Chapter 3

CHAPTER 3
DESIGN OF MAJOR EQUIPMENT
3.1 Plug Flow Reactor, R-101
Reactor is considered as the most important equipment in chemical plant and also
called as heart of the design project because it is the place where reactants are
convert into products. The selection and designing the reactor are important to
provide optimum economy of the chemical industry and at the same time produce
high conversion. In Acetone production plant from Isopropanol, the reactor selected
was plug flow reactor (PFR). This is because the process is continues and it is
required heat supply due to the reaction is exothermic. PFR is the best selection when
it is for continues process and have tubes inside to supply heat.
3.1.1 Chemical Design for PFR, R-101
3.1.1.1 Design Method
To have a complete design of reactor, a few steps are needed to follow. The step
provided below are acting as guide to the designer to do the correct acting.
Below is the step taken for the chemical design of reactor:
3-1
Figure 3.1: Flowchart for designing a reactor
3.1.1.2 Process Design
The PFR is selected based on its function that fulfil the requirement in acetone
production. Before the reactor is proceed to design process, some assumption need
to be noted. The assumption are:
Continues operation
Steady state condition
Irreversible reaction
Adiabatic operation (no heat loss throughout the system, Q=0)
No work shaft applied in the reactor (W=0)
Assume an endothermic reaction
Assume as isothermal reactor
Assume as isobaric (no P)
The reaction is homogeneous (gas)
3-2
Table 3.1: Reactor Design Summary Equipment Specification Sheet
Table 1: Reactor Design Summary Equipment Specification Sheet

Identification: Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)
Item no: Reactor (R-101)
Function: To dehydrogenation the isopropyl alcohol to produce acetone
Number of Reactor: 1 reactor
Specifications
Design type Horizontal Vessel diameter (m) 46.107
Material of Carbon steel Vessel length (m) 15.369
Construction Vessel volume (m3) 6335.86
Operating Condition
Operating temp (K) 623 Number of pipe 1276
Operating pressure 1 Outside diameter 219.075
(atm) (mm) 213.0298
Inside diameter (mm) 6.0452
Wall thickness(mm)
3.1.1.3 Chemical Design
PFR
Stream 4
Stream 5
Temperature = 300oC
Temperature = 350oC
Pressure = 1 bar
Pressure = 1 bar
Main reaction
CH3CHOHCH3 CH3COCH3 + H2
A B + C
3-3
Operating Condition:
Reactor Type = Isothermal
Conversion of Methanol = 99%
Operating Temperature = 623 K
Operating Pressure = 1 bar
Molar Feed rate = 223.701 kmol/hr
= 3.72835 kmol/s
1. PFR Equation
dx
FA = -rA
dV
dx
V= FA
-rA
2. Rate Law
The chemical reaction in this reactor is:
CH3CHOHCH3 CH3COCH3 + H2
A B + C
From the reaction above, it is first order reaction and the rate law generate as below:
-rA = kCA
Where;
-rA = rate of disappearance of Isopropanol (s-1)
k = rate constant for isopropanol at 350oC (dm3/mol.s)
CA = final concentration of isopropanol (mol/dm3)
3-4
3. Reaction Rate Constant, k
The determination of k can be determined by using Arrhenius equation;
k = Ae-E/RT
where;
A = 3.51 x 105 s-1
E = 72380 J/mol
R = 8.314 J/mol.K
T = 623 K (350oC)
J
3.51 x 105 -72380
mol
k(623K)= x exp ( )
s 8.314 J.mol-1 .K-1 x 623K
k(623K) = 0.29956 s-1
4. Stoichiometry
CAO (1-X)
CA =
(1+ X)
1-X
-rA = kCAO [ ]
(1+ X)
5. Combine Item 1 and 3
FA (1+ X)
V= dX
kCAO (1-X)
6. Parameter Evaluation
FAO
yAO =
FTO
223.701
=
308.3263
=0.7255
3-5
=1+1-1
=1
yAO PO
CAO =
RTO
0.7255 1 1.01325
=
0.08314 623
= 0.01419 mol/dm3
= 14.19 mol/m3
7. Volume of fluid in reactor
FA 1
V= [(1+ ) ln - x]
kCAO 1-x
(3.72835 x 1000) 1
= (1+0.7255) ln -(0.7255 0.99)
(0.29956 )(14.19) 1-0.99
= 6335.86 m3
8. Catalyst
Catalyst are substance that is integrated in the process to increase the rate of reaction
or in other words to speed up the process by taking part in intermediate stage of the
reaction and is liberated near the end of the reaction without changing the form of the
catalyst substance. Over a period of time, the catalyst will experience deactivation
and will no longer be efficient. The catalyst used in the fixed bed reactor Raney-Nickel
catalyst. The properties of the catalyst is shown Table 3.3 below.
3-6
Table 3.3: Raney-Nickel catalyst information
catalyst information
Surface area, SA 53m2/g
Diameter particle, dp 3mm
Pore diameter, d 55m
Particle density 3.46 g/mL
Voidage, 0.65
Volume catalyst used = Vfluid x (1-)
= 6335.86 m3 x (1-0.65)
= 2217.551m3
9. Mass of catalyst
Mass of catalyst is determined by using the density of catalyst times with volume of
catalyst;
Mass of catalyst = density catalyst x volume catalyst
= 3460 kg/m3 x 2217.551 m3
= 7672726.46 kg
10. Volume of reactor
Reactor volume = volume fluid + volume catalyst
= 6335.86 m3 + 2217.551m3
= 8553.411 m3
11. Length and diameter reactor
Assume L/D = 3
D2
V= ( )x L
4
D2
V= ( ) x 3D
4
3-7
3
V= 3
4
3 4
=
3
3 4 8553.411
=
3
= 15.369 m
L = 3D
= 3 (15.369 m)
= 46.107 m
12. Residence time, T
mol
223.701 s 3
= = = 15.76
14.19 mol/3
Then,
8553.411 m3
= = 542.729
3
15.76
13. Tube Length Suitable Checking
Table 3.4: Dimension of Standard Steel Pipe

Nominal Outside Diameter, dO Schedule Wall Thickness
Pipe Size Number
(in)
In. mm In. mm
8 8.625 219.075 40 0.238 6.0452
3-8
14. Number of tubes
volume of catalyst bed

Total cross section of tubes = height of the bed
2217.551m3
= 46.107 m
= 48.10 m2
( )2
Cross sectional area of one tube = 4
(0.219075m)2
= 4
= 0.03769 m2
Thus, the total numbers of tubes are;
total cross section of tubes

Nt =
cross sectional area of one tube
48.10 m2
=
0.03769 m2
= 1276
Bundle diameter Db can be estimated using constants shown:

1
Nt n
Db = do ( )
K1
1276 1
= 0.219075m ( )2.142
0.319
Db = 23.65m
Where; (E.Edwards, 2008)

K1 = 0.319
n = 2.142
15. Jacket Selection
Initially, simple jacket is chosen because;

a) It is least costly
b) Low power requirement
c) Less pressure drop
3-9
Less heat transfer rate is overcome by installing baffled-jacket. Further calculation
will determine whether internal and external heat exchanger is needed.
Data heat of reaction from energy balance:
Mole flow rate of Isopropanol = 223.701kmol/h

Mole flow rate of water = 84.62422 kmol/h
Feed inlet temperature,TR = 300C
Reaction temperature,TR = 350C
Hot stream inlet temperature,TJ1 = 400C
Hot stream outlet temperature,TJ2 = 302C
Required conversion, X = 0.99
HoR =71.4 kJ/mol
Table 3.5: Enthalpy table for reactor (R-101) Subtance

nin (kmol/hr) Hin (kJ/mol) nout (kmol/hr) Hout (kJ/mol)
IPA 223.70 0 7.38 2245.59
H2O 84.62 0 84.62 1.819
C3H6O - - 216.31 -182.76
H2 - - 216.31 9.4213
(0-(-20768.5)+71.4]kJ
E = Qn = [ ]
hr
kJ 1 hr kW
=20839.9
hr 3600s kJ
s
=5.789 kW (endothermic)
Energy balance in jacket

Heat from reactor to jacket
QJ = UJ AJ (TR -TJ )
UJ =f(reaction solution, jacket fluid)Table
3-10
100+1200 W
UJ =
2 m2 K
W
= 650 2
m K
Table 3.6: Range of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients for Jacketed Reactor
Condition of heat transfer W/(m2K)
Gases in free convection 5-37
Water in free convection 100-1200
Oil under free convection 50-350
Gas flow in tubes and between tubes 10-350
Water flowing in tubes 500-1200
Oil flowing in tubes 300-1700
Molten metals flowing in tubes 2000-45000
Water nucleate boiling 2000-45000
Water film boiling 100-300
Film-type condensation of water vapour 4000-17000
Drop size condensation of water vapour 30000-140000
Condensation of organic liquids 500-2300
Area for molten salt in reactor,
D2 D2
AJ = (outer space)- (inner space)
4 4

= (1.252- 1.22 )
4
=0.096 m2
T' J1 + T' J2
TJ =
2
400+302
=( )
2
= 351
3-11
QJ = UJ AJ (T' R -TJ )
W
= 650 0.096 m2 (623- 624)K
m2 K
= -62.4 W
Specific heat for molten salt, CP = 1.53 J/g.K = 1.53 kJ/kg.K
5.789 kW= Cp T
kJ
=(1.53) (623-624)
kg.K
kg 3600s
= 3.78
s hr
kg
=13608
hr
This indicates that approximately 13608 kg/h of hot molten salt is to be supplied to
maintain reaction temperature at 350C. Note that molten salt will be cooled from
400C to 302C in this case.
3.1.2 Mechanical Design for PFR, R-101
3.1.2.1 Thickness of vessel reactor
For safety factor = 1.5 x operating pressure
Therefore,
Pi = 1.5 x 0.1 N/mm2
= 0.15 N/mm2
Material of construction = carbon steel, SA-516
At temperature 350 oC, design stress, S = 128 N/mm2 (online calculation tools, 2017)
3-12
Pi Di
Thickness= (ASME BPV Code (Sec. VIII D.1 Part UG-27))
2SE- 1.2Pi
N
(0.15 ) (1200mm)
= mm2
N N
2(1) (128 ) -0.15
mm2 mm2
=0.7 mm
Pi =design pressure
Di =internal diameter
S = design stress
E = maximum allowable joint efficiency
Assumption;
Corrosion allowances of the wall thickness = 2 mm
So,
Vessel thickness = 0.7 mm + 2 mm
= 2.7 mm
3.1.2.2 Head and column thickness
i. Design of flat ends

CP
t=De SEi
Where;
t = minimum thickness required (mm)
De = nominal plate diameter = De = Di + 2 = 15.369 m + 2 x10-3m = 15.371 m
C = design constant, 0.25
S = maximum allowable stress, 128 N/mm2
E = joint efficiency, 1
Pi = internal pressure, 0.15 N/mm2
3-13
Therefore, the t can be calculated;
0.250.15 N/mm2
t=15371 mm
128 N/mm2 1
t=263.095 mm+3 mm (corrosion allowance)

t=266.095 mm
ii. Design of domed ends

Hemispherical heads
PD
i i
t= 4SE-0.4P
i
Where;
Di = internal diameter, 15369 mm
Therefore,
N
0.15 15369 mm
t= mm2
N
[(4128 1)-(0.40.15)]
mm2
t = 4.503 mm+3 mm (corrosion allowance)
t = 7.503 mm
Torispherical heads
0.885Pi Rc
t= SE-0.1Pi
Where;
Rc = crown radius = Di = 15369mm
3-14
Therefore,
N
0.8850.152 15369 mm
t= mm
N
[(1281)-(0.10.15)]
mm2
t = 15.941 mm+3 mm (corrosion allowance)
t = 18.941 mm
Ellipsoidal heads
ii
= 20.2
i
Where;
Di = internal diameter, 15369 mm
Therefore,

0.15 15369
= 2

[(2 128 1) (0.2 0.15)]
2
= 9.006 + 3 ( )
= 12.006
Based on the condition of the process, the suitable head is torispherical head
because it is suitable for the operating condition below than 10 bar pressure.
3.1.2.3 Weight of the vessel, Wt
3.1.2.3.1 Weight load of shell
For steel vessel, a cylindrical vessel with domed ends and uniform wall thickness can
be estimated from the following equation:
Ws = 240 x Cv x Dm x (Lv + 0.8Dm) t
Dm = Di + t
= 1.20 m + 2.7 x 10-3 m
3-15
= 1.2027 m
Cv = Internal fitting factor
= 1.08 (vessel with few internal fitting)
Lv = Length of reactor
= 4.50 m
Therefore, Ws = 4597.48 N
= 4.597 kN
3.1.2.3.2 Weight of load pipe
For carbon steel, 8 inch, schedule 40, weight of tube = 9.7204845kg/m
Hence, for 1276 tubes,
WP = Number of pipes weight of pipe length 9.81
kg
= 1276 9.7204845 45 m 9.81
m
= 5,475,453 kN
3.1.2.3.3 Weight of insulation material (Wi)
Fiberglass (density = 100kg/m3) is used as insulated material. The thickness is 90

mm.
Approximate volume of insulation = x Dm x 60 x 10-3 x Lv
= 1.2027 m9010-3 m45 m
= 15.30 m3
Wi = Volume of insulation material x density x 9.81
= 1.020 m3 x 100 kg/m3 x 9.81
= 1.5 kN
Double this to allow for fittings etc
= 1.5 kN X 2
= 3.0 kN
3-16
3.1.2.3.4 Weight load of fluid (shell side)
Wfs = mass flowrate (shell side) x 9.81
= 3.78 kg/s x 9.81
= 37.08 N
= 0.03708 kN
3.1.2.3.5 Weight load of fluid (tube side)
Wft = mass flowrate (tube side) x 9.81
= 14968.7 kg/hr x 1 hr/3600 s x 9.81
= 40.79 N
= 0.04079 kN
3.1.2.3.6 Weight of catalyst
Wc = density x volume
= 3460 kg/m3 x 2217.551m3 x 9.81
= 75269 kN
3.1.2.3.7 Total weight load
Wt = W s + W p + W i + W fs + W ft + W c
= (4.597 + 5,475,453 + 3.0 + 0.03708 + 0.04079 + 75269) kN
= 5550729 kN
3.1.2.4 Analysis of stress
Primary stress: Longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to pressure

=
2
3-17
0.15 1200
=
2 2.7

= 33.3
2

=
4
0.15 1200
=
4 2.7

= 16.7
2
Dead weight stress:

=
( + )
278.434 103
=
(1200 + 2.7)2.7

= 127.29
2
3.1.2.5 Vessel support
Saddles support are the most commonly used support for the horizontal cylindrical
vessel. Therefore, design of saddle will be considered here. A horizontal vessel will
normally be supported at two cross sections (if more than two saddles are used the
distribution of the loading is uncertain). The total weight of the design reactor is
278.434 kN which is less than the maximum weight of saddle support. Therefore the
saddle support dimension could be used.
The theoretical optimum position of the supports to give the least maximum bending
moment will be the position at which the maxima at the supports and at mid-span are
equal in magnitude. For a uniformly loaded beam, the position will be at 21% of the
mid span, in from each end. Thus, based on statement above, saddles position from
both end:-
= (0.21 x Reactor length)
3-18
= 0.21 x 45m
= 9.45 m
(The end of the vessel will stiffen the shell if the position of the saddles is less than
D/4 from the ends)
The minimum contact angle suggested by the ASME Code is 1200, except for the
very small vessels, (Code Appendix G-6). For unstiffened cylinders under external
pressure the contact angle is mandatory limited to 1200 by the ASME Code (UG-29).
Figure 3.2: Guideline symbol for saddle design
Figure 3.3: Symbol for saddle design (F.Megyesy, 2001)
3-19
Figure 3.4: Suggestion of measurement based on diameter of vessel
3.1.2.6 Pipe Diameter Estimation and Thickness Required
The type of material used in designing the piping is carbon steel due to the price is
lower than other materials and its properties that does not corrode when involving in
the operation. The pipe diameter and thickness will be used to determine the size and
physical characteristic of the flange.
3-20
doptimum = 260G0.5 -0.37
Where;
G = flow rate, kg/s
= density, kg/m3
P x doptimum
Pipe thickness, t=
20+P
Where;
P = internal pressure, bar
d = pipe outer diameter
= design stress for carbon steel at working temperature, 128 N/mm2
i) Feed stream
Feed density at 573 K = 1.032241 kg/m3
Mass flowrate, G = 4.1578 kg/s
Optimum diameter:
doptimum = 260(4.1578)0.5 (1.032241)-0.37
=524 mm
Corrosion allowance consideration (2 mm) = 526 mm, 20.7 inch
Thus diameter = 21 inch
P x doptimum 1 x 524
Pipe thickness, t= = =0.20 mm
20+P 20(128)+1
Corrosion allowance consideration (4 mm) = 4.20 mm
Cross sectional area = /4(524/1000)2 = 0.216 m2
3-21
ii) Outlet stream
Optimum diameter:
doptimum = 260(4.1578)0.5 (0.8579616)-0.37
= 561 mm
20+P 20(128)+1
iii) Hot molten salt feed stream

Optimum diameter:
doptimum = 260(3.878)0.5 (3.78)0.37
=313 mm
20+P 20(128)+1
3-22
iv) Hot molten salt outlet stream

Optimum diameter:
doptimum = 260(3.878)0.5 (3.78)-0.37
=313 mm
20+P 20(128)+1
3.1.2.7 Flanges
A flange is a method of connecting pipes, valves, pumps and other equipment to form
a piping system. It also provides easy access for cleaning, inspection or modification.
Flanges are usually welded or screwed. Flanged joints are made by bolting together
two flanges with a gasket between them to provide a seal.
Pipe flanges are manufactured in all the different materials like stainless steel, cast
iron, aluminium, brass, bronze, plastic etc. but the most used material is forged
carbon steel and have machined surfaces.
In addition, flanges, like fittings and pipes, for specific purposes sometimes internally
equipped with layers of materials of a completely different quality as the flanges
themselves, which are "lined flanges".
3-23
The material of a flange, is basically set during the choice of the pipe, in most cases,
a flange is of the same material as the pipe.
All flanges, discussed on this website fall under the ASME en ASTM standards,
unless otherwise indicated. ASME B16.5 describes dimensions, dimensional
tolerances etc. and ASTM the different material qualities.
Figure 3.5: Weld neck flanges dimension
(ANSI B16.5 Weld Neck Flange, 2017)
3-24
Table 3.6: Flanges dimension of welding neck flanges
Pipe Nominal
outer size Flanged Hub ansatz Raised Bolting Drilling
diameter face Size
, OD D J b h a m g (inch) Number I k
(inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) (inch) Anzahl (inch) (inch)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Feed 20 20 27.50 20.50 1.69 5.6 20.0 22.00 23.00 1.25 20 1.25 25.00
508 698.5 520.7 42.9 144.5 508 558.8 584.2 31.8 635.0
Outlet 24 24 32.00 25.00 1.88 6.00 24.0 26.12 27.25 1.38 20 1.38 29.50
609.6 812.8 635.0 47.8 152.4 609.6 663.4 692.2 35.1 749.3
Hot in 12.75 12 19.00 12.00 1.25 4.5 12.75 14.38 15.00 1.00 12 1.00 17.00
323.8 482.6 304.8 31.8 114.3 323.8 365.3 381 25.4 431.8
Hot out 12.75 12 19.00 12.00 1.25 4.5 12.75 14.38 15.00 1.00 12 1.00 17.00
323.8 482.6 304.8 31.8 114.3 323.8 365.3 381 25.4 431.8
3-25
Figure 3.6: Bolt selected dimension
(FASTENER TECHNICAL DATA AND CHARTS SECTION, 2010)
3-26
3-27
3.2 Heat Exchanger
The basic concept of a heat exchanger depends on the commence that the loss of
heat on the high temperature side is precisely the same as the heat picked up in the
low temperature side after the heat and mass flows through the heat exchanger. Heat
exchanger basically exchanges the heat between those two sides as a result; it is
decreasing the temperature of higher temperature side and increasing the
temperature of lower temperature side. A part from this, flow arrangement in heat
exchanger is essential as it related to the effectiveness of the heat transfer. There are
two kinds of flow arrangement which are parallel or co-current flow and counter-
current flow. A counter-flow heat exchanger shows the direction of the flow of one of
the working fluids is opposite to the direction to the flow of the other fluid. Meanwhile,
in a parallel flow exchanger, both fluids in the heat exchanger flow in the same
direction.
Figure 3.1: Parallel flow (concurrent) and counter flow (countercurrent) of heat
exchanger.
The principal types of heat exchanger used in the chemical process and allied
industries,
1. Double-pipe exchanger: the simplest type, used for cooling and heating.
2. Shell and tube exchangers: used for all applications.
3. Plate and frame exchangers (plate heat exchangers): used for heating and cooling.
4. Plate-fin exchangers.
3-28
5. Spiral heat exchangers.
6. Air cooled: coolers and condensers.
3.2.1 Heat Exchanger Selection
In order to select an appropriate type of heat exchanger for the chemical plants,
optimum process operations is need by selecting and implement the right types of
process equipment. Therefore choosing the right heat exchanger is important. Below
are examples of characteristic the right heat exchanger.
Application
Costing
Available utilities
Fluid flow capacity
Accessibility for cleaning and maintenance
Considerations for future expansion
Pressure drops across exchanger
Mechanical considerations
Operating Temperature and Pressure
3.2.2 Construction Details of Shell and Tube Exchangers
The shell and tube exchanger is by far the most commonly used type of heat transfer
equipment used in the chemical and allied industries. The advantages of this type
are:
1. The configuration gives a large surface area in a small volume.

2. Good mechanical layout: a good shape for pressure operation.
3. Uses well-established fabrication techniques.
4. Can be constructed from a wide range of materials.
5. Easily cleaned.
6. Well-established design procedures
3-29
Figure 3.2: Shell and tube exchanger
The extent of the individual coefficients will rely on upon the way of the heat transfer
process which is conduction, convection, condensation, boiling or radiation on the
physical properties of the liquids, on the liquid stream rates, and on the physical
course of action of the heat transfer surface. Therefore this is the steps in a typical
design procedure are given below:
1. Define the duty: heat-transfer rate, fluid flow-rates, and temperatures.

