The Aerial Performers of the Radio Circuits Basic Amateur Radio. Part 1: Antennas are as different as the hams who use them. This two-part series will bring you a measure of expertise on this all-important subject. By Margaret Koerner, KOIQ (ex:\WBOBEM) 213% 9h St, Boulder, CO A002 420 Ost we will primarily consider in this article In addition to being different, antennas ‘make a difference. They can make the di ference between a signal that really gets ut and one that really doesn’t; between a signal that lets you keep schedules, make radio friends, provide solid copy to a listening world — and one that, on the ‘other hand, hides timidly below the noise level. As far as antenna work is con cerned, each amateur is in competition with himself as well as with others, and the slogan of antenna-minded persons is forever the same as that of 4-H youth: “To Make the Best Better. Prime Candidates for Discussion Antennas are one of the leading sub- jects for amateur discussions on and off the air. One reason for the wide dif- ferences of opinion is that an antenna that works well for one amateur may not work equally well for another. Also, antennas cannot usually be adjusted or per formance-tested on the bench. Other ‘equipment can be checked, component by ‘component, in the shack. Antennas must be tested on the air. They must be worked on in place (‘“place" being, perhaps, a precarious spot $0 feet or more above the ground), or they must be taken down, ad- justed, and again be put up and tested on the air. They are repaired and improved by experimentation, by consultation, by guess and by gosh, or by something more explicit thrown Much has been written about antennas. The latest edition of the ARRL Antenna Book contains 329 pages on the subject, and many other books and articles deal with antenna design, construction and x=" perimentation. What Antennas Are and What They Do The study of antennas involves a mix- ture of fact and theory; a mixture of the tangible and the intangible. On the one hand, antennas ate tangible, material ob- jects with physical proportions which can be measured. They arc made of metal, usually in the form of wire or tubing. Metal, in general, is a good conductor of electrical currents, and practically all metallic objects can be made to radiate a signal. How effectively they do. this radiating, however, is something that varies tremendously. How any antenna ‘manages to do it at all is another matter, fone which takes us out of the world of material things and into the world of theory. This world of theory is inhabited by electromagnetic waves of various lengths (light, heat, X-ray, radio), all of them traveling through free space at the speed of approximately 300,000 kilo- _meters (186,000 miles) per second. Among, these waves we find our Amateur Radio signals — combinations of electrical and magnetic energy sent at radio frequencies from our transmitters to our antennas and from our antennas into the atmosphere and space, AS radio waves move into the atmo- sphere, their wavelength and frequency remain essentially the same as they were when they left the (ransmitting antenna, bbut their fleld strength (volts per meter) varies inversely with the distance from the antenna. This means that at twice the distance away from the antenna, the fieldstrength of the wave is only half as much. {At the same time, the power per unit area of the radiated wave falls off inversely as the square of the distance from the transmitting antenna, so that at twice the distance the power’ density (watts per square meter is only one-fourth as much sit was originally. Remember that as the wave moves away from the transmitting antenna it becomes weaker the farther it Boss. Radio waves spread out from different types of antennas in charactersticaly dif- ferent patterns. Excluding the effect of nearby objects, the shape of the pattern depends primarily on the kind of antenna and its height above ground. From most vertical antennas, radio waves leave more for less in the ‘shape of a horizontal doughnut. No one has actually seen them leave in this shape, but we can accept this fact in theory because measurements taken of the radiated field show equal strength in all horizontal directions. - lustrations of radio-wave patterns and types of antennas producing them can be seen in the ARRL Radio Amateur’s Handbook, the ARRL Antenna Book, and numerous other publications. Before we go on to discuss types of antennas, let's consider a source of confu- sion that stems from our use of common names in referring to our radio bands. ‘The common amateur band names (40 meters, 80 meters, ete.) are approxima- tions, not precise wavelengths for the dif ferent bands. But the names have great practical value as far as ease of com- ‘munication, time-saving and brain-saving are concerned. ‘The FCC has allocated — in accord with International Telecommunication Union (ITU) regulations — certain groups fr segments of the radio spectrum for amateur use. Each allocated group in- cludes many individual frequencies and some groups include more frequencies than others, For example, the so-called 40-meter amateur band includes all fre- quencies from 7000 kHz to 7300 kHz. The 10-meter amateur band is much broader, including frequencies from 28.0 MHz to 29.7 MHz. ‘Antennas are constructed so that their physical length corresponds in some way 1 — Coaxial cable isthe feed line used by ‘post radio amateurs. to the theoretical wavelength of the bands for which they were designed, and so we designate them quarter-wave (1/4), half- wave (1/2 2), five-eighth-wave (5/8 2), full-wave, ete., antennas. (The Greek let- ter lambda, A, is commonly used in scien- tific work to indicate wavelength.) These physical antenna lengths, however, do not correspond exactly to the theoretical wavelengths, which are based on the velocity of the waves in free space — 300,000,000 meters per second, as in- dicated by Wavelength in meters 300,000,000. 