SPE 62526
Lost Hills CO2 Pilot: Evaluation, Design, Injectivity Test Results, and Implementation
P. R. Perri, SPE; M. A. Emanuele, SPE; W. S. Fong, SPE; and M. F. Morea, Chevron U.S.A. Production Company
Copyright 2000, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2000 SPE/AAPG Western Regional Meeting
held in Long Beach, California, 1923 June 2000.
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Abstract
This paper describes the evaluation, design, and
implementation of a jointly funded DOE/Chevron CO2 pilot
project in the Lost Hills field, Kern County, California.
The pilot consists of four inverted (injector-centered) 5-
spot patterns covering approximately 10 acres, and is located
in a portion of the field, which has been waterflooded since
early 1991. The target reservoir for the CO2 pilot is the
Belridge Diatomite. The pilot location was selected based on
geology, reservoir quality and reservoir performance of the
waterflood. A CO2 pilot will investigate uncertainties
associated with CO2 utilization rate and premature CO2
breakthrough, and overall uncertainty in the unproven CO2
flood process in diatomite and siliceous shale.
This paper summarizes the methodology used in the
project evaluation and design, including construction of the
geologic model, reservoir simulation and CO2 flood
predictions, facilities design, and well design and completion
considerations. An actual CO2 injectivity test was conducted
in March 1999. The results of the injectivity test, which
helped in the design of the pilot, are presented.
The reservoir management plan and future field potential
are also discussed. CO2 injection in the pilot is planned to
commence in July 2000. The methodology and technical
analysis used to evaluate and design the Lost Hills CO2 pilot
are applicable to other potential San Joaquin Valley CO2
floods.
Field History
The Lost Hills field, located 45 miles northwest of
Bakersfield, California, (Fig. 1) was discovered in 1910.
Productive intervals include Middle to Upper Miocene
C
A
L
I
F
O
R
N
I
A
Fig. 1 Location of the Lost Hills field.
siliceous shale, chert, diatomite, and Plio-Pleistocene sands at
an average depth of 2000 ft.
Reserves in the shallow sands, diatomite, and chert pools
were developed using slotted liner completion techniques until
the late 1970s. From the late 1970s to 1987, small-volume
hydrofracture completions were performed covering the entire
Belridge Diatomite. Advances in hydraulic fracturing
technology in the late 1980s resulted in increased oil recovery
that led to a more aggressive development program by
Chevron.1 From 1987 to the present, high-volume
hydrofracture completions have been performed across the
entire Belridge Diatomite and the Upper Brown Shale.2 This
resulted in the significant production increases as shown in
Fig. 2.
The Lost Hills field is developed on a 5 acre (siliceous
shale) to 1.25 acre (diatomite) well spacing. There are over
2.6 billion barrels of oil in place in the Lost Hills field.
Through December 31, 1999 only 135 million barrels have
been produced, or approximately 5% of the original oil in
place (OOIP).
Chevron initiated a pilot diatomite waterflood project in
December 1990 and began full-project development in April
1992. Since 1992, two hundred and eight 2.5 acre patterns
have been put on water injection spanning parts of four
Sections (4, 5, 32, and 33) as shown in Fig. 3.
2 P. R. PERRI, M. A. EMANUELE, W. S. FONG, AND M. F. MOREA SPE 62526

100,000 100,000
N
30 29 Productive limit of
Belridge Diatomite

10,000 10,000 31 32 33 CO2 Pilot Location

Production, B/D or MCF/D

T26S/R21E

H2O Injection, B/D

T27S/R21E
Diatomite
5 4 3
Waterflood
1,000 1,000

Oil
Gas
Water 8 9 10
H2O Injection

100 100
1/1/1980 12/30/1984 12/29/1989 12/28/1994 12/27/1999
Year 17 16 15
Fig. 2Historical production for Lost Hills field since 1980
showing the initiation of the waterflood in 1991. Fig. 3CO2 pilot location.

DIATOMITE COMMINGLED COMMINGLED

Since the initiation of water injection in April 1992, NW
PRODUCER PRODUCER PRODUCER
SE
production has increased approximately 4,000 BOPD from
TULARE
6,400 BOPD to the current rate of 10,400 BOPD. It is
anticipated that an additional 50 100 million barrels can be SAN JOA
QUIN

MONTEREY FORMATION
produced by waterflooding and infill drilling the waterflood BELRIDGE DI
ATOMITE ETCH
EGOIN
area.
BROWN SHALE
Although there are substantial remaining waterflood OPAL A-
OPAL CT
reserves, the recovery efficiency at the economic limit to water COMPLETION
INTERVALS
PHASE
BOUNDARY

injection approaches only 9% of the OOIP. This still leaves A NT

ELO
PE
over 90% of the original oil in place and represents a large
recovery target. The desire to develop this large remaining McD
O NA OPAL CT-
LD
resource prompted Chevron U.S.A. Production Company to DEV
ILW
QUARTZ
PHASE
T E ATE BOUNDARY
form a cross-functional CO2 team in 1998 to evaluate the MB
LO
R
R S
potential of CO2 flooding this field. AND
S
Fig. 4Generalized cross-section along southeast plunge.
Geologic Overview

Structure. Lost Hills field is situated on a NW-SE trending

asymmetric anticline that is oriented nearly parallel to the
trend of the San Andreas Fault to the west, and perpendicular
to the direction of regional compression. The field is
approximately 8 miles long and 1 mile wide (Fig. 3). Oil is
trapped at the crest and along the southeast plunge of the
anticline (Fig. 4). In the vicinity of the pilot the structural
plunge varies from 2 to 6 degrees toward the southeast (Fig.
5). Dips along the northeast flank average around 30 degrees
while those on the southwest flank average around 15 to 20
degrees. Numerous northeast-southwest trending normal faults
cut the Lost Hills structure. Offsets across these faults rarely
exceed 40 feet.