2. Collect together the fluid physical properties required: density, viscosity, thermal
conductivity.
3. Decide on the type of exchanger to be used.
4. Select a trial value for the overall coefficient, U.
5. Calculate the mean temperature difference,
6. Calculate the area required
7. Decide the exchanger layout.
8. Calculate the individual coefficients.
9. Calculate the overall coefficient and compare with the trial value. If the calculated
value differs significantly from the estimated value, substitute the calculated for the
estimated value and return to step 6.
10. Calculate the exchanger pressure drop; if unsatisfactory return to steps 7 or 4 or
3 in that order of preference.
11. Optimize the design: repeat steps 4 to 10, as necessary, to determine the
cheapest exchanger that will satisfy the duty. Usually this will be the one with the
smallest area.
3-30
3.2.3 Process Condition
In the process, E-102 was selected to describe the design. The temperature reduced
from 738.9199K to 351.203K. The shell side was the effluent from the reactor,
meanwhile at the tube side was the acetone recycle stream that act as coolant. First
step, the temperature inlet and outlet of the cooling stream was made with
temperature inlet and outlet 293.15K and 464.14K respectively.
3.2.4 Chemical Design of Heat Exchanger
3.2.4.1 Shell and tube properties
Table 3.1: Shell properties

Inlet Mean Outlet
Temperature (K) 738.9199 545.0618 351.2037
Specific heat, Cp 69.45 65.06 60.67
(kg/kj.K)
Thermal - - 0.1152
conductivity
Density (kg/m3) 1.41163 2.3775 3.3433
Viscosity (mPa/s) 0.09 0.15 0.21
Flowrate (kg/h) 14968.13 14968.13 14968.13
Table 3.2: Tube properties

Inlet Mean Outlet
Temperature (K) 239.15 351.647 464.1445
Specific heat, Cp 108.78 92.05 75.31
(kg/kj.K)
Thermal - - 0.1032
conductivity
(W/m.k)
Density (kg/m3) 811.1091 408.627 6.145975
Viscosity (mPa/s) 0.32 0.22 0.128
Flowrate (kg/h) 13990.91 13990.91 13990.91
3-31
3.2.4.2 Heat Load
For tube side,
Q = mCpt
Q= 4460 kW
Where:
Q = heat load (kW @ kJ/s)

m = mass flow rate of the fluid (kg/s)
Cp = specific heat of the fluid (kJ/kg.K)
T = temperature difference between the fluid in and fluid out (K)
3.2.4.3 Overall coefficient

For this heat exchanger, the solvent are the mixture of organic solvent (IPA and
acetone) and water, hence, the overall coefficient that obtained (from ASPEN) is
850 W/m2.K.
3.2.4.4 Mean Temperature Difference (Temperature Driving Force)
Assumption made:
1. The exchanger operates steady state
2. The overall heat-transfer coefficient is constant
3. Heat loss are negligible
4. All elements of a given fluid stream have the same thermal history in passing
through the exchanger.
5. Heat loss are negligible
(12)(21)
Tlm = 12
ln( )
21
where Tlm = log mean temperature difference,

T1 = hot fluid temperature, inlet,
T2 = hot fluid temperature, outlet,
t1 = cold fluid temperature, inlet,
t2= cold fluid temperature, outlet
3-32
(12)
R=
(21)
(21)
S=
(11)
Tm = Ft Tlm
Where Tm = true temperature difference, the mean temperature difference for use
in the design equation
Ft = the temperature correction factor

Assumption made for correction factor Ft:
1. Equal heat transfer areas in each pass
2. There is no leakage of fluid between shell pass
3. Constant overall heat-transfer coefficient in each pass
Therefore,
(738.9199464.1445)(351.2037239.15)
Tlm = 738.9199464.1445
ln( )
351.2037239.15
= 181.41 oK
The correction factor is a function of the shell and tube fluid temperatures, the number
of tube and shell passes. It correlated as a function of two dimensionless temperature
ratios. Where, R is two dimensionless temperature ratios and P is measure of the
temperature efficiency of the exchanger.
(738.9199351.2037)
R=
(464.1445239.15)
=1.72
(464.1445239.15)
P=
(738.9199239.15)
=0.45
The correction factor for 1 shell pass and two tube passes is obtained from Figure
3.3. The value of temperature ratio (R) and temperature efficiency (P) is plotted in
3-33
Figure 3.3. Hence, the temperature correction factor (Ft) value obtained from the
curve is 0.64. From correction factor, the true temperature difference (Tm) can be
determined as below.
Table 3.3: Correction factor for 1 shell and two tubes passes.
From Ft = 0.64, which is acceptable, hence,
Tm = 0.64 x 181.41 oK
=116.10 oK
3.2.4.5 Heat Transfer Area
Heat transfer area is calculated where, Q is heat transfer per unit time (W), U is the
overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.oK), Tm is the actual temperature difference
(oK) and A is the heat transfer area (m2). The general equation is,
Q =UoATm
Where,
Q = Heat load, kW
Uo= Overall coefficient, W/m2.K
A = Heat transfer area, m2
Tm =True temperature differences

A=
Tm
4460
A=
850 116.10
3-34
Area =45.204 m2 (obtained from ASPEN)
3.2.4.6 Layout and tube size
Using a split-ring floating head exchanger for efficiency and ease of cleaning, plain
carbon steel can be used for the shell and tubes as long as neither fluid is corrosive,
and the operating pressure is not high. Standard diameters for tubes are given as
shown in Table 3.4 below. Use 19.05 mm (3/4 inch) outside diameter, 14.83 mm
inside diameter, 5 m long tubes on a triangular 23.81 mm pitch (pitch/diameter =
1.25).
Table 3.4: Properties and dimension of tube

Properties Dimension
Length, L 5m
Outside diameter, Do 19.05 mm
Inside Diameter, Di 14.83 mm
Tube Pitch, Pt 1.25 Do
1.25 (19.05mm) = 23.81 mm
Tube Arrangement Triangular pattern
3.2.4.7 Number of tubes
Area of one tube (neglecting thickness of tube sheets)

19.05103 5 0.2992 m 2
Number of tubes, Nt = 45.204/0.2992 = 151.08 152 tubes

So, for 2 passes, tubes per pass, Np =76 tubes
2
Tube cross-sectional area =
4
(14.83 X103 )2
=
4
= 0.0001727 m2
Area per pass = Number tubes per pass, Np x Tube cross-sectional

area
= 76 0.0001727 = 0.01312 m2
3-35
13990.91 1 3
Volumetric flowrate = x x
3600 408.627
= 9.51078x10-3 m3/s
9.51078x103
Tube side velocity,UT = = 0.74 m/s
0.01312
3.2.4.8 Bundle and shell diameter
From Table 12.4, from Coulson & Richardson sixth edition handbook, for two tube
passes and triangular pitch, K1 = 0.249, n1 = 2.207,
1/1
= x [1]
152 1/2.207
= 19.05 x [0.249]
=0.364 m
For a pull-through floating-heat exchanger, the typical shell clearance from Figure 3.3
(Coulson & Richardson, 4th Edition Handbook) is 89 mm, so the shell inside diameter,
Ds is:
3-36
Figure 3.3: Shell bundle clearance (Coulson & Richardson, 4th Edition Handbook)
Ds = 0.089 m +0.364 m
Ds = 0.454 m
Baffle spacing = Ds / 5
= 0.454/5
=0.0908 m

As = x Ds x Bs

23.8119.05
= x 0.454 x 0.0908
23.81
= 8.24 x 10-3 m2
1.10
Equivalent shell diameter, de = ( 2 0.917 2 )
1.10
= 19.05 (23.812 0.917 (19.052 )
= 13.52
14968.13 1 3
Volumetric flow rate on shell side, Vs =
x 3600 x 2.3775
= 1.7488 m3/s
3-37
1.7488 3 /
Therefore, shell side velocity, Us = = 29.45 m/s
8.24 103
3.2.4.9 Tube-side heat transfer coefficient
Reynoldss number, Re,

Re =

(408.63)(28.17)(14.83103 )
=
0.224103
=762096.95
From the result obtained, the flow is turbulent.
Prandtls number, Pr

Pr =

Where,
Fluid specific heat capacity, Cp = 92.050 kJ/kg.K
Fluid viscosity, = 0.224x10-3 kg/m.s
Fluid thermal conductivity, kf = 0.1032 W/m.K
92.05 (0.224103 )
Pr =
0.1032
=0.199
5
= = 337.15
0.01483
By using the calculated Reynolds number, the value of jh is determined from the
Figure 3.4 below. From the figure, the value of jh obtained is 2.9 x 10-2.
3-38
Figure 3.4: Heat Transfer Factor for Tube Side
Hence, heat transfer coefficient for tube side is determined as below,
0.33
hs =

(2.9 x 10 ) 762096.95 0.1990.33 0.1032
2
hs =
0.01483
=9248.24 W/m2.oc
3.2.4.10 Overall heat transfer coefficient,Uo
For heat exchanger across a typical heat-exchanger tube, the relationship between
the overall coefficient and the individual coefficients which are the reciprocals of the
individual resistances is given by:

1 1 1 ln( ) 1 1

= + + [ ( + )]
2
Where:
Uo = overall coefficient based on the outside area of the tube, W/m2.C
h0 = outside fluid film coefficient, W/m2.C
hi = inside fluid film coefficient, W/m2.C
hod = outside dirt coefficient (fouling factor), W/m2.C
hid = inside dirt coefficient, W/m2.C
kw = thermal conductivity of the tube wall material, W/m2.C
di = tube inside diameter, m
do = tube outside diameter, m
3-39

1 1 1 ln( ) 1 1

= + + [ ( + )]
2
The table below illustrated the typical value for fouling factors coefficients depending
on the types of the fluid used. From this Table 3.5, the value of hod and hid is
determined. The type of fluids used in hot stream is organic fluid, while the cool
stream to cool down the temperature is an outlet stream from flash which is also
organic fluid. The value obtained from the table is:
Table 3.5: Fouling factors (coefficient)
hid = 5000 W/m2.C

hod= 5000 W/m2.C
3-40
3.2.4.11 Pressure drop
Tube side equation for pressure drop calculation:
14 2
P = Np[8 jf ( ) (

) + 2.5] (
2
)
Where,
Np = number of tube side passes (2)
L = length of tube (m)
Di = tube inside diameter (m)
U = tube side velocity m/s
density fluid in tube side kg/m3
= viscosity in tube Ns/m2

=assume to be same with viscosity in tube side Ns/m2
Jf =Tube side friction factor = 0.0024
14
5 2.2 104 4080.742
P = 2[8 (0.0024) ( )(
0.01483 2.2 104
) + 2.5] (
2
)
P = 2004.83 Pa = 2.004 kPa
3.2.5 Mechanical Design of Heat Exchanger
The mechanical design of a shell and tube heat exchanger provides information on
items such as shell thickness, flange thickness, etc. The popularity of shell and tube
exchangers has resulted in a standard nomenclature being developed for their
designation and use by the Tubular Exchanger Manufactures Association
(TEMA). Figure 3.5 illustrates the full TEMA nomenclature.
3-41
Figure 3.5: TEMA nomenclature (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association,
1988)
3.2.5.1 Design Pressure and Design Temperature

The design pressure needs to be taken 5% to 10% higher from the actual working
pressure. This is because of safety measure which to avoid spurious operation. The
taken safety factor is 10% higher. The design temperature needs to be calculated as
it related with design stress value. The design temperature needs to be taken as the
maximum working temperature of materials.
Design pressure calculation:
Operating pressure for shell side = 3 atm

Design Pressure, Ps = 3 atm *1.1 = 3.3 atm
Operating pressure for tube side = 5 atm
Design Pressure, Pt = 5 atm *1.1 = 5.5 atm
Design temperature calculation:
Operating temperature for shell side = 465oC
3-42
Design Temperature, Tt = 465*1.1 = 511 oC
Adding 2oC to cover uncertainties in temperature prediction, the design temperature

is:
511 oC+2oC = 513oC
Operating temperature for tube side = 190oC

Design Temperature, Tt = 190*1.1 = 209oC
Adding 2oC to cover uncertainties in temperature prediction, the design temperature

is:
209oC+2oC = 211oC
Table 3.6: Design pressure and design temperature of shell and tube
Shell Tube
Operating 10% Safety Operating 10% Safety factor
factor
Pressure 3 atm 3.3 atm 5 atm 5.5 atm
Temperature 465oc 511oc+ 2oc 190oc 209oc + 2oc
=513oc = 211oc
3.2.6 Material of Construction
Commonly, pressure vessels are constructed from plain carbon steel, low and
high alloy steels, other alloys, clad plate and reinforced plastics. Selection of suitable
material is important to ensure the compatibility of the material with the process.
There are few factors should be considered in selecting the material of construction
for heat exchanger:
1. Corrosion Resistance
3-43
2. Operating Conditions
3. Economic Feasibility
4. Suitability for Fabrication
5. Process Safety
Depending on the process condition with high inlet temperature on the tube side, the
tendency of corrosive to occur is high although always happen in long term since the
fluid properties is not corrosive. Considering the corrosion will occur in a long term, it
is important for both tube and shell to be constructed with a material that is highly
corrosive resistance materials. As a result, the selection of carbon steel material is
selected for both shell and tube since the operating temperature is not too high and
standard carbon steel can encounter the temperature up to 900F.
3-44
3.2.7 Welded Joint Efficiency
According to Sinnott, the strength of a welded joint are depending on the type of joint
and the quality of the welding. The ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1 describes four
categories (Part UW-3):
a. Longitudinal or spiral welds in the main shell, necks or nozzle or circumferential

welds connecting hemispherical heads to the main shell, necks or nozzle.
b. Circumferential welds in the main shell, necks or nozzle or connecting a formed

head other than hemispherical.
c. Welds connecting flanges, tube sheets or flat heads to the main shell, a formed
head, neck or nozzle.
d. Welds connecting communicating chambers or nozzles to the main shell, to ehads

or to necks.
The strength of a welded joint is directly proportional with the type of joint and also
the quality of the welding. Radiography and visual testing used to test the soundness
of welds. Welded joint factor (J) used in the design ware determine on the type of joint
and also by the amount of radiography required. The welded joint factor J, shall be
taken as 1 as it implies that the joint is actually strong as the virgin steel plate.
Corrosion allowance been define as the additional thickness off metal that is added
in order to allow material lost. Source of material lost is corrosion, erosion or scaling.
These allowances are based on the experience of construction materials under
similar condition. Minimum allowance of 2.0 mm is used by carbon and lowalloy
steel where corrosion is not severe. 4.0 mm corrosion allowance should be used if
there is a severe corrosion condition. In this design, 2.0 mm was used as corrosion
allowance.
3.2.8 Design Stress
In mechanical design, it is necessary to decide a value for the maximum allowable

stress (nominal design strength) that is suitable with the construction material. The
basis for establishing the maximum allowable stress values in the ASME BPV Code
is given in ASME BPV Code Sec. II Part D (Figure 3.6). At temperature where creep
3-45
and stress rupture strength does not rule the selection of stresses; the maximum
allowable stress is the lowest of:
1. The specified minimum tensile strength at room temperature divided by 3.5
2. The tensile strength at temperature divided by 3.5
3. The specified minimum yield strength at room temperature divided by 1.5
4. The yield strength at temperature divided by 1.5
At temperature where creep and stress rupture strength rule, the maximum allowable
stress is the lowest of:
1. The average stress to produce a creep rate of 0.01%/1000 h
2. F the average stress to cause rupture at the end of 100,000 h, where F0.67 for
temperatures below 15008F (8158C) (see the code for higher temperatures).
3. 0.8 the minimum stress to cause rupture after 100,000 h.
Figure 3.6: Typical Maximum Allowable Stresses for Plate under ASME BPV Code
Sec VII D.1
3-46
3.2.8.1 Tube Side
Construction Material : Carbon Steel
Design Temperature : 211 C
Allowable Stress, S : 102 N/mm2
Tensile Strength : 360 N/mm2
3.2.8.2 Shell Side

Construction Material : Killed Carbon Steel
Design Temperature : 513 C
Allowable Stress, S : 40.68 N/mm2
Tensile Strength : 360 N/mm2
3.2.9 Minimum Practical Wall Thickness for Shell Side
There will be a minimum wall thickness required to ensure that the vessel can
sufficiently rigid to withstand its own weight and any incidental loads. Using the shell
side internal diameter, Ds = 0.454 m = 454 mm. The minimum thickness required to
resists internal pressure can be determined by:

Minimum thickness, e =
2
Where:
Pi = internal pressure =3.3 atm= 0.334 N/mm2
Di = Ds = shell diameter = 454 mm
E = Joint factor = 1
S = Design stress of shell side
Determination of minimum wall thickness:
0.3343 454
e=
240.6810.3343
e = 1.873 mm
Adding the corrosion allowance of 2 mm,

e = 1.873 mm + 2 mm
e = 3.873 mm
3-47
The minimum wall thickness obtained for shell diameter of 454 mm is 1.873 mm. With
the corrosion allowance consideration of 2 mm, the minimum wall thickness is 3.873
mm which are adequate for industrial application.
3.2.10 Minimum Thickness for Cylindrical Vessel for Tube Side
The minimum thickness required to resists internal pressure can be determined by:

Minimum thickness, e =
2
Where:
Pi = internal pressure =5.5 atm= 0.557 N/mm2
Di = tube diameter = 14.83 mm
E = Joint factor = 1
S = Design stress of shell side
Determination of minimum wall thickness:
0.557 14.83
e=
2 102 10.557
e = 0.0406 mm
Minimum thickness for tube side with corrosion allowance, adding the corrosion
allowance of 2 mm,
e = 0.0406 + 2 mm
e = 2.0406 mm
3-48
3.2.11 Head and Closure
The ends of a cylindrical vessel are closed by heads of various shapes. The common
types used are as shown in Figure 3.7 below:
1. Flat plates or formed flat heads
2. Hemispherical heads
3. Ellipsoidal heads
4. Torispherical heads
Figure 3.7: Type of head; ellipsoidal, torispherical and hemispherical.
3.2.11.1 Hemispherical heads

t=
40.4
Where,
Pi = design pressure
Di = internal diameter
J = welded joint efficiency
S = maximum allowable stress
Inserting the value into the equation,

0.334 (0.454103 )
t=
440.6810.40.334
= 0.933 mm
3-49
3.2.11.2 Ellipsoidal heads

t=
20.2
Where,
Di = internal diameter
J = welded-joint efficiency
0.334 (0.454103 )
t=
240.6810.20.334
=1.86 mm
3.2.11.3 Torispherical heads

0.885
t=
0.1
Where,
Rc = crown radius
E = welded-joint efficiency = 1
The crown radius, Rc = Di = 454 mm, considering the knuckle radius = 6% hence,
Rc = 0.027 m
0.885 0.334 (0.454103 )

t=
(40.681)(0.10.334)
= 3.302 mm
From the calculation obtained, torispherical head would probably be the most
economical. Take as same thickness as wall thickness, 3.873 mm.
3-50
3.2.11.4 Channel Cover Thickness
The minimum thickness required is given by:

t= CpDe

Where:
Cp = A design constant, depend on the edge constraint
= 0.55 (for plates welded to the end of the shell with a fillet weld, angle of fillet 45o)
De = Nominal plate diameter
S = Design stress
0.334
t= (0.55)(0.454x103)
40.68
= 22.62 mm
=22.62 mm+ 2 mm (corrosion allowance)
= 24.62 mm
3.2.12 Dead Weight Load
The major sources of dead weight loads are:
1. The vessel shell
2. The vessel fittings: manholes and nozzles
3. Internal fittings: plates (plus the fluid on the plates); heating and cooling coils
4. External fittings: ladders, platforms and piping
5. Auxiliary equipment that is not self-supported; condensers, agitators
6. Insulation
7. The weight of liquid to fill the vessel. The vessel will be filled with water for the
hydraulic pressure test; and may fill with process liquid due to miss-operation.
3-51
3.2.12.1 Dead Weight of Vessel
For preliminary calculation, the approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel with uniform
wall thickness can be estimated from the following equation:
Wv = ( + 0.8) 103
Where:
Wv = total weight of the shell, excluding internal fittings, such as plates, N
Cw = a factor to account for the weight of nozzles, manholes, internal support, etc;
which can be taken as
= 1.08 for vessels with only a few internal fittings
= 1.15 for distillation column, or similar vessels, with several manways and
with plate support rings, or equivalent fittings
Hv = height, or length, between tangent lines (length of the cylindrical section)
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2
t = wall thickness
m = density of vessel material ; for carbon steel =7850 kg/m3
Dm = mean diameter of vessel = (Di + t x10-3),m
Taking Cv =1.08 and Dm = (454 mm + 3.873 mm) x10-3= 0.4578 m, hence,
Wv = 1.08 7850 0.4578 9.81 ( 5 + 0.80.4578) (3.873 103 )

= 2483.14 N
3.2.12.2 Weight of Tubes
The weight contributes by tube is calculated by:

Wt Nt do2 di2mgL
Where:
Wt = weight of tubes,
Nt = number of tubes ,N = 152 tubes
do = outside tube diameter = 0.019m
di = inside tube diameter = 0.015m
m= density of tube material =7850 kg/m3
3-52
g = gravity acceleration = 9.81 m/s2
L = length of tube = 5m
Therefore,
Wt 152 0.0192 0.0152 7850 x 9.81 x 5
= 25005.8 N
3.2.12.3 Weight of Insulation
To calculate the weight of insulation:

Wi = Vg
Properties of insulation
Type of material : Mineral wool
Thickness, r : 75 mm = 0.075 m
Added thickness, r1 : 20 mm = 0.020 m
Density of insulator (mineral wool) : 130 kg/m3
Firstly, approximate the volume of insulation:
V = Ds L thickness of insulation
= 0.454 5 0.075 = 0.535 m3
Then, the weight of insulator is,
Wi = Vg
=0.535 x 130 x 9.81
= 682 N
Thus, the total weight of heat exchanger is:
Wt = W v + W t +W i
= 2483.14 N + 25005.8 N + 682N
= 28170.94 N = 28.17 kN
With a 10% of allowance,

W 28170.94 N 10%
= 2817.09 N
3-53
3.2.13 Bolted Flanged Joints
Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels for manhole
covers and for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required. Flanges are
also used on the vessel body, when it is necessary to divide the vessel into sections
for transport or maintenance and to connect pipes to other equipment such as pumps
and valves. Flanged joints are essential for maintenance while pipework are normally
be welded to reduce the costs. Flanges range in various sizes from a few millimetres
diameter for small pipe to several metres diameter for those used as body or head
flanges on vessels.
3.2.13.1 Types and Selection of Flanges
Several different types of flange used in numerous applications as shown in Figure

3.8. The principal types used in the process industries are:
1. Welding-neck flanges
2. Slip-on flanges, hub and plate types
3. Lap-joint flange
4. Screwed flanges
5. Blank, or blind, flanges
Figure 3.8: Flange type (a) Welding-neck (b) Slip-on (c) Lap-joint (d) Screwed
The welding neck flange type, which has a tapered hub with a smooth stress transition
and accessibility for full nondestructive examination, provides the highest integrity of
3-54
the three types. Furthermore, it is suitable for extreme conditions as subjected to
temperature, shear and vibration loads.
Figure 3.9: Weld neck flange
3.2.14 Vessel Support

