A

Paper
On
“Innovations In Fibre –
Auxetic Fibre”

- Submitted By -
Mr. Amit M. Saharkar
(Final year Textile Engg.)
saharkaramit1@gmail.com

Department of Textile Engineering

Jawaharlal Darda Institute of
Engineering & Technology, Yavatmal.
(M.S.)
 Content
Sr. no. Title
1 Abstract
2 Introduction
3 What is Auxetic Material?
4 Mechanism and Structure
5 Extrusion of Trimethyleneterephthalate Polyester Fibers
6 Molecular-Based Of Auxetics
7 Applications of Auxetic Material
8 Limitations
9 Conclusion
10 Reference

1. Abstract
When a material is stretched there is an accompanying reduction in width. A measure of
this dimensional change can be defined by Poisson’s ratio, ν = -εx/εy. For many materials this
value is positive and reflects a need to conserve volume. Auxetic materials, those with a negative
Poisson ratio (NPR), display the unexpected property of lateral expansion when stretched, with
an equal and opposing densification when compressed. Commonly, the tensile strength and
modulus of these polymers is poor. The problem here is one of scale: an open microscopic
structure confers inferior mechanical properties. To impart superior mechanical properties,
auxetic structure must exist at the molecular level. We aim to advance scientific understanding
of molecular-level NPR effects. This molecular approach should overcome property limitations
inherent in existing polymers with auxetic microstructures. Initially, we will address the
molecular-level requirements for auxetic fibers that may ultimately furnish a man-made material
suitable for extrusion and spinning on a commercial scale. These auxetic textiles are used in
many areas like biomedical field, filters, piezoelectric sensors and actuators, medical field, seat
belts and safety harness in automobiles, ballistic protection, reinforcement composites and etc.
Auxetic meaning and its various structures and its various applications are explained in detail in
this poster.

2. Introduction
Modern technology requires new materials of special properties. One of the reasons for
interest in materials of unusual mechanical properties comes from the fact that they can be used
as matrices to form composites with other materials of other required properties, e.g. electric,
magnetic, etc. A new field of endeavour is to study materials exhibiting negative Poisson’s ratio
(NPR). Large-scale cellular structures with NPR property were first realized in 1982 in the form
of two-dimensional silicone rubber or aluminium honeycombs deforming by flexure of the ribs.
In 1987, Lakes1 first developed the NPR polyurethane foam with re-entrant structure. This
polymeric foam had a Poisson’s ratio of -0.7. These new types of materials were named auxetics
by Evans2, which, in contrast to conventional materials (like rubber, glass, metals, etc.), expand
transversely when pulled longitudinally and contract transversely when pushed longitudinally.
“Auxetics” comes from the Greek word auxetos, meaning “that which may be increased”. In this
report, the term ‘auxetic’ will be used.
People have known about auxetic materials for over 100 years, but have not given them
much attention. This type of material can be found in some rock and minerals, even animal such
as the skin covering a cow’s teats. To date, a wide variety of auxetic materials has been
fabricated, including polymeric and metallic foams, micro porous polymers, carbon fibre
laminates and honeycomb structures. A typical example is a well-known synthetic polymer-
polytetrafluorothylene (PTFE), which has been in use for many years. Other materials possess
the NPR property such as micro porous ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE),
polypropylene (PP), several types of rocks. However, their special characteristics are largely
ignored. Only up until recently, Lakes, Evans and other scientists’ work has attracted more
attention to these auxetic materials.
These auxetic materials are of interest due to the possibility of enhanced mechanical
properties such as shear modulus, plane strain fracture toughness and indentation resistance.
Therefore, studying these non-conventional materials is indeed important from the point of view
of fundamental research and possibly practical applications, particularly in medical, aerospace
and defence industries. In fact, some materials with such anomalous (i.e. NPR) properties have
been used in applications such as pyrolytic graphite for thermal protection in aerospace, large
single crystals of Ni3Al in vanes for aircraft gas turbine engines, and so on.

