Grafeno: Hojas de Carbon-basadas en Nanoparticulas

Cuando el carbono forma hojas al unirse a otros tres tomos de carbono, se les llama grafeno.
Los investigadores en nanotecnologa han realizado recientemente (2004) muchos esfuerzos
exitosos para producir hojas de grafeno con propsitos de investigacin.

El grafito comn es el material de las puntas de lpiz, y se compone de lminas de grafeno

compactadas juntas. Las lminas de grafeno en el grafito tienen un espacio entre cada hoja y
las hojas se mantienen juntas por las fuerzas electrostticas llamadas de Van der Waals.

Sheets of graphene held together by van der Waals bonding make graphite.

Graphene sheets are composed of carbon atoms linked in hexagonal shapes with each
carbon atom covalently bonded to three other carbon atoms. Each sheet of graphene is
only one atom thick, and each graphene sheet is considered a single molecule.
Graphene has the same structure of carbon atoms linked in hexagonal shapes to form
carbon nanotubes, but graphene is flat rather than cylindrical.

A graphene sheet.

Because of the strength of covalent bonds between carbon atoms, graphene has a very
high tensile strength. (Basically, tensile relates to how much you can stretch something
before it breaks.)
In addition, graphene, unlike a buckyball or nanotube, has no inside because it is flat.
Buckyballs and nanotubes, in which every atom is on the surface, can interact only with
molecules surrounding them. For graphene, every atom is on the surface and is
accessible from both sides, so there is more interaction with surrounding molecules.

Finally, in graphene, carbon atoms are bonded to only three other atoms, although they
have the capability to bond to a fourth atom. This capability, combined with great tensile
strength and the high surface area to volume ratio, make it very useful in composite
materials.

Researchers have reported that mixing graphene in an epoxy resulted in the same
amount of increased strength for the material as was found when they used ten times
the weight of carbon nanotubes.
A key electrical property of graphene is its electron mobility (the speed at which
electrons move within it when a voltage is applied). Graphenes electron mobility is
faster than any known material and researchers are developing methods to build
transistors on graphene that would be much faster than the transistors currently built on
silicon wafers.

Another interesting application being developed for graphene takes advantage of the
fact that the sheet is only as thick as a carbon atom. Researchers have found that they
can use nanopores to quickly analyze the structure of DNA.

When a DNA molecule passes through a nanopore which has a voltage applied across
it, researchers can determine the structure of the DNA by changes in electrical current.
Because graphene is so thin, the structure of a DNA molecule appears at a higher
resolution when it passes through a nanopore cut in a graphene sheet.
http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/graphene-sheets-of-carbonbased-nanoparticles.html

Graphene (smart material)1

What is graphene? What is graphene's molecular structure? What might we use

graphene for?
Graphene is essentially a single layer of carbon in the form of graphite, with its layered
structure of hexagonal rings of carbon atoms (structure of graphite).
It is possible to synthesise graphite in individual layers just one atom thick and the
product is known as graphenewhose 'honeycombed' lattice is shown below.
o Each graphene molecule is a fully planar shape.
o The C-C bond length is 0.142 nm, as in graphite, its mid-way between 0.154 nm
for C-C bond and 0.134 for a C=C bond.
o The C-C-C bond angle is 120o, what you expect for the internal angle of a
perfectly symmetrical planar hexagon.
o The C-C bonds are strong, giving a strong 2D lattice of carbon atoms.

1 http://www.graphenea.com/pages/graphene#.Vk0BItKrSHs
 Each layer consists of hexagonal rings of carbon atoms linked together in a planar
lattice, the formula is Cn where n is a very large number BUT a graphene layer is just a
single atom in thickness!

