.]',,r.1:.

r ,l ''
t.: .... : .

ll r .: lr.r., r .

.l r. :rlli

Designing a Series of Suspension

Footbridges
tJasic definitions of statics: loads, forces, tension,
compression, stress "/
Free-bady diagrams; vectors and scalars; static /"
equilibrium af concurrent {arces
&, The force polygon and funicular polygon for
funicuf ar structures; Baw's notation H{.
}ii.
W Detailingsteel rod elements in tension, and Iiil
,1"i1
anchoringto rack
w. Lateral stabitity; stif tening a tensile structure

le, Canstru cti on detai t in g an d p I ann i n g

e hr,c been cornruissiinccl to design a ser-icrs ol

fbotltridges lbr a n"rv sttrric rllii rhr uili uincl
throrrgli a deep, nirrro\\'can\on in a lilifional parli in
thc soLthr'cstcrn Unitcd States. Ihe u alls oltthe rillvor arc
rf'trn vcrticaIanci solnetimes ot,trlt:rng, so ihat ihc trai] rnust
nx.i.c: ll'onr ctc side of thc canr.rt to the othr:r at a nuntbc.r of
locations to lillon a routc that i.r.ill rvoirl the stc'epest u,ails
and mininrizt: erxcrlvatirn olt tlrc rock. 'I'hc lengths (sparr.s)
ol' t1-re bridges r,r'ill van, betn ecn .10 and I 00 lt. I'hc fur:ks ol
ail the bridges (ther r.r,alking sLrrlaces) r,r,ill be-. rl li rvicle.

DESICN CONCEPT

\\c have alreaclv clevdopeil, in cooper;rtion u,ith rhc Prrk

Sen,icc. a }asic desigr-r concept anil a sirnple s),ston of
cornll()nents for riraking these bridges 1F'igrrres 1.1, 1.2).
BecaLrse rf the reniote.ness ol'the bririge sites anrJ the dil'-
ficultv ri lr,orkins in the nanu. curl\on \\'hilcr standing Lnr Figure1.1 Thissuspensionspanof40ftisthefirstbridgewewill considerinthischapter.
CHAPTER I ,/ DESIGNING A SERIES OF SUSPENSION FOOTBRIDGES

narrow rock ledges, as much of the work as possible

E4 will be done on components in a contractor's workshop.
'lhey will then be trucked to the site. where a constrllc-
N tion crew r,vill assemble them.
'l-he beams of each bridge are made of u.ood and
will be brought to the site in 20-fi lengths. Shorter
lengths can be cut as needed to adjLrst bridge lengths to
particular sites. We will support the ends of the beams
5hhrr .
that occur over the empty space of the canyon on short
Uel Tlal+ wood crossbeams that hang from steel rods. The rods
Wd*rrw"- wiil transmit their forces to steel plates anchored into l'r*
the rock of the canyon walls. T'he beams, crossbeams,
Sllnk* *lel nb and rods will be used as a modular system to build
srlspension briclges of anv necessary length for this trail
(Figure 1.3). Suspension bridges tend to be lighter in
frair,l* 4e,{ pl^te---4 weight than any other kind of bridge, r,r,hich makes
them particularly appropriate for the remote, dlfflcult
ftale 94ec.l {o* *---q Fgure 1.2 An exploded view of the
constructon system for the suspension sites u,here they mr-rst be built in this park.
bridges in this chapter reveals its We have selected rods rather than cables because
component parts. these bridges are small and the loads to be supported
are correspondingly lor. Cables, if r,,l,e rvere to use
ltai*le* alrr;l rod* ? them, would be very small in diameter, which u,ould
\
make them vr-llnerable to vandalism. Because the steel
e*, eX^0, from lvhich the rods are made is not as strong as that

used in cables, the rods that u,e will use will be some-
r.l,hat larger in diameter than cables of the same capac-
ity. Rods are also easier and less costly to connect than
cables. We r,r,ill learn about cables and their connec-
tions in Chapter 2, in the context of a structure rvith
much longer spans, r.lhere cables are appropriate and
economical.
The beams and deck boards for the bridges are
bA*
ad Pletc
,
,rr\rl sawn from red cedar logs. We will use them in their
rough, unplaned state, in keeping rvith the rustic
I tirrrr
,r.rl,lr

g,l+e irrto nature of the canyon. Furthermore, rough beams

are enough larger in dimension than planed ones
that they have substantially larger strrrctural capacit-
G&," t-ra ls b'*'U -.-*-----) ies. Red cedar contains natural substances that are
/ toxic to decay fr:ngi, making thc woocl resistant to
g rot. Hor,r,ever, cedar is a very sofi, low-densiry w'ood
that erodes gradtrally r,r,hen exposcd to severe r,rinter
'w,eatheq losing a few hr-rndredtl.rs ol'an inch from each
 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS 3