There are two types of vessel support which are saddle and skirts. The vessel
size, shape, and weight of the vessel, design pressure and temperature, arrangement
and vessel location, internal and external fitting are the factors that determining the
methods on supporting the designing. The function of vessel support is to carry or to
hold the weight of the vessel, contents and also to hold any of superimposed loads.
Saddle type of vessel support was chosen because this exchanger is in horizontal
arrangement. This saddle can be constructed from brick, concrete, or fabricated from
steel plate. It been stated that the contact angle of this saddle vessel must not be less
than 120oC and must not been greater than 160oC
3-55
Figure 3.10: Saddle support
3-56
3.3 Absorption Column, T-102
The typical gas-liquid contacting operations include distillation, absorption, stripping,
leaching and humidification. Distillation and absorption are two most widely used
mass transfer processes in chemical industries. Design of plate column for absorption
and distillation involves many common steps of calculation such as determination of
number of theoretical plates, column diameter and plate hydraulic design. In
absorption process, a soluble component is absorbed in a liquid (called absorbent)
from a gaseous mixture. The gas and liquid streams leaving the tray are in equilibrium
under the ideal condition. Additional vapor phase is generated by the vaporization of
more volatile components (called stripping) and by condensation of relatively less
volatile components (called absorption) add to the liquid phase. Figure 8.17 below
shows the schematic inlet and outlet for the absorption column.
Figure 3.17: Schematic diagram of absorption column
3-57
3.3.1 Chemical Design for Absorption Column, T-102
Chemical design of absorption column require a few objectives to be considered. The

objectives are to find:
Column type
Number of trays
Column diameter
Column height
Liquid flow pattern
Provisional plate design
Weir design
Plate pressure drop
Downcomer residence time
In this absorption process, acetone (A) is diffused through stagnant, non-diffusing of
water (B). As the acetone gas diffuse into water and known as bottom product (LN
stream), the by-product of hydrogen will separate from the acetone and flowing out
as top product (V1 stream). The column is operate at 50OC and 3 atm.
V1
LO
VN+1
LN
3-58
Some of the information required for further calculation such as composition of
components for each stream are retrieved from the AspenPlus simulation model
result. Tables 3.11 below list all the required value for each stream.
Table 3.11: Summary of flow rate and composition for each stream
Component Flow rate Mole fraction

(kmol/hr)
Lo (Stream 16)
IPA 0 0
Acetone 2.47X10-5 1.505x10-7
H2O 163.9744 0.999
H2 0 0
DMSO 0.11111103 6.765x10-4
Total 164.0856 1

(kmol/hr)
VN+1 (Stream 7)
IPA 0.0810568 3.588x10-4
Acetone 9.069404 0.0402
H2O 0.5586704 2.476x10-3
H2 216.0744 0.957
DMSO 5.42X10-9 2.4x10-11
Total 225.7835 1
(kmol/hr)
LN (Stream 8) IPA 0.0808146 4.898x10-4

Acetone 6.880635 0.0417
H2O 157.8617 0.9569
H2 0.0448868 2.721x10-4
DMSO 0.1111033 6.734x10-4
Total 164.9791 1

(kmol/hr)
V1 (Stream H2)
IPA 0.000242204 1.0769x10-6
Acetone 2.188794 9.733x10-3
H2O 6.671419 0.0297
H2 216.0295 0.9606
DMSO 7.03x10-6 3.126x10-8
Total 224.89 1
3-59
3.3.1.1 Selection of column
Selection of column internals require an understanding the separation purpose, the

required range of vapor and liquid flows and the physical properties of the vapor and
liquid throughout the column. System characteristics that affect the design and
construction of the column internals, including the constraints such as maximum
temperature, fouling tendencies and ongoing chemical reaction, must be carefully
evaluated.
Generally, column internals can be trays or packing. Both column operates at different
fundamental and provide various advantages and disadvantages. Tray column
generally provide holdup for a portion of liquid through which vapor flows to
accomplish the vapor-liquid mass transfer liquid required for separation. With a
conventional crossflow tray, the liquid travel horizontally across the tray and into a
vertical downcomer while the vapor passes up through holes in the tray and across
the flow of liquid. Whereas, packed column offers continuous contact without full
disengagement of the vapor and liquid between the top and bottom of the packed.
Tables 3.12 below explain the advantages and disadvantages that need to be
considered in column selection.
Table 3.12: Advantages and disadvantages comparison
Tray column Packed column
Advantages The liquid/vapor Low pressure drop

contact in the cross required.
flow of plate columns is
more effective than the Can handle foaming
countercurrent flow in systems.
packed columns.
Low capital, operating,
Can handle high or low and maintenance cost.
liquid flow rates cost
effectively. Can handle corrosive
materials due to
Easily customized to corrosion-resistant
specific requirements packing.
such as operations
requiring much heat.
3-60
Disadvantages Higher pressure drops Cannot handle
than packed columns. extremely high or low
flow rates.
Plugging and fouling
may occur. Cannot handle liquids
with high viscosities.
Since this absorption process handling non-foaming system and non-corrosive

materials, the effectiveness of the column is take into consideration. Tray column
offers an efficient contact between liquid and vapor in the cross flow system. It also
able to handle high or low liquid flow rate throughout the process. In fact, it is
acceptable if the cost is slightly higher than packed column despite it can contribute
to high efficiency of the process. Therefore, tray column has been considered in the
design.
3.3.1.2 Calculation of Relative Molecular Mass (RMM) and stream density
Calculation of stream density involved and relative molecular mass (RMM) calculated
are shown in the Table 3.13 and Table 3.14 below.
Table 3.13: The properties for each stream
Component MW Mole Mole Mole Mole Density

(kg/kmol) fraction fraction fraction fraction (x), (kg/m3)
(x), Lo (x), VN+1 (x), V1 LN
IPA 60.1 0 3.588x10-4 4.898x10-4 1.0769x10-6 786
Acetone 58.08 1.505x10-7 0.0402 0.0417 9.733x10-3 791
H2O 18.02 0.999 2.476x10-3 0.9569 0.0297 988
H2 2.016 0 0.957 2.721x10-4 0.9606 0.0899
DMSO 78.13 6.765x10-4 2.4x10-11 6.734x10-4 3.126x10-8 1100
Total 1 1 1 1
RMM can be calculated with the equation as below:
RMM = (Component mole fraction x Molecular weight)
3-61
Table 8.14: Relative molecular mass (RMM) for each stream
Component RMM, Lo RMM, VN+1 RMM, V1 RMM, LN

(top) (bottom)
IPA 0 0.022 6.413x10-5 0.029
Acetone 8.741x10-6 2.323 0.565 2.439
H2O 18.002 0.045 0.523 17.245
H2 0 1.929 1.937 5.299x10-4
DMSO 0.053 1.875x10-9 2.442x10-6 0.053
Total 18.056 4.319 3.025 19.768
Therefore,
RMM, top = 3.025 kg/kmol
RMM, bottom = 19.768 kg/kmol
By using P = 100 kPa as basis, the liquid and vapor density are calculated by using
equation below:
Liquid density, l (kg/m3) = (x)()
273
Vapor density, v (kg/m3) = ( )( )(100 )
22.4
The properties required for the calculation are shown as Table 3.15 below:
Table 3.15: Properties required for the calculation
Temperature, Pressure,
(K) (kPa)
V1, top 309.305 202.65
LN, bottom 303.813 303.975
The liquid density and vapor density for bottom and top product is calculated as
shown in Table 3.16 below:
3-62
Table 3.16: The liquid density and vapor density for bottom and top product
LN, bottom V1, top

Component
(xt x ) kg/m3 (xb x ) kg/m3
IPA 0.386 8.387x10-4
Acetone 33.222 7.699
H2O 945.516 28.652
H2 2.452x10-5 0.0864
DMSO 0.740 3.439x10-5
Total 979.864 36.438
Therefore,
Liquid density for stream V1, top = 36.438 kg/m3
Liquid density for stream LN, bottom = 979.864 kg/m3
To find vapor density, therefore,
3.025 273 202.65

Vapor density for stream V1, top, vt = ( ) (309.975) ( ) = 0.241 kg/m3
22.4 100
19.768 273 303.975

Vapor density for stream LN, bottom, vb = ( ) (303.813) ( ) = 2.411
22.4 100
kg/m3
3.3.1.3 Optimum vapour (V) and liquid (L) flow rate
The vapor (V) and liquid (L) flow rate is determined by using the Equation 10.3-4 [6]
as shown below:
+1 1
( ) + ( ) = ( ) + ( )
1 1 +1 1 1 1
Hence, the required component composition are retrieved from the AspenPlus
simulation model as shown below:
3-63
Table 3.17: Required component composition are retrieved from the AspenPlus
simulation
Component (A) Composition
Xo at stream Lo 1.505x10-7
YN+1 at stream VN+1 0.04
XN at stream LN 0.042
Y1 at stream V1 9.734x10-3
The vapor (V) flow rate is calculated by using Equation 10.3-6 [6]:
= 1(1 +1 )
V = (224.889)(1 0.04) = 215.893 kmol/hr
The value of Xo is a maximum at XN,max when L is a minimum as shown below:
+1 , 1
( ) + ( ) = ( ) + ( )
1 1 +1 1 , 1 1
The value XN,max is calculated by using equation below:
+1
, max =

To find slope of equilibrium line, m = (YN+1 Y1) / (XN XO)
m = 0.721
Hence, it shows y = 0.721x
0.04
, max =
0.721
= 0.055
To calculate L min,
1.50510 7 0.04
( ) + 215.893 ( )
1 1.50510 7 1 0.04
0.055 9.73410 7
= ( ) + 215.893 ( )
1 0.055 1 9.73410 7
3-64
L min = 118.293 kmol/hr
For absorption, the optimum liquid (L) flow rate is usually taken with 1.5 times Lmin
[8]. Thus,
L = 1.5 x Lmin
L = 1.5 x 118.298
L = 177.439 kmol/hr
3.3.1.4 Number of trays
Analytical equation can be implemented in order to calculate theoretical number of

trays, N in absorption column. For transfer of the solute from vapor phase to liquid
phase, Equation 10.6-7 [6] is used.
+1 1 1
ln ( 1 (1 () + ))
=
ln
Value of geometric average, A is calculate by using:
= 1
164.98
To find = = = 1.013
+1 0.721 225.783
164.085
To find 1 = = = 1.017
1 0.721 224.889
= (1.013)(1.017)
A = 1.015
Hence, to find N,
3-65
0.04 (0.721)(1.50510 7) 1 1
ln ( (1 ( )+ ))
(9.73410 3) (0.721)(1.50510 7) 1.015 1.015
=
ln 1.015
N = 2.963 = 3 trays
In actual practice, the efficiency of the tray will not be 100%. This means more number
of trays is needed for more efficient separation. Thus, overall tray efficiency is used
to determine the efficiency of the absorption in this design. Column efficiency is
calculated by using the value retrieved from the AspenPlus simulation model by
considering the feed flow rate of acetone and product flow rate of acetone for the
absorption column.

6.881
= = 100%

9.069

Eo = 75.87%
By considering 1.5 safety margin, the new column efficiency is,
0.759
= 100%
1.5
Eo = 50.6%
The information on the tray efficiency is used to calculate the number of actual trays
in the absorption column.
3
0.506 =

N,act = 5.963 = 6 trays
3-66
3.3.1.5 Column sizing
The column sizing is carried at the tray where the anticipated column loading is the
highest and lowest for each section. However, the vapor flow rates have the highest
impact on tower diameter. The tray spacing determines the column height. Lower tray
spacing is desirable to minimize construction cost by checking against the column
performance criteria [7].
The principal factor that determines the column diameter is the vapor flow rate. The
equation which is based on the well-known Souders and Brown equation, can be
used to estimate the maximum allowable superficial vapor velocity (Uv), and hence
the column area and diameter [3].
1/2
= (0.171 2 + 0.27 2 0.047) [ ]

Where:
= maximum allowable vapour velocity based on column cross sectional area, m/s
= tray spacing, m
Therefore, for initial calculation, the tray spacing is assume as 600 mm for column
diameter of 1 to 3 m [7].
979.864 2.41 1/2

= (0.171(0.62 2
) + 0.27(0.6 ) 0.047) [ ]
2.41
Uv = 1.076 m/s
Recall the vapor (V) and liquid (L) flow rate for further calculation,
L = 177.439 kmol/hr = 0.0493 kmol/s = 3193.902 kg/hr = 0.887 kg/s
V = 215.893 kmol/hr = 0.0493 kmol/s = 12521.641 kg/hr = 3.478 kg/s
3-67
3.3.1.5.1 Maximum volumetric flow rate, Qmax
Maximum volumetric flow rate can be calculated by using equation below:
()
=

For top section,
0.059(3.025)
= = 0.741 /
0.241
For bottom section,
0.059(19.768)
= = 0.484 /
2.411
3.3.1.5.2 Flooding velocity, Uf
Excessive liquid buildup inside the column leads to column flooding condition.
The nature of flooding depends on the column operating pressure and the
liquid to vapor flow ratio. The column flooding conditions sets the upper limit
of vapor velocity for steady operation. Thus, flooding velocity, Uf can be
calculated by using equation below [3]:
Where:
Uf = ooding vapour velocity, m/s, based on the net column cross-sectional

area, An
K1 = a constant obtained from Figure 3.18
Based on the Figure 3.18 below, the liquid-vapour ow factor FLV is given by:
Where:
3-68
L = liquid mass ow-rate, kg/s
V = vapor mass ow-rate, kg/s
Figure 3.18: Flooding velocity
To calculate LFV,
For top section,
0.887 0.241
= = 0.0207
3.478 36.438
Hence, K = 0.12
For bottom section,
0.887 2.411
= 3.478 978.864 = 0.0127
Hence, K = 0.11
To calculate Uf,
3-69
For top section,
36.4380.241
= 0.12 = 1.471 m/s
0.241
For bottom section,
979.8642.411
= 0.11 = 2.215 m/s
2.411
3.3.1.5.3 Net area and cross-sectional area, Ac required
Net area for the column can be calculated by using equation below:
,
=
,
For top section,
0.741
= = 0.504 m2
1.471
For bottom section,
0.484
= = 0.219 m2
2.215
Calculate cross-sectional area, Ac by assuming 12% of downcomer area of

total cross sectional area.
For top section,
0.504
= = 0.577 m2
0.88
For bottom section,
0.219
= = 0.249 m2
0.88
3-70
Therefore, column diameter for top and bottom section can be calculated by
using the equation below. The higher diameter is selected as the column
diameter for the uniformity between the sections.
To calculate column diameter, Dc,
4
=

For top section,
40.577
= = 0.857 m

For bottom section,
40.249
= = 0.563 m

Thus, the column diameter, Dc for this design is estimate as 0.857 m.
As the column diameter, Dc is 0.857 < 1 m, the selection of the tray spacing will be
changed by following table below. Hence, the considered tray spacing in this design
is 500 mm.
Table 3.18: Suggested tray spacing with column diameter [1]
Tower diameter, m Tray spacing, mm
1 or less 500 (150 is minimum)

1-3 600
3-4 750
4-6 900
Thus, to find column height,
, =
3-71
m = 0.5 m x 6 trays
m=3m
3.3.1.6 Liquid flow pattern
The choice of flow type (reverse, single pass or multiple pass) will depend on the
liquid ow-rate and column diameter. An initial selection can be made using Figure
3.19 below [3].
Figure 3.19: Selection of liquid flow arrangement
To calculate Qmax liquid,
(, )
=

(0.059)(3.025)
= = 4.9 x 10-3 m3/s
36.438
By using Qmax = 4.9 x 10-3 m3/s and Dc = 0.9 m, from the Figure 3.5.3, the cross-
flow single pass is obtained.
3-72
3.3.1.7 Provisional trays design
The definition of tray areas and its nomenclature illustrated in Figures 3.20 and 3.21
are followed throughout the design procedure [2].
Total tower cross-section area (): The empty tower inside cross-sectional area
without trays or downspouts.
Net area (): The total tower cross-sectional area () minus the area at the top of
the downcomer (). The net area symbolizes the smallest area available for vapor
flow in the inter-tray spacing.
Bubbling area or active area (): The total tower cross-sectional area minus sum of
the downcomer top area () and downcomer seal area () and any other non-
perforated areas on the tray. The bubbling area represents the area available for
vapor flow just above the tray floor.
Hole area (): The total area of the perforations on the tray. The hole area is the
smallest area available for vapor/gas passage.
Figure 3.20: Schematic of a tray operating in the froth regime [2]
3-73
Figure 3.21: Typical cross-flow plate [3]
Column diameter, Dc = 0.857 m
Column area, Ac = 0.557 m2
Downcomer area, Ad with assumption of 12% = 0.12 x 0.557 m2 = 0.0692 m2
Net area, AN = Ac Ad = 0.557 0.0692 = 0.5078 m2
Active area, AA = Ac 2Ad = 0.557 2(0.0692) = 0.439 m2
Hole area, AH with assumption of 10% of AA = 0.1 x 0.439 = 0.0439 m2
3.3.1.8 Weir design
The height of the weir determines the volume of liquid on the plate and is an important
factor in determining the plate efciency. A high weir will increase the plate efciency
but at the expense of a higher plate pressure drop.
3.3.1.8.1 Weir length, Iw
For columns operating above atmospheric pressure, since this system

operates at 3 atm, the weir height will normally be between 40 mm to 90 mm,
which are 40 to 50 mm is recommended [3].
3-74
Hence, weir height, hw = 50 mm
For hole diameter, the hole sizes used vary from 2.5 to 12 mm; 5 mm is
recommended [3][7]. The bigger sizes are susceptible to weeping.
Hence, hole diameter, dh = 5 mm
For tray thickness, it typically varies from 0.2 to 1.2 times of the hole diameter
and should be verified by checking the allowable plate pressure drop [7].
Hence, tray thickness, tt = 1.2 x 5 = 6 mm
In order to calculate weir height, it can be estimated using the Francis weir as written
below:
2/3

= 750 [ ]

Where:
lw = weir length, m
how = weir crest, mm liquid
Lw = liquid ow-rate, kg/s
3-75
The relationship between weir length and downcomer area is given in Figure 3.22 [3]
Figure 3.22: Relation between downcomer area and weir length
To calculate Iw based on Figure 8.4,
0.0692
= 100% = 12% = = 0.77
0.577 0.857
Therefore, Iw = 0.660 m
3.3.1.8.2 Number of holes per tray
Area of one hole,
2 ()0.0052
1 = = = 1.963105 m2
4 4
Number of holes per tray,
0.0439
= = = 2236.37 = 2237 holes per tray
1 1.963105
3-76
3.3.1.9 Evaluation of the design
Weeping occurs at low vapor flow rates. The upward vapor flow through the plate
perforations prevents the liquid from leaking through the tray perforation. At low vapor
flow rates, liquid start to leak through the perforation, which it called weeping. When
none of the liquid reaches the downcomer at extreme weeping condition at very low
vapor flow rate, it is called dumping. The weeping tendency increases with increasing
fractional hole area and liquid flow rates [7].
3.3.1.9.1 Check weeping
To calculate maximum liquid rate in the column,
0.0493
= ( ) = 3.025 = 0.149 = 0.149 kg/s

To calculate minimum liquid rate in the column, assume 70% of turn-down

ratio,
= 0.7 0.149 = 0.104 kg/s
3.3.1.9.2 Weir liquid crest
The height of liquid crest over the weir, how is estimated using Francis weir
formula as below.
2/3
= 750 [ ]

Where:
Lw = liquid flow rate, kg/s
lw = weir length, m
how = weir crest, mm
3-77
Maximum height liquid crest,
0.149 2/3
, = 750 [ ] = 25.299 mm = 26 mm liquid
(36.438)(0.660)
Minimum height liquid crest,
0.104 2/3
, = 750 [ ] = 19.907 mm = 20 mm
(36.438)(0.660)
The lower limit of the operating range occurs when liquid leakage through the
plate holes becomes excessive. This is known as the weep point. The vapor
velocity at the weep point is the minimum value for stable operation. The hole
area must be chosen so that at the lowest operating rate the vapor ow
velocity is still well above the weep point [3].
Thus, at minimum rate, clear liquid depth is calculated as:
how + hw = 20 mm + 50 mm = 70 mm liquid
3.3.1.9.2 Minimum vapor velocity at weep point, Uh
The purpose to calculate weep point is to know the lower limit of the operating
range occurs when liquid leakage through the plate holes becomes excessive.
Minimum vapor velocity through the holes is calculated based on the holes
area.
[2 0.90(25.4 )]
=
1/2
Where:
Uh = minimum vapor velocity through the holes, m/s
dh = hole diameter, mm
K2 = a constant, depends on the depth of clean liquid on the plate
3-78
From the weep-point correlation Figure 3.23 below [3], K2 = 30.3
Figure 3.23: Weep-point correlation
Therefore,
[30.30.90(25.45)]
= = 7.688 m/s
(2.411)1/2
The minimum operating vapor velocity at weep point, Uh is 7.688 m/s.
3.3.1.10 Plate pressure drop
A simple additive model is normally used to predict the total pressure drop. The total
is taken as the sum of the pressure drop calculated for the ow of vapor through the
dry plate (the dry plate drop hd); the head of clear liquid on the plate (hw and how),
and a term to account for other, minor, sources of pressure loss, the so-called residual
loss hr [3]. The equation used as shown below.
= + ( + ) +
Where:
hd =dry plate pressure drop, mm
how =height of liquid over weir (weir crest), mm
3-79
hw =weir height, mm
hr = residual head, mm
3.3.1.10.1 Dry plate pressure drop
Dry plate pressure drop occurs due to friction within dry short holes. Dry
plate pressure drop, hd can be calculated by using following expression [3].
, 2
= 51 [ ]

Where, the orice coefcient Co is a function of the plate thickness, hole

diameter, and the hole to perforated area ratio. Co can be obtained from
Figure 3.24 below [3]:
Figure 3.24: Discharge coefcient, sieve plates
From Figure 3.24,
3-80
6 0.0439
= = 1.2 = 100% = 10%
5 0.439
Hence, Co = 0.88
To find Uh,max,
, 0.741
, = = = 16.879 /
0.0439
Calculate hd,
16.879 2 0.241
= 51 [ ] = 124.097 mm liquid
0.88 36.438
3.3.1.10.2 Residual head
The residual pressure drop, hr results mainly from the surface tension as the
gas releases from a perforation. Equation below is equivalent to taking the
residual drop as a xed value of 12.5 mm of water [3].
12.5 103 12500

= = = 343.048 mm liquid
36.438
Hence, the total pressure drop per plate,
= 124.097 + 70 + 343.048 = 537.145
3.3.1.11 Design of downcomer
The downcomer area and plate spacing must be such that the level of the liquid and
froth in the downcomer is well below the top of the outlet weir on the plate above. If
the level rises above the outlet weir, flooding in the column may occur. Figure 3.25
below shows the downcomer backup.
3-81
Figure 3.25: Downcomer backup
In terms of clear liquid the downcomer back-up is given by:
= ( + ) + +
Where:
hb = downcomer back-up, measured from plate surface, mm
hdc = head loss in the downcomer, mm
To find hdc, the head loss in the downcomer can be estimated using the equation:
2

= 166 [ ]

Where:
Lwd = liquid ow rate in downcomer, kg/s,
Am = either the downcomer area Ad, or the clearance area under the downcomer
Aap; whichever is the smaller, m2
3-82
To find Am, the clearance area under the downcomer is given by [3]:
Am = Aap = hap x Iw , where Aap < Ad
The value hap is refer to the height of the bottom edge of the apron above the plate.
This height is normally set at 5 to 10 mm below the outlet weir height [3].
hap = hw 10 mm
hap = 50 10 = 40 mm
To find Aap,
Aap = (0.04)(0.66) = 0.0264 m2
Hence, Aap < Ad
To calculate hdc,
2
0.149
= 166 [ ] = 3.983
36.438 0.0264
Hence, the backup in the downcomer,
= 70 + 537.145 + 3.983 = 611.128 = 0.611
3.3.1.12 Downcomer residence time, tr
The residence time, tr must be sufficient to allow in the downcomer for entrained
vapour to disengage from the liquid stream to prevent heavily aerated liquid being
carried under the downcomer. 3 s is recommended for the least residence times [3].
The residence time can be calculated with the following equation below:
Where,
tr = residence time, s
3-83
hbc = clear liquid back-up, m
Lwd = liquid flow rate in downcomer, kg/s
0.0692 0.611 36.438