3. What is Auxetic Material?

Everyday experience shows us that when a material is stretched there is an expansion in
width. A measure of this dimensional change can be defined by Poisson’s ratio,ν = - ε x / ε y;
Materials with a negative Poisson ratio (auxetic) display the unexpected property of lateral
expansion when stretched[1]

Figure 1. Dimensional response in a conventional and auxetic material when a tensile force is
applied

Conventional material Auxetic material

This behavior originates from particular structural characteristics on the cellular level that
give rise to the unfolding of basic structural elements upon stretching and folding back in upon
compression.
Besides the elementary scientific importance of imparting such a fundamental property, a
negative Poisson ratio can give a material many exceptional benefits:
• Increased stiffness[2],
• Increased indentation resistance[3] and
• An ability to form synclastic doubly curved surfaces[4].
Although a few auxetics have been discovered in both natural (some minerals, select
skins[5],bone[6], α-cristobalite[7]) and man-made materials (foams[3,8] certain micro porous
polymers[9], Gore-Tex®[10] and nodular PE[11]) an NPR is still a very rare feature for
conventional materials.

4. Mechanism and Structure

As stated above, a material with NPR expands (gets fatter) when stretched, as opposed to
most materials, which tend to get thinner. A typical mechanism is shown in Figure 2. When a
force pulls the structure in one direction (e.g., here vertically), the structure opens up or expands
in the perpendicular direction (here, horizontally), i.e., the structure gets fatter[12]. Based on this
simple mechanism, a network-like structure can be built up, as shown in Figure 3, where a 2D
structure of such a material consists of a regular array of rectangular nodules connected by
fibrils. Deformation of the structure is by ‘hinging’ of the fibrils. For the ‘open’ geometry, the
cells elongate along the direction of stretch and contract transversely in response to stretching
the network, giving a positive v (refer to Figure 3 (a)). However, the structure is modified to
adopt a re-entrant4 geometry, Figure 3 (b), and the network now undergoes elongation both
along and transverse to the direction of applied load. In other words, this is an auxetic structure
[12].

Figure2.Schematic of basic deformation mechanism in auxetic material.

Figure 4 shows the variation in width plotted against length variation for two
polypropylene (PP) fibres stretched axially. Fibre 1 is a conventional PP fibre and shows a
contraction in width as it is extended, corresponding to a positive Poisson’s ratio (ν). Fibre 2 is
processed using extruder temperatures, which lead to the nodule-fibril microstructure. Its width
now increases upon stretching - it displays auxetic behavior [12].
For auxetic honeycombs, which are a special subset of auxetic materials, the NPR effect
is due to the geometric layout of the unit cell microstructure, leading to a global stiffening effect
in many mechanical properties such as in-plane indentation resistance, transverse shear modulus
and bending stiffness [2]. Figure 5 shows the deformation mechanism of the auxetic
honeycombs along with conventional honeycomb structure. For a conventional hexagonal
geometry (Figure 5 (a)), under the stretch in the y direction the cells elongate along the y-axis
and close up in the x direction, leading to a positive Poisson’s ratio. However, for an auxetic
structure, the cells undergo elongation both parallel and perpendicular to the direction of the
applied load, shone in figure 5(b).

Figure 3 Comparison of deformation behaviors: (a) non-auxetic and (b)auxetic material

 Figure 4 Width as a function of length variations for polypropylene fibres

Figure 5 Two-dimensional deformation mechanisms, which are subjected to loading in the y

direction:
(a) Conventional honeycomb structure (b) Auxetic honeycomb structure
 For auxetic micro porous polymer, the characteristics of the microstructure can be
interpreted by a simple 2D model, as shown in Figure 6. This basically consists of an
interconnected network of nodules and fibrils. If a tensile load is applied, the fibrils cause lateral
nodule translation, leading to a strain-dependent negative Poisson’s ratio.
Figure 6 Schematic of the microstructure of a typical auxetic polymer. (a) The polymer at rest
and (b) The polymer at the tensile load