ossible surface every year. We have specified larger beams (r*+- +'lleJ.
l<shop. than are stmcturally necessary in order to provide for [sl ro& -
lstruc- a felv decades of erosion before they r.l.ill have to be
replaced.
rr<l and With stainless steel rods an<l fittings, which do
iIrorter not rust, and cedar beams, which do not decay, the
Wls awtnxd i^
gths to bridges rvill need no paint or chemical preservatives
kinb+s *{".)
lrcams and shor-ld last for decades r,vith little maintenance.
n short
rt' rods 5.9.w
L,<l into THE CHALLENGE
lrcams,
r btrild Our challenge is to design the bridges for this trail
ris trail individuall,v, taking into account for each of them tl're
lrtcr in
*w-^
length ofits span and the places above it where the rock
nrakes s sr-rfficiently solid to support the steel anchor plates.
Lif'f icLrlt All the bridge sites have been surveyed to ptovide us
with this information. As part of our design work, we
('caU se need to determine the shapes that the rods will take in
rrorted each situation, and the forces that they must transmit. l'vw llale
lo r.lse 'lhis will enable us to speci8/ the required lengths and
would diamcters ol the rods.
rt'steel
as that
3il e*, d*in,q"dlev
'some- CONSTRUCTION DETALS
cPac-
ct than We have given considerable thought to how the bridges
onnec- will be put together. Figtrre 1.4 shows details of the
rr: with major features. The rods are connected to the rock
tc and r,r,alls of the canyon vvith stainless steel anchor plates.
Each anchor plate is secured with stainless steel
gcs are bolts that are inserted into holes dlled in the rock
Figure 1.3 The construction system is modular,
in their and embedded there with growt, a fine-grained, high-
enabling it to be used for bridges of various spans
' rrrstic strength mixture of sand, portlar-rd cement, and chemi-
cal admixt-rres that incrcasc its strength and linrit its 4" 40 s.s .plot
lreams
cl ones sl.rrinkage. 'I'he grout is poured into the holes in the
'apacit- form of a paste that hardens to rnite the bolts securely
Figure 1.4 Typical details of the suspension bridge construction system.
hat are with the rock. The rods, anchor plate assemblies, and
itant to other metallic components are all custom-fabricated
y r.l,ood for each bridge. We rvill determine the diameters of
winter the rods in accordance with the amount of force each
,nl each must carry rvhen the bridge is lully loaded.
 CHAPTER I,/ DESIGNiNG A SERIES OF SUSPENSION FOOTBRIDGES

'l'he.itrbricutol o| thc ste.c--l rocls u,il1 prcparc thc'rl beams and spaced about 112 in. apart so that they will l ), ,r, I l

to the cxact k'r'rgLlis needed lbr each briclge. ,\ jarl not retain rvater by capillary action after a rain or snou. lrrllr
litting {also called a .fork or c/r:r,i-s) rvill be usercl lvher- melt.'Ihe ends of each bridge deckwill be held down by irr r,'lrl
e','er: rocl ioins ii plaLe. \\,'l-rere r-r rocl srrpports r noocl bolts anchored with grout into holes dllecl in the rock. 1,,,.rr,1,
leani. il rvil1 pass verticrllr. tl'rrotrgh a hole cirilleci in A handrail must be proded on one side to give rlr rr',r1,
thc bean.r ar-rrJ a n-r:ltching holc, in stainless stecl platc hikers something to hold as they cross the bridge. ll,, r, ,

.l/8 in. thicli on thc brttonr ol the lerlrn iFigLir:e I"-l). Because the trails that lead to the bridge are precari- l,,ll,,,r
,\ circular u,'usher ancl stailtlcss steel joriz /??rl trallslnit ous and have steep drop-offs unprotected by railings,
the lorce in thr: r"rd sectrrelv tt.r the piatc.'l'l.rc plate full railings and balusters are not required here as they
spreads tl'ris lirrcc ovt-r a large c.nonglr rr<,'a of u,ood that are in buildings. Nevertheless, the handrail must be
thc n,ood is not cnshed. 'l'hc janr nut is designcci tcr sturdy and reliable. We propose a steel pipe railing
develop zr high degrer: o[ lliction against tix: threac]ed supported by tapered wood posts. The posts are fas-
rocl so that it n,ill not unscrc\,\ acciclentallr,. l'hc scrc.ri, tened securely to the outscle face of tl're deck beam
ll,
threacl s ancl n u ts al ou, lirr ea sr, lsserhlr- ncl [i ne scrk-
1 with stainless steel angles and bolts (Figure 1.5).
,.rl, rl,
ld_iirstment of' the r,erticrl posilions ol the Lrerrrns, as
l,,lrll,
u.t:11 s easy clisassel'rbly lr.hr:n ncerled.
lrr,, 1,,
\.\,'hcrc a vertical rocl lrcr'n a br'ir''r nreets tl-re slop-
FINDING FORCES IN BRIDGE #1 l,rr,,llr
ing rods l}on the rocli nchors, n'e u,ill atf rch thc rods
n ith lorlis to r circLrlar ster:l plrlc connector. as shou'n Figure 1.6 is a section through the canyon at a place l,,t,rl
in l:igrrre 1..]. i\ _lau'litting at the lottrn of t]re plate r,vhere a bridge of 40-ft span is required.
-Ihe
bridge is
u,ill transler fbrcc lrom the vertical roci to thc plate, drawn accurateiy to scale. 'Ihe center of the bridge, II,
anr'i the plate u,ill pass this sarne lbrcc to tlre sloring where the beams join one another, is sr:pported bv a l,,r,,,ll
rorls arid tlrence ttt the anch.or plrrfr,.s ar-ril tht-- rock li'alls system of rods on each side that connects with the ,,lrlr,
of thc. car-rvol-r. crossbeam, as shown. We need to determine the max- rl r.rrr
'Lhc clctails of the crosslream, bcan-rs, anc{ clecking rr, , ltl
mum forces that are hkely to occLrr in these rods in
are stra:ighifbnr.ard.'lhe dcckboards u,ili bc naileci to the order to assign sizes. ll,
To accomplish this, r,ve will estimate the total t,,,,r,1
ma;rimum weight that each set of rods must support l,,lrr
then determine how much force this weight creates in .,lll.rl'
each of the rods. Once we know the forces, a table in Irrll,
the rod manufacturer's catalog will tell us how large a
ilt, |
rod is needed for each member.