= = 10.34
0.149
Therefore, 10.34 s > 3 s and it is sufficient.
3.3.1.13 Summary of Chemical Design of Absorption Column
Table 3.19: Summary of Chemical Design of Absorption Column
Parameter Value
Column type Tray

Number of actual trays 6
Column diameter 0.857 m
Column height 3m
Liquid flow pattern Cross flow (single pass)
Column efficiency 50.6%
Tray spacing 0.5 m
Tray thickness 0.006 m
Hole diameter 0.005 m
Hole area 0.0439 m2
Number of hole per plate 2237 units
Downcomer area 0.0692 m2
Net area 0.5078 m2
Active area 0.438 m2
Weir height 0.05 m
Weir length 0.66 m
Trays pressure drop 343.048 mm liquid
Downcomer pressure drop 611.128 mm liquid
Downcomer residence time 10.34 s
3-84
3.3.2 Mechanical Design of Absorption Column, T-102
Several factors need to be considered in the mechanical design of absorption column

such as:
1. Design pressure and temperature
3. Material of construction
4. Maximum allowable stress
5. Welded-joint efficiency
6. Corrosion allowance
7. Wall thicknesses
8. Head and closure selection
9. Analysis of stresses
10. Vessel support
11. Base ring and anchor bolts
In order to complete the mechanical design, several parameter are get from previous
chemical design and also retrieved from AspenPlus simulation model. Those
parameters are listed in Table 3.20 below.
Table 3.20: Column design specification
Parameter Value
Operating temperature, Top 3.04 bar

Operating pressure, Pop 323 K, 122 oF
Internal diameter, Di 0.857 m
Column height, Hc 3m
Column area, Ac 0.557 m2
Number of trays, N 6 trays
3-85
3.3.2.1 Design pressure, Pdesign
The column must be design to ensure it can withstand with the maximum pressure to
which it is to be subjected in operation [1]. It is stated that design pressure in the
column normally must be 5-10% above normal operating pressure for safety factor to
avoid unexpected release from the relieve valve during the process. Hence, API RP
520 has recommended practice sets of 10% margin between the normal operating
pressure and the design pressure.
Pdesign = Poperating + 10% safety factor
Pdesign = 3.04 bar x 1.1
Pdesign = 3.34 bar = 0.334 N/mm2
3.3.2.2 Design temperature, Tdesign
Design temperature is important as the strength of metal decrease with increasing

temperature.
It is stated that by ASME BPV Code, the maximum design temperature at which the
maximum allowable stress is evaluated should be taken as the maximum working
temperature of the material. The minimum design metal temperature (MDMT) should
be taken as the lowest temperature expected in service [1]. Therefore, design
temperature is expected as the same as operating temperature.
Tdesign = Toperating
Tdesign = 323 K
3.3.2.3 Material of Construction
Selection of a suitable material must take into account the suitability of the material
such as cost, strength, ability of temperature and pressure handling and availability
in market. The selected material is carbon steel SA-516. Generally, grade 60, 65 and
70 are usually used in industry. Based on several properties and advantages, carbon
steel SA-516 grade 70 is selected. Table 3.21 shows the comparison of mechanical
properties between these materials.
3-86
Table 3.21: Mechanical properties comparison
SA-516 Grade SA-516 Grade SA-516 Grade

60 65 70
Tensile Strength
415-550 450-585 485-620
(MPa)
Yield Strength
220 240 260
(MPa)
Elongation in
21 19 17
200mm (%)
Elongation in
25 23 21
50mm (%)
Max Thickness
205 205 205
(mm)
Carbon steel SA-516 provides a number of advantages as a pressure vessel material.

In addition to being highly resistant to corrosion, shock, and vibration, it possesses a
high tensile strength in which, making it ideal for demanding vessel applications in a
wide range of industrial processes. It also retains strength at minimal thicknesses,
which reduces the amount of material needed for tank fabrication, thereby lowering
fabrication costs.
3.3.2.4 Maximum allowable stress, S
It is important to decide a value for maximum allowable stress that can be accepted
in the material construction. The allowable stress limit helps to identify the ability of
the column to stand under standard test condition. ASME BPV Code has provide
Appendix A for maximum stress value for ferrous material. Table A.6 and A.7 in the
Appendix A are used to select the maximum allowable stress for carbon steel
material. Table 3.21 below summarized all the required information.
3-87
Table 3.21: Summary of Table A6. And A.7 in Appendix A [1]
Line Nominal Spec. Max. allowable stress (ksi)(multiply by 1000 to

No. composition No obtain psi), for metal temperature (oF), no
exceeding
-20 to 100 150 200
29 Carbon SA- 20.0 20.0 20.0

steel 515
30 Carbon SA- 20.0 20.0 20.0
steel 516
31 Carbon SA- 20.0 - 20.0
steel 671
Hence, the maximum allowable stress, S for carbon steel SA-516 is 20 000 psi, which
equal to 137.896 N/mm2.
3.2.3.5 Welded-joint efficiency, E
Absorption column is built up of performed parts which are cylindrical body, head,
fitting and support that being joined by fusion welding. The quality of the welding
usually checked by visual inspection and non-destructive testing (radiography).
Radiographing is performed on complete weld length, cutting out and remarking any
device. Welded joint strength is depend on the joint type and amount of radiography
required by the design code [1]. The ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1 Part UW describe
the requirement for vessel fabricated by welding. Table 3.22 shows the requirement
of welded material.
Table 3.22: Maximum allowable joint-efficiency [1]
Joint Degree of radiographic

Joint description category examination
Full Spot None
Double-welded butt joint or equivalent A,B,C,D 1.0 0.85 0.70
Single-welded butt joint with backing strip A,B,C,D 0.9 0.8 0.65
Single-welded butt joint without backing strip A,B,C N/A N/A 0.60
Double full fillet lap joint A,B,C N/A N/A 0.55
Single full fillet lap joint with plug welds B,C N/A N/A 0.50
Single full fillet lap joint without plug welds B,C N/A N/A 0.45
3-88
For pressurized component, the preferred joint type is basic weld joint. Any pressure
vessel containing lethal substances such as isopropanol, acetone and hydrogen, it
requires full radiographic testing for all type of butt welds. To ensure the flexibility of
design, double welded butt joint is selected. Whereas, by taking factor as 1.0, it
implies that the joint is equally as strong as the virgin plate. The use of lower joint
efficiency in design can save cost on radiography, but resulting thicker and heavier
vessel which is unfavorable. Thus, the welded-joint efficiency is selected as 1.0.
3.3.2.6 Corrosion allowance
Corrosion allowance is the additional thickness of metal added to allow material lost
by corrosion, erosion or scaling. Corrosion allowance shall be specify for all type of
pressure vessel as stated in ASME BPV Codes Sec. VIII (Part UG-25). For carbon
steel, which severe condition is not expected, a minimum corrosion allowance of 2.0
mm will be used [1]. It is due to carbon steel behavior as it is resistant to corrosion of
the separation process environment which involved hydrogen, isopropyl alcohol and
acetone.
3.3.2.7 Vessel thickness, tv
The equation for vessel thickness is specified by the ASME BPV Code (Sec. VIII D.1
Part UG-27) as stated below.

=
2 1.2
Where:
Pi = internal pressure = 0.334 N/mm2
Di = internal diameter = 857 mm
S = maximum allowable stress = 137.896 N/mm2
(0.334)(857)
= = 1.039 mm
2(137.896)1.2(0.334)
By adding corrosion allowance, tv = 1.038 mm + 2 mm = 3.038 mm
3-89
3.3.2.8 Head and closure selection
For the column head and closure thickness, choice is selected by calculating the
minimum thickness of head type which are hemispherical, torispherical and ellipsoidal
head. The selection is based on the thickness, ability in handling pressure, strength
and cost. The equation involved are stated as in the ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1.
3.3.2.8.1 Hemispherical
Minimum thickness is calculated by using equation below,

=
4 0.4
(0.334)(857)
= = 0.519 mm
2(137.896)(1)0.4(0.334)
By adding corrosion allowance, th = 0.519 mm + 2 mm = 2.519 mm
3.3.2.8.2 Torispherical
0.885
=
0.1
where Rc = Di,
0.885(0.334)(857)
= = 1.837 mm
(137.896)(1)0.1(0.334)
By adding corrosion allowance, tt = 1.837 mm + 2 mm = 3.837 mm
3.3.2.8.3 Ellipsoidal

=
2 0.2
3-90
(0.334)(857)
= = 1.038 mm
2(137.896)(1)0.2(0.334)
By adding corrosion allowance, te = 1.038 mm + 2 mm = 3.038 mm
In term of strength, hemispherical head is the strongest shape and capable of

resisting about twice the pressure of a torispherical head of the same
thickness. In fact, the cost of forming a hemispherical head will, however, be
higher than that for a shallow torispherical head. Hence, it is arguable to be
selected in industry since it involves higher cost [2].
For ellipsoidal, it is usually used for process with pressure above 10 bar. The
shape of the ellipsoidal head is defined by the ratio of the major and minor
axis with standard arrangement on vessels is the 2:1 elliptical head. This will
have a depth of head which is a quarter of the vessels internal diameter. Due
to shallow dished shape, the forming cost is reduced [2]. However, in this
design, the head thickness is higher than wall thickness and make the column
unstable. Hence, ellipsoidal head is unfavorable.
For torispherical shape, which is extensively used as the end closure for a
large variety of cylindrical pressure vessels, usually operates below 10 bar. It
is easier to manufacture because of availability regular circular curves on the
edges then a larger curve as it heads. Torispherical heads are more
economical than other types of domed heads, owing to their compact
construction they are used for vertical pressure vessel. In addition, the
thickness is quite similar with the wall thickness so that it can offers more
stability on the column.
Therefore, torispherical head has been selected in this design.
3.3.2.9 Weight loads
Some of the factor that contribute to the weight loads are vessel shell, vessel fittings
such as manway and nozzle, internal fitting such as trays, external fitting such as
ladders and piping and also the insulation material [1].
The column based need to be much thicker in order to withstand the wind and dead
loads. As for trial for weight load calculation, the columns are divided into 5 sections
3-91
with increment of 2 mm per section; 3.038 mm, 5.039 mm, 7.039 mm, 9.039 mm and
11.038 mm. Hence, average 7.039 mm is considered.
8.3.2.9.1 Weight of vessel shell, Wv
Weight of vessel is calculated by using the equation below,
= 240( + 0.8)
Where,
Cw = a factor to account for the weight of manways and internal support (in
this case, Cv = 1.15)
Dm = mean diameter of vessel [Dc + (t x10-3)], 0.864 m
Hv = height or length between tangent lines, m
t = wall thickness, mm
= 240(1.15)(0.864)[3 + 0.8(0.864)](7.039)
Wv = 8081.552 N = 8.081 kN
3.3.2.9.2 Weight of trays, Wp
Weight of trays is calculated by using the equation below, by assuming typical

liquid loading as 1.2 kN/m2
= .
Wp = 0.557 m2 x 6 x 1.2 kN/m2 = 4.01 kN
3.3.2.9.3 Weight of ladder, Wl
By taking the cage ladder with the weight of 360 N/m, thus the total weight of
ladder can be determine by multiply the value with column height, Hv,
Wv = 360 N/m x 3 m = 1080 N = 1.08 kN
3-92
3.3.2.9.4 Weight of insulation, Wi
Foam glass has been selected as the insulation material due to several
advantages. For physical attributes, foam glass is resistant to water in both
liquid and vapor forms, non-corrosive and has superior compressive strength.
Instead, its unique benefits have make it favorable in industry application. The
benefits are it offers minimal maintenance or replacement of insulation or so
that it can reduces life-cycle costs. Foam glass also fire resistance that
protects the insulated equipment, and helps minimize subsequent plant
shutdown time [3].
By using the foam glass density as 150 kg/m3 and the range of optimum
thickness of foam wall insulation available in market is 30 mm to 120 mm,
select the insulation thickness as 120 mm.
The weight of insulation is calculated by following the equation below.
Approximate volume of insulator, Vi,
Vi = (0.857)(3)(120x10-3) = 0.969 m3
Hence, the weight of insulator, Wi,
0.969 m3 x 150 kg/m3 x 9.81 m/s2 = 1425.884 N = 1.426 kN
Double the weight to allow attachment fittings, sealing and moisture

absorption,
2 x 1.426 kN = 2.853 kN
Therefore, the total weight loads obtained from this column is,
WT = W V + W P + W L + Wi
WT = 8.081 + 4.01 + 1.08 + 1.426
WT = 16.023 kN
3.3.2.10 Wind loading
The function to design the wind loading is to withstand the highest wind speed that is
likely to encounter at the site during the life of the plant. In this design, the dynamic
wind pressure is assumed to be 1280 N/m2.
3-93
The mean diameter which including insulator, Deff is calculated by using the equation
below,
Deff = Di + 2 (tv + ti) x 10-3
Deff = 2 (7.039 + 120) x 10-3
Deff = 0.984 m
Calculate the wind loading, Fw
Fw = Pw x Deff
Fw = 1280 N/m2 x 0.984 m = 1259.52 N
Hence, the bending moment, Mx is,
()( 2 ) (1259.52)(32 )
= = = 5667.84 N.m
2 2
3.3.2.11 Analysis of stress
The analysis is involving the stress of pressure, dead weight and bend act on the
column.
3.3.2.11.1 Pressure stress, H and L
The longitudinal stress, H and circumferential stress, L which are due to

pressure is calculated by using equation below,
(0.334)(857)
= = = 20.332 N/mm2
2 2(7.039)
(0.334)(857)
= = = 10.166 N/mm2
4 4(7.039)
3.3.2.11.2 Dead weight stress, w
Dead weight stress is contribute by the weight of vessel and any attachment
on it. The stress can be either compressive or tensile, where compressive
stress act above the column while tensile stress act below the column [1].
3-94
16023
= = = 0.839 N/mm2
(+) (857+7.039)(7.039)
3.3.2.11.3 Bending stress, b
Bending moments will be caused by the following loading conditions;
1. The wind loads on tall self-supported vessels

2. Seismic loads on tall vessels
3. The dead weight and winds loads on piping and equipment which is
attached to the vessel but offset from the vessel centre line
The bending stress will be compressive or tensile depending on location and

are given by,

= ( ) ( ) +
2
Where,
Mx = total bending moment, N.m
Iv = second moment area, mm2
Do = outside diameter = Di + 2t
Find the Do,
Do = 857 + 2(7.039) = 871.078 mm
Find the Iv,

= 64 (4 4 ) = 64 (871.0784 8574 ) = 1.783x109 mm
Hence, to find bending stress,
5667.84103 857
= ( )( ) + 7.039 = 8.401 N/mm2
1.783109 2
3-95
3.3.2.11.4 Resultant longitudinal stress, z
z = L + w b
To check compressive or tensile,
H z = 20.332 -19.406 = 0.92 N/mm2, Hence, it is tensile
Since w is tensile, therefore it indicates positive value, +0.839 N/mm2
z (upwind) = 10.166 + 0.839 + 8.401 = 19.406 N/mm2
z (downwind) = 10.166 + 0.839 - 8.401 = 2.604 N/mm2
The greatest different between the principle stress will be on the downwind
side,
H z (downwind)
19.406 2.604 = 16.802 N/mm2
Thus, the value obtained is well below the maximum allowable design stress,
137.896 N/mm2
Figure 3.26: Analysis of stress
3-96
3.3.2.12 The resultant buckling stress, c
Buckling stress is normally occurring at stress that required buckling complete. A

column design must be checked in order to ensure that the maximum value of the
resultant axial stress does not exceed the critical value at which buckling will be occur.
Critical buckling stress is calculated by using equation below,

= 2104 ( )

7.039
= 2104 ( ) = 161.616 N/mm2
871.078
The maximum compressive stress will occur when the vessel is not under pressure.
w + H = 0.839 + 8.401 = 9.24 N/mm2
Since the maximum compressive stress, 9.24 N/mm2 is below than crtitical buckling
stress, 161.616 N/mm2, hence, the design is satisfactory.
3.3.2.13 Vessel support
There are various factors that supposed to take in consideration to choose the support
for a pressure vessel or distillation column such as;
1. Size of the column

2. Shape and weight of the column
3. Design temperature and design pressure
4. The location and arrangement of the vessel
5. Internal and external fittings and attachment
Since the column is vertically tall, the skirt support is suggested as shown in the
Figure 3.27 [1]. By support the column on the ground, the skirt support has the ability
to carry the total weight loaded by the column and protect the column from
superimposed load especially the wind load. Table 3.23 below list all the parameters
involved for vessel support design.
3-97
Figure 3.27: Straight cylindrical support
Table 3.23: Support design specification
Parameter Value/Description
Type of support Straight cylindrical skirt

Angle of support, s 90o
Material of construction Carbon steel
Design stress, S, Fs 137.896 N/mm2
Young modulus, E 210 000 N/mm2
Joint factor, J 1
Column height, Hv 3m
Liquid density, L 979.864 kg/m3
Assumption of skirt thickness, Ts 7. 039 mm
Assumption of skirt height, Hs 0.002 mm
3.3.2.13.1 Weight of skirt, Ws
The maximum dead weight load on the skirt will occur when the vessel is full
of water.
The approximate skirt weight, Ws,

= ( ) 2 9.81
4

= ( 4 ) (0.8572 )(3)(979.864)(9.81) = 16634.417 N = 16.634 kN
3-98
Total weight of the vessel calculated earlier, = 16.023 kN
Thus, total weight carried by the skirt,
WT = 16.023 + 16.634 = 32.657 kN
3.3.2.13.2 Bending moment at skirt base, Ms
By taking wind loading, Fw = 1.259 kN/m
()( + )2
=
2
(1.259)(3+2)2
= = 15.738 kN.m
2
3.3.2.13.3 Bending stress in skirt, bs
4
=
( + )()()
Where,
Ms = maximum bending moment, evaluated at the base of the skirt (due to

the wind, seismic and eccentric load), N/m
Ds = inside diameter of the skirt, at the base, mm
ts = skirt thickness (by taking the bottom thickness of the column), mm
4(15.738)103
= = 3.846 N/mm2
(857+7.039)(857)(7.039)
3.3.2.13.4 Dead weight stress in skirt, ws

=
( + )
8081.552
= = 0.423 N/mm2
(857+7.039)7.039
3-99
3.3.2.13.5 Resultant stress in skirt, s
For maximum (tensile),
s = bs + ws = 3.846 + 0.423 = 4.287 N/mm2
For minimum (compressive),
s = bs ws = 3.846 - 0.423 = 3.441 N/mm2
3.3.2.13.6 Criteria for the design
By taking the joint factor, J = 1 and s = 90,
For tensile stress,
s (tensile) < (fs) (J) (sin )
4.287 N/mm2 < (137.896) (1) (sin 90)
4.287 N/mm2 < 137.896 N/mm2
Thus, it follows the rule.
For compressive stress,
s (compressive) < 0.125 (E) (ts/Ds) (sin )
3.441 N/mm2 < 0.125 (210000) (7.039/857) (sin 90)
3.441 N/mm2 < 215.605 N/mm2
Thus, it follows the rule.
Both tensile and compressive follow the criteria. Hence, the thickness 7.039
mm (round off to 8 mm) is valid to be implemented.
3.3.2.14 Base ring and anchor bolts
The loads carried by the skirt are transmitted to the foundation slab by the skirt base
ring (bearing plate). The moment produced by wind and other lateral loads will tend
3-100
to overturn the vessel as this will be opposed by the couple set up by the weight of
the vessel and the tensile load in the anchor bolts. The simplest types, suitable for
small vessels, is the rolled-angle ange rings, as shown in Figure 3.28 which have
been implemented in this design [2].
Figure 3.28: Rolled-angle flange
The following guide rules for selection of the anchor bolts:
1. Bolts smaller than 25 mm diameter should not be used.
2. Minimum number of bolts 8.
3. Use multiples of 4 bolts.
4. Bolt pitch should not be less than 600 mm (2 ft).
The anchor bolts are assumed to share the overturning load equally, and the bolt area
required is given by,
1 4
= [ ]
()()
Where,
Ab = Area of one bolt at the root of the thread, mm2
Nb = Number of bolts
Fb = Maximum allowable bolt stress, N/mm2 (Typical design value 125 N/mm)
3-101
Ms = Bending moment at the base, Nm
Wv = Weight of the vessel, N
Db = Bolt circle diameter, m
To calculate approximate pitch circle, Db
Db = Di + 2 (tv + tins) = 857 + 2 (7.039 + 120) = 1111.078 mm
To calculate circumference of bolt circle, Cb
Cb = Db x = 1111.078
To calculate number of bolt, at minimum recommended bolt spacing, Nb
111.078
Nb = = 5.818 = 6
600
Hence, bolt area, Ab
1 4(15.738103 )
= (6)(125) [ 8081.552] = 64.775 mm2
1.111
Bolt root diameter, Dbolt
4 4
= ( ) () = (64.775) () = 9.082 mm = 10 mm
Base on Figure 13.30 [2], the type of bolt that recommended to be used is M24 with
root area 353, as show in Table 3.24 below. The selection is made by comparing bolt
root diameter, Dbolt with the D value (refer to the bolt root diameter) in that figure.
The nearest value is then selected.
3-102
Table 3.24: Anchor bolt design
Dimension, mm
Bolt Root A B C D E F G
size area
M24 353 45 76 64 13 19 30 36
Bolt size = Nominal diameter (BS 4190: 1967)
By referring to the dimension as in Figure 3.29 below,
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.29 (a) and (b): Flange ring dimension
Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length, Fb
4
= [ + ]
( ) ( 2 )
2
3-103
Where,
Fb = the compressive load on the base ring, N/m
Ds = skirt diameter, m
4(15.783103 ) 8081.552
= [ + ] = 30 785.911 N/m
(0.8572 ) (0.8572 )
Bearing pressure range is usually at 3.5 N/mm2 to 7 N/mm2. Therefore, the bearing
pressure is taken as 3.5 N/mm2.
Thus, minimum width of the base ring is given by, Lb
30785.911
= = = 8.796 mm = 9 mm
103 3.5 103
Actual width required, Lbact with Lr value is equal to B value from Table 3.5,
Lbact = Lr + ts + 50 mm = 76 + 7.039 + 50 = 133.039 mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation, fc
30785.911
fc = = = 0.231 N/mm2
133.039
The minimum base ring thickness, tb
3( )
=