5. Extrusion Of Trimethyleneterephthalate Polyester Fibers

An initial extrusion experiment was carried out with trimethyleneterephthalate granules
to observe the behavior of the polymer during extrusion. The melt spinning process was
performed using an Emerson and Renwick Ltd Labline extruder which consists of a 25.4 mm
screw diameter, 3 : 1 compression ratio, length/diameter 24 : 1, five temperature zones each
having individual thermostatic controls, and a die slot with 40-filament die having each hole size
of 550 μm (Figure 7). The processing temperatures investigated were based on thermal analysis
studies and were carried out at intervals of 5°C, leading to flat temperature profiles in the range
of 230 to 210°C with screw speeds of 0.525 rad/s and take-up speed 0.075 m/s. The extrusion
was carried out at higher temperature (230°C) profile and gradually decreased the temperature to
210°C until the viscosity of the powder bulk was too high to allow free flow through the die-
zone. The polyester powder was fed through a hopper into the barrel and transferred through the
barrel zones to the die zone, thereby undergoing sintering due to the maintained temperatures
along the zones of the extruder. The fibers were extruded from the die head and cooled before
winding.[13]

Figure7.Schematic diagram of melt extruder used to produce auxetic polyester fiber

6. Molecular-Based Of Auxetics
Recent attention has focused on the theoretical design and synthesis of auxetic structures
on a molecular scale. We suggest that a liquid crystalline (LC) polymer might exhibit an auxetic
response if transverse rigid rods are incorporated in the main chain. A unique feature of liquid
crystalline polymers is the tendency for the transverse rods in the un-stretched state to orient
themselves roughly parallel to each other and to the terminally attached LC rods [1]. Upon
stretching, the rigid rods should reorient themselves while retaining site-connectivity to give a
significant increase in the transverse dimension of the stretched polymer chain (figure 8) [1].
The accompanying increase in inter-chain spacing upon stretching should lead to an
auxetic response. It is apparent that oligo-paraphenyls should be suitable for this purpose, and
ter-, quater- and penta-phenyls are good candidates [1]. Their initial approach is to create a main-
chain LC polymer consisting of both terminally attached liquid crystalline rods with ter-phenyl
and ultimately even longer pent phenyl rods capable of a full 90° transverse re-orientation upon
stretching [1].
Figure 8.Terminally Attached Transverse Rods Pre-aligned with surrounding liquid crystal
field (top) Re-oriented with a lateral expansion upon stretching (bottom)

We have reported liquid crystalline polymers containing laterally attached ter phenyls
[14]. Due to the specific chemistry and the attachment sites on the central phenyl ring, these ter
phenyls make a 60° angle with the polymer main-chain when the polymer is fully stretched - this
is the maximum limit for rotation of the laterally attached rods. We have also seen a class of
polymer consisting of longer laterally attached p-quarter phenyl rods that could rotate to a
maximum of 75° with respect to polymer main-chain when the polymer chain is fully stretched
and could push the neighboring chains further apart[15]. Figure 9 shows the orientation between
unique attachment sites of the terminally attached rods to the flexible spacer. In both approaches,
we successfully produced simple fibres from a co-polymer designed by this molecular approach.
These showed that laterally attached ter phenyl rods incorporated into their main chain gave an
increase in inter-chain distances when their fibres were stretched a prerequisite for our auxetic
design.
 Figure 9.Progressive improvements in transverse-rod site connectivity from a lateral 1, 4-
phenylene and 2,2’-biphenyl connectivity to a terminal 1,3-resorcinol (or isophthalate)
connection

The maximum extension capable from these laterally attached rods was 60° and 75°,
respectively, when stretched; the majority likely giving statistically smaller re-orientations
anywhere within this distribution span [1]. We now know from these results that much larger
reorientations are now necessary. The improved design we now propose, will exploit terminally
attached p-terphenyl and even longer p-pentaphenyl rods capable of a 90° re-orientation when
stretched (Figure 10)[1].

Figure 10. Representation of proposed auxetic target polymer structure showing resorcinol-
based terphenyl auxogens (R = H, n-Pr, CN, CF3, SiMe3, Ph) with spacer chemistry that may
be methylene (X = CH2), ethylene oxide (X = O), or siloxane
(X = Si(CH3)2OSi) based.