'.r,1.r, ,

Fgure 1.6 Bridge #1 utilizes two 20-ft lengths of deck beams

Estimating the Load Borne by the Rods
A loa is a r,veight or other force that must be sup-
ported or resi$ted by a structure. How much load does
each system of rods in this bridge have to calty? We
estimate this load by adding together the dead load,
which is the weght of the bridge itself, and the lite
load, whch is the maxmum probable total weight of
to span 4O ft.
dead load is unchanging and can be predicted fairly
accurately. 'I'he live load varies from zero, when the
bridge is unoccupied, to the weight of a large band of tl,,rr
hikers all squeezing together on the briclge for a pho- l,,llr,,
tograph, so it is much more difficurlt to predict with ,,1r, tr r,

Fgure 1.5 A sketch design for the handrail hikers that might be on the briclge at one time. The certaintv than the dead load. ll,,,l,

Dead Load
ln this bridge, the dead load consists mainly of the
r,r,eights of the cedar beams and crossbeam and the deck
brards. Each beam is 16 in. deep and 8 in. wide.'lhe
clensiq, of red cedar is about 30 lb per cubic fbot. 'l'hus
the rveight of a one-foot length of beam is figured
[b1lows:
Weigfrt of bean po foot of length : square ft, u,hich is about 22lb per square ft.
(8 in.xl6
E) (30 [, /ftJ) :27 L)/ rt
tM h2 lk2
'Ihe weight of the beams for the entire bridge is
calculated by multlping this weiglit per fbot by the
total length of the beams in the bridge. 'Ihere are
two beams, each 40 ft long and made up of two 20-ft
Iengths:
: :
Total weight of beams 2(4O ft)(27 lb/ft) 2, 160
'fhe crossbeam on which the beams rest is only
long. Because its span is so short, it, too, can be made
of the same 8 in. by 16 in. cedar stock, even though
it carries more weight than a longitudinal beam. Its
u'eight is 5 ft times 27lb per foot, which is 1-35 ll.
T'he clecking will be made of 3-in.-thick cedar
boards tl-rat are f'astened to the beams with stainless
steel nails. 'lhree inches is one-quarter of:a foot, so a
square foot of decking will weigh abor-rt one-quarter of
30 lb per cubic foot, the densify of the ceda which
comes to 7.5 lb. 'lhe total weight of the bridge deck-
ing is equal to this weight per square foot times the
surface area of the bridge:
beams
'Iotal weight of decking :
(a ftXa0 ft)'(7.5 lb/{t2) : l,2o0lb
:l ftly
en the \4 will assume for the moment that the weight of
rand of the steel rods and [asteners is negligible in comparison
a pho- to these weights, an assumption that we r.r,ill check later
:t rvith when we knorry the diameters and lengths of the rods.
'lhe dead load for the entire bridge is figured as follows:
Decking 1,200 lb
Beams 2,160 lb
Crossbeam 135 lb
Total dead load 3,495 lb, which we round
to 3,500 lb
as
'Ihe average dead load per square foot of surface is
3,500 lb clivided by the surface area ofthe bridge, 160
Live Load
As noted, the lile load, the maximum possible total
rveight ol hikers on the bridge, is more difrcLrlt to esri-
mate with certainty than the dead load. An average
hiker-taking into account males and females, adr-rlts
and children-weighs about 160 lb and carries a pack
weighing 30 lb, for a total of 190 lb. With backpack,
a hiker occrrpies an area about 2 kby 2 ft. which is
4 sq ft. Assuming that a group of hikers has crowded
lb
closely together on the bridge for a photograph, the
maimum live load per square foot of bridge deck is
5 ft
190 lb per hlker dlvlded by 4 sq ft per hiker, which
is 47.5 lb per sq ft. 't'he total load per square [bot,
including both dead and live loads, is 22 lb dead load
plus 47.5 lb live load, which is 69.5 lb, which we
round up to 70.'l'he total expected load on the bridge
is thus estimaterd as:
Total load on bridge : (l60 ft')(70lb/k'z): I l,200lb
Horv much ol this load r.vill be borne b,v each of the
tw'o vertical rods? ln any symmetrically loaded beam,
half of the Ioad is conducted to each end. Referring
to the top rriew of the bridge in Figure 1.7, each piece
of decking will transrit half its loacl to one beam and
half to the other, so that each line of beams carries haif
of the total loacl. Each beam is syrnmetrically loaded
and made up of two pieces, each 20 ft long. lror each
of these pieces, half the load u,ill be transmitted to
the foundation at the end of the bridge and halt to the
-Ihis
crossbeam and the vertical rod. means that each
rod supports a tribu.tary area that is 20 ft long (half the
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
4'
-r-
Too Vew
Figure 1.7 The tributary areafor one vertical rod of Bridge #1
is shaded in this top view.
length of the bridge) and 2 ft wide (half the width),
a total of 40 sq ft. 'I'he load per vertical rod is 40 sq ft
times 70 lb per sq ft, or 2,800 lb.
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Hang estimated the force bome by each of the verti-
cal rods, we need to develop a set of tools that \ e can
use to determine the fbrces in all the rods, both vertical
-l'hese
and sloping, that support the bridge. tools are
built on some basic concepts:
t Force: A force is a pusl.r or pull. Fbrce tends to cause
motion. IJecause we clo not want our bLrildirgs and
bridges to mov, we design thern in such a u,ay that
every force is balanced against an equal and opposite
force that prevents motion. However, a force, even
when it is balanced against another force, will car-rse
srresss and defonnatiorzs within the object, phenom-
ena that we will begin to explore in Chapter 13.
o Charactestics of a force: A force has three primary
characteristics (Figure 1.8)'
l,lts magnittde, in -rnits of por-rnds or kips (A kip
is a "kilopound," or 1,000 lb)
2. The clirectiot,r in which it acts
3. The location ol ts li'ne of action, a line along the
centerline of the fbrce that extends indefinitely
in both directions
Every force is exerted at a poitxt of a,yplication
somervhere on its line of action.
 CHAPTER I ,/ DESIGNING A SERIES OF SUSPENSION FOOTBRIDGES