Where,
Lr = the distance from the edge of the skirt to the outer edge of the ring, mm
tb = Base ring thickness, mm
f c ' = Actual bearing pressure on base, N/mm2
3-104
fr = Allowable design stress in the ring material, typically 140 N/mm2
3(0.231)
= (76) 140
= 5.347 mm = 6 mm
3.3.2.15 Design of nozzles (Flanges)
Flanged joints are also used to connect pipes to other equipment, such as pumps and
valves. It connecting pipe sections where ease of assembly and dismantling is
required for maintenance, but pipework will normally be welded to reduce costs.
In this absorption column, 4 main piping have take into consideration such as liquid
feed, vapor feed, bottom and top streams. The choice of piping materials is depending
on the mass flow and density of the stream that passing through the pipeline. For this
design, carbon steel is the most suitable for the piping materials and the type of
flanges used is welding neck type.
The approximate optimum duct diameter for carbon steel is given by,
= 260( )0.5 ( )0.37
Where, both source are from AspenPlus simulation model
G = mass flow, kg/s
= density of mixture, kg/m3
A typical example of a standard ange design is shown in Figure 13.37 [2]. This was
taken from BS 4504, which has now been superseded by the European standard BS
EN 1092. The design of standard anges is also specied in BS 1560. The
recommended standard flange is based on the optimum pipe diameter, Di. The
dimension of the flange design is refered as Figure 3.30 below.
3-105
Figure 3.30: Nozzle flange dimension
3.3.2.15.1 Water inlet, Lo (Stream 16)
G = 0.823 kg/s
= 985.678 kg/m3
= 260(0.823)0.5 (985.878)0.37 = 18.407 mm
By adding corrosion allowance, 18.407 mm + 2 mm = 20.407 mm
Hence, the standard flange design for stream 16 is tabulated as below,
Table 3.25: Standard flange design [2]
Nom Pipe, Flange Raised Bolting Drilling Boss

size Di face
D b h d4 f No. d2 k d3
15 21.3 80 12 20 40 2 M10 4 11 55 30
3.3.2.15.2 Vapor inlet, VN+1 (Stream 7)
G = 0.271 kg/s
= 0.899 kg/m3
= 260(0.271)0.5 (0.899)0.37 = 137.16 mm
3-106

size Di face
125 139.7 240 18 44 178 3 M16 8 18 200 160
3.3.2.15.2 Top outlet, V1 (Stream H2)
G = 0.189 kg/s
= 0.239 kg/m3
= 260(0.189)0.5 (0.239)0.37 = 185.663 mm
Hence, the standard flange design for stream H2 is tabulated as below,

size Di face
200 219.1 320 20 44 258 3 M16 8 18 280 240
3.3.2.15.2 Bottom outlet, LN (Stream 8)
G = 0.905 kg/s
= 955.849 kg/m3
= 260(0.905)0.5 (955.849)0.37 = 19.462 mm
3-107
Table 3.28: Standad flange design [2]

size Di face
20 26.9 90 14 24 50 2 M10 4 11 65 40
3.3.2.16 Specification of Mechanical Design for Absorption Column
Table 3.29: Specification of Mechanical Design for Absorption Column
Types Tray column

Design pressure 0.334 N/mm2
Design temperature 323 K
Material selection Carbon steel SA-516
Plate
Tensile strength 485 MPa
Design stress 137.896 N/mm2
Types of head Torispherical
Thickness 3.038 mm
Corrosion allowance 2 mm
Column Weight
Vessel weight 8.081 kN
Weigh of ladder 1.08 kN
Weight of insulation 2.853 kN
Weight of trays 4.01 kN
Total weight 16.023 kN
Wind Loading
Loading 1259.52 N
Analysis Stress
Pressure stress 20.332 N/mm2, 10.166 N/mm2
Dead weight stress 0.839 N/mm2
3-108
Bending stress 8.401 N/mm2
Critical buckling 9.24 N/mm2
Vessel Support
Straight cylindrical skirt 90o
Skirt height 0.02 mm
Total weight 32.657 kN
Bending moment 15.738 kN.m
Thickness 7.039 mm
Anchor Bolts
Bolts 8 bolts
Area 64.775 mm2
Bolts root diameter 10 mm
Types M24
Flanges
Types Carbon steel welding neck
Diameter
Water inlet 20.407 mm
Vapor inlet 139.16 mm
Top 187.663 mm
Bottom 21.462 mm
3-109
3-110
3.4 Distillation Column (T-103)
3.4.1 Chemical Design for Distillation Column (T-103)
Distillation is defined as a process in which a liquid or vapour mixture of two or more

substances is separated into its component fractions of desired purity, by the
application and removal of heat. It is the process of separating two or more miscible
liquids by taking advantage of the boiling point differences between the liquids. Heat
is added to the mixture in which is desired to be separated and eventually the most
volatile component begins to vaporize. As the lighter component vaporizes, it takes
with it molecules of the heavy component. The vapor mixture is then condensed and
evaporated again, giving a higher mole fraction of light component in the vapor phase
and a higher mole fraction of heavy component in the liquid phase. This process of
condensation and evaporation continues in stages up the column until the light key
rich vapor component is condensed and collected as tops product
(99.99% recovery) and the heavy component rich liquid is collected as bottoms
product
(SRS Engineering Corporation, n.d.).
There are many types of distillation columns, each designed to perform specific types
of separations, and each design differs in terms of complexity. In batch operation, the
feed to the column is introduced batch-wise. That is, the column is charged with a
batch and then the distillation process is carried out. When the desired task is
achieved, a next batch of feed is introduced. In contrast, continuous columns process
a continuous feed stream. No interruptions occur unless there is a problem with the
column or surrounding process units. They are capable of handling high throughputs
and are the most common of the two types. (WERMAC, n.d.). Continuous columns
can be further classified according to:
1. The nature of feed they are processing

Binary column - feed contains only two components
Multi-component column - feed contains more than two components
2. The number of product streams they have
Multi-product column - column has more than two product streams
3. Where the extra feed exits when it is used to help with the separation
Extractive distillation - where the extra feed appears in the bottom product
stream
3-111
Azeotropic distillation - where the extra feed appears at the top product stream
4. The type of column internals
Tray column - where trays of various designs are used to hold up the liquid to
provide
better contact between vapour and liquid, hence better separation
Packed column - where instead of trays, 'packings' are used to enhance
contact
between vapour and liquid.
In this plant, the desired distillation column system is the multi component distillation.
It contains feed of more than two components. In this multicomponent distillation
column, there are IPA, acetone, water, hydrogen and DMSO. Distillation is one of the
most important process apply in acetone production plant. Multicomponent distillation
unit is well established technology that function to separate acetone from IPA-
acetone-water mixture from stream 6 and 8 in an economic way and commercial
scale. This process is being applied to separate acetone from the mixture as the
components in the mixture have difference boiling point and volatility as shown in
Table 3.30.
Table 3.30: Boiling Point of Liquid Component
Component Boiling point (C)

Isopropanol 82.2
Acetone 56.2
Water 100
The following steps should be considered in order to develop reliable design of

distillation column (richardson);
1. Degree of separation such as products specification being specified.
2. Selecting suitable operating condition: temperature and pressure.
3. Determining number of stage and reflux requirement: number of equilibrium stage.
4. Selecting appropriate contacting device either plate or packing. Determining size

of the column: diameter, number of real stages.
6. Designing the internal of the column: plates, distributors, packing support.
3-112
7. Conduct mechanical design: vessels, internal fitting.
Since the distillation process for this acetone plant involved multicomponent
distillation, the process in determining the number of stages and reflux requirement
much more complex than separation process for binary mixture. The complexity of
multicomponent distillation calculation can be reduced by neglecting the component
that exist in a small amount at feed stream.
Table 3.31: Initial Feed Components Flowrate and Mole Fraction
Components Flow rate (kmol/hr) Mole fraction

IPA 7.3894 0.01593
Acetone 214.1233 0.4616
Water 241.9273 0.5216
Hydrogen 0.2825 0.0006091
DMSO 0.1122 0.0002419
Total 463.83 1
Based on Table 3.31, there are very small amount of hydrogen and DMSO entering
T-103, therefore these two component can be considered as trace and will be
neglected during calculations. Considering only IPA, acetone and water entering T-
103, the new mole flow used in the calculation and targetted split fraction for each
component at the top and bottom of the column being specified as in Table 3.32.
Table 3.32: New Feed Flow for Component Involved, Mole Fraction and Split
Fraction
Component Flow rate (kmol/hr) Mole Split fraction Split fraction

fraction (top) (bottom)
IPA 7.3894 0.01595 0.17 0.83
Acetone 214.1233 0.4620 0.9999 0.0001
Water 241.92773 0.5220 0.009 0.991
Total 463.55 1 `
3-113
Error between initial and final feed flow entering T-103 can be calculated and the
calculated percentage error between final and inital total flowrate is less than 0.1%
which is 0.07%, therefore the assumption making is acceptable.
3.4.1.1 Selection of Key Component
Key component desired for separation process will be categorised into heavy key and
light key component. Heavy key component is a component that has high boiling point
and it will be out from top product and being enriched at bottom product. While light
component is the component with low boiling point that is desired to keep out from
bottom product and being enriched at top product.
Table 3.33: Classification of Heavy and Light Key Component in Acetone

Production Plant
Heavy componet (boiling point) Light component (boiling point)

Water (100C) Acetone (56.2C)
3.4.1.2 Bubble and Dew Point Temperature
Operating pressure for each stream will be used to determine the bubble and dew
point. Bubble point is the point whereby any rise in the temperature of saturated liquid
that will cause the formation of vapor and it can be determined from the pressure of
feed and bottom stream. Meanwhile dew point is a point whereby any drop in the
temperature of saturated vapor that will cause the formation of liquid droplet and this
point can be determined from the top stream operating pressure. For multicomponent
mixtures at given pressure with the relation of equilibrium constant (K), bubble and
dew point can be calculated as follow;
Bubble point : i = ixi = 1.0 (3.1)
Dew point : i = iyi = 1.0 (3.2)
Where:
Ki = equilibrium constant for component i
3-114
xi = liquid mol fraction for component i
yi = vapour mol fraction for component i
Equilibrium constant, K:
P
K= P
(3.3)
Whereby P is vapor pressure and P is the operating pressure both in Pa. P will be
calculated by using Antoinne Equation as in Equation 3.34.
Vapour pressure, Pa = exp (C1 + (C2/T) + (C3lnT) + (C4TC5) (8.4)
Where:
C= antoine constant
T= temperature (K)
Table 3.34: Antoinne Constant for Each Component (Perry Handbook)
Component Antoine Constant

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
IPA 96.094 -8575.4 -10.292 1.67E-17 6

Acetone 69.006 -85599.6 -7.0985 6.22E-6 2
Water 73.649 -7258.2 -7.3037 4.17E-6 2
i) Determination of Bubble Point
At feed stream with pressure of 5 atm, temperature required for bubble point to
happen is 130.709C (403.709K).
3-115
Table 3.35: Details for Bubble Point Calculations at 130.709C
Composition Vapor pressure (Pa) Ki xi ixi

IPA 494 654.3 0.976372 0.015945 0.015568
Acetone 769446 1.518768 0.46203 0.701717
Water 274461.9 0.541746 0.522025 0.282805
Total 3.036886 1 1.00009
At bottom stream with pressure of 1 atm, temperature required for bubble point to
happen is at 99.599C (372.599K). Data required for the bubble point calculation at
bottom stream as being tabulated in Table 3.36.
Table 3.36: Details for Bubble Point Calculations at 99.599C
Component Vapour Pressure Ki Xi ixi

(Pa)
IPA 186 424.10 1.839863 0.025002 0.046
Acetone 367 450.80 3.626458 1.01E-6 3.65E-6
Water 99 351.72 0.980525 0.974997 0.956009
Total 6.446846 1 1.002
ii) Determination of Dew Point
At top stream with pressure of 1 atm, temperature required for dew point to happen
is
57.999 C (330.999K). Data required for dew point calculation at top stream as being
tabulated in Table 3.37.
Table 3.37: Details for Dew Point Calculations at 57.999C
Component Vapour Pressure Ki yi i/yi

(Pa)
IPA 36 060.73 0.355892 0.005712 0.01605
Acetone 107 353 1.059492 0.984343 0.929071
Water 18 048.07 0.178121 0.009945 0.055835
Total 1.593504 1 1.000955
3-116
Table 3.38: Summary for Bubble and Dew Point Temperature
Stream
Feed Top Bottom
Bubble point temperature (K) 407.709 372.599
Dew point temperature (K) 330.999
3.4.1.3 Relative Volatility
Relative volatility is a measured of the differences between vapor pressure of the

more volatile component of liquid mixture with the vapor pressure of the less volatile
components in the mixture. Relative volatility functions to indicate the ability of the
distillation process to separate high volatility component from less volatility
component. The higher the relative volatility, the easier the separation process will
occur. Relative volatility between components can be expressed as the ratio of their
K value as being illustrated in Equation 3.5.
KLK
LHK = KHK (3.5)
Where:
KLK = light key components
KHK = heavy key components
Average volatility = avg = ( top bot)1/2 (3.6)
Where :
top= relative volatility at distillate
bot = relative volatility at bottom
3-117
Table 3.39: Relative Volatilies of Each Component
Component Top Bottom average

Ki Ki b
IPA 0.355892 1.998 1.839863 1.876 1.936
Acetone 1.059492 5.948 3.626457 3.698 4.690
Water 0.171821 1.000 0.980528 1.000 1.000
3.4.1.4 Determination of q Value
+Hfs-Hf
q =
(3.7)
Where
= molar of the latent heat of vaporization
Hfs = molar entalphy of feed at its boiling point
Hf = molar entalphy of feed
(Hfs Hf) can be calculated by using Equation 8.8;
Hfs Hf = CpL (TB Tf) (3.8)
Where:
TB = boiling point of feed
Tf = feed temperature
CpL = specific heat capacity of liquid feed
i) Specific Heat Capacity (Cp)
For heat capacity calculation, equation 3.9 has been employed for heat capacity
calculation of liquid at Tfeed and Tbubble of the feed at column operating pressure.
CpL = C1 + C2T + C3T2 + C4T3 + C5T4 (3.9)
3-118
Tfeed = 354 K, Tbubble = 403.709 K
T = (Tfeed + Tbubble)/2 = 378.85 K
Table 3.40: Data for Heat Capacity Calculation (R.H Perry. & D.W green., 1997)
Component A B C D CpL,i (J/gmol.K)

IPA 32.43 0.1885 6.406E-6 -9.261E-8 108.0019
Acetone 6.301 0.2606 -1.25E-4 2.038E-8 88.197
Water 32.24 0.01924 1.055E-5 -3.596E-9 40.84775
Table 3.41: Heat Capacity
Component CpL,i XF CpLXF (J/gmol.K)

IPA 108.0019 0.015944675 1.72209
Acetone 88.197 0.462030252 40.74966
Water 40.84775 0.522025073 21.32355
Total 237.0466 1 63.7953
Hfs Hf = CpL (TB Tf)
Hfs Hf = 63.7953 (403.709 - 354)
Hfs Hf = 3 171.2 kJ/kmol
ii) Latent heat of Vaporization
8.32BT 2 z
= LV = (T+C)2
(3.10)
Where:
Lv = latent heat at the required temperature
T= temperature, K
B, C = coefficient in antoinne equation
z = compressibility constant
3-119
z in Equation 3.10 can be calculated based on equation below;
Pr 0.5
z = [1- Tr 3
] (3.11)
Where:
Pr = reduced pressure
Tr= reduced temperature
Pr and Tr can be calculated via Equation 3.12 and 3.13 respectively:
1
Pr = Pc (3.12)
Tbp
Tr = (3.13)
Tc
Where:
Pc = critical pressure
Tc = critical temperature
Tbp = boiling point temperature
Table 3.42: Compresibilty Constant Calculation
Component Tc Pc Tbp Pr Tr z
IPA 508.2 4.701 355 0.212721 0.698544 0.613137
Acetone 647.096 22.064 329 0.045323 0.508425 0.809411
Water 508.3 4.765 373 0.209864 0.733819 0.684768
3-120
Table 3.43: Latent Heat Calculation
Component B C z Lv,i Xf Lv,i Xf

IPA 3 640.20 -53.54 0.613137 25 0.015945 401.5701
185.22
Acetone 2756.22 -45.090 0.809411 23 0.46203 11 049.51
915.12
Water 3885.70 -42.98 0.684768 28 0.522025 14 703.45
166.18
Total 1.000000 26 154.53
Since value of Lv = 26 154.53 kJ/kmol and Hfs Hf = 3 171.2 kJ/kmol, thus
+Hfs-Hf
=

26 154.53+3 171.2
= 26 154.53
= 1.12, q > 1 feed condition is subcooled liquid
3.4.1.5 Minimun Reflux Ratio (Rmin)
Minimun reflux ratio (Rmin) gives definitation of minimun amount of liquid being
returned to column. Rmin can be identified through the Equation 3.14 that had been
develop by Underwood and Equation 3.15 had being applied in order to solve for .
Value of usually lies between relative volatility of light component and heavy
component. Data required for the calculation of and Rm as being tabulate in Table
3.44 and 3.55 respectively.
iXid
= Rm + 1 (3.14)
i-
Where:
i = relative volatility of component i with respect to some reference component,

usually heavy key
Rm = minimun reflux ratio
xid = concentration of component i in the tops at minimun reflux
3-121
iXif
= 1-q (3.15)
i-
Where:
xif = concentration of component i in the feed
q= depend on the condition of feed (q > 1 when feed is subcooled liquid)
Table 3.44: Sumary of Data for Determination of Value
Component xi,f i i xi,f iXif

i-
IPA 0.015945 1.936 0.030873 -0.41311
0.8 0.462030 4.690 2.167076 0.808812
Water 0.522025 1 0.522025 -0.51635
Total 1 -0.12065
iXif
Since q=1.12, thus to give i-
= -0.12, value of = 2.011 will take into
consideration.
Table 3.45: Summary of Data for Determination of Rm
Component xi,top i xi,top i Rm + 1

IPA 0.0057 1.936267 0.01106 2.011 -0.14799
Acetone 0.9843 4.690333 4.616895 2.011 1.723151
Water 0.0099 1 0.009945 2.011 -0.00984
Total 1 1.565323
From Table 3.45, it give total Rm + 1 = 1.565323, thus soving for Rm = 0.565323
3.4.1.6 Optimun Reflux Ratio
Optimum reflux ratio is an important consideration in order to minimize total cost

required for distillation process. For many system, the optimum reflux ratio usually
lies between 1.2 to 1.5 times the minimun reflux ratio.
3-122
Optimum reflux ratio = 1.5Rm
= 1.5(0.565323)
= 0.847985
3.4.1.7 Minimun Number of Stage (using Fenske Equation)
Fenske equation will be used to estimate the minimun stages required at total reflux.
Fenske equation had been rearranged into Equation 3.16 in determining the minimun
stage required.
Xlk Xhk
log[ ]d [ ]b
Xhk Xlk
Nm = log ()lk
(3.16)
Where:
Nm = minimun number of theoritical staages in column at total reflux
Xlk,d = mol fraction of light key (acetone) at distillate
Xhk,d = mol fraction of heavy key (water) at distillate
Xhk,b = mol fraction of heavy key (water) at bottom
Xlk,b = mol fraction of light key (acetone) at bottom
avg,lk = average relative volatility of light key component (acetone)
0.984342678 0.974996957
log[[ ][ ]]
0.009945413 1.0059E-6
Nm = log 4.690333
Nm = 11.88
From the calculated Nm, theoritical nomber of stage could be identified by using Erbar
Maddox Correlation as attached in Figure 3.31. From the figure, following data are
being calculated:
R/(R+1) = (0.85/1.85) = 0.46
Rm/(Rm+1) = (0.565323/1.565323) = 0.36
3-123
Nm/Ntheo = 11.88/Ntheo = 0.58
Ntheo = 21 stages
Figure 8.31: Erbar- Maddox Correlation (Erbar and Maddox, 1961)
3.4.1.8 Efficiency of Plate in Column
Efficiency of colum can be determined from the correlation made by OConnell.

Equation 3.17 expressed the correlation in equation form for estimation of column
efficiency. Equation 3.18 expressed the function in determining the average viscosity
(a).
Eo = 51 32.5 log (aa) (3.17)
Where:
Eo = column efficiency
a = molar average liquid viscosity, mNs/m2
3-124
a = average relative volatility of light key
1 1
log a = (VISA) [( ) -( )] (3.18)
Taverage VISB
Where:
VISA, VISB = liquid viscosity constant
Taverage (K) = (Ttop + Tbottom)/2
= (329 + 361)/ 2
= 345 K
Table 3.46: Average Viscosity at 345K
Component VISA VISB Viscosity

(mNs/m2)
IPA 1139.7 323.44 0.602276
Acetone 367.25 209.68 0.205596
Water 658.62 283.16 0.382895
Table 3.47: Molar Average Viscosity
Component Average Viscosity Mol Molar average viscosity

(mNs/m2) fraction (mNs/m2)
IPA 0.602276 0.015931 0.009603
Acetone 0.205596 0.461637 0.094992
Water 0.382895 0.521581 0.199881
Total 0.304475
From the data obtained in the tables above, efficiency of column calculated:
Eo = 51 32.5 log (0.304475 4.690333)
= 45.97% 46%
3-125
From the efficiency of column obtained, thus the number of actual stage can be
determined based on the Equation 3.19.
Nthe
N= Eo
(3.19)
21
N= = 46 stages
0.46
3.4.1.9 Feed Point Location
An estimation of feed point location could be made through the application of

empirical equation givenby Kirkbride as shown in Equation 3.20.
Nr B Xf,hk Xb,lk 2
Log Ns = 0.206 log [(D) ( Xf,lk ) (Xd,hk) ] (3.20)
Where:
Nr = number of stages above the feed, including any partial condenser
Ns = number of stages below the feed, including the reboiler
D = molar flow of top stream
B = molar stream of bottom stream
xf,HK = concentration of heavy key (water) in feed stream
xf,LK = concentration of light key (acetone) in feed stream
xb,LK = concentration of light key (acetone) in bottom stream
xd,HK = concentration of heavy key (water) in top stream
Nr 245.9014 0.52203 1.0059E-6 2

Log Ns = 0.206 log [(217.5386) (0.46203) ( 0.009945 ) ]
Nr
Ns
= 1.0517
Nr = 1.0517Ns
Nr + Ns = 46
1.0517Ns + Ns = 46
3-126
2.0517Ns = 46
Ns = 22.4 22
Nr = 24
Feed point location is at stage 24.
3.4.1.10 Column and Tray Selection
Plate tower distillation column has been chosen as column type for acetone
separation process as it offers lower cost compared with packed distillation column.
Conditions favoring plate column over packed column can be described as below:
1. Plate column more reliable because of liquid dipersion difficulties faced in packed
column.
2. Plate column may be designed to handle wide range liquid rate without flooding.
3. plate column is preferred for non foaming and corrosive condition.
4. Cleaning process more easier for plate column compared with packed column
5. For large column height, packed column will give disadvantages as it will give more
weight.
6. Packing in packed column may be damaged when experienced rapid temperature

changes.
7. Packed column generally are not designed for column diameter larger than 1.5
meter.
3.4.1.11 Plate Spacing
Colum height will be depending on the spacing between plate. Plate spacing normally
range from 0.5 m to 1.0 m depending on the diameter and also operating condition
(R.K.Sinnot, 1999). For column diameter above 1 m, plate spacing of 0.3 to 0.6 m
normally used. For initial estimation, plate spacing of 0.5 will be used and the value
would be revised later once detailed of the plate design is completed.
3-127
3.4.1.12 Physical Properties
i) Pressure Drop
Assuming 100 mm water pressure drop per plate.
Column pressure drop = P per plate water g number of stages
= 0.1 1000 9.81 42
= 41.202 kPa
Top pressure = 101.3 kPa (1 atm)
Estimated bottom pressure = 41.202 + 101.3 = 142.502 kPa
ii) Relative Molar Weight
Relative Molecular Weight (RMW) is the average molecular weight of the mixture for
each stream and this parameter can be identified through Equation 3.21.
RMW= (XiMW) (3.21)
Table 3.48: Component of RMW Calculation
Component MW Xf Xd Xb Density
(kg/kmol) (kg/m3)
IPA 60.1 0.015945 0.005712 0.025002 786
Acetone 58.08 0.46203 0.984343 1.01E-06 791
Water 18 0.522025 0.009945 0.974997 1000
Total
Table 3.49: RMW Value for Each Stream
Component RMW feed RMW top RMW bottom