This synthesis will hinge on the preparation of resorcinol- or isophthalate-based p-ter-

and p-pentaphenyl rods with flexible arms suitable for polymerization into hydrocarbon,
ethylene oxide or siloxane-based linear and cross linked chains depending on glass transition
temperature (Tg) requirements (Figure 10)[1]. The terminus of each rod can then have
substitutions (H, n-Pr, CN, SiMe3, and CF3) suitable for tailoring liquid crystallinity, melting,
solubility, or to enhance pre-alignment prior to any stretching. In the non-liquid crystalline cases
where we expect to look at polymers containing only auxetic rod, the rods should pack
somewhat randomly in the polymer, most oriented in the direction of the chain axis for packing
efficiency [1]. Although this statistical packing of terminally attached rods along each chain axis
may reduce the number of overall acute angle geometries capable of an auxetic expansion in the
non-liquid crystalline polymers, it is not expected to eliminate auxetic behavior: most isotropic
crystals have random orientations yet display remarkably large negative Poisson ratios over
small strains. In any case, the likelihood of auxetic rods pre-aligning with their neighbors
increases with length and may eventually have to be synthesized to be calamitic themselves[1].

7. Applications Of Auxetic Material

Following are the applications of auxetic material.

7.1 Auxetic Fibres

The breakthrough development of a continuous process to produce auxetic materials in
fibrous form has created the opportunity to apply their unique characteristics in a wide range of
applications previously not possible. Fibres can be used in single or multiple filament structures
and can be used to produce a woven structure. Typical performance characteristics expected of
auxetic fibres and structures. Current research on auxetic composites is concentrated on the use
of non-auxetic constituents and so benefits due to the auxetic effect occur at a macro structural
level. Employing auxetic fibres as the reinforcement will enable benefits, such as impact energy
and acoustic energy absorption, to be achieved at the micro structural level [12,16].

7.2 Auxetic Yarns and Textiles

We envision single or multi-filament auxetic fibers woven or knitted into unique fabrics
with a wide range of applications presently unattainable from fibers with conventional elastic
properties. It also follows that any future for advanced fibers may include multi-filament yarns
where the auxetic fibers are wrapped with one or more conductive or dye able yarns. Thus,
auxetic benefits can be incorporated with other beneficial properties for ‘smart’ textiles.
Employing auxetic fibers as reinforcements should confer improved impact resistance,
indentation resistance and energy absorption properties in textiles. These fabric properties are
particularly advantageous and potentially attractive for commercialization in protective clothing
uses for military and Homeland Security, such as superior performance outfits, combat jackets
and body armor (i.e. bullet-proof vests, helmets). At present, protective materials of this type
need to be about 1cm thick making them stiff, heavy and inflexible. Auxetic body armor could
give the same safeguard but be thinner, lighter and conform better to the synclastic double
curvatures of the human body.

7.3 Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators

Another area relates to the use of auxetic materials in piezoelectric sensors and actuators.
Auxetic metals could be used as electrodes sandwiching a piezoelectric polymer, or piezoelectric
ceramic rods could be embedded within an auxetic polymer matrix. These are expected to
increase piezoelectric device sensitivity by at least a factor of two, and possibly by ten or a
hundred times. The development of auxetic materials for micro and nano mechanical and
electromechanical devices is also being investigated.
7.4 Filters
Auxetic foam and honeycomb filters offer enhanced potential for cleaning fouled filters,
for tuning the filter effective pore size and shape, and for compensating for the effects of
pressure build-up due to fouling [16]. These benefits rely on the pores opening up both along and
transverse to the direction of a tensile load applied to an auxetic filter. The pores of a non-
auxetic filter open up in the stretching direction but close up in the lateral direction, leading to
poorer filter performance; however, stretching an auxetic filter improves performance by
opening pores in both directions. The effect of stretching on the de-fouling of an auxetic
polymeric honeycomb fouled with glass beads has been investigated. For the particular
honeycomb studied the value of ν is dependent on the stretching direction. The studies clearly
demonstrate that defueling is enhanced when the filter is loaded in the direction with the largest
negative Poisson ratio [16].
Figure 11.A macro model of the auxetic filtration mesh principle can be seen in the
unstrained (above) and strained (below) states.