Magnilde ol torce
------\
60 KN
yi ry':9*9
{
Figure 1 .8 The characteristics of a force vector. On this
diagram, the magnitude of the force
alongside the vector.
is given by a number
'/
r--7 I
,/
Direclion qf s.6, **/ L
?aint, of application of forca
I tirr
lr,
__rf
.rr

ttl
lr
Itt

. lr
t, I

,1,

tl,

rl,
Ll

lllr

E ,.1
Figure',l.10 Tensionispulling; compressionispushing.Theropeattheleftcanresistonlytension.The
I

stack of small wooden blocks to the right cannot resist tension but can resist compression, even though the
,1,
blocks are not connected to one another except by friction.
t.
Scale 'l in. = 10 lb
Figure 1.9 Forqe vectors . The magnitudes of the forces on this
o Vector;: Aforce is a vector quantity, which means that it le indicated by a number alongside the arrow that I

diagram are represented by the lengths of the arrows.
has both magnitude and direction. (A quantity that has gives the quantty and units of the force. .r,l
only magnitude and not direction s a scalar quantity. Tensian and compression:'L'here are only tw,o funda- llr,
A sum of money is an example of a scalar quantity. So mental types of forces: pulls and pushes. Pulling is lllr
is a volume of water or a person's age.) called tension. and pushing is compression (Figure rll
We represent force vectors with arrows (Figure i.l0). For purposes of analysis, every structllral l'rt
direction of an arrow indicates the direction
I .9). The action, no matter how complex, can be reduced to
of the force that itrepresents.'I'he length of the arrow, pushes and puiis. Figlrre 1.11 shorvs how tension ,,,]
including its head, is often used to indicate the mag- and compression are indicated symbolically witlr .Ir
nitr-rde of the force. Alternatively, magnitude may vectors. '.,I
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS t7
\/,/'\
fenaion (pulling)
i ./'
-{,ni/
+> <r /\
ComVreoaion (gushing)
,//\
Concurcenl torcea
l igure 1.11 Tension and compression represented as bodies
,rr lt:d on by vectors. /t
lt

"The remarkable, inherent simplicity of nature

-\_.1
ollows the structure to perform its task through
two elementory octons only: pulling and
/
J
I
----..t_
, --

pushing."
Srrvoop,r
-MRo
t'l' l,lttsntissibilrn,: 'l'he elttecr rf lbrcc on r borlv s r Nonconcurrenl, forceg
rrlrolc is tlt uhclr: the fbrce is appiied
ir-rclepencler-rt
rrlrinq ils lint of action lFiguri: 1.12). lhis is callecl Figure 1.13 Concurrent and nonconcurrent forces. There are
pairs of concurrent forces in the lower diagram, but there is no
tl'tc y rir t cipl e o.f tru n vaissibi |itt.
o ( ,ont'ttrrettt.frircr,.s: fbrces x'lrose linr,-.
concurrence of more than two forces.
ol action pirss
n
l
tlrrcitrgli a comnlon pojnt are said to be conr:rlrrcri[
t [;igur-e I .1 3)^ Fbri:crs that do l]ot Lrass thnirrgh a cont-

nrcrn lroint tre no ttc ot tclt rrct . the forces as accurately as possible. Often, how-
" diagr,tnt.'.'l'he exarinltion of any svster]1
l:rrc-br.;,d)' ever,it is sufficient to draw-the FBD freehand as
rl forces is casitr anti less sLrbject to errors iir it reference for thought or discussion, or as the basis