Natural Fractures. Fracture analysis using Electrical Micro Fig. 5Structure Map of Lost Hills CO2 pilot.
Imaging (EMI) log from the 12-8D well in the pilot area
allows for observations to be made regarding the abundance of (Julander, pers. comm., 1999). Core examination also shows
natural fractures in the Belridge Diatomite. The EMI from the the presence of clay filled fractures. These fractures are the
CO2 injectivity test well 12-8D is fairly representative of this result of de-watering and sediment compaction, and formed
part of the Lost Hills field. It shows a fracture frequency of 1 shortly after deposition. These fractures have a random
to 3 fractures per 10 feet of vertical interval orientation and are not aligned to the modern day stress regime
at Lost Hills.
SPE 62526 LOST HILLS CO2 PILOT: EVALUATION, DESIGN, INJECTIVITY TEST RESULTS, AND IMPLEMENTATION 3

Stratigraphy. The uppermost unit of the Monterey Formation target oil saturation which is defined as the residual oil
is the Belridge Diatomite, which consists of biogenic silica saturation to waterflooding (Sorw) minus the residual oil
(diatom frustules), clay, and silt/sand. Diatom frustules are saturation to immiscible flooding (Sorim).
skeletal remains of diatoms in the form of opal-A silica.
Percentages of clay, biogenic silica, and silt/sand, particularly Fluid Description. Lost Hills oil varies considerably across
the last two components, vary vertically and areally across the the field and ranges from 18 API in the northwest to 34 API
field. These three components form interbedded diatomaceous in the southeast. Live oil viscosity is approximately 6 cp at the
mudstones and fine-grained, argillaceous silts/sands. The reservoir temperature of 110 F in the waterflood portion of
diatomites were deposited under oxygen poor to anoxic the field. This results in a waterflood mobility ratio of about
conditions that could sustain only a limited sediment-dwelling 1.65. Slim tube studies performed in 1999 indicated a
fauna. Thus laminations are preserved in the diatomites. minimum miscibility pressure (MMP) of approximately 5000
Meanwhile sandy diatomites were deposited under oxygenated psia with pure CO2, which is well above the current average
conditions. Sandy diatomites were originally deposited as reservoir pressure of 850 psia. Additional reservoir
interlaminated sands and clays, but shortly after deposition information is given in Table 1.
they were heavily bioturbated. This bioturbation further
reduces an inherently low permeability in the sandy diatomite. Table 1Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties
During the Late Miocene, diatomaceous sediments were Lithology, % Diatomite
deposited from the outer shelf to the basin floor in the San Porosity, % 50.0
Joaquin Basin.3 At Lost Hills, diatom frustules and clay Permeability, md 0.1 - 10
particles settled onto the upper slope environment from the Initial Water Saturation 35-60
overlying water column. Superimposed on this hemipelagic
Oil Gravity, oAPI 18-34
sedimentation were changes in relative sea level that occurred
Initial Oil Viscosity, cp 4-40
during the Late Miocene. As sea level rose, diatomaceous rich
deposits were deposited further up on the slope. As sea level Initial Solution GOR, scf/STB 200
fell, sandy diatomite deposits prograded down the slope. Initial Oil FVF, rb/STB 1.09
Lastly, superimposed on these relative sea level changes was Original Reservoir Pressure, psia 1228
the overall progradation and coarsening upward of the Initial Bubble Point Pressure, psia 928
Belridge Diatomite. These fluctuations in relative sea level led Current Reservoir Pressure, psia 850
to a series of parasequences being deposited (Fig. 6). Minimum Miscibility Pressure, pisa 5000
Lithologic and trace fossil evidence from cores indicates that Reservoir Temperature, oF 110-120
at least three sequence boundaries, or their equivalents, can be Net Thickness, ft 600
recognized in the Belridge Diatomite: L PT (base Belridge Average Depth, ft 1900
Diatomite), BH PT, and D PT (top Belridge Diatomite). The Well Spacing, acres 2.50
target reservoir for the CO2 pilot is the FF L (1700-2150) Surface Producing Area, acres 2635
interval of the Belridge Diatomite.
Residual Oil Saturation to Waterflood (Sorw). A review of
Gamma Ray Resistivity Bulk Density
18 Lost Hills displacement tests from wells 10-4B-Sec. 30,
Vulcan 4B-Sec. 5, and 12-10-Sec. 32, indicated a range of Sorw
values from 13 to 39%, with an average value of about 25%.
A review of the limited amount of microlog data, which is a
measurement of the oil saturation in the flush zone, indicates
Sorw values ranging from 24% to 35%, with an average value
of approximately 30%.4 A residual oil saturation to
waterflooding of 30% represents a large, attractive remaining
oil target for CO2 flooding.

CO2 Coreflood Studies. In the early 1990s, laboratory

Fig. 6Type log (12-7W).
Target Oil Saturation
Initial scoping economics show that the key uncertainty
associated with CO2 flooding the diatomite is recoverable
reserves. Recoverable CO2 reserves are directly related to the
corefloods were performed by Chevron to evaluate the
feasibility of injecting flue gas or CO2 at Lost Hills.5 A series
of long corefloods were used to obtain oil recovery and
injectivity ratio over waterflood. These were immiscible
displacement experiments run under reservoir conditions.
Continuous CO2 injection resulted in 56-65% OOIP recovery
depending on the oil API. This corresponded to 16-26% Sorim.
Oil recovery by injecting flue gas was much lower, with Sorim
4 P. R. PERRI, M. A. EMANUELE, W. S. FONG, AND M. F. MOREA SPE 62526

of 46%. The injectivity of CO2 was found to be 2-3 times that

of water. Injecting CO2 following waterflood also
demonstrated incremental recovery. 60

W aterflood
50 Primary

Residual Oil Saturations to Immiscible Flooding (Sorim). Steamdrive

DAILY OIL PRODUCTION (BOPD)

CO2 Flood

The laboratory coreflood Sorim to CO2 injection at Lost Hills 40

conditions is estimated to be around 20%. While this value is

significantly higher than in typical miscible displacements, the 30

enhanced injectivity over waterflood should increase the 20

processing rate in this low permeability reservoir. The actual

reservoir values of Sor would depend largely on areal and 10

vertical sweep efficiencies, fracture geometry and pre-CO2

flood reservoir conditions, and can only be addressed by an 0
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

actual field trial and reservoir simulations. YEAR

Fig. 7Simulation based annual oil production forecast for

selected processes at Lost Hills.
Why a CO2 Flood?
The Lost Hills diatomite resource is a unique reservoir and its
unusual properties such as extremely small pore size (< 5
microns), high porosity (45 70%), and low permeability (<1 400

md) have led to historically, low primary oil recovery (5% of

OOIP). Due to the low primary recovery and large amount of Waterflood

remaining oil in place, Lost Hills presents a large target or

DAILY INJECTION (B/D or MCF/D)
300 Steamdrive

CO2 Flood
resource for EOR. However, in addition to the large resource
base, there is technical justification for CO2 flooding based on
200
reservoir simulation (Fig. 7). This plot shows a comparison of
oil response for four different processes under consideration at
Lost Hills on 2-1/2 acre well spacing: 100

Primary Recovery (Hydraulically Fractured Wells)

Waterflooding 0
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Steamflooding YEAR

CO2 Flooding Fig. 8Simulation based injection forecasts for selected

processes at Lost Hills.