Another version of the skeletal formula representation of graphene.

o This image shows how the structure of graphene relates to polyaromatic

hydrocarbons like naphthalene C10H8 and anthracene

C14H10 consisting of 2 and 3 fused benzene rings respectively. If you take this
'aromatic fusion' to its extreme in two dimensions, the hydrogens go and the
result is a graphene molecule of almost 100% carbon atoms.
Graphene is spatially considered a 2D material.
o Note on 'dimension descriptions' at the atomic or molecular level
zero dimensional, 0D e.g. an individual atom, or 'quantum dot'
one dimensional, 1D e.g. nanowires, carbon nanotubes, long polymer
molecules like poly (ethene) - though not as neatly aligned as nanotubes
can be. Linear plastic molecules tend to be a bit jumbled and branched in
reality.
two dimensional, 2D e.g. the layers of graphite (previously described) or
hexagonal boron nitride (later section), the polymer Kevlar.
three dimensional, 3D e.g. the giant covalent lattices of diamond and
silica, cubic boron nitride (see further down), cross-linked polymers like
bakelite. Thermosetting resins that set hard due to cross-linking e.g.
those used in fibreglass constructions. In all these cases you are dealing
with a continuous covalent bond network in all directions.
In graphene each carbon atom forms three sigma bonds with other carbon atoms
(sp2 hybridisation) via three of its four valency electrons, but the 4th electron is
'delocalised' i.e. shared in common with other carbon atoms giving extra bonding (pi
electrons, pi bonding) ...
o ... this gives a very tightly packed and strongly bonded network of carbon atoms
within the layer, the carbon - carbon bonds are short and strong (three per
carbon atom) giving it a very high tensile strength (300 times that of steel) and
yet is very light low density material.
 o ... AND because these pi or delocalised electrons are free to move through the
layer, electrical conduction readily occurs if a potential difference is applied.
This delocalised system means that it is unsaturated and theoretically atoms can add to
it, BUT it is chemically relatively inert apart from combustion!
o It is this 'large scale' delocalisation that gives graphene its chemical stability.
Graphene has a high thermal stability (like graphite, up to 3000oC if no oxygen present),
high electrical conductivity, a high optical transparency and is chemically relatively inert.
o All four of these physical and chemical properties make it a potentially really
useful substance for materials scientists to use in a variety of quite different
applications e.g.
Graphene, this remarkable material made of sheets of carbon just one atom thick, has
been shown to undergoes a self-repairing process to correct holes when exposed to
loose carbon atoms.
o It would appear that when holes were punched in it by a beam of atoms, if carbon
atoms where near the surface of the graphene sheets, complete hexagonal rings
would reform making the two-dimensional (2D) sheets complete.
o Graphene has outstanding mechanical strength with respect to its thinness and
combined with its electronic properties, it is a promising material for a wide range
of future applications.
o However, graphene's very thinness makes it easily damaged when working with
it, so any 'self-healing' property is most welcome!
USES of graphene - potential applications of graphene
o So, what can we use graphene for?
o Graphene can be used to manufacture excellent transistors for the electronics
industry.
o Conduction can be made to depend on an ambient electric field, making it a very
sensitive surface and metal films cannot be made as thin, so less sensitive.
o Graphene could be used in highly sensitive gas sensors - molecules 'landing' on
the surface cause measurable electronic changes and perhaps even individual
molecules can generate a signal.
For the same reason, its applications may include use as a touch screen
surface.
o Graphene is 100x stronger than steel in bulk so has the potential to be used for
small scale BUT strong components in devices.
Graphene fibres maybe stronger than the current carbon fibres, but
unlikely to replace them on production cost grounds.
o Graphene is highly resistant to attack by strong acids (e.g. nitric, hydrochloric,
sulfuric, hydrofluoric acids) or strong alkalis (e.g. sodium hydroxide, potassium
hydroxide) and so can be used to give surfaces an ultra-thin protective layer
which is transparent.
o It can be used as support membrane for transmission electron microscopy used
to study the molecular detail of materials such as fragile DNA molecules and
nanoparticles themselves!
A graphene support membrane can be made relatively strong but very
thin and so transparent that it does not interfere with the 'picture'
generated by the electron microscope.
o New techniques have been developed to produces highly selective filter
materials based on graphene that could lead to more efficient desalination.
Scientists have succeeded in creating subnanoscale pores in a sheet of the one-
atom-thick materials including graphene, which is one of the strongest materials
known.
Therefore sheets of graphene, with these subnanoscale pores, can
behave like a semi-permeable membranes.
 So, one possible use of these is the desalination of seawater, very
important in regions of the world where fresh water is scarce e.g. desert
regions of countries in Africa and the Middle-East.
Pure water can be extracted as the water molecules can diffuse through
the graphene membrane, leaving behind the larger hydrated ions from the
salts found in seawater e.g. the sodium ions and chloride ions from
sodium chloride.
The idea is to get these subnanoscale pores small enough to stop larger
molecules or ions passing through the graphene membrane filter, but
large enough to allow water molecules to diffuse through.
o -
NOT on any syllabus yet, but very interesting!
o Technically graphene is an allotrope of carbon (like diamond and graphite)
though it is, in reality, a single layer of graphite.
o Graphene is a two-dimensional (2D) allotrope of carbon (diamond is 3D).
o However, since carbon has a valency of four, there are other possible linear one-
dimensional (1D) forms based on single, double or triple carbon-carbon covalent
bonding systems.
So, again, technically, these are also allotropes of carbon.
o So, research is going into trying to synthesise and investigating the properties of
linear structures based on:
(i) C=C=C=C=C=C=C= etc. i.e. consecutive carbon-carbon double bonds
This is an example of a cumulene (3 or more consecutive carbon-
carbon double bonds), so it is effectively a polycumulene.
(ii) CCCCCCC etc. i.e. alternating single and triple carbon-
carbon bonds.
This material is called 'linear acetylenic carbon', an example of a
polyyne (CC)n, or carbyne (though the name carbyne is
applied to other chemical species).
Carbyne is predicted to be an extraordinarily strong material,
stronger than diamond, but it is difficult to synthesise and is very
unstable.
Graphene is, basically, a single atomic layer of graphite; an abundant mineral which is
an allotrope of carbon that is made up of very tightly bonded carbon atoms organised
into a hexagonal lattice. What makes graphene so special is its sp2 hybridisation and
very thin atomic thickness (of 0.345 Nm). These properties are what enable graphene to
break so many records in terms of strength, electricity and heat conduction (as well as
many others). Now, lets explore just what makes graphene so special, what are its
intrinsic properties that separate it from other forms of carbon, and other 2D crystalline
compounds?