is c{onc u,jth reierence to a srrnrle, trnanrbigrrorrs
skctch cailed a lree-boch- diagrarn (Lilil)). An Fl:}tr)
is:r sinrple picl-irre o1'a portior.r of a strLrctu-re thrt l.c
\ranl 10 stLrdv (the lize brtlt'). cornpletelv cletachcd
w that as if it u,ere floating in srace. Vector :irro\\'s arc
adilr,cl to indicat.c tire ertr:rnal tbrci:s that act upon
lirnda- tirc lir:e bodv. 'l'he lree body rnay bc i ri'hole struc-
lling is trrre or a piece thrt is livrotheticallv unlastened,
lrigure cr.rt, or torn from fhe structLlre , u,itichever sLrits oL.rr'
rctLlral PrlrPoses.
ced to \\'hen using graphlcal methocls of soiutirn, rs n-c:
cnsion lvill clo throtrghout tiris book, u,e clrau, thc flee bociy
with lnd vector arro\.\,s n.ith clra{iing instrltntrltts ol Cl\I)
solir,r,ale to dcpict tlie clirections and n'ragnitrrde.s of
!
. Stntic eqwilibuw: A body at rest is said to be in a
Figure 1.12 The principle of transmissibility: With respect
to the external effects of a force on a body, the force P can
be considered to act anywhere on its line of action. The
internal effect of force P on body A, however, is dependent
on the point of application of P n the case of a force
I leang no net force remaining to set it in motion.
applied within the body, this effect is confined to the
shaded area.
for a numerical calculation. Figure 1.14b is a free-
body dagram of a noe where three rods join one
another in the bridge that we are about to examine.
It is solated lom the rest of the structure by imagi-
nary cutting of the three steel rods. Notice that it
includes only forces that act on the free body, not
forces exerted by the kee body.
state of static equilibrium. "Static" means that the
body is at rest; "equilibrium" means that the forces
that act on the body balance one another exactly,
We want buildings and bridges to remain at rest, so
we design them to be in static equilibrium.
8 cHrprrR r ,/ DESrGr.lrNG A sERTES oF suspEI.J5roN FOrJT BRTDGES

?ortion of the lruclure

drawn as a free boy
in part (b)
Figure 1.15 The parallelogram ia*-. The resultant
of vectors "f and K is found by bringing thern Figure 1"16 lf the direction of the resultant in Figure 1.15 is
together as the adjacent sides of a parallelogram. reversed, it becomes an antiresultant or equilibrant, and the
The diagonal of the parallelogram, L, is their three forces are in static equilibriurn"
resultant, a single force that has the same effect
as J and K acting together.
f t,.ur
vlr Ir

l,,llr,
rr lrr'
r

* ,r-*r*r**
z,boab
(b)
{u)
. The parallelogram lau,: Often we need to add force Trp-to-tail aition of uectors: It follow-s from the lr r

Figure'1.14 ln pari (a), a free-body diagram has been
constructed of the rod intersection or node in Bridge #1.
The intersection is cut imaginarily from the larger structure
(a) and represented as a free body, isolated from the rest of the
structure. Vectors are added to indicate all the external forces
that act upon the free body. We know the magnitude and
direction of the downward force on the free body (2,800 lb)
Lrut we know only the directions of the other two forces.
vectors to find a single vector that will have the
same effect as two other vectors acting together.
'fhis single vector is called the reswhant 'Ihe par-
allelogram law states that the resultant of any two
forces is a vector that is the diagonal of a parallelo-
gram formed on their vectors (Figure 1.15). 'Ihe
parallelogram law is an axiom, rvhich is another
way of saying that it is always true but that it can't
be proven mathematically.
parallelogram law that we can find the resultant of lr
any tw-o forces by connecting their vectos tip to tail t,,
and drawing a single vectol the resultant, &om the
tail of the first vector to the tip of the second one Itr
(Figure 1.17).
If we wish to frnd the magnitude and direction
lIr
of the resultant of more than two forces, we can
connect their vectors tip to tail in a chain. 'Ilhe resul- lIr
tant is a vector whose tail lies at the tail of the rst ,,1

If the direction of the resultant of any system of vector and whose tip lies at the tip of the last vector t,,r
forces is reversed, it becomes the er1otilibrarf, also in the chain.]he order in which tl-le vectors are con- tl I

sometimes called the antiresubant, a single force that nected doesn't matter-the res-ltant will always be
will balance the otl-rer forces in the system in a state the same in both direction and magnitude (FigLrre
of static equilbrium (Figure 1.16). 1.1B). Any number of vectors may be added by this
 GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS

--- \
--\

)>

l5 is
the

Figure 1.19 lf the tip-to-tail polygon of forces closes upon

itself, the resultant is zero. lf all the forces are concurrent,
Figure 1 .'t 7 The resultant of two forces may also be found by connecting their
the closure of the force polygon means that they are in static
vectors tip to tail and drawing a vector from the tail of the first force vector
equilibrium.
to the tip of the second. The line of action of the resultant passes through the
intersection of the lines of action of the two original forces.