These forecasts were generated using Chevrons CHEARS

diatomite, the CO2 injection process would not be a miscible
multi-purpose simulator.6 The simulation study shows that
process (MMP is estimated to be in the range of 5000 psia).
injecting water has some benefit in arresting the decline
Nevertheless, there are additional benefits associated with the
associated with primary depletion. Injecting steam has more
injection of CO2 in terms of viscosity reduction and swelling
or less the same benefit as water injection in arresting the
of the reservoir oil under these partial miscibility conditions.
primary decline. At this spacing, not enough steam (heat) is
These benefits of CO2 injection are demonstrated when
injected to improve steam recovery substantially over
comparing it with simply injecting methane as shown in Fig. 9.
waterflooding. However, the one process that really
distinguishes itself is CO2 flooding. Notice the tremendous oil
Injectivity Test and Results.
response relative to the other three processes. One reason for
CO2 injectivity tests were conducted in the Belridge Diatomite
this is the higher CO2 injectivity relative to the other injectants
in Lost Hills field from March 11, 1999 through April 16,
(water and steam) as shown in Fig. 8.
1999. The injection tests took place in two wells (Fig. 10).
The injectivity of CO2 is shown to be at least two to three
The first well, 12-8D, is a new well that was drilled during late
times greater than that of water or steam. It should be noted
December 1998. This well had not been completed prior to
that although under the current pressure (300 psig to 1200
the CO2 injection test. The second well, 12-7W, is a
psig) and temperature ranges (105 120oF) for the Lost Hills
waterflood injection well that was hydraulically propped
fractured during mid-1996 and has been on continuous water
injection since November 1996.
SPE 62526 LOST HILLS CO2 PILOT: EVALUATION, DESIGN, INJECTIVITY TEST RESULTS, AND IMPLEMENTATION 5

60 450 Injectivity Test Results. A total of approximately 10 MMscf

400 of CO2 was injected during the test. Fig. 11 shows the
Oil 50
Pr
Ga
350 s
injection rate and duration of the test. The short-term
od Inj
uc
tio 40
ec
300 tio
injectivity tests demonstrated that CO2 could be injected at 2-3
n
Ra 250
n
Ra times that of water, confirming earlier CO2 coreflood results
te, te,
B 30
BL
CO2: Oil Prod. Rate
CH4: Oil Prod. Rate
M
200 SC
and simulation work.
/D CO2: CO2 Inj. Rate F/
D
20 CH4: CH4 Inj. Rate 150

100
CO2 Injection Rate 12-8D & 12-7W
10 900.00
50 Total CO2 injected in all
800.00 zones 12-8D & 12-7W
0 0
95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130
700.00
~10MMscf or 627 Tons
Time, Years

CO2 Injection Rate(mscfd)

Fig. 9Oil production comparison of CO2 vs. CH4 injection. 600.00
2.7 MMscf
or
158 Tons
500.00
1.6 MMscf 5.5 MMscf
12-7 or or
93 Tons 376 tons
400.00

300.00
12-8D CO2 12-7W CO2
Injections Injection
200.00

100.00
L-J Pt. J-G Pt. L-FF Pt.
Injection Injection Injection
0.00
3/1/1999 3/8/1999 3/15/1999 3/22/1999 3/29/1999 4/5/1999 4/12/1999 4/19/1999 4/26/1999

11-7B
12-7W 12-8B
Fig. 11Injection versus time in the 12-8D and 12-7W wells.

Surface Tiltmeter Mapping Results. Surface tiltmeter

12-8D mapping has been utilized in the Lost Hills field for over 10
years.7,8 There have been approximately 300 hydraulic
LEGEND fractures mapped during this time indicating an average
Oil fracture azimuth of N47E 10. A surface tiltmeter array was
Oil (Existing H2O Injector)
Surface Location employed during all CO2 injections as well as during the
hydraulic propped fracture treatment of well 12-8D. The
0 100 tiltmeters saw strong signals. However, the tilt vector patterns
induced by the CO2 injections indicate more complicated
11-8D FEET
fracture geometry then a single vertical fracture. For all of the
Fig. 10Lost Hills CO2 Pilot well location map. Injectivity tests CO2 injections, the surface deformation tended to have a bowl
were performed in 12-8D (non-hydraulically fractured well) and
12-7W (hydraulically fractured water injector).
shaped pattern, indicating multiple near-vertical fractures at
azimuths very different from the field average. This bowl
Objectives. The CO2 injection test was designed with the shaped surface deformation is quite different than that of a
following objectives in mind: horizontal fracture.
In well 12-8D the average propped hydraulic fracture
Gain experience in CO2 operations (i.e., CO2 injection azimuth was N69E 6. This possibly indicates a local
profiling, corrosion monitoring, production reorientation of the stress field. For the two CO2 injection
surveillance, CO2 breakthrough monitoring, etc.). tests in 12-8D, and the first half of the CO2 injection test in 12-
7W, most of the injection resulted in two fractures. Of these
Determine quantitative CO2 injection rates and
two main fractures, the bulk of the fluid created fractures with
pressures in wells with both propped fractures (12-
7W) and non-propped fracture (12-8D) completions. an average azimuth of N30E 7. That is an average rotation
Determine quantitative CO2 injection rates and of about than 40 to the North from the hydraulically propped
pressures by lithology type. fractures mapped in 12-8D. The majority of the remaining
injected volume created either vertical or steeply dipping
Verify CO2 injection rates utilized in reservoir
simulation. fractures that were oriented N67W 10 and orthogonal to
the main fracture system.
Utilize data and costs to design future wells for CO2
From Fig. 12, it is clear that there was a strong possibility
pilot injection.
for the CO2 from the 12-7W to communicate with adjacent
wells 11-8D and 12-7. Gas analysis data confirmed that CO2
was detected in both of these wells. The second half of the 12-
6 P. R. PERRI, M. A. EMANUELE, W. S. FONG, AND M. F. MOREA SPE 62526