Fundamental Characteristics

Before monolayer graphene was isolated in 2004, it was theoretically believed that two
dimensional compounds could not exist due to thermal instability when separated.
However, once graphene was isolated, it was clear that it was actually possible, and it
took scientists some time to find out exactly how. After suspended graphene sheets
were studied by transmission electron microscopy, scientists believed that they found
the reason to be due to slight rippling in the graphene, modifying the structure of the
 material. However, later research suggests that it is actually due to the fact that the
carbon to carbon bonds in graphene are so small and strong that they prevent thermal
fluctuations from destabilizing it.

In simple terms, graphene, is a thin layer of pure carbon; it is a single, tightly packed
layer of carbon atoms that are bonded together in a hexagonal honeycomb lattice. In
more complex terms, it is an allotrope of carbon in the structure of a plane of sp2 bonded
atoms with a molecule bond length of 0.142 nanometres. Layers of graphene stacked on
top of each other form graphite, with an interplanar spacing of 0.335 nanometres.

It is the thinnest compound known to man at one atom thick, the lightest material known
(with 1 square meter coming in at around 0.77 milligrams), the strongest compound
discovered (between 100-300 times stronger than steel and with a tensile stiffness of
150,000,000 psi), the best conductor of heat at room temperature (at (4.840.44)103 to
(5.300.48)103 W/mK) and also the best conductor of electricity known (studies have
shown electron mobility at values of more than 15,000 cm2/Vs). Other notable
properties of graphene are its unique levels of light absorption at 2.3% of white
light, and its potential suitability for use in spin transport.

Bearing this in mind, you might be surprised to know that carbon is the second most
abundant mass within the human body and the fourth most abundant element in the
universe (by mass), after hydrogen, helium and oxygen. This makes carbon the
chemical basis for all known life on earth, so therefore graphene could well be an
ecologically friendly, sustainable solution for an almost limitless number of
applications. Since the discovery (or more accurately, the mechanical obtainment) of
graphene, advancements within different scientific disciplines have exploded, with huge
gains being made particularly in electronics and biotechnology already.