rrr the method. The diagram of tip-to-tail vectors and their GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS
rurt of resultant is called a force polygon. 'l'he resultant may
to tail be reversed in direction to serve as an equilibrant. We will use a greplxical solu.tion to find the forces in
rnl the . Equilibuw of concurrent forces: lf the chain of tip- the rods that support the bridge we are designing.
rl one to-tail vectors for a group of concurrent forces closes In a graphical solution, we work $/ith accurately drawn
exactly upon itself, with the last tip at the same diagrams of vectors r.l,hose lengths \4/e can measure
cction point as the first tail, the resultant has a valrre of to determine the magntudes of the forces that they
/c can Figure '1.'18 Tip-to-tail addition can
zero (Figure l. 19). 'lhis means that the group of vec- represent. 'lhe alternative to a graphical solution is
rcsul- be applied to any number of forces.
tors exerts no net force and that, therefore, the groLrp a nwnterical soltrtiott, which employs numbers rather
The forces in this example have been
rc first of fbrces is in static equilbrir-rm. (Nonconcurrent than scaled diagrams^
connected in two different orders to show
vector fbrces may be in static equilibrium as well as concur- Each solution method has its advantages and dis-
that the resultant is the same regardless
c con- rent forces, but their fbrmation of a closed chain of advantages. A numerical sol-rtion is usually more com-
of the order of connection. The line of
ays be vectors is insufficient by itself to prove equilibrium. pact that a graphical one and can be carried out to as
action of the resultant passes through
liigr-rre We will take up the determination of equilibrium of the point of concurrence of the vectors in many decimal places as the designer wishes. It is easily
ry this groups ofnonconcurrent forces in Chapter 5). their original locations. programrned for solution by a calculator or complrter.
t0 CHAPTER I ,/ DESIGNING A SERIES OT SUSPENSION FOOTBRIDGES

Drawing Parallel Lines*

Graphical anatysis techniques reguire the drawing
of many lines that are accurately paratlel to other
lines. What are some efficient, precise ways of
drawing parallel lines on a drawing?
The traditionat method is to use two drafting
triangles, placing the hypotenuse of one tightty
against the hypotenuse ofthe other (Fig. A).
A leg of the upper triangle is aligned with the
original line. Then the lower triangte is hetd
firmly against the paper while the upper triangte
is slid along its hypotenuse to a new location
that altows a parallel line to be constructed
through the desired point. lt often takes a bit of
experimentation to find the best way of arranging
the triangles for a particular pair of lines. lf the dm
operation must occur over a long distance, it
sometimes works better to substitute a long
straightedge for the lower triangte (Fig. B).
Fig. A
TI li {

An adjustable triangle (flg. C), used in conjunction

with a T-square or parattel rute, offers a means
of drawing parallel Iines that many designers find
more convenent and secure than two triangles.
A drafting machine is an ideal instrument for
graphicaI constructions, because it facilitates rapid,
very accurate construction of paratlel Iines at any
location on a sheet (Fig. D).
A rotling ruler offers a simple, easy way of ruling
parallel lines, even if the paper s not fastened to a
drawing board (Fig. E).
,{
Com puter-ass sted d rafti
i n g (CnO) offers graph ical
5
constructions that give resutts identical to those
of numerical computations that are carried
to the same number of decima[ places. Every
CAD program has a simple routine for drawing
Fig. B
ru
llt{ l)
 GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS 11

, ,-ffi
s"".

tu
sb#id
.r ' 4i#ef

I ri. C

parattel tines, as well as another routine for

scaling the lengths of line seSments with extreme
precision. As we noted earlier, however, extreme
numericaI accuracy is not usually required, and
CAD construction of a force polygon is generatly
appropriate onty when the entire process is being
carried out by computer. lf the structure is being
designed on paper, it is easiest and more natural
to analyze it on the same sheet of paper.
*Photos by Gregory D. Thomson from Shoping Structures:
Statics by Wactaw Zalewski and Edward Allen (New York:
John Wiley & Sons, lnc.), 1998. Reprinted wth permission.