4, Treg. in Hz 300 freq. in MHz Ga) When a wave is traveling in a conductor such as an antenna, rather than in free space, it travels ata’ slightly slower speed and the antenna needs to be shorter than its free-space wavelength would indicate. These practical formulas cng — leneth (00 = ater a = 3 length m= SD (Eq. 2) automatically take care of this difference in length for the most-common horizontal antenna used by amateurs — the half- ‘wave dipole. Don't confuse these two very important formulas: Eq. 1 is used for calculating wavelength (in meters). Eq. 2 is used for determining the physical length (Gn feet) of a half-wave wire dipole anter na, The transmission line is the life line linking the receiver and transmitter to the antenna. There are three kinds in general use in Amateur Radio: coax, open wire and twin-lead. The purpose of any feed line is to transport as much energy as possible from the transmitter to the antenna or from the antenna to the receiver, but under certain conditions the line can “lose” much of the energy it is supposed to be trans- porting. A very small amount of energy is lost from even the best feed line — typically, about one or two percent per 100 feet ‘of open-wire line at frequencies of 3-30 MHz — but we are talking here about more than that very small amount. If, for example, a coax line has been damaged or was made of inferior material to begin with, or if it is not properly matched electrically to the antenna, it can lose energy. A good grade of coax is a good investment. A poor-grade, “lossy” length of coax can drain away your hard- 'STRAGHT DIPOLE DROOPING DIPOLE FOLDED DIPOLE Fig. 2 — The dipole antenna isa favorite with beginners. Most antennas can be considered to be some form of dipole. earned radio-frequency energy in a distance of just a few feet Kinds of Antennas In this section we will describe, very briefly, five of the most common kinds of antennas used by amateurs. Any of these types can be monoband antennas, de- signed for operation on only one band, or ‘multiband, designed for operation ‘on several bands. Multibanders often make use of fraps — not traps which catch and hold radio waves, as their name might im- ply, but rather traps which act as electrical gates, letting energy through on some bands and keeping energy out on other bands. The Dipole The dipole antenna is a favorite with beginners. It is a fundamental type of antenna and most antennas can be con- sidered to be some form of dipole, even though their dipole ancestry may not be guessed from their appearance. Dipole antennas are constructed of two cequal-length pieces of metal, usually wire. For the half-wave dipole, the most con mon type, each of the two pieces is one- ‘quarter wavelength long; the total length, therefore, is a half wavelength for the band being used. The less common full- wave and 1.28-wave dipoles yield a stronger signal for both sending and receiving, but they require more space than do ‘shorter length ones. They may also require provision for ‘‘matching im- pedances,”” and are frequently fed with November 1978 43,son coax nsuraror w GROUND MOUNTED VERTICAL Beneath SURFACE (F GROUND RADIALS ON oR susT ‘GROUND ROD OPTIONAL ‘GROUND MOUNTED VERTICAL WITH RADIALS MULTIBAND VERTICAL, co) dL GROUNDPLANE VERTICAL, Fig. 3 — Thwee common methods for mounting quarter-wave vertical antennas, open-wire feed line. (See the ARRL Radio ‘Amateur’s Handbook and. The ARRL ‘Antenna Book, for discussion of im- pedance matching.) ‘Several forms of the dipole antenna are in use. In addition to the straight dipole form (Fig. 2A), and the drooping dipote with wires drooping at an ange to form an Inverted V (Fig. 2B), we occasionally se a {folded dipole with the wire doubled back on itself, as in Figure 2C. The maximum radiation from @ dipole is at right angles to the direction of the wires. Minimum radiation is off the ends of the wires ‘The majority of dipoles are center fed, with energy from the transmitter entering at midpoint through a transmission feed line, [Note: Practical inform the construction and installation of a sim- ple, coax-fed, half-wave dipole will be fiven in Part 2 of this series. The Vertical Vertical antennas are commonly 1/4, 1/2- or 5/8-A long, with the 1/4-k ver- tical being most often used by amateurs. Like the longer length dipoles, the taller verticals yield a stronger signal for both transmitting and receiving. But they, 100, require more space, a fact that must be taken into consideration. Not that there is usually any shortage of space in the up- ward direction, but guy ropes are needed to keep taller verticals in position and pre~ vent them, when hit by a strong wind, from suddenly finding themselves hori- zontal junk instead of vertical antennas. There is an interesting electrical phenomenon and behavioral oddity com- ‘mon to all verticals — a nonphysical mir- ror image which appears, ghost-like, in the ground directly below the antenna whenever a signal is being transmitted or 44 ose received. This mirror image forms the other half of the vertical and makes it into what is basically a ‘‘vertical dipole.” ‘When we stand in front of a flat mirror and direct the beam from a flashlight toward it, the light in the mirror seems to come from a point as far back of the mir- ror’s surface as we are standing in front of it, and the quality of the mirror deter- mines, to a large extent, the quality and strength of the image we are seeing. An antenna’s mirror image is an electrical fone, with the ground acting as a mirror, and the conductive quality of the ground largely determining the strength of the mirror image. Excluding the effect of nearby surrounding objects, the mirror image and the height of the antenna, for the most part, determine the radiation pattern of the antenna’s radiated wave. ‘The quarter-wave vertical is usually constructed and installed in one of three different ways: 1) As shown in Fig. 3A, the antenna is set on an insulator of some kind (a glass bottle, for example) placed on the ground. If it i coax fed, the copper wire in the center of the coax is connected directly to the quarter-wavelength-long aluminum tubing, of to some other radiating element such as a vertical wire or tower. The cop- per braid of the coax is connected to a ‘metal ground rod pushed into the ground near the antenna base. This is the least ef- ficient of the three methods we are discussing. (Efficiency is the amount of power radiated from tbe antenna com- pared to the amount Of antenna input power. 