7.5 Medical Sutures / Controlled Release of Drugs

Auxetic dental floss offers several key benefits,
including the ability to expand to fit the widely differing gaps
between human teeth and the ability to deliver
chemotherapeutics, fluorides or flavors directly to the gum line
[16]. The porous nature of auxetic floss would also assist in
debris removal, making the flossing process more efficient.
The market is currently held back because the procedure of
flossing is dull, and the benefits to the user are not
immediately apparent. This has lead to the situation where a
large proportion of users only floss on an occasional basis [16].
It is thought that if the flossing experience could be made more
satisfying, then the market would grow appreciably.
We have recently made the first prototypes of a 'smart-suture'. Basically, it is a part-
braided, part wound system that has a core which can be soaked in an agent, such as a
chemotherapeutic. When you stretch the yarn, the outer cover expands - as it does so, it opens up
a large number of pores - simultaneously, it squeezes the core, forcing the agent out [16]. This
would appear to be very useful for in-situ drug delivery. For instance, if it was soaked in vitamin
E, it would help reduce the formation of scar-tissue, or if antibiotics were used, it may be
appropriate for use in third-world countries, or on battlefields. A further enhancement is that the
suture's circumferential expansion under strain would help to reduce cheese wire traumas caused
by the suture cutting into the flesh as the result of patient movement [16].
Figure12 Medical sutures can be made that are able to deliver agents such as
chemotherapeutics or flavors by using the system shown here. a) A semi-braided, semi-
wrapped auxetic yarn containing an absorptive core. b) The same material treated with
walnut oil. c) When this is placed
under a tensile load, a series of pores
open up and the oil is squeezed out.

7.6 Seat Belts & Safety Harnesses

Auxetic materials offer solutions to
many everyday problems. As an example,
consider how a passenger seat belt behaves in a
vehicle collision[16]. In an accident, the
passenger is usually thrown forwards the forces
involved can be enormous. In attempting to
restrain this movement, the seat belt gets
stretched and, much like an elastic band being
pulled becomes narrower. This is exactly the
opposite of the behavior that you want at such a
critical time, for, in getting narrower; it concentrates all the forces into a much smaller area [16].
In a healthy adult, this can cause significant abrasion traumas. For someone who is elderly,
pregnant, or very young, such injuries can be much more serious. An auxetic seat belt, however,
would get wider this would spread the loads over a much larger area, potentially reduce any
injuries experienced [16].

7.7 Fibre Reinforced Composites

It is expected that auxetic reinforcing fibres should enhance fracture resistance of
composites. It is well known that the interface between matrix and fibres is the weakest part of a
composite material (Figure 13 (a)). Fibre pull-out is a major failure mechanism in fibre
reinforced composites [12]. For example, a unidirectional composite loaded in tension will
undergo lateral contraction of both the matrix and fibres in conventional composite materials,
leading to failure at the fibre/matrix interface as shown in Figure 13 (b).However, replacing of
conventional fibre by auxetic fibres could delay the pull-out of fibres, potentially helping to
resist crack growth, because the possibility of maintaining the interface by careful matching
of the Poisson's ratios of the matrix and fibre leading to fibre expansion during pull-
out, as shown in Figure 13 (c)[12].
 Figure 13 Fibre pull-out in composites

7.8 Defence Auxetic textile

Auxetic currently has five main areas of interest in the defence sector. These are:
• Window-protection
• Ballistic-fragment protection for military tents
• Ballistic camouflage nets
• Enhancements for body armor

• Window-protection
Recent terrorist threats have renewed concerns about the protection offered to our
buildings both domestically and internationally [16]. One issue that has received a lot of
attention in recent years is the hazard posed by flying window glass. Typically more than 80% of
deaths and serious injuries are caused by flying debris. Blast curtains can be used to significantly
reduce the number of casualties caused by this during a terrorist strike. Auxetic has developed a
range of blast-fabrics that can be used for window-protection [16].

• Ballistic-fragment protection for military tents

Conventional military tents are extremely vulnerable to attack by enemy forces, and
provide little to no ballistic-protection. Auxetic is developing variants of the blast-mitigation
fabrics which can be used as liners for the fly sheets [12.16]. This could significantly reduce the
ingress of shrapnel (from mortars, RPGs and grenades), thus reducing the number of deaths and
serious injuries sustained in action [16].