l.B. D
 I 12 cHAprER r ,/ DESTcNTNG A SERTES oF suspENsroN FooTBRTDGES
Horveve the apparent accuracy o[ nr-rmerical meth-
ods often masks the fact that the data on rvhich a
solution is basecl have a very low degree of precision,
as is the case with our estimate of live loads on the
bridge. Additionally, numerical methods do little to
help us sr-ralize what is going on in a structure. Fur-
thermore, many people are so fearfil of mathemat-
ics that they find it difficult to learn and remember
numerical solutions.
A graphical solution drawn manually is less pre-
cise than a numerical one. Its imprecision seldom
exceeds 1 percent, rvhich is generally far better
than the precision of the data on which it is based.
i A graphical solution done on a computer is as pre-
cise as a numerical solution ancl gives an identi-
cal ansrryer, because numerical nlethods are based
on graphical understandings such as the parallelo-
gram lar,v-
Most people find that graphical solutions are:
faster and less sLrbject to human error than numerical
solutions. T'hey are much more helpful than numeri-
cal methods in visualizing how.a structure u,orks and
how its form may be improved. Graphical soludons
may be used to find efficient forms for structures. For
these reasons, we will use graphical solutions for most
of the projects in this book.
Bow's Notation
We are about to begin an analysis of the forces that act
on the node rhere a r,ertical rod intersects two slop-
ing rods in the bridge structure. 'Ib keep track of the
fbrces that act on the node, lve will add to our free-
body diagram a labeling system called Bolvb notntion,
after Robert Bow, whose invention of it was published
in 1873. Starting at any arbitrarily chosen location,
w,e place uppercase letters in the spaces between
the lines of action of the forces (Figure 1.20). Each
force is named by the letters that lie on either sicle of
it. 'l1le force to the Lrpper right lies betu,een spaces
A and B on the iee-body diagram. It may be called
I either force ab or torce ba. \\e downward force is
+ rately to any convenient scale of length to force. In
F-tee:Epy-Diaglam z,boo tb
Figure 1.20 Bow's notation is applied to the free-body diagram
of the intersection of the rods in Bridge #1. ln practice, we
would not draw the details of the ntersection, because they
have no effect on the determnation of the exterior forces.
either lac or cL,, and the force to the r-rpper left either
ca o ac. Notice that uppercase letters are used to
label the spaces between the forces on the ftee-body
diagram, while corresponding lowercase letters desig-
nate the forces. Points or nodes may be designated by
the letters that surround them in sequence: this node
may be called ABC or BCA or CAB. By convention,
\4'e name nodes using consistent clockr.r'ise readings
of letters.
FINDING THE FORCES N THE
BRIDGE STRUCTURE
Constructing the Free-Body Diagram
We begin our graphical solrrtion at the upper left of
a sheet of paper by drarving accurately with drafting
tools or a compLlter-aided drafting (CAD) program
the free-body ditrgram of the node where the vertical
rod joins the two inclined rods (Figure l.2l). 'l'hree
forces act on this node: the 2,800-lb vertical load that
we hav-e estimated, and two inclined forces of known
direction bu t unknor,l,n magnit r-rd e.' l'hese three forces
must be in static eqrrilibrium in order to assure the
stability of the bridge. Using l3ow's notation, we
place the Lrppercase letters A, B, and C in the spaces
between these three forces.
Constructing the Force Poiygon
Next to the free-body diagram, we dran,a force poly-
gon for this system of three forces. A force polygon,
as discussed previouslv, is a tip-to-tail diagram of the
vectors olt the forces in a system. It is drawn accu-
this case, we choose a scale of I in. equals 1,000 lb,
which will produce a diagram that fits comfortably on Itlr' ll
the page.
We start construction of the lorce polygon by
drawing a vertical line called the load line to rep-
resent the vertical direction of the external load,
which is force bc (Figure I .2 I ). 'lb this line r.ve add
two horizontal cross ticks exactly 2.8 in. apart. 'I'his
distance between the ticks represents 2,800 lb, the
magnitude of force bc atthe given scale of I in. equals
1,000 lb. ('l'he cross ticks permit more acclrrate mea-
surement than a representation in whch only a line
is used to represent the value. Similarly, although
this line is a vecto rve do not add an arrorvhead,
because the head often makes accurate measurement
difficult.)
'Ihis force could be called either bc or cb. By con-
vention, howeve we read clockwise around the point of
concurrence to deterrnine the name of the force, which
is thus bc. As we read cloclsrise fuom space B to space
C around the point of concunence in the free-body dia-
gram, force bc acts downrvard, fiom the top of the page
toward the bottom. 'Iurning our attenLion to the force I I l: rI r r'
polygon, we label the upper tick on the load line b and il,,lr
ilrr rrr
the lower tick c, so that as we read from b to c on this r
r rl,,r
line, we are reading dow,nward, the direction indicated
by the clockwise reading of the letters on the fiee-body
l,,r\,,,
diagram.
 I l.']l)ll.l(, llll l()l{( l" lll llll l\lrll)(,1
"llrtl(
lllrl ll
nown
rtrces
'c the
l, we
l)aces

Poly-
lygon,
of'the
lc('t-t-
cc'. ln
00 lb, 2,OOOlb 2,OOO tb
l>ly on Free-ody Diaqram Free-body Oiagram

<ln by
:) rcp-
lrad,
,rr adcl
.'l'his
b, the
:r rrals
Loa line
' lllca-
Iine
lrrLrgh
hcad,
01n(:nt

y con-
oint of
which 5aalet 1" - |OOO lb, 5aalet1" :1OOO lb,
space LB, LB.
rly dia- o 1,ooo z,ooo 3,ooo o 1,ooo 2,ooo 3,ooo
c Page
' lbrce tigwe 1.21 The first step in finding the magnitudes of the unknown rod forces Figure1.22 Thesecondstepinfindingthemagnitudesof theunknownrodforcesisto
b and isto represent the known force, bc, as a line segment whose length is equal to d raw a line on the force polygon to represent the direction of one of the forces. Bow's
rn this the magnitude of the force and whose direction is parallel to the force. Line bc notation helps us to know where to connect this line to the line that represents the
is a force vector, but is generally drawn without an arrowhead. Any convenient known force: The unknown force is ab and there is no letter a on the force polygon at
licated
scale of length to force may be used in this construction. There is no relationship the moment; therefore the new line must connect at b.
e-body
between the scale of the free-body diagram and the scale of the force polygon.
14 cHAprER r ./ DESTGNTNG A sERTES oF suspENSroN FooTBRTDGES