The problem that prevented graphene from initially being available for developmental
research in commercial uses was that the creation of high quality graphene was a very
expensive and complex process (of chemical vapour disposition) that involved the use of
toxic chemicals to grow graphene as a monolayer by exposing Platinum, Nickel or
Titanium Carbide to ethylene or benzene at high temperatures. Also, it was previously
impossible to grow graphene layers on a large scale using crystalline epitaxy on
anything other than a metallic substrate. This severely limited its use in electronics as it
was difficult, at that time, to separate graphene layers from its metallic substrate without
damaging the graphene.

However, studies in 2012 found that by analysing graphenes interfacial adhesive

energy, it is possible to effectually separate graphene from the metallic board on which it
is grown, whilst also being able to reuse the board for future applications theoretically an
infinite number of times, therefore reducing the toxic waste previously created by this
 process. Furthermore, the quality of the graphene that was separated by using this
method was sufficiently high enough to create molecular electronic devices successfully.

While this research is very highly regarded, the quality of the graphene produced will still
be the limiting factor in technological applications. Once graphene can be produced on
very thin pieces of metal or other arbitrary surfaces (of tens of nanometres thick) using
chemical vapour disposition at low temperatures and then separated in a way that can
control such impurities as ripples, doping levels and domain size whilst also controlling
the number and relative crystallographic orientation of the graphene layers, then we will
start to see graphene become more widely utilized as production techniques become
more simplified and cost-effective.

Being able to create supercapacitors out of graphene will possibly be the largest step in
electronic engineering in a very long time. While the development of electronic
components has been progressing at a very high rate over the last 20 years, power
storage solutions such as batteries and capacitors have been the primary limiting factor
due to size, power capacity and efficiency (most types of batteries are very inefficient,
and capacitors are even less so). For example, with the development of currently
available lithium-ion batteries, it is difficult to create a balance between energy density
and power density; in this situation, it is essentially about compromising one for the
other.

In initial tests carried out, laser-scribed graphene (LSG) supercapacitors (with graphene
being the most electronically conductive material known, at 1738 siemens per meter
(compared to 100 SI/m for activated carbon)), were shown to offer power density
comparable to that of high-power lithium-ion batteries that are in use today. Not only
that, but also LSG supercapacitors are highly flexible, light, quick to charge, thin and as
previously mentioned, comparably very inexpensive to produce.

Graphene is also being used to boost not only the capacity and charge rate of batteries
but also the longevity. Currently, while such materials as silicone are able to store large
amounts of energy, that potential amount diminishes drastically on every charge or
recharge. With graphene tin oxide being used as an anode in lithium ion batteries for
example, batteries can be made to last much longer between charges (potential capacity
has increased by a factor of 10), and with almost no reduction in storage capacity
between charges, effectively making technology such as electronically powered vehicles
a much more viable transport solution in the future. This means that batteries (or
capacitors) can be developed to last much longer and at higher capacities than
previously realised. Also, it means that electronic devices may be able to be charged
within seconds, rather than minute or hours and have hugely improved longevity.
 Consumers can already purchase graphene-enhanced products to use at home. One
company already produces and offers on the market conductive ink (first developed by
researchers at the University of Cambridge in 2011). This is made by effectively mixing
tiny graphene flakes with ink, enabling you to print electrodes directly onto paper. While
this was previously possible by using organic semiconductive ink, the use of graphene
flakes makes the printed material vastly more conductive and therefore more efficient.

Another use for graphene along similar lines to those mentioned previously is that in
paint. Graphene is highly inert and so can act as a corrosion barrier between oxygen
and water diffusion. This could mean that future vehicles could be made to be corrosion
resistant as graphene can be made to be grown onto any metal surface (given the right
conditions). Due to its strength, graphene is also currently being developed as a
potential replacement for Kevlar in protective clothing, and will eventually be seen in
vehicle manufacture and possibly even used as a building material.

As graphene has been proven to be much more efficient at conducting electrons than
silicon, and is also able to transfer electrons at much faster speeds (relatively speaking,
1000 kilometres per second, 30 times faster than silicon), in the next few years you will
begin to see products from consumer electronics companies, such as Samsung (who
have been pouring money into researching the uses of graphene in telecommunications
and electronics and have already taken out a huge number of patents concerned with
the uses and manufacture of graphene in electronic devices) based on flexible, robust,
touchscreen devices such as mobile smartphones and wrist watches.