7W CO2 injection test was significantly different from the first producers (11-7B, 11-8D, 12-7, 12-8B) prior to the initiation
half. After about 8- days (halfway into the injection), all of of CO2 injection was 230 BOPD and 380 BWPD. Post CO2
the tiltmeters dramatically changed slope, with the biggest Table 2Tiltmeter Fracture Mapping Results for CO2 Injections in Wells 12-8D and 12-7W.

change seen on the east side of the well. It appears that after Volume Avg. Injection
Liquid Rate Liquid
8- to 9 days, two events happened that might possibly be Well Inj. Date
Equiv. CO2 Equiv. CO2
(BBL) (bpd)
Perf
Interval (ft) Azimuth Dip
Volume %
Component
related. First, the main fracture from the first half of the 3/10/99-
82 6
down to the
injection communicated with well 12-7, as both the gas 12-8D Inj. 1 3/17/99 867 124 1970-2120 N 32 E 8 NW
84 7
55%

production and CO2 concentration increased from a baseline of N 67 W down to the

10 SW 45%
20 MSCF/D at 20% CO2 to nearly 50 MSCF/D at 45% CO2 3/22/99-
84 5
down to the
concentration. Once this primary fracture was in a steady- 12-8D Inj. 2 3/26/99 511 128 1760-1930 N 34 E 7 NW 75%
N 64 W Steeply
state, the tiltmeters no longer detected significant growth in 10 dipping 25%
89 6
this fracture plane. Second, an orthogonal fracture began Inj. 1 3/31/99- down to the
12-7W First Half 4/8/99 1027 121 1670-2140 N 23 E 7 SE 75%
growing that is best fit with a single vertical fracture oriented N 69 W Steeply
10 dipping 25%
at N40W 10. Inj. 1
Second 4/8/99-
80 10
N 40 W down to the
12-7W Half 4/16/99 1027 121 1670-2140 10 SW N/A*
* This fracture has a significant shear displacement component.
777000

12-7
Table 3Tiltmeter Fracture Mapping Results for Propped Fracture Treatments in Well 12-8D.
Target
Well head

776900
CO2 Fracture Azimuth Volume %
Propped Fracture Azimuths Volume Perf Interval Horizontal
Well Stage Date (BBL) (ft) Azimuth Dip Component
74 4
Fracture lengths are greatly CO2 injection, down to the
exaggerated for clarity. 1st half
12-8D 1 4/28/1999 660 2160-2320 N 62 E 5 NW 39%
776800
70 5
CO2 injection, down to the
2nd half 12-8D 2 4/30/1999 152 1970-2120 N 66 E 6 NW 36%
87 3
down to the
776700 12-8D 3 4/30/1999 812 1760-1930 N 72 E 4 NW 56%
75 5
12-7W 12-8B
11-7B down to the
12-8D 4 4/30/1999 778 1500-1710 N 75 E 4 SE 24%

776600 Propped fracture azimuth

pattern production increased to a peak of 260 BOPD and 500

12-8D BWPD. Gas production rates were essentially unchanged as a
776500 result of the injection test. Fig. 13 shows the gain in oil
11-8D production that occurred as a result of CO2 injection. Oil
1st CO2 injection production from 12-8D, was not included as part of the total
776400
secondary piece
pattern production. After injecting CO2 in 12-8D, the well was
1st CO2 injection main piece
and 2nd CO2 injection have
hydraulically propped fractured and placed on production.
nearly the same orientation Fig. 14 contains the production history of 12-8D.
d i
776300
1486900 1487000 1487100 1487200 1487300 1487400 1487500 1487600
CO2 Injection Profiling. Injection profiling was done on
each CO2 injectivity test for well 12-8D prior to the well being
Fig. 12Map showing hydraulically propped fracture azimuths hydraulically fractured. Additionally, CO2 injection profiling
from tiltmeter analysis. was done at two 2 different injection rates during the injection
test into well 12-7W which was previously hydraulically
The final results of the tiltmeter are shown in Tables 2 and propped fractured and on water injection since 1996. Fig. 15
3. Although the fracture system is difficult to completely shows a fairly even distribution of CO2 for both injection
resolve, the CO2 injections certainly created more than a single intervals in well 12-8D. It appears that CO2 did not flow
vertical fracture. While most of the fluid was injected into preferentially into zones of higher permeability.
vertical fractures oriented at or near N30E, there were also Inasmuch as well 12-7W had been on water injection prior
significant secondary fractures (also near-vertical fractures) at to CO2 injection, a good comparison of water vs. CO2 injection
very different azimuth orientations, horizontal fracture can be seen in Fig. 15. Injection profiles indicate CO2 entered
components, and very likely significant shear slippage in the zones where water injection was minimal. CO2 injection (pink
formation as well. bars) into 12-8D prior to prop fracture, shows fairly even
CO2 injection is not likely to be maintained with simple distribution with no preference for CO2 to enter into higher
reservoir matrix flow, as the rates will have to be extremely perm zones. CO2 profiling from 12-7W shows CO2 (pink
low. Nor is it likely to induce simple vertical fracture growth bars) entering into zones not well covered by water injection
direction (N50E). Instead, injection will induce a more (blue bars). The 12-7W injection profiles are in chronological
complicated, but not random, fracture system. order from right to left.
Oil Production Response. Production from the 4 pattern
SPE 62526 LOST HILLS CO2 PILOT: EVALUATION, DESIGN, INJECTIVITY TEST RESULTS, AND IMPLEMENTATION 7