2) The antenna is again mounted on the ground and fed by coax, but in addition has a group of copper wires called radials ‘extending out from the base of the anten- ra as spokes of a wheel. These radials — the more the better — add conductivity to the ground. They can be laid out directly ‘on the ground or placed underground at a very shallow depth, just deep enough to protect them from physical damage but not so deep as to put “lossy”” ground be- tween them and the vertical portion of the antenna (Fig. 3B). By tradition, each radial is 1/4 A long. But if you can’t fit 1/42 radials into the space you have available, a denser network of shorter ‘ones or @ mixture of shorter and longer ‘ones may be the best way to go. 3) The most efficient of the three methods is to mount the antenna high above the ground, away from all energy- absorbing objects, including the ground itself. In this instailation, a circle of three to five radials, each 1/4-A long, extends ‘out from the base as in method 2, but because they are up high they form an artificial ground or groundplane. This antenna is referred to as a groundplane vertical (Fig. 30). Table 1 gives a comparison of the most common horizontal dipole and vertical antennas. The Yagi When we consider the Yagi antenna, we move into a group called beam antennas. ' Most beam antennas, including Yagis, are unidirectional, having the strength of their radiated energy primarily concen- trated in one direction at the expense of other directions, somewhat similar to the beam from a flashlight. Yagis, the most popular of the beam antennas, are commonly horizontal dipoles with parasitic clements. The elements are called “parasitic” because they have no direct electrical connection to the transmitter or the receiver but in stead are coupled (clectromagnetically) to aan element which és coupled directly (by a feed line) to the transmitter or receiver. Normally, all of the Yagi elements are made of aluminum tubing. One element, a half-wave dipole called the driven ele- ‘ment, is attached to the transmission line and receives energy from the transmitter. The parasitic elements are called directors and reflectors. All elements are placed on ‘a horizontal support called a boom and are spaced at selected distances from cach other — the reflector on one side of the driven element and the director on the other side. The reflector is about three to five percent longer than the driven cle- ‘ment; the director is similarly shorter. The dimensions of these elements, as well as the spacing between them, must be carefully worked out if the antenna is to give its best performance. The three-element Yagi is shown in Fig. 4. Yagis usually have only one reflector but can have as many directors as desired. Since the Yagi is normally rotatable, the beam can be pointed (with the director or directors in front) in a desired direction toTable 1 ‘Comparison of the Most Common Horlzontal Dipole and Vertical Antennas. Horizontal Dipotes man ER AR eA coax, Cine vWamave dipole a 20 PEN WIRE H ° LINE —*} Fullave dipole commonly called double zepp oF two hall waves in phase dipole. >= 1200 = 5/eA—e sen OPEN WIRE une: dipole. 1.28.wave dipole commonly called extendes double 2epp Usually ted with coax transmis: sion line Usually fed with openswire transmission fine through antenna tuner at transmit Has about 2 08 gain over 1/2.wave Verticals Usually fed with opensuir tine through an antenna tuner at the transmitter Has about 3 0B gain aver 12wave 5/8a ‘sie-wave vertical Note: The terms “gain” and "8" (decibels) will be discussed in part 2 of this article. transmit or receive maximum signal strength. The antenna can be monoband oF multiband, depending on its construc: tion The Quad Elements of the quad antenna are basically folded dipoles (see Fig. 2C) pulled out into a square shape. The quad js a rotatable beam antenna, usually con- sisting of at least two four-sided con- tinuous loops — the antenna elements. These loops, spaced at selected distances from each other, are placed on a.horizon- Fig. 4 — Threo-element monoband Yagi con: sists of a driven et tal support, the boom. The driven element is directly coupled to the transmitter by a feed fine, and a reflector is parasitically (clectromagnetically) coupled to the driv- en element. In addition, many quads have fone or more directors which are also parasitic, and you will hear amateurs say they have two-element, three-element, or four-clement quads. These elements, each of which has four sides approximately a quarter-wavelength long (thus making up a complete wavelength for a desired band), can be placed on the boom as squares (Fig. SA) or as ‘square dia- iL Usually fed with coax transmis sion line at base of antenna, Usually fe with coax to a match: ing circuit at base of vertical, Has about 208 gain over ti¢.wave vertical Usually fed with coax to matching Circuit at base of vertical Has about 348 gain over 1e.wave vertical 5B) in a plane perpendicular to the ground. Seen from even a short distance away, all the elements look alike, although the reflector is slightly larger than the driven element, and the directors are slightly smaller. Spreaders, usually made of bamboo or fiberglass, support the loops and hold them in place. The loops may be very large — an element for a 20-meter quad, for example, is about 17 {eet on each of the four sides of the con- tinuous wire loop. Quads can be constructed as monoband (Fig. SA) or multiband (Fig. 5B). Fig. § — The