This could mean foldable televisions and telephones and eventually electronic flexible
newspapers containing all of the publications you are interested in that can be updated
via wireless data transfer. Being extremely translucent, in the coming years you can also
expect to be able to fit intelligent (and extremely robust) windows to your home, with
(potentially) virtual curtains or displaying projected images of your choice.

Combining a few of these aforementioned potential uses, can you imagine car security
systems that are connected to the paint on your vehicle? Not only would your car alarm
be able to tell you if someone is touching your vehicle, it would be able to record that
information and send it to you via your smartphone in real-time. It could also be used to
analyse vehicle accidents to determine initial contact patches and resultant
consequential energy dispersion.

Soon we will begin to see clothing containing graphene-enhanced photovoltaic cells and
supercapacitors, meaning that we will be able to charge our mobile telephones and
tablet computers in a matter of minutes (potentially even seconds) whilst walking to
school or work. We may possibly even see security-orientated clothing offering
protection against unwanted contact with the use of electrical discharge.
 What all this means is that this discovery, made by a physics professor and his PhD
student in a laboratory in Manchester, using a piece of graphite and some Scotch tape
has completely revolutionised the way we look at potential limits of our abilities as
scientists, engineers and inventors. The possibilities of what we can achieve with the
materials and knowledge we have, have been blown wide open, and it is now
conceivable to imagine such amazing prospective situations as lightning fast, yet super-
small computers, invisibility cloaks, smart phones that last weeks between charges, and
computers that we can fold up and carry in our pockets wherever we go.

SUPER PAPEL DE GRAFENO

La Universidad de Tecnologa de Sydney recientemente dio a conocer un nuevo tipo de papel

de nano grafeno que es diez veces ms fuerte que una hoja de acero. Se trata de un
compuesto de grafito procesado y prensado; el material es tan delgado como una hoja de papel
pero increblemente duradero; esta resistencia y espesor le da notables aplicaciones en
muchas industrias, y es totalmente reciclable para iniciar.

Para hacer papel grafeno, grafito en bruto se muele y se purific usando un bao qumico, que
cambia la forma de su estructura, lo que le permite ser presionado en lminas delgadas. Estas
lminas de grafeno cuentan con excelentes propiedades trmicas, elctricas y mecnicas,
incluyendo una excelente dureza y flexibilidad.

El grafeno ofrece muchas ventajas sobre el acero - es dos veces ms duro, seis veces ms
ligero y diez veces superior en resistencia a la traccin. Esto se traduce en un material de
nueva generacin que podran beneficiarse enormemente las industrias del automvil y de la
aviacin. Aviones ms ligeros y coches consumen menos combustible y generan menos
contaminacin. Las compaas tales como Boeing ya han comenzado a utilizar materiales
basados en carbono, por lo que el papel de grafeno sera el siguiente paso lgico.

Grafito prima es un material relativamente abundantes en Australia, donde se realiza la

investigacin. Los investigadores dan la bienvenida al impulso de la industria que aument la
demanda de grafito prima para el papel de grafeno proporcionara.
Fuente: http://inhabitat.com/new-graphene-super-paper-is-10x-stronger-than-steel/

EL NUEVO CARBINO ES MATERIAL MS FUERTE DEL MUNDO, SUPERA A

GRAFENO Y AL DIAMANTE
Carbino podra ser ms fuerte que el grafeno (en la foto arriba). (cc) Alexander ALUS /
materiales del ncleo.

Un nuevo trabajo de investigacin publicado en Arxiv describe en detalle las propiedades de

carbino, un material super que es ms fuerte que el grafeno y el diamante, y que se puede
sintetizar y estabilizado a temperatura ambiente. Carbino es ms rgido que cualquier cosa que
los cientficos han visto antes, y que potencialmente podra tener una amplia variedad de
aplicaciones en sistemas de nanomecnicas y dispositivos electromecnicos.
El documento, escrito por Liu Mingjie, Vasilii I. Artyukhov, Yoonkyung Lee, Fangbo Xu, y Boris I.
Yakobson de la Universidad Rice, muestra el supermaterial como una cadena de tomos de
carbono unidos por enlaces triples e individuales alternativos o mediante enlaces dobles
consecutivos. Se han calculado y escrito propiedades fsicas y qumicas de carbino - respuesta
mecnica a la traccin, flexin, torsin y deformaciones de la estructura atmica. La
investigacin muestran que, con el fin de romper una sola cadena atmica dentro de la
estructura molecular del material, una fuerza de aproximadamente 10 nN (nanonewtons) - una
fuerza que supera a la de cualquier otro material conocido. Es rigidez torsional puede ser cero,
pero puede ser "encendido" por grupos funcionales apropiados en los extremos, de acuerdo
con el papel.