Pilot Objectives and Design Considerations

The CO2 pilot will investigate uncertainties associated with
CO2 Total Pattern Oil Production CO2 utilization rate and premature CO2 breakthrough, and
(11-8D, 11-7B, 12-7, 12-8B)
300
Majority of oil production increase from
overall uncertainty in the unproven CO2 flood process in the
290
12-8B and 11-8D. Slight increase in oil
production from 11-7B with little to no
contribution from 12-7.
12-7W
Inj.
Oil Prod
Gas Prod
diatomite and siliceous shale.
Test
Wtr Prod
20 -30 BOPD oil prodution increase after
280 Tot Fld

Objectives. The proposed Lost Hills CO2 Pilot was designed

CO2 injection from 4 pattern producers.
Production (BOPD & MSCf/D)

Water production also increase from

270
380 BWPD to a high of 500 BWPD as a
result of CO2 injection with the following goals and objectives in mind:
260

250
12-8D Inj. Test
No. 1 & No. 2
Test the technical and economic viability of CO2
240 flooding the low permeability diatomite resource,
230 which is one member of Californias siliceous shale
220
reservoirs of the Monterey Formation.
210
Obtain pilot results in a timely manner (3 years or
less).
200
1/1/99 1/31/99 3/2/99 4/1/99 5/1/99
Time
5/31/99 6/30/99 7/30/99 Install a configuration that enhances the chance of
Fig. 13Gain in oil production due to CO2 injection. process success (oil response) and minimizes the
likelihood of premature CO2 breakthrough.
Provide an opportunity to gather and analyze
12-8D Production Data (Post CO2 Injection) reservoir, geologic, and production data and gather
140
facilities design information necessary to commit to a
120
12-8D competed with 4 frac stages
full-field project.
Install a CO2 Pilot in Lost Hills safely, without
* 1500' - 1710' (E-FF pt) 151K lbs prop.
* 1760' - 1930' (G-H pt) 150K lbs prop.
* 1970' - 2120' (J-L pt) 31K lbs prop.

incident, and in accordance with all county, state, and

Production (BOPD & MSCF/D)

* 2160' - 2320' (L - UBS) 93K lbs prop.

100
Total Net Perfs=690ft Total Prop=424K lbs
federal environmental rules and regulations.
%CO2
80 Oil Prod
Gas Prod
12-7
Wtr Prod
Total Fld
60

Four 2.5 Acre Patterns

40

11-7B 12-7W 12-8B

20

12-8D
0
5/1/1999 5/8/1999 5/15/1999 5/22/1999 5/29/1999 6/5/1999 6/12/1999
Time
OB-C1
Fig. 14Post CO2 production data from 12-8D. 12-8W
11-8W 115R
185B OB-C2 11-8D OB-C3

12-8D perfd 12-7W fracd

11-8WA
LEGEND
12-8C
11-8E Oil
CO2 (Existing H2O Injector)
11-9J Proposed Observation
Surface Location

0 200 400

FEET
Fig. 16Four 2.5 acre patterns pilot configuration.

Pattern Size and Configurations.

With the foregoing objectives in mind, a four-pattern (2.5
acres each) CO2 pilot configuration was chosen as shown in
Fig. 16. This configuration confines one producer (11-8D).
Originally we considered installing a 5/8 acre spacing pilot
consisting of four inverted 5-spot patterns. With the tighter
Fig. 15CO2 injection profiles for 12-8D (left) and 12-7W (right).
well spacing we could accelerate the processing of the
reservoir with CO2 and the associated oil response, if it were to
occur, and determine the feasibility of flooding the diatomite
reservoir much sooner. The desire to implement the smallest
8 P. R. PERRI, M. A. EMANUELE, W. S. FONG, AND M. F. MOREA SPE 62526

spacing pilot as possible to accelerate learning and obtain pilot (Section 32) was also incorporated into the model. For the
results quicker were weighed against keeping the pilot spacing history matching, a black oil model will be run from 1948-
large enough to minimize premature CO2 breakthrough. A 5/8 1999. The pressure and saturation information will then
acre pattern configuration was used during our injectivity test
and resulted in CO2 breakthrough in well 11-8D after a few
days of injection into well 12-8D (Fig. 10). We believe the
larger 2.5 acre pattern configuration will help reduce the risk
of premature breakthrough that a 5/8 acre pilot configuration
would likely incur.

Selected Pilot Area. The selection of the pilot area location

was driven primarily by reservoir engineering and geologic
considerations. We wanted to install the pilot in an area of the
field that had good reservoir quality in terms of So h while
still being representative of the potentially large expansion
area available to us with the existing 208 pattern waterflood. Fig. 17Outline of 16-pattern simulation model with fractures.
Evaluation of the production data and reservoir performance
indicated that the pilot area had an excellent waterflood history
and was a good target for CO2 flooding.

Future CO2 Flood Prediction

A detailed earth model around the pilot area was developed for
input into a reservoir simulation model, and for visualization
of field data. The geologic input was from a full field
characterization effort that was completed recently.

Geostatistical Modeling. Chevrons G2/Gocad++9 software

was used in the earth modeling process. A 149-well group
around the pilot area was extracted from the full field data.
Seventeen stratigraphic surfaces from C PT to 300 feet below
the L PT (base of the diatomite) were used to confine the Fig. 18Nested variogram model of permeability.
model. The model covers sixteen injector-centered patterns
(Fig. 17). The thin plates represent hydraulic fractures in the
model.
The total reservoir thickness is approximately 1100 feet.
The model has 25 feet 5 feet areal grids, and approximately
2 feet thick layers. This results in a 10.3 million-grid model.
Spatial geostatistical analysis was performed on the Porosity-
Permeability-Saturation (PKS) logs, and nested variograms
were developed. Fig. 18 shows a typical variogram model fit
for permeability. Sequential gaussian simulation (SGS) was
applied to the oil saturation (So) logs to populate the reservoir
volume. Collocated cokriging SGS was then applied to
develop the permeability and porosity volumes, using So as
soft data. Fig. 19 shows the resulting property cross sections.
The fine scale geologic model was further scaled-up for
flow simulation. Fig. 20 compares porosity cross-sections of
the geologic model, and a 37-layer flow model. To model
hydraulic fractures, thin planes of cells were added after scale
up (Fig. 17). The flow model allows for orthogonal sets of
fractures originating from the injectors. Finally, a 60,500 grid Fig. 19Cross-Sections from the fine scale geologic model.
model was constructed for the simulator.
Well completion and production data were imported into
G2/GOCAD++, processed and then output to CHEARS for
history matching purposes. PVT data from well 11-8D
SPE 62526 LOST HILLS CO2 PILOT: EVALUATION, DESIGN, INJECTIVITY TEST RESULTS, AND IMPLEMENTATION 9

2.0E+06 4.00E+06

Cumulative Oil Produced, stb

Cum. Water Produced, stb

1.5E+06

1.0E+06 2.00E+06

5.0E+05

0.0E+00 0.00E+00
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
Year

Fig. 21Cumulative oil and water primary production match.