quad antenna is basically @ folded dipote pulled out into @ square shape. — November 197845Multiband quads employ concentric loops for the various bands, with the band hav- ing the longest wavelength and therefore the largest loop on the outside and the others nested in the center (Fig. $B) Yagis and quads are the two most popular beam antennas, and amateurs can endlessly compare theit relative merits. Yagis, according to those who prefer them, are (I) easier to construct and install, (2) Tess prone to receive damage from ice storms or strong winds, and (3) have a more attractive appearance. On the other hand, amateurs who prefer quads say they (i) ate better for multiband operation, (2) possess greater “gain” for equal boom lengths, and (3) are easier to adjust since there is less interaction between elements, clement spacing is less critical, and they are more broad-banded than Yagi. The Longwire The simplest antenna mechanically and electrically is just what its name implies, a ong wire, with emphasis on the “‘long.”” Any piece of wire can be made to radiate or receive a signal, but an antenna does not deserve the name ‘“longwire” unless it ‘meets one important requirement: It must be more than one wavelength long for the band or bands being used and, if possible, should be several wavelengths long. A “random length” of wire can be called a longwire antenna, but the wavelength should still be taken into consideration. In general, the longer the wire, the stronger the radiation in:eertain directions. (Note: In most cases, longwire antennas require the use of an antenna matching unit, such as a Transmatch or “Match Box’ to make possible the most efficient transfer of power from transmitter to antenna. S The Radio Amateur’s Handbook for descriptions of these units.) Longwire antennas are usually at least one or more wavelengths long, using the lowest desired frequency band (which has the longest wavelength) to determine the length of the wire. They can be single wires (a type popular with beginners) or they can be constructed of wires combined in a ‘number of ways, such as in the so-called V beam and the rhombic, which are more sophisticated longwire antennas. There they are: five general types of antennas, each one with its subtypes — the straight, drooping and folded dipoles; the quarter-, half- and other-wave ver- ticals; the Yagis and quads, cach with varying numbers of elements and the longwires — simple and compound. Within cach subtype, if we could but see them, are millions of individual antennas, all alike in some ways; all different in others. All of them are engaged, with varying degrees of success, in sending our radio signals out into all parts of the world. All of them leave us filled wit amazement at their aerial performances, ‘and always wondering — but never quite sure — just what their next act may be. 460 OSTAerial Performers of the Radio Circuits Basic Amateur Radio. Part 2: Why do some antennas get out better than others? Here are some practical answers plus all you need to know for building a simple coax-fed, half-wave dipole.t By Margaret Koerner,* KIO (ex-WBBEM) A few miles west of this writer's amateur station, many of the mountain sides are dotted with gold mines, most of them long since abandoned, Out of those mines came ore — tons of ore from which a comparatively few ounces of coveted gold were laboriously obtained. Producing a radio signal can be com- pared to a gold-mining operation, even though the coveted “gold” is not mea- sured in ounces but in watts — units which indicate power. As in the mining of metallic gold, a great deal of labor is in: volved, a great deal of refining is necessary, and the amount of power which makes up the finished product may be small compared to the amount needed to produce it With a poor antenna installation, evidence of this last fact can be dramatic. To illustrate: Let’s assume we have a transmitter which draws about 400 watts of alternating-current power from a wall outlet in order to generate 200 watis of radio-frequency power. This loss of 50 percent within the transmitter is basically beyond our control since it is dependent fon equipment design. The 200 watts of rf power must then be sent through a feed. line and antenna (which together make up the antenna system) before a signal can be radiated into space. The efficiency of the antenna system will determine whether the 200 watts will be utilized to the fullest ad- vantage or be further reduced in strength. If our hypothetical antenna system is a “tossy"” one, as much as three-fourths of that 200-watt output strength can be dissipated as heat, leaving as little as 50 watts of actual power to be radiated from the antenna. This means that of the 400 watts we started with, only $0 watts re- main —a total power loss of 87.5 percent! 12133 th i, Boulder, CO s0302 ‘art Lapoared in November 1978 QST. 44 OST. The left side of Fig. 6 shows the losses in the lossy feed line and antenna just described. In contrast, the right side shows the same transmitter, a low-loss feed line, and a well-constructed, 3-ele- ment beam antenna — a system which shows “gain” rather than loss. If you compare the illustrations, you can see where losses and gains occur. Now it’s time to take a closer look at what we mean by decibels and gain Decibels The actual output power of a radio signal is measured in watts. In Amateur Radio discussions and in the exchange of signal reports on the air, however, we usually hear signals compared in terms of decibels.’ Decibels are units of comparison be- tween two power levels. Used initially in audio engineering, a decibel (dB) is a just- detectable change in sound level under ideal conditions. Table 2is a tabulation of some useful dB comparisons. The power of an Amateur Radio signal as it leaves the transmitter and travels through the feed fine to the antenna can be measured at the transmitter output in units of actual power — watis. After the signal has been radiated from the "The bel was named in honor of Alexander Graham [Bell Acie! equals 1710 of «bel Fig. 6 — The antenna system at the lett is lossy, resulting in an 87.5 percent ioss of power trom transmitter Input to antenna erp (etfective radiated power. Total lose 1s 6 8 due to power \issipation inthe transmitter, oor connectors al the transmitter output and antenna feed point, lossy feed i 3nd poorly constructed and installed antenna. At the righ, there is an overall ower “gain,” despite tne same 3:dB power loss in the transmitter. A good-quality (eed line has Drought only 1 dB of loss, while a beam antenna has added 7 dB of antenna system is 800 watts. gain.” Total erp from this. N75 % TOTAL POWER LOSS, Nv. ‘800 werra 100% POWER "oAIN" FROW Grancurets strength is usually expressed in decibels of relative power, as shown on a recciver’s S$ meter (signal strength meter). $ meters are marked in divisions which indicate decibels and groups of decibels. The groups are known as § units; the number of decibels in each $ unit (usually 5 or 6) depends on receiver design. The meters themselves vary as far as design, readability and reliability are concerned, and unless they are calibrated ‘against a signal of known accuracy, they do not, as a rule, indicate the actual strength of a signal. Instead, they show cach signal’s relative strength compared to () other signals, (2) the noise level, or (3) fa change in strength of that same signal, ‘Comments concerning the strength of signals may indicate that one station is 6 dB louder than another, that a signal lost 2 S units when the transmitting sta- tion switched from one antenna to a dif- ferent one, or that a signal increased 10 dB when an amplifier was turned on, You may be told that your signal is the strongest one on the band, that it is way down in the noise, or that it is anywhere in between. Many things affect the strength of a signal, but the antenna system, com- posed of feed Tine and antenna, always plays a major part. In addition to seeing relative strength responses on a meter, we can often hear relative strengths of signals as they emerge from a speaker or headphones; our ears have the ability to respond to relative loudness, just as the meter responds to relative “power. These responses are logarithmic (see Table 2), which means (I) it takes a really substantial increase in ac- tual power to make any noticeable dif- ference in signal strength, and (2) dou- bling the power increases a signal's relative strength by 3 dB. This holds true ro matter what amount of power is being increased by a factor of two — 10 watts to 20 watts, $00 to 1000, or 1000 to 2000. Each of these increases raises the relative power by 3 dB. If power is decreased, the same thing happens in the opposite direction: When power is cut from 1000 to S00 watts, the strength of a signal is reduced by 3 dB. Gain Questions ‘The assigned work of any transmitting antenna system is to radiate as much of the energy sent to it from the transmitter as possible. An antenna cannot, and therefore does not, generate any energy. All it can do is radiate, Question 1, then, is this: Why do we refer to antenna “‘gain'"? Gain over what? (Question 2) And why is it that some antennas put out much stronger signals than others receiv- ing the same amount of power from a transmitter? (Question 3) Questions 1 and 2 can be answered together. Whenever we discuss any type of gain, we are comparing one thing with something else. A train, for example, 28cecgsensece 0 1 a 3 a 5 6 7 a 9 10 2 50 0 50 10,0000 100,000.09 +0 through 9.48 power increases are approx!- imate; others are exact. gains speed — its speed increases over ‘what it was; there are gains in the stock market today, compared to yesterday's listings. Gain indicates a comparison, and a signal’s gain in power is also a com- parison — a comparison against a stan- dard, or point of reference. The standard may be a certain type of practical anten- na, usually a half-wave dipole, or the stan- dard can be a theoretical antenna called an isotropic radiator. The isotropic anten- nna can (in theory) radiate equally in all rections. Practical antennas, on the other hand, always radiate more energy in some directions than in others. If you read an antenna advertisement that says a cer- tain type of antenna has dBi gain, the iin- dicates that the comparison reference is an isotropic antenna. If it says dBd gain, the second d means that the gain is calculated by using a half-wave dipole as a standard. (Incidentally, a half-wave dipole shows a 2.1-dBi gain.) If the ad merely states that the antenna has “gain,"” it’s anybody's ‘guess what it refers to, Now for Question 3, concerning how gain is achieved. In Part | of this antenna article (November QST) we discussed beam antennas — directive types such as Yagis and quads, which, if properly con- structed, radiate stronger signals than less- directive types such as commonly used dipoles and verticals. They achieve this ex- tra strength (the so-called gain) not by generating additional energy but by con- centrating the energy they receive from the transmitter and radiating it in a chosen fection at the expense of other direc- tions, much as a flashlight does. Certain antenna types, then, can produce what we call gain, ‘Some antenna systems show gain over others because they have a better location ‘An antenna system can also show gain by keeping losses to a minimum. By elimi- nating loss sources, thereby lowering the amount of total loss, an antenna system of any type can show signal gain over a more lossy antenna system. It can even show gain over its former self when im- provements are made, such as replacing defective feed lines, tightening connec- tions, increasing height above ground, and increasing the number of radials. The gain is usually expressed in decibels of relative power. Power loss (also expressed in decibels), which can occur in either feed line or antenna, is determined by the antenna system’s efficiency — the ratio of its input power to its output or radiated power. In any type of antenna system, high efficiency is achieved by careful and proper construction and installation, in- cluding matching of feed line to antenna, particularly when coax is used. Proper Construction and Installation Those words represent our present-day responsibility in our radio mining opera~ tion. During the past hundred years or more, by ingenious labor, thousands of radio amateurs, as well as other engineers, scientists and experimenters, made our resent amateur equipment and com- munication possible. Because of their ef forts and experiments we can obtain alter- nating current (ac) at 60 hertz (cycles per second) from a simple wall outlet; can change that ac to direct current (de) by rectification; can utilize the de in tran- sistors and tubes to again generate and amplify ac (this time at radio frequencies of millions of times per second), and can send that rf energy to an antenna system to be radiated into space. This last step is our responsibility; our job to see that the “‘gold”” that has’ been produced in our transmitter gets shipped out efficiently and profitably to its various destinations. If we send our precious rf power to a lossy feed line, we have allowed our gold to be hijacked en route. If we send it to a poor antenna, we have for all practical pur- poses (though unintentionally) thrown ‘most of it onto the mine dump. Here, then, are three things to remember about antennas: 1) Antenna work involves work. Extra work on feed lines as well as on antennas can yield extra watts and extra decibels of precious rf power. 2) A well-constructed beam antenna, by concentrating most of its energy in one direction, can produce a signal 10 to 20 times (or in very large installations, even ‘more than 20 times) greater than that of an equally well-constructed but nondirec- tional antenna, But (and this is good news for everyone) itis also true that an anten- nna of any type that performs well by keep- ing its losses to a minimum can also radiate a far stronger signal than that of an antenna system with low efficiency. And all this relative increase is without the use of a separate power amplifier. 3) A good small — even simple — antenna, such as a dipole or a vertical, can produce a better signal than a lossy big in- stallation, no matter how impressive the latter may look. So as you put up your first antenna (and later ones, too), set your sights and 45 December 1978your antennas high, and the “gold in them thar hills” can then be yours So Which Will It Be? One of the questions beginners always ask is this: Which kind of antenna is best? And it is no wonder they wonder. All about them, in commercial ads, on roofs and on towers, in conversations on and off the air, they see or hear about ali sorts and species of antennas: the most com- ‘mon ones — dipoles, verticals, Yagis, quads and longwires; the less-common windoms, rhombics and Zepps (that last kind so-called because they were first used fon the Zeppelin dirigible); and a few antennas with such strange and wonderful ames as six-shooter, bobtailed curtain, Beverage and fishbone — the last two receiving antennas only. All of these are billed as skilled acriat performers in the radio circuits. Each, too, is a deciding fac- tor (possibly the deciding factor) between a signal that really “gets out”” and one that really doesn’t. The answer to the question of which one is best is simple: There is no such thing as one best antenna for everyone, but there isa best antenna for you, de- pending on your own special situation, Answering the following questions should help you evaluate your situation: 1) How much room do you have for your antenna installation? It’s amazing how small a space can, if necessary, be enough. 2) How much money can you afford to spend for this part of your amateur sta- tion? You can get by on only a few dollars, ‘or on what we will simply call “more.”” 3) Do you intend to build your first antenna or buy a commercial one? Materials for the construction of a simple wire dipole are easily available to almost everyone. 4) Are there neighborhood (or do- mestic) problems to be worked out? Look at antennas and talk about them with others. Read about them in books and periodicals (five common types were described briefly in Part 1 of this article). Look again at your own situation. If, after that, you decide (o put up a coax fed, half-wave dipole that is inexpensive and relatively easy to build, the accom- panying information should be of prac- tical help. For that matter, even if your choice is different, you might read the sec tion anyway and perhaps ‘‘mine”” some- thing of interest from it. Constructing and Installing a Simple, Coax-fed, Half-wave Dipole This section? will provide a step-by-step guide to building your own one- or wo- band (see text), half-wave dipole antenna, Is the type most Novices (and some higher class licensees) use, and it just may be the right one for you. Materials Needed 1) Wire. For a dipole antenna, both the wire size (gauge) and length are impor- tant. For a straight dipole supported at the ends, the wire must be strong enough to mechanically support both the dipole and the weight of its coax feed line. Wire sizes no. 12 to 18 are recommended, the smaller number indicating the larger size. The wire should preferably be of the copper-weld type, which has a steel center to give it strength and prevent it from stretching, and a copper outer layer bond- ed to the steel center to make it a good conductor. Electric fence wire, either copper-covered or galvanized, can also be used effectively. If you are putting up a space-saving, drooping dipole (also known as an in: verted V), you can use any of the above- mentioned kinds of wire or the softer all- copper wire, since this type of dipole has the coax and antenna weight supported at the middle by a mast. The amount of wire needed for either type of dipole will depend on the band or bands for which the antenna is being con- structed. The total length of wire will be approximately one-half wavelength long for the desired band; measuring from the center, each side of the dipole will be about one-quarter wavelength long plus a ‘Credit for the practical information in this con- ‘Section section as well a for many helpful sugges {ons and’ important tem of information. In Previous scion) "must "Bo. to. Jim Snyder WOURKozcN 46 OST. little extra for making connections. (See Table 3.) 