IPA 0.958275 0.343286 1.502622424
Acetone 26.834717 57.17062 5.84227E-05
Water 9.3964513 0.179017 17.54994523
Total 37.189443 57.69293 19.05262607
3-128
iii) Density of Mixture (PPM)
Liquid density = l = i i
(8.22)
MW Tstd Pop
Vapor density = v = Vstd Top Pstd
(8.23)
Where:
l = density of liquid (kg/m3)
v = density of vapor (kg/m3)
Tstd = Temperature standard (273K)
Top = Temperature operating
Pstd = Pressure standard (1 bar)
Pop = Pressure operating
Table 3.50: Liquid and Vapor Density at Feed Stream (Top = 354K, Pop = 5 bar)
Component Liquid density (l)

Vapor Density(v)
IPA 12.5325 10.3456

Acetone 365.4659 9.9979
Water 522.0251 3.0985
Total 900.0235 23.4420
Table 3.51: Liquid and Vapor Density at Top Stream (Top = 329K, Pop = 1 bar)

Vapor Density(v)
IPA 4.4896 2.2263

Acetone 778.6151 2.1515
Water 9.94541 0.6679
Total 793.05 5.0447
3-129
Table 3.52: Liquid and Vapor Density at Bottom Stream (Top = 361K, Pop = 1 bar)

Vapor Density(v)
IPA 19.6516 2.0289

Acetone 0.0007957 1.9608
Water 974.9969 0.6077
Total 994.6494 4.5975
3.4.1.13 Maximum Allowable Vapor Density, v
(l- v) 1/2
v = ( -0.171Lt2 + 0.27Lt 0.047) [ v
] (3.24)
Where :
v = maximum allowable vapour velocity, based on total column cross sectional area
(m/s)
Lt = plate spacing (m)
(994.6494- 5.0447) 1/2

v = ( -0.171(0.5)2 + 0.27(0.5) 0.047) [ 5.0447
]
v = ( 0.04525) (14.0059)
v = 0.63377 m/s
3.4.1.14 Flooding Vapor Velocity (Uf)
Flooding condition will determine the upper limit of vapour velocity. For high plate
efficiencies, a high vapour velocity is requiredand it normally lies between 70 to 90%
of that which would cause flooding. In designing distillation column, value of Uf being
assumed between 80 to 85% of flooding. Uf value can be estimated from the
correlation by Fair (1961) as being states in Equation 3.25.
3-130

Uf = K1 (3.25)
Where:
Uf = flooding vapour velocity (m/s) based on net column cross sectional area, An
K1= a constant (obtained from Flooding Velocity, Sieve Plates figure)
In determination of K1 value, liquid vapor flow factor (FLV) must be calculated from
Equation 3.26;
V
Lw
FLV = Vw L (3.26)
Where:
= liquid mass flow rate, kg/s
= vapor mass flow rate, kg/s
Liquid Vapor Flow Factor, FLV
5.047
3.4313
FLV = 6.4492 994.6494
FLV = 0.03789
Based on Figure 3.32, at FLV = 0.03789 and plate spacing of 0.5 m,
K1 = 0.1
994.6494-5.047
Uf = 0.1 5.047
Uf = 1.4003 m/s
3-131
Un = 0.85 flooding velocity
Un = 0.851.4003
Un = 1.19 m/s
Figure 3.32: Flooding Velocity, Sieve Plate(R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
3.4.1.15 Column Diameter and Area
Vapor flow rate is an important parameter in determining diameter of column. It is

important that the vapour velocity to be below that which would caused excessive
liquid entrainment (high pressure drop). Based maximun vapor velocity being
calculated, diameter of column then can be calculated as in Equation 3.27.
w
Dc = vv (3.27)
Where:
= maximun vapor rate (kg/s)
= D(1+R)
= 217.529(1+0.85)
3-132
= 402.4287 kmol/hr
= 402.4287kmol/hr 57.6929 kg/kmol
= 23 217.2759 kg/hr
= 6.4492 kg/s
4 6.4492
Dc = 5.0440.63377
Dc = 1.6027 m
From the diameter obtained, area of the column can be determined from Equation
3.28.
2
Ac = 4
(3.28)
(1.6)2
Ac =
4
Ac = 2.0174 m2
3.4.1.16 Liquid Flow Arrangement
Type of plate in distillation column will depend on the liquid flow rate and also column
diameter. An initial selection of plate type can be made by utilizing Figure 3.33.
According to the figure, at Dc = 1.6027 m and liquid flow rate of 0.00345 m3/s, plate
type suitable for the operation is cross flow (single pass) type.
3-133
Figure 3.33: Selection of Liquid Flow Arrangement (R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
3.4.1.17 Provisional Plate Design
Table 3.53: Provisional Plate Design
Column diameter, Dc 1.6 m

Column Area, Ac 2.0 m
Downcomer area, Ad 12%(2.0 m)= 0.24 m
Net area, An Ac - Ad = 1.76 m
Active area, Aa Ac - 2Ad = 1.52 m
Hole are, Ah (assume 10% of Aa in the first trial) 10%(1.52 m)= 0.15 m
3.4.1.18 Weir Length
Length of the downcomers will fix the area of the downcomer and it usually be
between 0.6 to 0.85 0f the column diameter. Initial value to be used is 0.77 which is
equivalent to a downcomer of 12%. Length of downcomer could be determined based
on the figure of relation between downcomer area and weir length as shown in Figure
3.34.
3-134
By referring to the figure at;
(Ad/Ac) 100% = (0.24/2.0) 100 = 12%, thus lw/Dc = 0.76
Since lw/Dc = 0.76 and Dc= 1.6 m, thus lw= 1.22 m
Figure 3.34: Relation between Down Comer Area and Weir Length (R.K. Sinnot,
1999)
3.4.1.19 Weir Height
Height of weir help in determining the volume of liquid on the plate and plate
efficiency. Plate efficiency will increase if the weir height is increase but will contribute
to the higher expense on the pressure drop. For column that operating above
atmospheric pressure, the weir height will normally between 40 mm to 90 mm. The
recommended height for weir design is between 40 mm to 50 mm. Thus in weir design
basis of following parameter is taken into consideration:
Weir height, hw = 50 mm
Hole diameter, dh = 5 mm
Plate thickness = 5 mm
3-135
3.4.1.20 Weep Point
Weep point is a condition whereby lower limit of the operating range occurs when
liquid leakage through the plate holes become excessive. To prevent the occurance
of weeping point, the lowest rate of vapour flow velocity must exceed the weep point.
As given by Eduljee (1959), the simplest yet reliable method to calculate minimun
velocity required in order to avoid weeping as shown in Equation 3.29.
[K-0.9(25.4-dh)]
h = v 0.5
(3.29)
Where:
h = minimun vapour velocity through the holes (based on hole area), m/s
Dh = hole diameter, m/s
K = constant dependent on the depth of clear liquid on the plate
Clear liquid depth is equal to the height of the weir, hw plus the depth of the crest of
liquid over the weir,how. The depth of the liquid crest over the weir can be estimated
by using Equation 3.30.
Lw
how = 750 [(l)lw] (3.30)
Where:
Lw = liquid flow rate,kg/s
lw = weir length, m
how = weir crest, mm liquid
Maximum liquid rate = 3.4313kg/s
Minimun liquid rate at 70% down = 0.7(3.4313) = 2.4019 kg/s
3.4313
Maximum how = 750 [(994.9464)(1.22)]2/3 = 14.9943mm liquid
2.4019
Minimun how = 750 [(994.9464)(1.22)]2/3 = 11.8211 mm liquid
3-136
At minimun rate, hw + how = 50 mm + 11.8211 = 61.8211 mm liquid
By referring to the weep point correlation as illustrated in Figure 3.5, at hw + how =

61.8211 mm, the K obtained is 30.37.
Figure 3.35: Weep Point Correlation (R.K. Sinnnot, 1999)
[30.37-0.9(25.4-5)]
h = 5.04470.5
= 5.3472 m/s
Actual minimun vapour velocity = minimun vapour rate / Ah = (0.7 Vmax.base)/ Ah
= (0.7 1.2784 m3/s)/ 0.15 m2
= 5.9659 m/s
As actual minimun vapour velocity is higher than vapour velocity at weep point thus
weeping phenomenon can be avoided.
3.4.1.21 Plate Pressure Drop
Maximun vapor velocity through the holes can be calculated from Equation 3.31.
Uh (max) = Vmax /Ah (3.31)
= 1.2784 m3/s / 0.15 m2
= 8.52 m/s
3-137
3.4.1.22 Dry Plate Pressure Drop, hd
The estimation on the dry plate pressure drop for oriface flow could be derived from
Equation 3.32. Value of Co could be determined from the Figure 3.36.

hd= 51[ ]^2
(3.32)
where:
C0 = function of plate thickness, hole diameter and hole to perforated area ratio
Uh = velocity through holes, m/s
Figure 3.36: Discharge Coeff, Sieve Plates (R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
Based on Figure 3.6, the percent of perforated area;
At Ah/Ap 100 Ah/Aa 100 = 0.15 m / 1.52 m 100 = 9.89 and
Plate thickness / hole diameter = 5 mm / 5 mm = 1
C0 = 0.84
8.52 5.0447
hd= 51[0.84]^2 994.6494
= 26.61 mm liquid
3-138
3.4.1.23 Residual Head, Hr
Estimation on residual head can be determined from Equation 3.33.
hr = 12.5 103 / L (3.33)
= 12.5 103 / 994.6494
= 12.57 mm liquid
3.4.1.24 Total Pressure Drop
Equation for total pressure drop calculation as given in Equation 3.34.
ht = hd + (hw + how) + hr (3.34)
ht = 26.61 + 61.82 + 12.57
ht = 101 mm liquid
The value of calculated total pressure drop is acceptable as it approximately equal to

the assumption of total pressure drop made in section 5.1.8 before which is 100 mm.
3.4.1.25 Downcomer Pressure Loss
Constriction at the downcomer outlet is the main resistance to flow. Based on

Equation 3.35, head loss in the downcomer can be estimated.
Lwd
hdc = 166 [] (3.35)
where:
Lwd = liquid flow rate in downcomer, kg/s
Am = downcomer area, Ad or clearance area under downcomer, Aap whichever is the

smaller, m2
3-139
For clearance area under downcomer, Aap = hapLaw
Where:
hap = height of the bottom edge of the apron above the plate (normally set at 5 to 10
mm below the outlet weir height).
hap = hw (5 to 10 mm)
hap = 50 10 = 40 mm
Aap = (40 mm/ 1000 mm) 1.22 m
= 0.048 m2
Since Ad = 0.24 m, thus Aap smaller than Ad, thus value of Aap wil be taken into
consideration.
3.4313
hdc = 166 [994.64940.048]
hdc = 1.48 mm
3.4.1.26 Downcomer Liquid Back Up
hbc = (hw + how) + ht + hdc
hbc = 61.82+ 101 + 1.48
hbc = 164.3 mm
The downcomer are and plate spacing must be such that the level of the liquid and
froth in the downcomer is well below the top of the outlet weir on the pplaye above.
Column will flood if the level rises above the outlet weir. hbc should not exceed half of
the plate spacing in order to avoid flooding.
hbc < 0.5(lt + hw)
0.5(lt + hw) = 0.5 [(0.5m 1000 mm) + 50 mm] = 260 mm
Since hbc value which is 164.3 mm is less than half of plate spacing which is 260 mm,
thus the value of plate spacing being assumed (0.5 m) can be accepted.
3-140
3.4.1.27 Downcomer Residence Time
Sufficient residence time in the downcomer is required to allowed entrained vapor to

disengage from liquid stream. This important to prevent heavily aerated liquid being
carried under the downcomer. Based on Sinnot, a time of at least 3 seconds is
recommended. The downcomer residence time is given as in Equation 3.36.
tr = Adhbcl / Lwd (3.36)
tr = 0.24 m2(164.3 mm /1000 mm)(994.6494 kg/m3) / 3.4313 kg/s
tr = 11.4 seconds
3.4.1.28 Entrainment
Entrainment can be estimated from the correlation given by Fair (1961) as shown in
Figure 3.7 which gives the fractional entrainment (kg/kg gross liquid flow) as a
function of the liquid vapor factor, FLv with the percentage approach of flooding as a
parameter. Effect on the efficiency of column will be small when the upper limit of
is 0.1. Flooding percentage can be determined as in Equation 8.37.
Percentage flooding = Un ( actual velocity based on net area) / Uf

(3.37)
Percentage flooding = 1.19 / 1.4003 100
= 84.98 %
Based on Figure 3.37, at percentage flooding of 84.98% and FLV =0.03789, value
= 0.09. As below than 0.1 than there is no effect in the column efficiency.
3-141
Figure 3.37: Entrainment Correlation for Sieve Plate (R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
3.4.1.29: Trial Layout and Perforated Area
The area available for perforation will help to reduce the obstruction caused by
structural members like support rings and beams and also by the used of calming
zone. Calming zone is the area of unperforated plate strips at inlet and outlet sides of
the plate. Width of each zone usually in dimension of 1.5 m below, 7.5 mm diameter
and 100 mm above. The widht for support ring of sectional plates will normally lies
between 50 to 75 mm and the support ring should not extend into the downcomer
area. A strip of un pperforated plate will be left round the edge of cartridge type trays
in order to stiffen the plate.plate geometry will determine the area of unperforated.
Relationshipp between weir chord length, chord height and the angle subtended by
the chord is presented in Figure 3.8. Based on Figure 3.38, at Lw/Dc = 0.76,
c= 98. Thus angle subtended by the edge of the plate = 180 - 98 = 82.
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Figure 3.38: Relation Between Angle Subtended by Chord, Chord Height and Chord
Length (R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
i) Holes size and plate thickness
Sized of hole vary from 2.5 to 12 mm and the preferred is 5 mm. Larger size is
required for fouling system. Typical plate thickness used for carbon steel is 5 mm and
3 mm for stainless steel.
ii) Hole Pitch, lp
Hole pitch describe the distances between hole centre and it should not be less than
0.2 hole diameters. The normal range usually between 2.5 to 4.0 diameters as at this
range, the pitch will give the number of active holes required for the total hole area
sppecified. Triangular pattern is preferred for pitch design. For triangular pitch, total
hole area, Ah as a fraction of the perforated area, Ap can be expressed in the Equation
3.38.
= 0.9 [ ]2 (3.38)
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iii) Mean Length of Unperforated Strips
mean length of unperforated strips = (Dc 50mm) angle subtended by the

edge of the plate / 180
mean length of unperforated strips = (1.6 50 mm/ 1000 mm) 98 / 180
= 2.65
iv) Area of Unperforated Edge Strips
Area of unperforated edge strip = weir height mean length, unperforated edge strips
Area of unperforated edge strips = 50 mm/ 1000 mm 2.65 m
= 0.133 m
v) Mean Length of Calming Zone
App mean length of calming zone = weir length + width of unpperforated strips
App mean length of calming zone = 1.22 m + 50 mm /1000 mm
= 1.27 m
Area of calming zone = 2 weir height mean length of calming zone
= 2 50 mm/ 1000 mm 1.27 m
= 0.127 m2
vi) Total Area for Perforations, Ap
Ap = Aa area of unperforated edge strips area of calming zone
Ap = 1.52 m 0.133 0.127
= 1.26 m2
Relation between hole area and pitch as been shown in Figure 3.39. Based on Figure
3.39, at Ah/Ap = 0.15/1.26 = 0.12, Ip/Dh = 2.73. Since Ip/Dh value is within the range of
2.5 to 4.0 thus it is acceptable.
3-144
Figure 3.39: Relation between Hole Area and Pitch (R.K.Sinnot, 1999)
3.4.1.30 Number of Holes
Area of one hole = (dh2)/4
= (0.0052)/4
= 1.9635E-5 m2
Number of hole per plate = Ah/ area of one hole
= 0.15/ 1.9635E-5
= 8 843 holes
3.4.1.31 Colum Size
Column diameter, dc = 1.6 m
Column area, Ac = 2.02 m
Tray height = no stages x tray spacing = (46-1) x 0.5 =22.5 m
3-145
Column height = 22.5 + 1.2 + 1.8 (1.2 m should be added at top of column for vapor
release and 1.8 should be added at bottom for liquid level and reboiler return)
Column height = 26 m
Length/diameter ratio = 26/1.6 = 16 m
Length to diameter ratio of a tower should be not more than 30 and referably below
20 (ICARUS, 1998). As the calculated ratio is 16 m which is below than 20 m thus the
design calculated is acceptable.
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Table 3.54: Summary Chemical Design of Distillation Colum (T-103)
Parameter Value
Feed temperature 354 K
Distillate temperature 329 K
Bottom temperature 361 K
Type of column Tray tower
Tray type Sieve plate tray
Dew point temperature 330 K
Bubble point temperature 372.54 K
Bubble feed point temperature 407.71 K
Q value 1.12> 1 (subcooled liquid)
Minimum reflux ratio 0.5653
Plate efficiencies 46%
Minimum number of stages 11.88
Number of theoritical stages 21
Number of actual stages 46
Number of stage above fee, Nr 22
Number of stage below feed, Ns 24
Reflux ratio, R 0.85
Plate spacing 0.5
Maximum allowable vapor velocity, v 0.6338 m/s
Column area 2.02 m2
Column height 26 m
Liquid flow pattern Cross flow (single pass) plate
Downcomer area, Ad 0.24 m2
Net area, An 1.76 m2
Active area, Aa 1.52 m2
Hole area, Ah 0.15 m2
Weir length, lw 1.22 m
Weir height 50 mm = 0.05 m
Hole diameter, dh 5 mm = 0.005 m
Plate thickness 5 mm = 0.005 m
Minimum design vapour velocity, Uh (min) 5.3472 m/s
Actual minimum vapour velocity 5.9659 m/s
Plate pressure drop 26.61 mm liquid
(plate spacing + weir height) 260 mm
Downcamer liquid back up, hbc 164.3 mm
Residence time 11.4 s
Entrainment 0.09 (below 0.1)
3-147
3.4.2 Mechanical Design of Distillation Column
Mechanical design of pressure vessel in this case is distillation column is an important

process as any mechanical constrainst arised will affect economic and also safety.
Pressure vessel can be divided into two class which are thin walled vessel and thick
walled vessel which can be differentiate based on their ratio of pressure vessel with
wall thickness. In real chemical industry, thin walled vessel usually used
normalpressure operation meanwhile thick wall vessels usually applied for high
pressure operation. The design and fabrication of thin walled pressure vessel is cover
by national standard and code practice. This function to establish rules of safety
relating to the process integrity of vessels and provide guidance on design, materials
selection for construction, fabrication, inspection and testing. Design and fabrication
of thin walled pressure vessel is covered by 2004 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code (ASME BPV Code).
3.4.2.1 Column Design Specification
Based on chemical design of T-103 conducted in previous section, a few data have
been extracted as shown in Table 3.55.
Table 3.55: Data from Chemical Design Calculation
Operating pressure 3 bar

Operating temperature 329 to 361 K
Column area 2.02 m
Column height 26 m
3.4.2.2 Design Pressure
Distillation column for acetone separation process must be designed to have the
ability to withstand the maximum pressure that it will experienced during operation.
Safety factor of 5 to 10% above normal working pressure must taken into
consideration in order to avoid spurious operation during minor process upsets. In
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this operation, safety factor of 10% above operating pressure is being consider to
prevent spurious operation of relief valve during process upset.
Design pressure = 1.1 (safety factor) operating pressure
= 1.1 3 bar
= 3.3 bar
= 0.33 N/mm2
3.4.2.3 Design Temperature
Design temperature is an important parameter as maximum allowable stress of metal

depending on the process temperature. The strength of metal will decrease as the
temperature increase. Design temperature at which design stress will be evaluated
should be taken as the maximum working temperature of the material. For design of
distillation column, design temperature is the temperature that correspond to the
design pressure factor.
Operating temperature = 135
Design temperature = 1.1 135C = 148.5 C (421.65 K)
3.4.2.4 Material of Construction
Proper consideration is required during material selection for designing distillation

column. The selection of material must be based on the approriateness of the design
requirement such as the suitability of material for fabrication (being welded) and the
compatibility of the material selected with process environment (strength etc). The
material selected should also give an affordable cost over the working life of the plant,
installation, maintenance and during replacement process.
SS304 (18Cr/Ni, 2.5%Mo) has been chosen as the material use in fabrication of
column tower T-103. SS304 is the type of stainless steel that is widely used in
chemical industry that desired for corrosion resistance as it shows excellent behavior
in a wide range of atmospheric environments and many corrosive media
(R.K.Sinnot,1999). The designated distillation column function to separate acetone
from IPA and water. SS304 will subjected to pitting and crevice corrosion in warm
3-149
chloride environments, however during this separation process this problem will not
arise as the environment of process not involving chloride environment.
Table 3.56 describes relative properties and cost of metal that can be applied in
chemical processing industry. From the table, it showed that carbon steel has lower
cost compared with SS 304 and SS 346. However the maximum allowable stress for
carbon steel quite low compared with those two stainless steel. With the same
maximum allowable stress of 20 ksi, SS 304 gives better properties as its cost much
cheaper compared with SS 316.
Table 3.56: Relative Properties and Cost of Metal
Metal Price ($/lb) Max allowable stress (ksi) Relative cost rating
Carbon steel 0.46 12.9 1
Stainless steel 304 1.44 20 2.0
Stainless steel 316 2.47 20 3.5
Maximum allowable strees of SS304 at design pressure and temperature is an

important parameter to be determined as it helps to identify the ability of the column
to withstand without failure under standard test conditions. Typical maximum
allowable stresses under ASME BPV Code Sec. VII D.1 at certain temperature as
tabulate in Table 8.57. Based on Table 3.57, at design temperature of 149C, the
design stress is 130 N/mm2.
Table 3.57: Typical Maximum Allowable Stresses for Plate under ASME BPV Code
Sec. VIII D.1 (R.K.Sinnot, 1999)
Material Tensile Design stress at temperature C (N/mm2)

strength
(N/mm2) 0 to 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
50
SS 304 510 165 145 130 115 110 105 100 100 95 90
3-150
3.4.2.5 Maximum Welded Joint Efficiency and Construction Categories
Welded joint strength depend on the type of joint and also the quality of welding in
order to join head, perforated body and fittings together meanwhile the joint efficiency
values depends on the type of joint and amount of radiography required. The design
of welded joint should meet the following requirement;
1. Give good accessibility for wleding and inspection.
2. Require less amount of weld metal (reduce cost).
3. Give good penetration of the weld metal from both side of joint.
4. Give sufficient flexibility to avoid cracking due to differential thermal expansion.
For pressurized vessel, the preferred type of joint as being stated in ASME BPV Code
Sec VIII D.1, Part UW requirement for pressure vessle fabricated by welding or BS N
13455-3 ANNEX P, BS EN 13445-4 and BS EN 1708-1 welding is basic weld joint.
Any vessel pressure containing lethal substance (in this case are IPA and acetone)
must required full radiographic testing of all butt welds. To ensure the flexibility of the
designated distillation column, double welded butt joint is chosen as type of welded
joint with full degree of radiographic examination.
Table 3.58: Maximun Allowable Joint Efficiency for Designated Distillation Column
(R.K.Sinnot, 1999)
Joint Description Joint Degree of Radiographic Examination
Categories Full Spot None
Double welded butt A, B, C, D 1.0 0.85 0.70
joint or equivalent
3.4.2.6 Corrosion Allowance
Corrosion allowance referred to the additional thickness that being added to metal to
allow for lost of material by corrosion, erosion or fouling during operational process.
Corrosion allowance shall be specify for all type pressure vessel as being stated in
ASME BPV Code Sec VIII D.1 (Part UG-25). For alloy steel where severe corrosion
is not expected, a minimun allowance of 2.0 mm should be used and the corrosion
allowance should be increased to 4.0 mm where moresevere conditions are
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anticipated. Minimun corrosion allowance of 2.0 mm will be anticipated in the
designing calculation as SS304 is corrosion resistance in the operating environment
which consist of IPA, acetone and water. Minimun corrosion allowance of 2.0 mm is
acceptable to be applied in this design as the behaviour of IPA, acetone and water
as the operating environment are not very corrosive thus the material of construction
able to withstand its properties with only 2.0 mm corrosion allowance.
3.4.2.7 Vessel Thickness
Minimum wall thickness is an important parameter that required to being identified as

to make sure that design vessel is being able to withstand its own weight especially
during any accidental load. As being specified in ASME BPV Code Sec VIII D.1, the
minimun wall thickness is about 1.5 mm not including corrosion allowance. Table 8.59
tabulate the general guide of vessel thickness (including corrosion allowance) that
suit with the diameter of the vessel.
Table 3.59: Minimun Thickness at Different Diameter (R.K Sinnot, 1999)