8000

Fig. 20Porosity cross-sections of 37 and 500 layer models.

Gas Oil Ratio, scf/stb

6000
be output to a compositional version of the same model for
subsequent CO2 injection predictions.
4000

Reservoir Flow Simulation Model. This model is being used

to evaluate various CO2 flooding configurations, determine the 2000
optimum well spacing, make operational changes in the pilot,
and to predict the future performance of a potential field wide 0
CO2 project. The history match will be completed in three 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
stages: Year

Primary Production or Pre-Hydraulic Fracturing Phase
(1949 1991).
Waterflooding or Post-Hydraulic Fracturing Phase
(1992 1999).
CO2 Flooding Pilot Phase (2000 2001).
Primary History Match. The results of the first phase
history match are quite satisfactory. Fig. 21 shows plots of
production history (symbols) compared to simulation results.
A good match of cumulative oil and water production from
1949 1991 was obtained. By 1992, the predicted values are
lower since fractures have not been placed in the model yet
and the model cannot produce the actual rates. Fig. 22 shows
the GOR match.
Waterflood History Match. The Lost Hills waterflood
project was initiated in the early 1990s. The pressure and
saturations of the pre-hydraulically fractured model at the
1992 time step was output to construct a new simulation model
with hydraulic fractures at the modern well locations. Results
of the waterflooding history match were not available at the
time this paper was submitted for publication.
Future CO2 Performance. The history matched primary
and waterflood model will be converted to a compositional
model and used for analyzing and predicting the CO2 pilot
response. Sensitivities to operational parameters such as water
Fig. 22GOR comparison for primary history match.
alternating gas (WAG) ratio, impurities in CO2, or to reservoir
uncertainties such as fracture geometry will be investigated.
Pilot Implementation
A successful pilot implementation involves executing the
required well and facility work necessary to install the CO2
pilot while meeting key safety, capital budget, and installation
time metrics.
Well Work. The selected pilot location contains 10 active
producers and 4 active water injectors. The following
describes the necessary well work that needs to be completed
before pilot injection can commence.
Existing Injection Wells. The existing four waterflood
injectors (12-7W, 12-8W, 11-8W, 11-8WA) will need to be
pulled to install internally coated injection packers and
tubulars. During this remedial work, the wells will be
reconfigured from dual injection to single string injection. The
probability of success during these injector conversions is
extremely low, due to subsidence related casing restrictions.
As of this writing, all four injectors have known casing
restrictions and/or casing damage.
10 P. R. PERRI, M. A. EMANUELE, W. S. FONG, AND M. F. MOREA SPE 62526

New Injection Wells. Four new CO2 injection wells may 12-7W CO 2 Injection Test
L-FF PT Markers (2140'-1670')
have to be drilled, based on the success of the injector 2200
Bottom hole injection
conversions. These new injection wells will receive 7 casing, 2000 pressure from capillary
CO 2 Injected into 12-7W :
+ 376 Tons
+ 2053 Bbls
tubing indicates an injection
two propped fracture stages (G PT J PT and J PT L PT) 1800 pressure gradient of 0.64
+ 5.5 MMscf

psi/ft at the top perf.

and will be completed with a single, internally coated,

Pressure, Rate & Volume Data

1600

injection string. 1400

Surface injection press.
Avg press~ 825 psi
Liquid CO 2 inj rate
- 400 m scf/d

New injection wells will have to be propped fractured to 1200

- 650 m scf/d
- 90? m scf/d

allow injection below the specified Division of Oil and Gas 1000

(DOG) permit limit of 0.8 psi/ft as measured from the top 800

perforation of the injection interval. Bottom hole pressure 600

data from the CO2 injection test conducted on non-fractured 400

well 12-8D, indicated injection pressure gradients of 0.80 200

psi/ft (Fig. 23) for the J PT L PT interval, and 0.88 psi/ft 0

4/1/1999 4/5/1999 4/9/1999 4/13/1999 4/17/1999

(Fig. 24) for the G PT L PT interval. Fig. 25Bottom hole injection pressure for 12-7W.

12-8D CO 2 Injection Zone #1

program, existing tubing and sucker rods may have to be
J -L Interval (1970'-2120')
1800
Bottom hole pressure data
replaced with corrosion resistant materials (internally coated
1600
from capillary tubing
indicates an injection
tubing and/or externally coated continuous sucker rods).
1400
press gradient t of 0.80
psi/ft
CO 2 Injected into Zone#1:
+ 158 Tons (316,M lbs)
Observation Wells. Three observation wells are to be
drilled in April 2000. Two of these wells will be fiberglass-
+ 867 Bbls
Pressures (psig) & Rates (mscfd)

+ 2.72 MMscf (avg 400 Mscf/d)

1200

cased. The third observation well will be steel-cased and used

1000

for pressure observation.

800

600 Surface pressure during CO 2

injection
Facility Work. New production facilities are being
constructed for processing the fluids produced in the Lost Hills
Avg. ~1000 psig
400

200 CO2 pilot. The production facility has the ability to meter the
0
CO2 pilot production volumes on a stand-alone basis separate
from the rest of the field. This meter will serve as an
3/10/1999 3/11/1999 3/11/1999 3/11/1999 3/13/1999 3/15/1999 3/17/1999
Time

Fig. 23Bottom hole injection pressure for 12-8D (Jpt-Lpt). allocation point for the pilot producers. Downstream of the
CO2 production facility the produced fluids and gases will be
C O 2 In je c tio n T e s t 1 2 -8 D Z o n e # 2
J -G P T (1 7 6 0 '-1 9 3 0 ') commingled with existing production at Lost Hills. A liquid
180 0
CO2 supply terminal is being constructed to store and pump
160 0
CO2 for the pilot. A new CO2 injection distribution system
Botton Hole Pressure (cap tbg @ 1760ft)

140 0
was constructed and the water injection system was upgraded
for WAG operation for the four injection wells in the project
120 0

B o tt o m h o le p re s s u re fro m
area.
100 0
c a p illa r y tu b in g in d ic a te s a n
800 in je c tio n g r a d ie n t o f 0 .8 8 p s i/ft.

