BIOLOGY

2
KIDNEYS AND THE PROCESSING OF
WASTE MATERIALS,
OSMOREGULATIONS

ARYANNY BINTI NASIR

Learning outcome
By the end of this section you should be able to:-

a) Describe the structure of a nephron.

b) Explain the process of ultrafiltration and where it occurs.
c) Explain the process of selective reabsorption, where it occurs along a nephron and the
transport processes involved.
d) Explain the adaptations of cells of the proximal convoluted tubule.
e) Explain the importance of maintaining a sodium ion gradient in the medulla, and how this is
achieved.
f) Explain the reabsorption of water from the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts.
g) Explain the role of the hypothalamus and posterior pituitary gland in osmoregulation.
h) Explain the responses which are brought about by the release of ADH.
i) Apply knowledge to explain the stages involved in negative feedback in response to changes in
blood water potential.
Learning Outcome: a) Describe the structure of a nephron.

The Structure of the Kidney

Renal capsule
Transparent, fibrous membrane that surrounds and encloses
kidney.
Helps to protect the kidney
Renal Cortex
Uppermost section of the
kidney.
Contains parts of the
nephron including Bowmans
capsule, glomerulus,
proximal and distal tubule
Renal Medulla
The inner portion of kidney is known as medulla.
It is split into renal pyramids.
Contains parts of the nephron such as loop of henle and collecting duct
Renal Pelvis
Funnel shaped cavity that drains the urine received
by the nephron and moves it into the ureter.
Learning Outcome: a) Describe the structure of a nephron.

The structure of nephron

The kidney is made up of
repeating units called
nephrons

These help maintain

fluid balances
Learning Outcome: a) Describe the structure of a nephron.

Nephron (Tubular component)

Hollow, fluid-filled tube
single layer of epithelial cells
Components
a) Bowmans capsule
b) Proximal convoluted tubule
c) Loop of Henle
Descending limb
Ascending limb
d) Distal convoluted tubule
e) Collecting duct or tubule
Learning Outcome: b) Explain the process of ultrafiltration and where it occurs

Glomerulus
Blood arrives at glomerulus by way of
an afferent arteriole and departs in
an efferent arteriole

Filtration begins here. A high pressure

in the glomerulus forces relatively
small and positively charged particles
such as sodium and potassium ion
through. Larger molecules like protein
do not pass through
Learning Outcome: a) Describe the structure of a nephron.
Learning Outcome: b) Explain the process of ultrafiltration and where it occurs

Bowmans Capsule
a) This is a cup-shaped structure that
encloses the glomerulus.
b) Hydrostatic in the glomerulus forces
some of the blood plasma to enter
the Bowmans capsule.
c) The filtered blood is called
glomerulus filtrate.
The kidney

1. Ultrafiltration afferent
arteriole
with larger
diameter

efferent
Increase in arteriole
hydrostatic with smaller
pressure in diameter
glomerulus
What is filtered out of the blood?
Blood plasma which includes:

Water
Amino acids
Glucose
Urea
The kidney
When the blood passes into glomerulus,
due to high hydrostatic pressure
all the substances in the blood are forced out

through wall of glomerulus into

Bowmans
capsular space

Except:
plasma proteins &
This liquid is called blood cells
glomerular filtrate
Learning Outcome: c)Explain the process of selective reabsorption, where it occurs along a nephron and the transport
processes involved.

Proximal Convoluted Tubule

This is where reabsorption and
Almost 70% of sodium
- secretion begins. The filtrate
contain things like sodium,
and chloride ions are
glucose, amino acids and water
reabsorb here
that are all reabsorbed back
into the blood.
-100% of water and
On the other hand, things like
hydrogen and creatinine are
amino acids are
secreted into the filtrate from
the blood.
reabsorb here
The kidney
Glomerular filtrate
Reabsorption
passes through the tubule

All Amino acids

Glucose

Some salts
Most of water
are reabsorbed into
blood capillaries around tubule
The kidney
Glomerular filtrate
Reabsorption
Reabsorption of these
useful substances
(except water) takes
place by diffusion &
active transport
Water is reabsorbed by
osmosis
urine
contains
excess mineral salts water urea
Learning Outcome: d) Explain the adaptations of cells of the proximal convoluted tubule.

Adaptations of cells of the proximal convoluted tubule

Proximal tubule= where the useful molecules from the ultra
filtrate are reabsorbed
The surface of PCT are lined with epithelial cells.
.
These responsible for moving all glucose, amino acids, water
to the tissue fluid where they dissolve into the blood.
Learning Outcome: d) Explain the adaptations of cells of the proximal convoluted tubule.

Adaptations of cells of the proximal convoluted tubule

There are several adaptations to help
with this:
Mitochondria that provide the ATP.
A further adaptation is the microvilli
in the surface of the cell, this
increases the surface area, so that
more substance can enter.
Secretion
Tubular secretion remove substances from the blood and secretes
them into the filtrate.
Secreted substances includes H+, K+, ammonium ion, creatinine, and
other drugs.
Secretions occur in the portion of the PCT, DCT and collecting duct.
Many pharmaceutical drugs are protein-bound molecules which are
easily secreted, which is why urine testing can detect the exposure to
many types of drugs.
Learning Outcome: e) Explain the importance of maintaining a sodium ion gradient in the medulla, and how this is
achieved.
Loop of Henle
The loop of henle functions to
increase the solute concentration
of the medulla thereby increasing
the osmotic pressure in the
medulla.
Learning Outcome: e) Explain the importance of maintaining a sodium ion gradient in the medulla, and how this is
Learning Outcome: a) Describe the structure of a nephron.
achieved.