Vessel Diameter (m) Minimum Thickness (mm)
1 5
1 to 2 7
2 to 2.5 9
2.5 to 3.0 10
3.0 to 3.5 12
The minimum thickness required for the cylinderical shell can be calculated from the
Equation 3.36:
PiDi
=
2SE1.2Pi
(3.36)
Where:
T = minimum thickness required, mm
Pi = internal pressure, N/mm2
Di = internal diamter, m
3-152
E = joint factor
S = maximum allowable stress, N/mm2
0.33(1600)
t = 2(130)(1)1.2(0.33)
t = 2.03 mm + 2 mm (corrosion allowance)

t = 4 mm
3.4.2.8 Heads and Closure
Suitable head for the cylinderical vessel can be made based on comparison between
the different type of head thickness. The smaller different between head thickness
and cylinderical thickness is the most suitable one to be apply as head of vessel.
Various shape of heads that usually being adopted in industry are as shown in Figure
3.40.
Figure 3.40: Domed Head. (a) Hemispherical (b) Ellipsoidal (c) Torispherical
(R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
iii. Design of flat ends
i
= e (3.37)
3-153
Where:
De = nominal plate diameter = De = Di + 0.2 = 1.6 m + 0.2 = 1.8 m x 103 = 1800
mm
C = design constant, depend on edge constraint
E = joint efficiency
Therefore, the t can be calculated;

0.250.33 N/mm2
t = 1800 mm
130 N/mm2 1
t = 45.3 mm + corrosion allowance

t = 45.3 mm + 2 mm = 47.3 mm
iv. Design of hemispherical head
i i
= (3.38)
40.4i
Where;
Di = internal diameter, 1.6 m x 103 = 1600 mm
Therefore,
N
0.33 1600 mm
mm2
t= N
[(4130 1)(0.40.33)]
mm2
t = 1.02 mm + 2 mm = 2.02 mm
3-154
iii. Torispherical heads
0.885PiRc
t= SE0.1Pi
(3.39)
Where;
Rc = crown radius = Di = 1600 mm
Therefore,
N
0.8850.33 1600 mm
mm2
t= N
[(1301)(0.10.33)]
mm2
t = 3.6 mm + 2 mm = 5.6 mm
iv) Ellipsoidal heads
PiDi
t = 2SE0.2P (3.30)
i
Where;
Di = internal diameter, 1.6 m x 103 = 1600 mm
Pi = internal pressure, 0.33N/mm2
Therefore,
N
0.33 1600 mm
mm2
t= N
[(21301)(0.20.33)]
mm2

t = 2.0 mm + 2 mm = 4.0 mm
By comparing the calculations above, the thickness calculated for ellipsoidal

head is similar to the thickness of wall calculated before. Compared to other
3-155
type of heads, the values for thickness obtained are much larger than the
thickness of wall, thus it will make the column become unstable and inefficient.
Ellipsoidal heads give the best result at value of 4.0 mm which is same with
the thickness of wall vessel. In distillation column, a much thicker wall will be
needed at the base. As the first rial, the column will be divided into five section
with the thickness increasing by 2 mm per section. Thus the thickness are 6,
8,10, 12 14 mm. Average thickness is 10 mm will be used in the calculation.
3.4.2.9 Weight Loads
Some of the sources that contributing to the weight loads are the vessel shell,
vessel fittings (manways and nozzles), internal fittings (plates, heating and
cooling coils), external fittings (ladders, piping), auxiliary equipment that is not
self-supported (condenser, agitators), insulations and the weight of liquid to
be filling in the vessel.
i. Weight of vessel shell;

Wv = CwmDmg(Hv + 0.8Dm) 103 (3.31)
Where;
WV = total weight of shell excluding internal fittings such plates
CW = a factor to account for weight of nozzles, manways, internal supports,

taking 1.15 for distillation column
HV = height or length, between tangent lines, 26 m
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2
t = wall thickness, 4.0mm
m = density of vessel material; since the material is stainless steel 304
Dm = mean diameter of vessel, = Di + t x 10-3 = 1.6 m + (10x 10-3) = 1.61 m
However, since the material used for this vessel is steel, the equation above
can be further simplified;
3-156
WV = 240CWDm(HV + 0.8Dm)t
Wv = 240 1.15 1.61 [26 + (0.8 1.61)]10
WV = 121 256.95 N = 121.256 kN
Weight of plates
Wp = plate area number of plates

plate area = 4 Di2 = 4 (1.6)2 = 2.01 m2
The plates area must be include with typical liquid loading, 1.2 kN/m2

= 1.2 2
2.01 2 = 2.413
Number of plates, 46
P = 2.413 36 = 110.986
ii. Weight of insulation
For insulation, the material selected is foam glass. For a refinery and
petrochemical plant, the property of insulation that needs to be considered is
the thermal properties as insulation functions to reduce heat loss since the
column operated above atmospheric temperature. Foam glass comes with
high quality and longer shell life besides having good thermal conductivity
(Foam Glas, 2004). Since foam glass is chosen as insulation material, the
density for this insulating material is 150 kg/m3
(R.K. Sinnot, 1999). According to (Kennedy, 2007), the optimum thickness for
insulation for distillation column, the range value is between 4 inch to 8 inch.
Thus, for this case, the thickness of foam glass selected is 4 inch (101.6 mm).
Therefore, the weight of insulation can be calculated;

foam glass = 150 kg/m3
insulation = 101.6 mm
Volume of insulator = DHV ti = 1.6 m 26 m (101.6 103 ) = 13.28 m3
Thus, the weight of insulation is;
3-157
kg m
Wi = 13.28 m3 150 m3 9.81 s2
Wi = 19 538.77 N = 19.54 kN
To allow for attachment fitting, sealing and moisture adsorption, the weight
obtained will be doubled.
Wi = 19.54 kN 2 = 39.08 kN
iv. Weight of Ladder
As mentioned by R.K.Sinnot (1999), weight of ladder, W L can be determine

by the following equation;
WL = 360 N/m length (for cage ladder steel) vessel length
= 360/1000 26 m
= 9.36 kN
Thus, the total weight loads obtained for this distillation column is;
W T = 121.256 kN + 110.99 kN + 39.08 kN + 9.36 kN= 280.686 kN
3.4.2.10 Wind Loading
Since the distillation column is 26 m tall, thus the pressure caused by the wind
must be taking into account. This will affect the stability of the column. This wind
loading will cause the bending stress of the tall column will be greater than direct
stress. Thus, it shows that wind loading and bending stress was related. The
bending moment at any plane can be calculated from Equation 3.32.
Fw x2
MX = (3.32)
2
Where,
x = the distance measured from the free end, 26 m
Fw= loading per unit length = Dm x Wind pressure
Dm = Di + 2[(t + ti) 103 ] = 1.6 + 2[(10 + 101.6) 103 ] = 1.82 m
For smooth cylinderical column, Equation 3.33 can be employed to estimate the
wind pressure. If the column outline is broken up by attachments like ladder pipe
3-158
work, the factor of 0.05 in Equation 3.33 should be increased to 0.07 to allow for
the increase drag.
Pw = 0.05Uw2 (3.33)
Where:
Pw = wind pressure, N/m2
Uw = maximum wind speed, km/h = 150 km/hr
Pw = 0.05(150)2
Pw = 1126.8 N/m2
N
Fw = 1126.8 m2
1.82 m = 2 054.38 N/m
Thus, the moment bending is;
N
2054.38
Mx = 2
m
(26)2 m2
Mx = 694 381.03 Nm = 694.38 kNm
3.4.2.11 Analysis of Stresses
Stress acting on distillation column usually resulted from that include pressure,
dead weight of vessel and contents, wind, earthquake and also external load
contribute by piping and attached equipment.
i) At bottom tangent line
Pressure stress, H and L
The longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to pressure (internal or

external) can be calculated by;
N
PDi 0.33 1600 mm
mm2
H = = = 18.86N/mm2
2t 214 mm
3-159
N
PDi 0.33 1600 mm
mm2
L = = = 9.43 N/mm2
4t 414 mm
Dead weight stress, W
Dead weight stress is contributed by the weight of the vessel, its content and
any attachment to it. This type of stress could be compressive either tensile.
The compressive (negative) for points above the supports and tensile
(positive) for point below the plane of vessel supports (Sinnot & Towler, 2009).
The dead weight stress can be obtained by;
Wz 280.686 103 N
w = (D +t)t = [(1600+14)mm]14 mm = 3.95 N/mm2 (compressive)
i
This dead weight stress will be denoted as compressive since distillation

column used tall column, thus, the point will be above support.
Bending stress, b
The bending stress was resulting from the bending moments subjected to the
vessel. Some factors contributing to the bending moments are wind loads,
seismic load and the dead weight and wind loads (R.K.Sinnot, 1999). In order
to obtain the bending stress, the second moment area of vessel must be
calculated first.

Iv = 64 (Dv 4 Di4 )
Dv = 1600 mm + (2 t mm) = 1600 mm + (2 14)mm = 1628 mm

Di = 1.6 m = 1600 mm

Iv = 64 [(1628)4 (1600)4 ] = 2.312 1010 mm4
Since the value of Iv has been determined, the bending stress can be
calculated as following;
Mx Di 694 381.03 103 Nmm 1600

b = ( + t) = ( + 14) mm
Iv 2 2.3121010 mm4 2
b = 24.45 N/mm2
3-160
Thus, the resultant longitudinal stress can be obtained;
z = L + w b
w is compressive, therefore it indicate negative value, -3.95 N/mm2 .
z (upwind) = 9.43 3.95 + 24.45 = 29.93 N/mm2

z (downwind) = 9.43 3.95 24.45 = -18.97 N/mm2
Torsional shear stress is negligible and the principle stress will be h - z

h - z (upwind) =18.86 29.93 = -11.07 N/mm2
h - z (downwind) = 18.86 (-18.97) = 37.83 N/mm2
The greater stresses is at downwind side of the vessel which is 37.83 N/mm2.
This value however consider acceptable in the design as the maximum
allowable stress for SS304 is 130 N/mm2 which is higher than the principle
stress.
3.4.2.12 Elastic Stability (Buckling)
According to R.K. Sinnot (1999), failure of design for column can occur under
an axial compressive load by buckling of complete vessel. Thus, it is
necessary to ensure that the maximum value of resultant axial stress will not
exceed the critical value at which buckling can occur. The critical buckling
stress is achieved by;
t
c = 2 104 (D ) N/mm2
v
14
c = (2 104 ) (1628) = 171.99 N/mm2
Maximum compressive stress when vessel is not under pressure;
b + w = 24.45 + 3.95 = 28.44 N/mm2
3-161
The maximum compressive stress that will occur when the vessel is not under
pressure is 28.44 N/mm2. Since the value obtained does not exceed the
critical buckling stress (171.99 N/mm2 ), the design is considered acceptable.
3.4.2.13 Vessel Support
Vessel support will depend on the size, shape and weight of the vessel, design
temperature and pressure, vessel location and arrangement and also the
internaland external fittings and attachment. For tall and vertical column, skirt
support as shown in Figure 3.41 will be implemented. The design of support
must be checked to make sure that the resulting stress concentration are
below maximum allowable design stress as support will imposed localised
load on the vessel wall. Support also must be design to allow easy access to
the vessel and fittings for inspection and maintenance.
Figure 3.41: Skirt Support Design. (a) Straight Skirt (b) Conical Skirt
(R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
i) Design for straight skirt support
Design information for skirt support:
Type of support = straight cylinderical skirt (s = 90)
Material of construction = plain carbon steel
3-162
Design stress, Ss = 88.94 N/mm2
Young modulus, Ey = 200 000 N/mm2
Skirt support height =3m
Joint efficiency, e = 0.85
ii) Weight Load on Support
Maximum weight load on the skirt support will happen when the vessel full
with liquid (water). Approxiamate weight of vessel when full with water can be
estimated from Equation 3.34.
W = [/4 (Di)2Hv]Lg (3.34)
W = [/4 (1.6)2(26)](1000 kg/m3)(9.81) = 512 828.56 N
= 512.83 kN
Total weight of vessel = 280.686 + 512.83 = 793.516 kN
iii) Bending moment of skirt, Ms
N
2054.38
Ms = m
(26 + 3)2 m2
2
Ms = 863 866.79Nm = 863.87 kNm
iv) Bending stress in the skirt
Bending stress of skirt can be determine from the Equation 3.35.
4Ms
bs = (Ds+tsk)Ds(tsk) (3.35)
Where:
Ms = maximum bending stress evaluated at base of skirt
Ds = Di = inside diameter of skirt
tsk = skirt thickness
3-163
As first trial, skirt thickness will be assume as same as the bottom section of
vessel which is 14 mm.
4863.87 103 103

bs = = 30.42 N/mm2
(1600+14)1600(14)
The dead weight stress of skirt for test and operating conditions can be
determine from Equation 3.36 and 3.37 respectively.
Wt
ws (test) = (Ds+tsk)(tsk) (3.36)
Wz
ws (operating) = (Ds+tsk)(tsk) (3.37)
793.516 1000
ws (test) = (1600+14)(14) = 11.18 N/mm2
280.686 1000
ws (operating) = (1600+14)(14) = 3.95 N/ mm2
v) Resultant skirt stress
Maximum stress, s (compressive) and mazimum stres, s (tensile) can be

determine from Equation 3.38 and 3.39 respectively.
Maximum s (compressive) = bs + ws (test) (3.38)
Maximum s (tensile) = bs - ws (operating)
(3.39)
Maximum s (compressive) = 30.42+ 11.18 = 41.6 N/mm2
Maximum s (tensile) = 30.42 - 3.95 = 26.47 N/mm2
vi) Criteria for design skirt
The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst combination of wind
and dead weight loading.
s (tensile) < Ss E sin

26.47 N/mm2 < 88.94(0.85) sin90
3-164
26.47 N/mm2 < 76.59 N/mm2
s (compressive) < 0.125 Ey (tsk/Ds) sin
41.6 N/mm2 < 0.125(200 000)(14/1600)sin 90
41.6 N/mm2 < 218.75 N/mm2
Both criteria are statisfied, adding 2 mm for corrosion allowance will give a
design thickness for skirt support of 16 mm.
3.4.2.14 Base Ring and Anchor Bolts Design
The moment produces by wind and others loads will tend to overturn the
vessel and in order to prevent this from happening is by setting up the couple
vessel weight and the tensile load in the anchor bolt. Rules that can be apply
for the selection of anchor bolts are as follow (R.K.Sinnot, 1999):
1. Used bolts larger than 25 mm.
2. Minimum number of bolts must be 8
3. Used multiples of 4 bolts
4. Bolt pitch must more than 600 mm.
i) Design information for bolt

Approximate pitch circle diameter = 2.2 m
Circumference of bolt diameter = 2200
Recommended bolt spacing = 600 mm
Number of bolt required at minimum recommended bolt spacing = 2200/600
= 12
Closet multiple of 4, Nb = 12 bolts
Bolt design stress, fb = 125 N/mm2
Skirt bending moment, Ms = 863.87 kNm
Weight of vessel, W z = 280.686 kN
Di = 2.95 m
ii) Bolt area

The anchor bolts are assumed to share the overturning load equally, and the
bolt area, Ab can be determine from Equation 3.40.
1 4Ms
Ab = Nbfb ( Db W) (3.40)
3-165
Where:
Ab = area of one bolt at the root of the thread, mm2
Nb = number of bolts
fb = maximum allowable bolt stress, N/mm2 (125 , N/mm2)
Ms = bending moment at base, Nm
W = weight of vessel, N
Db = bolt circle diameter, m
1 4863.87103
Ab = ( 280.686 1000) (3.41)
12(125) 2.2
= 859.99 mm
Bolt circle diameter determination;
4
Db = 859.99

= 33.09 mm
3.4.2.15 Compressive Load on the Base Ring, Fb
The total compressive load on the base ring per unit length can be determined
from Equation 3.42.
4
Fb = [ 2 +
] (3.42)
Where:
Fb = total compressive load on the base ring, N/m
Ds = skirt diameter, m
4(863.871000) 280.6861000
Fb = [ + ]
(1.62 ) (1.6)
= 435 237.76 N/m

= 435.24 kN/m
3-166
3.4.2.16 Base Ring Width, Lb
i) Minimum Width
The minimum width of the base ring can be determine from Equation 3.43.
Fb 1
Lb = fc
103 (3.43)
Where:
Lb = base ring width, mm
fc = the maximum allowable bearing on the concrete foundation pad, which
will depend on the mix used (typically range from 3.5 to 7 N/mm2)
By assuming the bearing pressure, fc = 5 N/mm2
435.24 1000 1
Lb = 3
5 10
= 87.05 mm (minimum width required)
For root area, Ab = 859.99 mm2, M42 bolts (BS 4190:1967) will be used with
root area of 1120 mm2. This value will be used during actual width that depend
on the chair design. Figure 3.42 showed flange ring dimension and contacting
edges fillet welded.
3-167
Table 3.60: Dimension for M42 Bolts (BS 4190:1967)
A 60
B 102
C 76
D 16
E 32
F 48
G 54
ii) Actual width
Actual width required, Lb,a = Lr + ts + 50 mm

Where:
Lr = B
ts = thickness of skirt, 16 mm
Lb,a = 102+ 16+ 50 mm = 168 mm
iii) Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation, fc
fc = Fb / Lb
fc = (435.24 1000)/(87.05 1000) = 4.99 N/mm2
iv) Minimum bolt thickness, tb
3f c
tb = Lr fr
Where:
fr = allowable design stress in the ring material (typically 140 N/mm2)
3(4.99)
tb = 102 140
tb = 33.4 mm = 34 mm
3-168
3.4.2.17 Pipe Diameter Estimation and Thickness Required
Diameter of piping will directly influence the capital cost and inversely
influenced the pumping cost required. Type of material used in designing the
piping is carbon steel as it cost lower price among other metal and there is no
corrosive environment involved in the operation. Approximate pipe diameter
for carbon steel in turbulent flow can be calculated by using Equation 3.44.
doptimum = 0.664G0.51-0.36 (3.44)
Where:
G = flow rate, kg/s
= density, kg/m3
P d optimum
Pipe thickness, t = 20 +P
(3.45)
Where:
P= internal pressure, bar
d = pipe outer diameter
= design stress for carbon steel at working temperature, 88.94 N/mm2
Typical velocity for liquid is 1 m/s.
i) Feed stream

Optimum diameter:
doptimum = 0.664(4.7875)0.51(900.02)-0.36
= 0.1275 m, 127.49 mm
After corrosion allowance consideration (2 mm) = 129.49 mm, 5.01 inch

3-169
5 127
Pipe thickness, t = 20 (88.94)+5
= 0.36 mm
ii) Distillate stream

Optimum diameter:
doptimum = 0.664(3.4861)0.51(5.0447)-0.36
= 0.7010m, 701 mm
After corrosion allowance consideration (2 mm) = 703 mm, 27.68 inch

1 711
= 0.39 mm
iii) Bottom stream

Optimum diameter:
doptimum = 0.664(1.3016)0.51(994.65)-0.36
= 0.0633 m, 63.29 mm
After corrosion allowance consideration (2 mm) = 65.29 mm, 2.6 inch