600
Production Facility. The production facility is equipped
400
to handle CO2/hydrocarbon gas separation, oil and produced
200
water transfer, and oil well testing. The oil and water will be
0
metered, along with the oil percentage, before transfer to the
1 501 100 1 150 1

T i m e ( 2 m i n . in c re m e n ts )
200 1
Lost Hills central production facility for further processing.
Fig. 24Bottom hole injection pressure for 12-8D (Gpt-Jpt). The CO2/hydrocarbon gas is metered and piped to the main
gas collection system which feeds several booster compressor
The CO2 injection pressure gradient for well 12-7W, propped sites for pressurization. Gas from the booster locations will be
fractured water injector, was 0.64 psi/ft (Fig. 25). This is well burned in steam generators or handled as part of gas sales
below the DOG maximum injection pressure limit of 0.8 psi/ft. agreements. The piping components are internally coated
Production Wells. All current CO2 pilot pattern carbon steel or 316 stainless steel and the pressure vessels are
production wells are currently producing. At this time no carbon steel with a fusion bond epoxy internal coating system.
additional pattern producers will need to be drilled. All future The CO2 supply site consists of four 50-ton CO2 storage
new, or replacement producers will need to be hydraulic vessels, four injection pumps (two booster pumps and two
fracture stimulated with 4 to 5 stages, from the Upper Brown injection pumps), a vaporizer skid, and a heater. Pure CO2
Shale to the D PT marker. Based on the corrosion monitoring will be delivered by truck and stored in vessels at 300 psig and
program, existing tubing and sucker rods may have to be 0 oF. The liquid CO2 will then be pressurized to over 1200
replaced with corrosion resistant materials (internally coated psig by booster and injection pumps. The CO2 is heated,
tubing and/or externally coated continuous sucker rods). vaporized, and then distributed in the supercritical state.
SPE 62526 LOST HILLS CO2 PILOT: EVALUATION, DESIGN, INJECTIVITY TEST RESULTS, AND IMPLEMENTATION
Pipelines. New cement-lined flow lines were installed to
gather oil, water, and gas from the project producing wells. A
new CO2 injection distribution system was installed from the
CO2 storage facility to the project injection wells and
connected to well head manifolds for WAG operation. The
CO2 distribution system consists of above ground, insulated,
carbon steel pipe and 316 stainless steel surface
injection/WAG manifolds. The CO2 and water are both
handled through the same control system at the well head and
the manifold is equipped with a block and bleed system to
isolate the water and CO2 streams.
Automation. The supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA) system is focused primarily on data acquisition.
Injection well rates and pressures are monitored and controlled
with a remote terminal unit and automated choke arrangement
at each of the project wells. The CO2 content of the produced
gas is closely monitored on the test and pilot group separators.
Should the CO2 content increase over the trigger point, the
metering equipment will automatically pinpoint the
breakthrough producer(s) and notify the Operator. Injection
rates, temperatures, and pressures are monitored at the CO2
storage facility.
Pilot Operation and Surveillance
At initiation of the Lost Hills CO2 pilot project, it was
recognized that sound reservoir management practices would
need to be implemented to realize the maximum benefit from
the pilot. In addition to the proper design and implementation
of the pilot as discussed earlier, these practices would include
a sound operating philosophy and a plan to capture the right
information from the pilot. The following sections discuss
application of the Lost Hills CO2 pilot reservoir management
plan.
Operating Strategy. For the Lost Hills CO2 pilot, the
philosophy is to inject CO2 continuously until a mobility
control threshold is reached (upper limit GOR). At that time,
some form of mobility control will be applied (most likely
WAG injection or possibly profile modification treatments).
Actual reservoir response will dictate the continuous CO2 slug
size injected prior to switching to mobility control (water
injection) on a pattern by pattern basis. The mobility control
will likewise be determined based on individual pattern
performance. The basic injection strategy is to inject below
formation parting pressure while maximizing rate.
The design philosophy for the CO2 pilot was heavily
influenced by Chevrons and the industrys experience in West
Texas.10 The use of CO2 in the San Joaquin Valley is yet an
unknown commodity. For this reason we will initially rely on
the experience of the West Texas floods. In West Texas, the
industry has gone to a mix of continuous CO2 injection and
WAG. It is not known how large of a volume of CO2 can be
injected before mobility control problems occur. Hopefully
large volumes of CO2 can be injected before going to WAG
injection because: (1) oil is contacted with CO2 faster, and (2)
11
potential processing problems (i.e., injectivity losses, etc.)
associated with WAG are deferred. The challenge for
operating the CO2 flood is the timing of when to apply
mobility control (i.e., WAG or chase water).
Monitoring Plan. In order to monitor the CO2 pilots
performance, a comprehensive monitoring and surveillance
program has been developed. Table 4 lists the types of data to
be collected and its relevance.
Reservoir Pressure Monitoring. Average reservoir
pressure data for the pilot will be obtained from a single
pressure observation well located in the center of the project
(Fig. 6). This well will have a short and long string,
corresponding to the current waterflood injection intervals, and
readings will be taken from each string on a monthly basis.
Production Well Monitoring. Oil, water, and gas
production data for the total pilot production are measured
continuously. Individual well tests are performed at least
twice per month for each of the 16 pilot production wells.
Producing fluid levels are checked at least once per month on
each production well. Analysis of these fluid level
measurements are used to identify production well problems
(scale deposition, pump gas locking, etc.).
Oil, Water, and Gas Analyses. Baseline oil, water, and
gas analyses will be obtained on each pilot well, where
possible, prior to commencing CO2 injection. Produced gas
samples will be collected weekly and analyzed, to determine
the onset of CO2 breakthrough, both on an individual well
basis and for the total produced streams. The other produced
fluids (oil and water) will be periodically collected and
analyzed. These analyses will be used to monitor changes that
are occurring as a result of the CO2 flood and to predict
possible future production problems (such as scale or
asphaltene deposition, corrosion problems, etc).
Injection Well Monitoring. Surveillance of injection well
performance will include monitoring injection rates and
pressures and vertical injection profiles. Injection profile logs
(velocity, tracer, and temperature) will be initially run on the
four pilot injection wells while the wells are still on water
injection. These logs will provide a waterflood baseline for
comparing differences seen during CO2 injection.
CO2 Flood Front Monitoring. Cased hole resistivity logs
and an electro-magnetic (EM) survey is planned for the
fiberglass-cased observation wells. The advantage of EM is
that while the resistivity logs only have a small radius of
investigation around the wellbore, EM can image between
wells. The two fiberglass-cased observation wells will be
located on either side of a CO2 injector. Thus CO2 areal sweep
in the reservoir can be monitored over time. Also crosswell
seismic surveys will be performed by Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory. Like EM, crosswell seismic
will help determine CO2 areal sweep.
12 P. R. PERRI, M. A. EMANUELE, W. S. FONG, AND M. F. MOREA SPE 62526