Loop of Henle
Consists of a descending limb into
the medulla and an ascending limb
back out to the cortex
The overall effect is to increase the
concentration of salts in the tubule
fluid so they diffuse out from the
ascending limb into the surrounding
medulla tissue giving a low (very
negative) water potential
Learning Outcome: e) Explain the importance of maintaining a sodium ion gradient in the medulla, and how this is
Learning Outcome: a) Describe the structure of a nephron.
achieved.
 Water Potential
As the fluid in the tubule descends
into the medulla down the
descending loop, the water
potential becomes lower (more
negative)

This is due to :
a) loss of water by osmosis
to the surrounding tissue
fluid
b) diffusion of the sodium and
chloride ions into the tubule
from surrounding tissue fluid
As the fluid in the tubule ascends back up
towards the cortex, the water potential
becomes higher (less negative)

This is due to :
higher up the tubule, sodium and chloride
ions are actively transported out into the
tissue fluid
wall of the ascending limb is impermeable
to water so it cannot leave the tubule
the fluid loses salts but not water as it
moves up the ascending limb
 This arrangement is known as the hairpin
counter current multiplier system.
It increases the efficiency of salt transfer
from the ascending limb to the descending
limb
This causes a build up of salt in the
surrounding tissue fluid.
Water moves out of the descending limb,
making the fluid in the tubule very salty.
Salt then diffuses out of the base of the
ascending limb as it is at high
concentrations (very negative water
potential)
Learning Outcome: f) Explain the reabsorption of water from the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts.

Distal Convoluted tubule

This portion of the nephron

reabsorbs Na and Ca while
secreting H and potassium.
ADH increases water
reabsorption
Aldosterone increases sodium
reabsorption
Learning Outcome: f) Explain the reabsorption of water from the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts.

Collecting Duct
The collecting duct allows the reabsorption of Na back into the
blood. Normally it is impermeable to H20, concentrating the urine.
Learning Outcome: f) Explain the reabsorption of water from the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts.

The Collecting Duct

The collecting duct carries fluid into the medulla which contains a lot
of salts (low/very negative water potential)
As the fluid passes through, water moves by osmosis, from the tubule
fluid into the surrounding tissue
It then enters the blood capillaries by osmosis and is carried away
The amount of water absorbed depends on the permeability of the
walls of the collecting duct
By the time the urine reaches the pelvis it has a low (very negative)
water potential and the concentration of urea and salts is high
The kidney
first 2 4 second
convolution convolution

1+2+3
+4+5 1
Bowmans
capsule
= nephron
5
loop of
3 collecting
duct
Henle
Urine Formation
1) Filtration
Blood in afferent arteriole is under high pressure
Glomerulus acts as a filter
Filtrate = the substance that is filtered from the blood into the renal
tubule
Blood leaves the glomerulus through the efferent arteriole
2) Reabsorption
Filtrate contains useful substances which are returned to the blood
Most occurs in the proximal convoluted tubules
3) Secretion
Substances move from blood (capillaries) into the filtrate
Important in controlling pH of blood
Learning Outcome: g) Explain the role of the hypothalamus and posterior pituitary gland in osmoregulation.

Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the control of water and salt levels
in the body
Water is gained from food, drink and metabolism
Water is lost in urine, sweat, water vapour in exhaled
air and faeces
 is the maintenance of
the correct level of
water in the body

Keeps the water level constant

Learning Outcome: h) Explain the responses which are brought about by the release of ADH.

ADH Control
The water potential of the blood must be
regulated to prevent loss or gain of water
from cells
Blood water homeostasis is controlled by
the hypothalamus
It contains osmoreceptor cells, which can
detect changes in water potential of the
blood passing through the brain.
In response the hypothalamus controls the
sensation of thirst, sends nerve signals to
the pituitary which causes secretion of
antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
Learning Outcome: h) Explain the responses which are brought about by the release of ADH.

Regulation of Water Balance

ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) from the pituitary regulates the
osmotic pressure of body fluids by causing the kidneys to
increase water reabsorption.
Osmotic pressure decreases as water levels balance.
Urine is more concentrated due to increased reabsorption
of water back into the body.

Concentrated Urine
ADH Water Reabsorption
Osmotic Pressure
a) Learning Outcome: i) Apply knowledge to explain the stages involved in negative feedback in response to changes in
Learning Outcome: h) Explain the responses which are brought about by the release of ADH.
blood water potential.

Water Balance Feedback Loop

Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect changes in osmotic
pressure
(sweating / dehydration cause the blood to be more concentrated
which increases osmotic pressure and pulls water into the blood
from the cells, the cells of the hypothalamus shrink).
Message sent to the pituitary gland to release ADH into the blood
The body also has the sensation of thirst which is a behavioural
response.
Drinking fluids will also help to decrease osmotic pressure.
a) Learning Outcome: i) Apply knowledge to explain the stages involved in negative feedback in response to changes in
Learning Outcome: h) Explain the responses which are brought about by the release of ADH.
blood water potential.

Water Balance Feedback Loop

At kidneys, ADH makes the
collecting ducts and distal tubules
more permeable to water,
increasing reabsorption into the
blood and making urine more
concentrated.
} Osmotic pressure lowers.
} Once the osmotic pressure
decreases, the cells of the
hypothalamus swell and the
pituitary gland stops the release of
ADH. (negative feedback)
 concentrated
dilute blood
blood
2 after drinking a
after sweating lot of water 1

Normal water content in blood

a larger 3 a smaller
proportion of after eating a salty meal proportion of
water is water is
reabsorbed higher salt conc. in blood
reabsorbed
a smaller extra water is lost with the
excretion of excess salts a larger
volume of conc.
volume of
urine is
more urine with a high conc. dilute urine is
produced
of salt is produced produced