Thus diameter = 2.5 inch
3-170
1 63.5
= 0.036 mm
After corrosion allowance consideration (4 mm) = 4.036 mm
Cross sectional area = /4(63.5/1000)2 = 0.0032 m2
3.4.2.18 Flanges Design
Flanged joints function to connect pipe and other instruments to vessel, for
manhole covers and for removable vessel head when ease of access is
required. Flanges also may be used on the vessel body, when it is necessary
to divide the vessel into sections for transport or maintenance. Besides that,
it also used to connect pipe to other equipment such as pumps and valves.
There are several type of flanges that can be utilized in process industries
such as welding neck flanges, slip on flanges hub and plate types, lap joint
flanges, screw flanges and blank flanges. Steel welding neck flanges has
been consider to be apply in designing column T-103 as it has a long tapered
hub between the flange ring and the welded joint. This properties reduce the
discontinuity stresses between the flanges and branch and also will increase
the strength of the flanges assembly. Welding neck joint very suitable to be
apply in extreme service condition where the flange is likely to be subjected
to temperature, shear and vibration loads. With outer pipe diameter of 127,
711 and 63.5 mm for feed, top and bottom stream respectively, standard
dimension for steel welding neck flanges at nominal pressure of 6 bar as being
tabulate in Table 3.32.
Figure 3.44: Standard Flanges (R.K. Sinnot, 1999)
3-171
Table 3.61: Flanges Dimension of Steel Welding neck Flanges at Nominal Pressure 6 bar (R.K.Sinnot, 1999)
Pipe outer Nominal Flanged Raised Bolting Drilling neck

diameter, d size face
D b h1 d4 F No d2 k d3 h2 R240
Feed 127 125 240 18 48 178 3 M16 8 18 200 155 10 8
Top 711 700 860 24 70 775 5 M24 24 26 810 740 16 12
Bottom 63.5 65 160 14 38 110 3 M12 4 14 130 88 9 6
3-172
Table 3.62: Summary Mechanical Design of T-103
Parameter Value
Specification of Column Design
Operating pressure 3 bar
Operating temperature 329 to 361 K
Column area 2.02 m
Column height 26 m
Design pressure 3.3 bar
Design temperature 421.65 K (148.5C)
Material of construction SS304
Insulation material Mineral wool
Insulation thickness 101.6 mm
Design stress, S 130N/mm2
Maximumm allowable joint 1
efficiency, E
Corrosion allowance 2 mm
Vessel thickness 4 mm
Closure design Ellipsoidal
Loads
Dead weight of vessel, Wv 121.256 kN
Weight of plates, Wp 110.986 kN
Weight of ladder, Wl 9.36 kN
Weight of insulation material, Wi 39.08 kN
Total weight load of vessel, Wz 280.686 kN
Wind loading, W 2.054 kN/m
Bending moment of vessel. Mx 694.38 kN/m
Analysis of Stresses
Resultant longitudinal stress 37.83 N/mm2
Critical buckling stress,c 171.99 N/mm2
Maximum compressive stress 28.44 N/mm2 (well below c)
3-173
Parameter Value
Vessel Support
Type of support Straight cylinderical skirt (s = 90)
Material of construction Plain carbon steel
Design stress, Ss 88.94 N/mm2
Young Modulus, Ey 200 000 n/mm2 at ambient
temperature
Skirt support height 3m
Weight load on skirt 793.516 kN
Bending moment of skirt, Ms 863.87 kNm
Bending stress on skirt, bs 30.42 N/mm2
Dead weight stress, ws (test) 11.18 N/mm2
Dead weight stress, ws (operating) 3.95 N/mm2
Maximum stress, s (compressive) 41.60 N/mm2
Maximum stress, s (tensile) 26.47 N/mm2
Skirt thickness 16 mm
Base ring and anchor bolts design
Approximate pitch circle diameter 2.2 m
Circumference of bolt diameter 2200
Recommended bolt spacing 600 mm
Number of bolt required 12 bolts
Bolt design stress, fb 125 N/mm2
Area of one bolt at the root of the thread 859.99 mm2
Bolt circle diameter, Db 33.09 mm
Compressive load on the base ring, Fb 435.24 kN/m
Base ring width, Lb 87.05 mm
Bearing pressure, fc 5 N/mm2
Bolt type M42 bolts (BS 4190:1967)
Actual bolt width required 168 mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete 4.99 N/mm2
foundation, fc
The minimum bolt thickness, tb 34 mm
3-174
Parameter Value
Estimation of Pipe Diameter and Thickness Required
Feed inlet stream doptimum 127.5 mm
Pipe thickness, t 4.36 mm
Distillate stream doptimum 701 mm
Bottom stream doptimum 63.29 mm
Flanges Design
Type Steel welding neck flanges
3-175
3-176
3.5 Sequencing Batch Reactor(SBR)
3.5.1 Introduction
SBR technology that involved periodic discontinuous process with activated sludge is
suitable to treat various types of wastewater including domestic wastewater, specific
organic pollutants, heavy metal and various types of industrial wastewater by using
diverse types of reactor configurations (Cui et al. 2013). SBR is suitable to be used
for for IPA and acetone wastewater treatment since periodic operation imposes
suitable oxygen gradients on the microorganisms that overwhelm natural variations
in the waste strength and composition as mention by Woolard (1997). Higher efficient
transfer rate of dissolved oxygen in flocs was proposed as the main reason for the
higher IPA and acetone removal ability in sequencing batch reactor. Besides that,
SBR system also suitable to apply for wastewater stream that contain nickel metal
catalyst because of its flexible operation, controllable in reaction time and has perfect
quiescent settling in yielding high efficiency in biochemical oxygen demand and
suspended solid removal about 8998% and 8597% respectively (Malakahmad, A.,
et al., 2013).
3.5.2 SBR process description
The complete operation of SBR divided into a number of cycles that will bw carried
per day in a single reactor or basin. The duration for each cycle is about 3-6 hours
and each cycle comprises of the following phase which are repeated.
1. Fill
2. Aeration
3. Settling
4. Decanting
The following operation are performed during these steps
i. The wastewater is filled into the basin up to a predetermined operating level.

ii. The wastewater is aerated by the diffuse aeration system as per designed
duration.
iii. After the aeration is completed, the biomass or MLVSS is allowed to settle
down by keeping the basin flow quiescent (motionless).
iv. After settling duration is over, the supernatant (clarified effluent) is removed
from the surface of the basin by using a decanter.
3-177
v. Excess or surplus sludge
Figure 3.45: Schematic diagram of a typical cycle of SBR Process.
3.5.1 Chemical Design Calculation of SBR
3.5.1.1 Primary Influent Parameter
Table 3.62: Primary Influent Parameter of Wastewater Discharged from the Process
Plant
BOD 699 mg/L

COD 1500 mg/L
TSS 272 mg/L
TKN 22 mg/L
TP 5 mg/L
Temp. 81C
Table 3.63: Desired Effluent Parameter Comply with Sewage Discharged of

Standard A by the Department of Environment
BOD5 < 10 mg/L

COD < 50.0 mg/L
TSS < 10.0 mg/L
TKN <5.0 mg/L
TP <1.0 mg/L
3-178
Considered following design data:
Filling & aeration period 2.0 hr
Settling period 0.5 hr
Decantation period -0.5 hr
Total cyclic time -3.0 hr
Total number of basin -4
No. of basin receiving the flow simultaneously- 2
No. of basin aerated simultaneously- 2
No. of basin decanted simultaneously- 2
MLSS in aeration tank 4000 mg/L
MLVSS aeration tank 3200 mg/L
F/M ratio -0.12
3.5.1.2 Flowrate Design, Q
For the design of flowrate, it is recommended that the peak flow (maximum daily flow,
Qpeak) is used. The Qaverage can get from manual mass balance.
An appropriate peaking factor must be determined by the design engineer based on

the operational characteristics of the manufacturing processes employed in the
industry. For the industrial wastewater treatment practice, the peaking factor chosen
is 2.5 (Cui et al. 2013).
Based on mass balance values, the overall wastewater effluent is 3695.272 kg/h.
3695.272 24 1 1 3

1 1000
= 88.687 m3/d
Qpeak is computed from the relationship:
Qpeak = Qaverage x peaking factor (2.5)
3-179
Where,
Qpeak = Maximum peak flow (m3/d)
Qaverage = Average flow (m3/d)
Therefore,wastewater flowrate in day, Qpeak:
Qpeak = 88.687 m3/hr 2.5 (peaking factor)
= 221.718 m3/day
3.5.1.3 Tank Design
The effective part of the tank (the volume between the lowest operating level and the
highest level, allowing for at least 0.5 m of freeboard) should be sized to contain the
volume of the peak hourly flow received during that portion of the SBR(s) cycle time
when there will be no forward flow or the volume of one batch, whichever is larger. In
addition to this, side stream/recycle flows should be included in the sizing.
Total volume of the basin
V= flow (3 /d) * Bod (mg/L) / MLVSS *f/m
3
221.718 699
=
3200 0.121
= 403.596 m3
Volume of each basin
Number of basin = 4
403.5963
Volume of each basin = = 100.899 m3 101 m3
4
Area of each basin
Depth of basin = 3 m 0.5(freeboard) = 1.5 m
3-180
Therefore, depth of basin = 3 m + 1.5 m = 4.5 m
100.899 3
Area of each basin = = = 22.422 m2
4.5
Width of basin
Providing length = 10 m
22.422 2
Width of basin = = 2.242 m 2.3 m
10
Size of each basin
= 4.5 m 10 m 2.3 m
= 103.5 m3
Hydraulic retention time (HRT) for the basin
= V/Q
101 3
=
221.718 3 /
24
= 0.46 d

= 10.9 h 11 h
3.5.1.4 Design of Anoxi Zone for removal of nitrogen (TKN) by Denitrification
Flow rate of anoxic zone of each basin
V=QT
Q = V/T
Q = (101) m3/ (11) h
Q = 9.182 m3/h 9.2 m3/h
Providing recirculation ratio ( ) of 25% of flow rate
3-181
Flow rate to anoxic zone to each basin
= Q +
= 9.2 + (0.25 9.2) m3/h
= 11.5 m3/h 12 m3/h
Providing HRT = 1 hour
Volume of anoxic zone
= Q + HRT
= (12) m3/h 1 h
= 12 m3
Providing depth = 4.5 m
Providing length = 5 m
Width of anoxic zone
123
= = 0.53 m
4.5 5
Total volume provided for anoxic zone
= 4.5 m 5 m 0.53 m
= 11.93 m3 12 m3
3.5.1.5 Determination of required at given flow condition
O2 for BOD removal
1.2 kg 2 / kg BOD
Inlet BOD = 699 mg/L
Outlet BOD = 10 mg/L
BOD removed = 689 mg/L
3-182
Note: g/m3 = mg/L
Kg of BOD removed
= BOD Q
= (689) g/m3 221.718 m3/day
= 152763.702 g/day
= 152.764 kg/d
Safety factor theoretical kg 2 required per kg of BOD - 10%
1.2 110
= = 1.32
100
Kg of O2 required for BOD load
= (safety factor) (kg of BOD removed)
= 1.32 152.764 kg/d
= 201.648 kg/d
O2 for N2 removal
Inlet Total kjeldhal nitrogen (TKN) = 22 mg/ L
Outlet ammonical nitrogen = 1 mg/L
Outlet nitrate nitrogen = 10 mg/L
4.6 kg O2/NH3-N kg
NH3-N Removed in day
= (Inlet TKN) (Outlet Ammonical Nitrogen)
= 22 mg/L 1 mg/L
= 21 mg/L
3-183
Kg of N3 -N Removed in day
= Q (NH3-N Removed in day)
= (221.718) m3/day (21) g/m3
= 4656.078 g/d
= 4.66 kg/d
Kg O2 required for NH3-N removed
= 4.6 (Kg of N3 -N Removed in day)
= 4.6 4.66 kg/d
= 21.436 kg/d
NO3-N generated
Assuming 75 % of nitrification occurs
= Q (NH3-N Removed in day) 0.75
= (221.718) m3/day 21 g/m3 0.75
= 3492.059 g/d
= 3.492 kg/d
Amount of in NO3-N treated water
= Q (Outlet nitrate nitrogen)
= (221.718) m3/day 10 g/m3
= 2.22 kg/d
Quantity of nitratenitrogen that is denitrified
= (NO3-N generated) (Amount of in NO3-N treated water)
= 3.492 kg/d - 2.22 kg/d
3-184
= 1.272 kg/d
Total kg of 2 required /day
= (Kg of O2 required for BOD load) + (Kg O2 required for NH3-N removed)
= 201.648 kg/d + 21.436 kg/d
= 223.084 kg/d
Safety factor = 10%
Therefore, Total kg of 2 required /day
kg
223.084 110
d
= = 245.392 kg/d
100
3.5.1.6 Determination of quantity of air required at standard condition
Total oxygen required (actual) 2 required, AOR = 245.392 kg/d
Total 2 required at standard condition, SOR, for the field condition is

given by equation:

SOR =
( )/( )1.02420
= salinity correction factor = 0.95
= oxygen transfer correction factor =0.65
=fouling factor = 0.90
= solubility of oxygen in tap water at 25 = 8.40 mg/L
= solubility of oxygen in tap water at 20 = 9.17 mg/L
C = DO Concentration in aeration basin = 2.0 mg/L (Assumed)
T = Operating temperature in aeration basin = 81
245.392 kg/d
SOR = 0.95(8.42)/
[ (9.17)/ ]0.900.651.024(8120)
245.392
=
1.648
3-185
= 148.90 kg/d
Standard oxygen transfer efficiency of diffuser per meter depth = 5.6

%/m
Liquid level of aeration basin = 4.5 m
Height at which diffuser are kept = 0.4 m
Effective aeration depth
= Liquid level of aeration basin - Height at which diffuser are kept
= 4.5 m - 0.4 m
= 4.1 m
SOTE (Standard oxygen transfer efficiency) the above aeration depth
= (Standard oxygen transfer efficiency of diffuser) (Effective aeration depth)
= 5.6 % /m 4.1 m
= 22.96%
Air required at field condition per basin (consider 4 basin)
Fraction of 2 in air = 23.2 %
Specific gravity of air = 1.204
= 245.392 kg/d 4
= 61.438 kg/d
61.438100100
=
22.9623.21.204
= 957.97 Nm3/h/basin
3-186
Air required per hours per basin
Hours of aeration time per basin per day= 12 hrs /d/basin
957.97
=
12
= 79.831 Nm3/h/basin
Number of operating blower at any time in basin 2
= Air required per hours per basin / 2
= 79.831 / 2
= 39.92 Nm3/h
Calculation for air blower
Assume 70 % of capacity of at standards condition and blowers are capable 1.5 kg

per kWh at standard condition.
61.438
So, power required = = 58.512 kWh
0.71.5
Sludge generates & wasted calculation
Sludge generated = 0.80 kg/kg BOD
Kg of BOD removed in a day = 152.764 kg/d
Sludge generated per day
= (Sludge generated) (Kg of BOD removed in a day)
= 0.80 152.764
= 122.211 kg/d
3-187
Sludge generated per basin
Number of basin = 4
= 122.211 kg/d 4
= 30.6 kg/d/basin
Total volume of sludge wasted
Consistency of sludge solids = 0.8 %
Specific Gravity of sludge = 1.5
Density of water = 1000 kg/m3
122.211100
=
10001.50.8
= 10.184 m3/d
Sludge wasted per basin
= 10.184 m3/d 4
= 2.55 m3/d
Sludge wasted per cycle per basin
Number of cyclic per day per basin = 8
30.6 kg/d 8 = 3.83 kg/d
2.55 m3/d 8 = 0.32 m3/d
3.5.1.7 Pump capacity
Assuming pump running period per cycle = 15 min
3-188
Pump capacity
60
=

2.5560
=
15
= 10.2 m3/h
Provide 2 pump (1 working + 1 standby) by each capacity of 10.2 m3/h
3.5.1.8 Chemical Design Specification Data
Table 3.64: Chemical Design Specification data
Parameter Value
Inlet Flowrate 221.718 m3/day
Tank volume 101 m3
Area of each basin 22.422 m2
Size of each basin 103.5 m3
Hydraulic retention time (HRT) 11 h
Kg of BOD removed 152.764 kg/d
Kg of O2 required for BOD load 201.648 kg/d
Total 2 required at standard 148.90 kg/d

condition, SOR
Sludge generated per day 122.211 kg/d
Total volume of sludge wasted 10.184 m3/d
Pump capacity 10.2 m3/h
3-189
3.5.2 Mechanical Design of SBR
3.5.2.1 Introduction
In this section, the mechanical design of SBR will be covered. The mechanical design
is based on determination of material of construction, design pressure, pipe diameter
used, type of flange, and vessel support. The drawing in the design shows the
important dimensions of the SBR such as the depth, wall thickness, and others
important dimensions of the SBR.
3.5.2.2 Material of contruction
For the construction of SBR, Fibre Reinforced Plastics (FRP) was choosen as the
main material to be used for the construction. An FRP structure typically consists of
an unsaturated polyester (UP) resin applied to a mould in combination with
reinforcement, most commonly glass fibre, to form a part that is rigid, highly durable
and low in weight. FRP provides an unrivalled combination of properties:
Light weight
High strength-to-weight ratio (kilo-for-kilo its stronger than steel)
Design freedom
High levels of stiffness
Chemical resistance
Good electrical insulating properties
Retention of dimensional stability across a wide range of temperatures
With its excellent resistance to corrosion and chemical attack, FRP is widely used in
the chemical industry for the construction of pipe work and for chemical storage
vessels, fume scrubbers and many other high performance applications. Vinyl ester
and epoxy vinyl ester resins have been developed to give high levels of chemical
resistance even in the most aggressive environments. Besides from its excellent
resistant to corrosion and chemicals, FRP provide a cost effective choice in for the
industrial application. Table 3.58 below show the properties of FRP.
3-190
Table 3.65: Properties of Fibre Reinforced Plastics (FRP)
Properties Value
Maximum pressure (bar) 10
Maximum allowable stress (psi) 9500
Operating temperature ( C) 1-50
Density (kg/m3) 1522.3
3.5.2.3 Design pressure
A suitable design pressure need to be calculated to determine the maximum pressure

that the tank can withstand during operation. The calculated design pressure will be
added with 10% normal working pressure for the purpose of safety. For SBR tank,
the working pressure is assumed at the ambient pressure which is at 1 bar.
So, the design pressure above 10% of operating pressure is:
= 1 1.1
= 1.1 bar
= 0.11 N/mm2
3.5.2.4 Design temperature
The normal operating temperature to be used for designing the SBR tank is at the
ambient temperature which is at 32oC. Safety factor of 10% from the operating
temperature will be considered during the calculation of design temperature.
So, the design temperature for clarifier tank is:
= 32 1.1
= 35.2 oC
3-191
3.5.2.5 Wall thickness
Minimum wall thickness is required for designing of SBR tank to ensure that the tank
can withstand its weight or loads build up in the tank. Assumption was made for the
wall thickness and the value obtained is 6.5 mm (Molded Fiber Glass, 2016) for the
wall construction of SBR. Corrosion allowance of 2 mm must be considered in the
during the calculation.
Twall = 6.5 mm + 2 mm = 8.5 mm
3.5.2.6 Pipe diameter
Density = 937.94 kg/m3
Mass flowrate, G: 3695.27 kg/h = 61.59 kg/s
doptimum = 0.664(61.59)0.51 (937.94)-0.36
= 0.462 m
= 462 mm
3.5.2.7 Analysis of Stress
3.5.2.7.1 Pressure stress, H and L
The longitudinal stress, H and circumferential stress, L which are due to

pressure is calculated by using equation below,
(0.11)(2300)
= = = 14.882 N/mm2
2 2(8.5)
(0.11)(2300)
= = = 7.441 N/mm2
4 4(8.5)
3.5.2.7.2 Dead weight stress, w
Dead weight stress is contribute by the weight of vessel and any attachment
on it. The stress can be either compressive or tensile, where compressive
stress act above the column while tensile stress act below the column.
3-192
10000
= = = 0.162 N/mm2
(+) (2300+8.5)(8.5)
3.5.2.8 The resultant buckling stress, c
Buckling stress is normally occurring at stress that required buckling complete. A

column design must be checked in order to ensure that the maximum value of the
resultant axial stress does not exceed the critical value at which buckling will be occur.
Critical buckling stress is calculated by using equation below,

= 2104 ( )

8.5
= 2104 ( ) = 73.641 N/mm2
2308.5
3.5.2.9 Design of flange
Standard flanges are available in a range of types, sizes and materials, and are used
extensively for pipes, nozzles and other attachment to tanks. The standard flange
dimensions can be obtained from ASME B16.5 Annex F. The flange used for SBR
tank was assumed to be the same for the inlet and outlet pipe.
Table 3.66: Standard flange dimensions in inches for welding-neck flanges based
on ASME B16.5 Annex F
Flange Nominal Outside Thickness Diameter Diameter Length

Class Pipe Diameter of Flange, of Hub, X of Through
Size, of Flange, tf Beginning Hub, Y
Inch O Chamfer,
A
150 24 32 1.81 26.12 24.00 5.94
3-193
3.5.2.8 Type of support
There are two types of support that can be used for designing the SBR tank. Figure
3.41 shows the type of support available to be used for SBR.
Figure 3.46: Type of supports. (a) Conical skirt supports. (b) Supported on leg
bracket supports
Skirt supports are used for tall vertical columns while bracket supports are used for
all types of vessel. The supports must be designed to carry weight of the SBR. The
function of supports is designed to allow easy access to the SBR and fittings for
inspection and maintenance. For this design support of SBR tank, the suitable type
of support to be used based from the justification is bracket support.
3-194
REFFERENCES
[1] Robert E. Treybal, Mass Transfer Operations, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 3rd ed.
1981.
[2] Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 8th ed. 1997.
[3] R. K. Sinnott, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering: Chemical

Engineering Design (vol. 6), Butterworth-Heinemann, 3rd ed. 1999
[4] Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, McGraw-Hill Companies, 7th ed.

1997.
[5] Henry Z. Kister, Distillation Design, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1st ed. 1992.
[6] Christie J.G., Pearson New International Edition: Transport Process &
Separation Process Principles (Includes Unit Operations), Pearson
Education Limited, 4th Edition. 2014.
[7] NPTEL-Chemical Engineering Design Handbook. 2014.
[8] Retrieved from

http://encyclopedia.che.engin.umich.edu/Pages/SeparationsChemical/Absor
bers/Absorbers.html
[9] E.Edwards, J. (2008, August 08). Design and Rating Shell and Tube Heat
Exchangers. Retrieved from
http://www.chemstations.com/content/documents/Technical_Articles/shell.pd
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3-195

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CHAPTER 3

DESIGN OF MAJOR EQUIPMENT

3.1 Plug Flow Reactor, R-101

3.1.1 Chemical Design for PFR, R-101

3.1.1.1 Design Method

Below is the step taken for the chemical design of reactor:

3.1.1.2 Process Design

Table 1: Reactor Design Summary Equipment Specification Sheet

3.1.1.3 Chemical Design

Reactor Type = Isothermal

Conversion of Methanol = 99%

Operating Temperature = 623 K

Operating Pressure = 1 bar

Molar Feed rate = 223.701 kmol/hr

The determination of k can be determined by using Arrhenius equation;

A = 3.51 x 105 s-1

k(623K) = 0.29956 s-1

7. Volume of fluid in reactor

Volume catalyst used = Vfluid x (1-)

Mass of catalyst = density catalyst x volume catalyst

= 3460 kg/m3 x 2217.551 m3

10. Volume of reactor

Reactor volume = volume fluid + volume catalyst

11. Length and diameter reactor

12. Residence time, T

13. Tube Length Suitable Checking

Table 3.4: Dimension of Standard Steel Pipe

volume of catalyst bed

Thus, the total numbers of tubes are;

total cross section of tubes

Bundle diameter Db can be estimated using constants shown:

Where; (E.Edwards, 2008)

15. Jacket Selection

Initially, simple jacket is chosen because;

Data heat of reaction from energy balance:

Mole flow rate of Isopropanol = 223.701kmol/h

Table 3.5: Enthalpy table for reactor (R-101) Subtance

Energy balance in jacket

Area for molten salt in reactor,

Specific heat for molten salt, CP = 1.53 J/g.K = 1.53 kJ/kg.K

3.1.2 Mechanical Design for PFR, R-101

3.1.2.1 Thickness of vessel reactor

For safety factor = 1.5 x operating pressure

Pi = 1.5 x 0.1 N/mm2

Material of construction = carbon steel, SA-516

E = maximum allowable joint efficiency

Corrosion allowances of the wall thickness = 2 mm

Vessel thickness = 0.7 mm + 2 mm

3.1.2.2 Head and column thickness

i. Design of flat ends

t=263.095 mm+3 mm (corrosion allowance)

ii. Design of domed ends

t = 4.503 mm+3 mm (corrosion allowance)

t = 15.941 mm+3 mm (corrosion allowance)

3.1.2.3 Weight of the vessel, Wt

3.1.2.3.1 Weight load of shell

Ws = 240 x Cv x Dm x (Lv + 0.8Dm) t

= 1.20 m + 2.7 x 10-3 m

Cv = Internal fitting factor

= 1.08 (vessel with few internal fitting)

3.1.2.3.2 Weight of load pipe

For carbon steel, 8 inch, schedule 40, weight of tube = 9.7204845kg/m

Hence, for 1276 tubes,