Table 4. Pilot Monitoring and Surveillance. permeability trends, well-pair problems that may require future
Derived remedial action, and individual pattern CO2 breakthroughs and
Source Type Freq. Information areal sweep efficiencies.
Injection Wells Tracer survey; Three Injection profile;
Install flow meters months CO2 rate, pressure &
w/ controllers @ Daily temperature Future Plans and Project Expansion Potential
each injector Current plans are to continue installing the Lost Hills CO2
header; pilot project with initial injection anticipated in early July
Tiltmeters Initial & Hydraulic fracture 2000. We will then operate the pilot and monitor the
(Completion & during and injectant
Injection) injection azimuths (CO2 & production performance for up to two years. A new reservoir
H2O) simulation model has been constructed and will incorporate all
Fiberglass Cased Cased hole Six Oil saturation the data to be collected. The objective is to create a tool that
Observation resistivity; months changes can be used to optimize future pilot operations, (i.e., when to
Wells E-M survey CO2 sweep
Cross well seismic CO2 sweep
switch to WAG, WAG ratios, half-cycle slug sizes, total slug
Steel Cased Pressure Six Formation pressure; size, etc.) and to provide more reliable predictions of future
Observation Well months Needed to determine performance.
hydrocarbon pore Pending a favorable economic climate, successful
volumes of CO2 performance of the Lost Hills CO2 pilot could lead to
injected
Producing Wells CO2 concentration Weekly Performance expansion into the 520 acres that has been under waterflood
in produced gas; updating; material operations since 1991. Even more importantly, if this process
Corrosion balance; CO2 proves successful, other siliceous shale and diatomite
coupons; response; reservoir reservoirs in the San Joaquin Valley will benefit.
modeling
Casing Gas composition Daily Energy balance;
Collection effect on casing Conclusions
System pressure & oil 1. Coreflood and simulation studies of the CO2 flooding
production process suggest significant oil recovery due to increased
Producing Wells: Install new AWT Every Baseline production
injectivity, viscosity reduction, and fluid swelling in the
Incremental Oil, dedicated to pilot two days vs. actual
Gas & Water wells production; diatomite.
Production Incremental gas 2. Field injectivity tests demonstrated that CO2 could be
production; injected at 2-3 times that of water, confirming earlier
Oil production vs. coreflood tests and simulation studies.
HC pore volumes
injected 3. CO2 can be successfully injected into this low
CO2 Utilization CO2 injection rate Monthly Meter CO2 injection permeability reservoir at significant rates while staying
vs. incremental rate and trend vs. oil below regulatory injection pressure ceilings.
production; produced long term 4. Oil response was observed after only three weeks of
CO2 quality % -
blend in natural
injection.
gas 5. Pilot design was greatly influenced by injectivity tests and
CO2 Detect when tracer Daily Online GC or tiltmeter results.
Breakthrough gases arrive at frequent sampling
producers with lab Nomenclature
Percent Recycle Gas production Monthly Sample & trend %
krw = relative permeability to water, fraction
composition CO2 at critical
junctions of gas Sorim = residual oil saturation to immiscicble CO2 flood,
system Section 3 fraction
compressor, Cahn 3 Sorw = residual oil saturation to waterflood, fraction
compressors, & Four Swi = initial water saturation, fraction
Star gas plant sales
point
Timing of Oil Real time Monthly Pilot performance
Response comparison of oil Acknowledgments
production vs. This work has been partly funded under DOE contract DE-
injection rates
FC22-95BC14938, Class III Field Demonstration Project. We
would like to thank G. D. Walker of the National Petroleum
CO2 Tracer Program. A CO2 injection tracer program will Technology Office, U. S. Department of Energy for all of his
be utilized in the Lost Hills CO2 pilot area. The objective of help and support.
this program is to improve the reservoir characterization of the The authors would like to thank the Chevron U.S.A.
pilot area so that the reservoir simulation models can Production Company management for their support throughout
accurately model the CO2 flood performance of the pilot. The the project and permission to publish this paper. This work
tracers are expected to provide information on directional
SPE 62526 LOST HILLS CO2 PILOT: EVALUATION, DESIGN, INJECTIVITY TEST RESULTS, AND IMPLEMENTATION 13

could not have been done without the help of the Lost Hills SI Metric Conversion Factors
CO2 Pilot Team and Chevron Petroleum Technology acre x 4.046 873 E+03 = m2
Company. The authors wish to recognize all the team API 141.5/(131.5+API) = g/cm3
members, both past and present. bbl x 1.589 873 E-01 = m3
Lastly, the authors would like to recognize J.F. Cooney, for cp x 1.0* E-03 = Pa s
his guidance, leadership, and work on the various facilities ft x 3.048* E-01 = m
issues and for his demonstrated expertise in project ft3 x 2.831 685 E-02 = m3
management. The authors also wish to thank G. R. F (F-32)/1.8 = C
Molesworth who has coordinated the well work associated in. x 2.54* E+00 = cm
with the implementation of this pilot. md x 9.869 233 E-04 = m2
psi x 6.894 757 E+00 = kPa
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