et al.,
1987) and interstate stage in MIS 3, which has been identified in this study. Below:
topographic profile of terraces raised by active tectonics (0.5 to 0.98 mm per year). Station
date EJ01 from Mulas et al., 2015.
Stratigraphic sequences were eroded in the terrain, however, the remaining littoral units in the

sampling stations allowed to reconstruct more recent terraces from the Pleistocene, such as

T1 at an altitude of 20 meters, terrace T2 at an altitude between 30 m.a.s.l. and T3 at an

altitude between 43 and 57 m.a.s.l. (Chunga et al., 2016; Quinez-Macas, 2016). This last

terrace T3 is considered by Pedoja el at. (2006), proving in this current study a delineation of

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 Journal of Coastal Conservation

two new terraces, which are mostly covered by sliding of secondary lahars of volcanic ash

(Mulas et al., 2015).

The stable oxygen isotope data 18O referred to the lithological unit of station EJ-02, indicate

values of -1 and -1.5 (Fig. 15). Both values correspond to two types of samples located at

different distances, but belonging to the same sedimentary level in station EJ-02. The

correlation of these data may be interpreted as an interstadial stage within the glacial period

of MIS 3 (Fig. 14). Most probably a rapid rise in the sea provided contributions of the marine

sediment and molluscs at 43,245 years 460 BP.

Fig. 15: Sample EJ-02 with mollusks of the Trachycardium (Mexicardia) procerum, and the
smaller one the Divalinga perparvula, both species of neritic marine environment (Keen,
1971). The 14C dating of these specimens yielded an age of approximately 43,245 460 years
BP.
The bivalve species identified in this study (27 in total and described their sedimentary

environment) indicate that the EJ-02 level during its sedimentation phase has been in a water

column between 0 to -30 meters, being the sublitoral zone of the internal platform (Fig. 15).

This deduction has been confirmed since during the field work the same species of molluscs

have been searched in the present beach, lacking of shells of complete bivalves, but some of

them have been found to a water column depth between -8 to -10 meters. These were

observed where samples of floor sediments have been extracted.

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5. Conclusions

The data of the current study allowed to reconstruct the paleo-geographic and paleo-climatic

evolution of the Jaramij site indicating that the quaternary and volcanic sediments present in

the area correspond to depositions of stages MIS 1 to MIS3, including the present interglacial

period and two glacial periods, and a short interstate stage recorded 43,245 years 460 BP.

The Holocene transgression and the retreat rate of the estimated cliff has been 11 to 24 meters

every 10 years (1.1 to 2.4 meters per year), indicating the rapid erosion of the cliff formed

lithologically by soft sediments and easy claystone rock rippability.

The bathymetry analysis of the internal platform of the sub-coastal zone, may be interpreted

as: (a) two coastal terraces that are associated with paleo-coastlines, the distance between one

of the other is a consequence of the last advance of the Holocene transgression in the current

MIS-1 interglacial period. However, something significant has been evidenced in the rapid

associated rate from the paleo coastline in the contour of -5.5 m.

6. Acknowledgments

We thank to Alvaro Mora, Daniel Garces, Maurizio Mulas, Gladys Rincon, Lisa Ely,

Elizabeth Pea and Angelo Constantine for their field contributions and comments on our

study. We thank to Beta Analytic laboratory for the 14C dating. We also extend our thanks to

Freddy Huaman, Carlos Portilla and Alamir Alvarez, at the Faculty of Engineering Sciences,

UPSE.

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