2) Insulators. Insulators are used at the center of the dipole and at the far ends of the two dipole wires. A center insulator is hneeded to keep the two halves of the dipole electrically separated vide an anchor for the two and the feed line. This center insulator can be a commercial one or it can be made from a piece of acrylic or phenol-type plastic, such as the type shown in Fig. 8A, fr it can even be made of wood. If it is made of wood, the wood should be saturated with hot paraffin or treated with varnish or some other coating to make it weatherproof. Other insulators, usually made of por- celain, ceramic or glass, will be needed for the far ends of the dipole wires. The so- called egg insulator (Fig. 8B) or some other type of compression insulator, as well as “dog bone” type insulators (Fig. 8C) are in common use. Wood is not satisfactory for insulation at the ends of the dipole, as the rf voltage is much higher there than in the middle; if wood is used you may end up with high energy losses. 3) Coax. Get a good grade of 50-ohm coax for your dipole feed line. (See Fig. 1, November QST, page 43). If you can see through the braid to the insulation underneath, the braid’s copper coverage (called “shield continuity”) is probably inadequate. When you have installed the coax, be sure that none of the braid is left exposed, since exposed braid can soak up water like a wick. Use a silicone rubber compound (such as GE RTV) to weather- proof all connectors. You can also wrap connectors with electrical tape, cover them with a battery clamp. “rubber boot,” or use a combination of all three methods. The antenna is fed directly from the transmitter, via the coax, at the center in- sulator, using a connector socket and plug (Fig. 8A). Use an $0-239 socket or its equivalent for the center connector and a PL-259 plug for the antenna end of the Fig. 7 — At A, a typical halt.wave dipole installation. Sturdy rope is used to connect the ends of the antenna to trees oF other supports. At Bis an inverted V, ahalfwave dipole withthe center part of the antenna raised. The ends should be as far apart as possible, for best results. Be sure {o leave the ends of this type of antenna high enough above the ground 50 they cant be touched Someone could got an r! Burn by touching the wire while the station is operating,eno insutaron C5} — =O Fig. 8 — At Ais a homebrew center insulator. This type is also available commercially. The “egg” type compression insulator (B) and the “dog bone" type (C) are common end insulators. A dia ynof a 40-meterhalt-wave dipole Is at O. Al i length of wire in (8) and (C) for minimum SWR. (drawings based on originals by G. Ladwig) ‘coax. The other end of the coax must have a connector that fits your rig. Using a properly installed connector at the feed point of the antenna, rather than splitting the coax (as is sometimes done), prevents water from getting into the coax. 4) Supports. For an inverted V, you will probably need a center support to get the high (middle) portion of the antenna up in the clear. This center support, called a mast, may be a metal pipe, a TV push-up mast, a2 Xx 4 or some other type of center support strong enough to stand up against wind, ice and the antenna’s weight. For either the inverted-V or straight dipole, you will need to fasten the far ends Of the dipole wires to sturdy objects. Plan ahead to determine what these objects will be — a roof, tree, pole or anything else convenient for the purpose. Have the antenna ends as far apart as possible. Assuming that you or someone else in your family has a tool box with screwdrivers, pliers, wire-cutters and other essentials, the only expenses for your first antenna will be coax, wire and pethaps a few insulators and connectors. You may know an amateur who will bring some of his own equipment and perhaps contribute needed materials to the cause. Most amateurs have overflowing junk boxes and, since they are probably traders and scroungers themselves, will be happy to help other scroungers, particularly beginning ones, any way they can. Preliminary Construction (things to do on the ground) 1) Measure the wire according to the following table, but before cutting it be sure you have included an additional length needed to go through the insulators and secure them, and another bit extra if you are putting up a drooping dipole in- ‘stead of a straight one. 2) If you are using bare copper wire that has become tarnished, clean off the ends for several inches with steel wool so that it will be possible to make good solder connections. If insulated wire is used, remove the insulation at both ends with wire strippers or a knife, 3) Always use rosin-core solder on all connections. Acid-core solder will cause the wires to corrode. 4) Put the coax connector on the center insulator block and attach the dipole wires to the coax leads from the connector, as shown in Fig. 4. 5) Measure the two dipole wires again (now that they are attached to the center Table 3 Wire Lengths” fora Straight Hall-Wave Dipole ‘Length Each Side Full Length Novice Band (vires (121) ameter 2 10" 1258" 4Ometerr* 32° 10" 6 8 tSmeter 10 142" 22" 3" tometer 83.42" 16 *Belore cutting the wires for elther a straight ‘or drooping dipole, be sure to add ext lengths of wie to go through the in ‘and secure them. See Fig. 8. For a drooping dipole, also add about 2 Tengths shown in the table, provided the anten na is up high enough so that the ends of the dipole wires are nat close to the ground or to ‘other objects. “A 40-meter dipole can generally be used ef fectively on 15 meters, without change. eet x 0.3048 = my inches X 254 = mm. re'connections should be soldered. Trim the extra insulator), and mark the points which in- dicate the length needed for cach side, us- ing the band measurements listed in Table 2. Attach the end insulators, as shown in Fig. 8. Be sure to note the wiring illustra- tion for the egg insulator. Wired as shown, in the illustration, the dipole will not come apart, even if the insulator breaks. 