• Ballistic camouflage nets

Conventional camouflage nets, as used by the world's military forces, do not provide
anything more than a degree of cover from observation. Ballistic-protection fabrics which have
been printed with camouflage patterns can, however, also provide significant protection against
primary and secondary fragmentation [12,16].
Auxetic is also developing thinner forms of the ballistic-protection fabrics for use as
military mosquito nets. Whilst still working well as insect screens, these would also act as
secondary fragmentation shields, providing extra protection in the event of a local mortar or
grenade burst[16].

• Enhancements for body armor

Spalling is a process that occurs when a hard structure is hit by a projectile or explosion
and the opposite face bursts and scabs of material fly off, often at ballistic speeds. The terms
'Scabbing', 'Ablation' and 'Spalling' all refer to the same thing. It can be a serious problem with
vehicles, aircraft, boats and buildings [12,16]. The principle here is that the blast-fabrics are
fixed to the inside of a threatened structure, and in the event of a projectile strike, reduce any
potentially lethal back-face bursting. This role is especially significant in weight-sensitive
applications, as backings made from ballistic-protection fabrics make it possible to use a thinner
armor, with consequent savings in both cost and weight [16].

7.9 Structure
The counterintuitive property of auxetic materials, namely, lateral expansion
(compression) under longitudinal tensile (compression) loads, is essential from the point of view
of modern technology. Many applications for auxetic materials have been designed in various
fields of human activity, from vascular implants, strain sensors, shock and sound absorbers,
"press-fit" fasteners, gaskets and air filters, to fillings for highway joints. Materials containing
inclusions of negative stiffness constitute another class of systems with unusual mechanical
properties [16]. The recent interest in such systems has its origin in their very high damping
properties. The mechanical properties of auxetic honeycombs are highly sensitive to the
microstructure unit cell geometric parameters. This is a feature that could be used to design
optimized sandwich structures for various applications. As an example, regular hexagonal
honeycombs do not excel in sound absorption applications. Selected combinations of
microstructure properties of auxetic honeycombs have been proven to increase the transmission
loss factors inside cylindrical shells. Wave dispersion properties can also be custom tuned by
varying the auxetic microstructure layout [16].

7.10 Other Application

Apart for the above applications, materials with NPR should have more applications in
aerospace industry [16]. For example, from the mechanical point of view, the Poisson’s ratio
does not depend on scale, so auxetic materials should not be difficult to be extended to structures
built from conventional components that would “open up” when stretched. These “expandable”
structures can be particularly useful for the manufacture of space structures such as large
antennas and sun shields that could be launched into space in a closed compact form and then
“open up” at a later stage in space [16].
Auxetic materials have higher resistance against shearing (tearing force) and twisting
than conventional materials. These properties are particularly important for structural
components, which may fail under shear strain (such as beams in buildings, sheets used in
aircraft or cars etc) [16].
The sensitivity of a sonar receiver was increased by an order of magnitude by replacing a
non-auxetic matrix with an isotropic auxetic matrix. A further advantage of using auxetic
materials is their behavior when bent[16]. The double curvature is one of the important
deformation mechanisms in auxetic materials. This feature can be used in moulding and shaping
sandwich panels for aircraft components such as nose cones or car body parts [16].

8. Limitations
As stated above, auxetic materials potentially have many applications, because of their
wonderful properties compared to conventional (i.e. non-auxetic) materials. However, they also
have their own limitations like other materials.
The special micro structural features for auxetic materials need space to allow the
“hinges” to flex, or the “nodules” to spread out. The materials often need substantial porosity.
Therefore, materials with negative Poisson’s ratio are substantially less stiff than the solids from
which they are made and this causes limitations on the structural applications of the materials
with negative Poisson’s ratio. For example, they are normally not stiff enough or not dense
enough for load-bearing applications.

9. Conclusion
Auxetics are having specialty in their nature, even though these are the nature’s wealth,
today research & development is going on for mimicking these structures. The advantages in this
negative poison’s ratio material are showing the several applications in various fields. Today so
many researches are going on around the world. Hope for the success in those projects and that
will show the new views to the conventional world.

10. Reference
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16.http://www.auxetic.com