El carbino podra tener una impresionante gama de aplicaciones. Las nanoestructuras basadas
en el carbino y podran revolucionar la nanotecnologa y podra ser utilizado en sistemas
nanomecnicos (nano revestimientos, materiales compuestos, nanotubos, etc.) y dispositivos
opto-electromecnicos (microlentes, sensores, etc.) como un material increblemente fuerte y
ligero.

EL FILTRO DE GRAFENO PODRA CAMBIAR EL JUEGO EN COSTES DE

ENERGA NUCLEAR
Desde Andre Geim y Konstantin Novoselov ganaron el Premio Nobel de Fsica 2010 por su
produccin y estudio de grafeno, Geim ha dedicado una cantidad importante de sus esfuerzos
de investigacin en el uso de grafeno como un medio de filtrado en diversas tecnologas de
separacin tales como la desalinizacin del agua y de separacin de gas.

Este enfoque tiene sentido porque el grafeno posee cualidades como la gran superficie, la
variabilidad del tamao de poro y propiedades de adherencia, los rasgos que la han marcado a
la grandeza como medio filtrante desde hace aos.

Ahora Geim y sus colegas de la Universidad de Manchester han descubierto que los filtros de
grafeno son eficaces en la limpieza de los residuos nucleares producidos en las centrales
nucleares. Esta aplicacin podra hacer que uno de los aspectos ms costosos y complicados
de generacin de energa nuclear diez veces menos energa y por lo tanto mucho ms
rentable.

En una investigacin publicada en la revista Science, los investigadores utilizaron el

Manchester grafeno como un tamiz para ordenar protium, el istopo ms ligero estable de
hidrgeno, a partir de deuterio, que, a diferencia de protium, contiene un neutrn en su ncleo.
El deuterio aparece en cantidades mayores en la llamada agua pesada, que es un componente
esencial de algunos tipos de reactores nucleares. Aunque no es radiactivos como el tritio, el
istopo ms pesado de hidrgeno, en concentraciones suficientemente altas, puede causar
disfuncin de las clulas y la muerte. El deuterio tambin se usa ampliamente en las
tecnologas de rastreo de anlisis y qumicas.

Los investigadores Manchester experimentaron para ver si los ncleos de deuterio, deuterones,
podran pasar a travs de la de dos dimensiones de nitruro (2-D) materiales de grafeno y boro.
Las teoras existentes parecan sugerir que los deuterones pasaran a travs fcilmente. Sin
embargo, para sorpresa de los investigadores, no slo las membranas 2-D cribar los
deuterones, pero la separacin tambin se llev a cabo con un alto grado de eficiencia.

"Esta es realmente la primera membrana se muestra para distinguir entre las partculas
subatmicas, todo a temperatura ambiente," dijo Marcelo Lozada-Hidalgo, un investigador post-
doctoral en la Universidad de Manchester y el primer autor del artculo, en un comunicado de
prensa. "Ahora que hemos demostrado que se trata de una tecnologa completamente
escalable, esperamos que encontrar rpidamente su camino a las aplicaciones reales."

Irina Grigorieva, otro miembro del equipo de investigacin, ha aadido: "Es un conjunto muy
simple para arriba. Esperamos ver las aplicaciones de estos filtros no slo en tecnologas
analticas y el rastreo qumica sino tambin en ayudar a limpiar los residuos nucleares de tritio
radiactivo.

Fuente: http://spectrum.ieee.org/nanoclast/semiconductors/materials/graphene-filter-offers-a-tenfold-
reduction-in-energy-requrements-for-cleaning-nuclear-waste