6) Cut the length of S0-ohm coax you will need, allowing for some slack, and put on the two connectors. Put the con- rector sleeves on the coax before solder ing the main part of each connector. The Radio Amateur’s. Handbook? contains complete information on installing coaxial connectors, 7) If you have access to an ohmmeter, test the coax for continuity and shorts afer putting on the connectors, Place one probe on the center conductor at one end Of the coax and the other probe on the center conductor of the other end, The ‘ohmmeter should indicate less than 1 ohm of resistance — a virtual dead short Again using the ohmmeter, touch the probes to the braid at both ends. Again, the result should be a virtual dead short Finally, touch one probe to a center con- ductor and one probe to the braid (either at the same end of the coax or at the wo ‘nds) and you should get an infinity reading — infinite resistance. Failure 10 show these readings indicates a break in the coax or bad solder connections for the first two tests, and a short in the coax oF connectors for the last one. 8) For your safety and for best opera- tion of the antenna system, a ground ‘The Radio Amatew's Handbook, ARRL, Sh Ed. 18 pp. 173, 176, December 1978 47connection is necessary. Run a metal rod (4.8 feet/1.2-2.4-m long) into the ground ‘outside the shack. Attach a piece of heavy bare or insulated copper wire (12 gauge or larger) or a strap of copper or galvanized ‘metal to this rod and attach the other end to the chassis of the rig, 9A Blitzbug or some other kind of lightning arrestor should also be properly installed in the coax line. Installing the Dipole Only general directions can be given for this process since each situation is dif- ferent and your resourcefulness will be needed to determine where and how. Cer- tain suggestions may nevertheless prove helpful. 1) Get your antenna as high as the given situation will permit. 2) Keep your antenna wires away from ower lines; never go over or under them. If you fail to follow these precautions you may not even live to regret it 3) Treat your coax with great care. Don't walk on it and don’t put mechanical stress or strain on it. 4) As you pull the antenna into posi- tion, watch that the wires do not kink. Our apologies for not telling you how to pull it into position or how to fasten it to the mast; you'll have to figure out how to do this for your own situation. 5) For either the drooping or straight dipole, bring the coax down vertically as far as possible. 6) If your antenna end support is a liv ing tree, put a piece of rubber hose around the tree (for the tree’s protection) and run the support wire or rope through the hose. There should be an additional length of cord or wire, after the end insulator, to secure it in place via the rubber tubing, 7) Be sure to solder and, where necessary, weatherproof all connections carefully. The antenna and upper part of your coax will not be readily accessible like other parts of your station. Eventual- ly any weak spot is sure to be damaged by the wind and other elements, and will have to be repaired. Ultraviolet light from the sun can weaken guy ropes, so use strong cord such as plastic clothesline with a polyethylene center for your supports. ‘Never use rope with a wire center as a sup- port for any type of antenna, 8) Even though there is a legitimate use for a piece of equipment called a balun (chymes with gallon and is derived from the combination of balanced and un- balanced), it is usually not needed as an electrical balancing device for this type of simple, coax-fed antenna. Feeding the coax directly to the antenna and using the connectors as described cuts down the cost and makes the entire installation simpler. 9) You may hear someone talking about an antenna matching or tuning unit, such as a match box or Transmatch. ‘These are useful or even required in some situations, but since most modern rigs are made to operate into a nominal 50-ohm load, a matching unit for this coax-fed dipole should not be necessary. You can earn more about matching (and baluns) in The Radio Amateur’s Handbook. 10) You will also hear people talking about SWR meters or the SWR (standing wave ratio) of their antenna systems. They may report SWRs of I:1 (known as 1 to 1), 1.7:1 or 3:1. SWR could take up an en- tire article, but we will imit our discussion Of it to one brief statement. Antennas are supposed to be tuned to a desired resonant frequency (usually a frequency at about the middle of a desired band). The use of an SWR meter or SWR bridge is one way of finding out whether the tuning of a coax-fed antenna has been properly achieved. A change in length is usually the ‘means by which simple antennas are ad- justed to take care of the tuning. If it is determined from an SWR meter reading that the resonant frequency of your anten- na is lower than you desire, you can raise the resonant frequency by shortening both sides of the dipole, equally. If the reso- nant frequency is higher than desired, you can lower the resonant frequency by lengthening both sides of the dipole equal- ly. See Fig. 8. But don’t worry too much about the SWR of your simple, coax-fed half-wave dipole. If you use good 50-ohm coax, cut your dipole wires the proper length, make sure all connections are tight, and put your antenna up as high and in the clear as possible, you should be able to “mine” your share of the radio spectrum for years tocome. ca]