You will have noticed that uppercase letters thit f0' ,, ,1r,,,
%on ( \l)
designate spaces on the free-body diagram become
ion,ercase letters that designate points on the force .""'
polygorr. 'l'his will seem strange at lirst, brrt as yor-r |)r'lcr
vr,ill see, this system of notation is a po'".,,erftrl tool ',1,r,,1,
lbr making srrre that each vector ends up in its 1,,, ,u
properr place.
So far, we have represented on the force pol,vgon i,, 1,,

only one fbrce of the three that act on the node r,vhere lrll tllr
the three rods come together. Now ne will add the ,1,.,',,.,,
other two. Reading clockwise, the force that pulls to r,lIr I

tl.re upper right lies berween letters A and B on the lrrrlr,,

free-body diagram. Thus its name is ab. Of these two 1,, t rr, ,

letters, only appears on the load line at this stage. llrrtr,

'l'he D in the name of this force tells us that its vec-
t,, ,l\,,,,,
tor will pass through point b on the load line. It must LBOOIb l1,lrrt.
also pass thror-rgh a point a that is not on the load line, l,lrli,
Free-9oyDiagram
but we don't yet knor where a is. We draw line ab rl,','1,
of indefinite length through /r on the force polygon, ,tt l\ ll
accurately parallel to vector AB on the free-body dia- tlr.rl ,,r
gram (Figr-rre 1.22). We do not yet know the length ',,,,,,1r
ol line ab, but r.r,e do know that a, \ ,hich will mark its lrr,,rr ll
other end, r,r,ill lie somer.l,here on it. .l llr. I

Lastly, we draw the vector for the remaining rrr tlr, I

force, ca (Figure 1.2-3). Of these trvo letters, only c

appears on the force poivgon at this stage. I'he c in \rr ur,
its name tells us that its vector must pass through '.l,,rr t I

point c on the force polygon and be parallel to the , .lttr.rl

corresponding vector CA on the free-body diagram. lo rl lr r

'I'he a in its name tells us that point a rvill lie some- .il.1.il|
where on it. Line ca intersects line ab. Because the
names of both lines contain the letter a, \ /e name r1,.r.,,
this intersection a. Force ?olyqon t,r,,
'I'he force polygon is norv complete. We can mea- ,lr.rrrr, l,
Saalez1" : |OOO lb. tl,,r,,,l
sure its sides to determine that the force in mem-
berAB has a magnitude of 1,980 lb and the force in LD. ,lrt',1, ,l
member CA is also 1,980 lb. If this solttion s drawn 1,OOO 2,OOO 5,OOO trr,rrll
l:y hand, the accuracy of these figures is plus or minr-rs ,t,1,,,,,
Fgure 1.23 The force polygon is completed by repeating the previous step for the remaining unknown force. a is the intersection '.llrtr,,ll
1 percent at the small scale of our drawing, which is
of the two lines that represent the unknown forces. Lines ab and ca are vectors that may be measured at the given scale to
far better than the degree of certaintv of our live load ll,,lr,,l
determine the magnitudes of the unknown forces.
estimates. If greater acclrracy is required, the force \ r il1 .
 FINDING THE TORCES IN THE BRIDGE STRUCTUNE :I ]5

l)()l\eon can br constructed at a largcr scale, or in lt 1'ensle Strengths cl Mediurn-strctgth St:ltnl:ss Steel Rods
( lr\l) progranr.
Rori l)ianettr Yield Steagth ffr) Allc,wablc Strength (0.6Fr)

Deterrnining Directions of Forces Inches rtln Porrds KN Pounrls KN

Slc'ndcr rods are elt[ectirrc onlv in resisting tcnsion. 810
0.125 3.2 1,350 6.0 3.6
lrctruse i[' the-v :rre srrbjcctccl [o comprerssion, thev
1,lc/<le sicleu,r,vs tncl have no rcsistance. Holl' ctrr 0.188 4.8 3,000 13.3 1,800 8-0

rri'b<,'cr:rtrin that l'orr:t:s al and cd are tensil.r? Rours a.225 5.7 430A 19.6 ?.40 11.8
notatior.r hclps rrs fincl the answer. ()n the frcr:-boclv 0.250 6.4 5,400 24.0 3,240 1"4.4
,liagrarn. the rrpper portion ol Iligurc I .2-1, r,r'e reacl thcr
0.330 8-4 9300 41.8 5,64S 25j
sc)clucnce c[ letters aroitncl the point of' t:otrcurrence
irr clri:]r,ise orc]er, 'lhc lorce to tl-re r-rppcr lerft lies 0.375 9.5 12,100 53.8 7260 32.3
Fgure 1.24 This table gives
lrr-tueen spaces (, rncl \, in thlt ordcr, as rvc rnaiit: 0.437 11.1 16,500 73.1 9r0 44.0 dimensions and allowable
tlrat rcading. \Ve nou, clirect oir attelttion trt the lbrce
0-500 LL7 21,600 96.0 12J6 5?. loads for stainless steei rods
rolv,9on bclor': On the lbrce: polygon, as n'e nlor.e iicm of the type that we will use in
0.625 15.9 33,000 147 19,800 88.2
roint c to point rr, \\'e nlove ltrorr 1or't'er rig]rt to trppcr our bridge"
k'lrt. lietr-rrning to thc) FIll) abovcr, a force that rnovcs
rrlong linc r,r lrorn 1ou'er right to upper lelt is pLrlling
,rrr.av frorn thc point of concrrrrcnce, lrhicll indicatcs
tl)at c is a tensilc
firrce. \Ve can lol]on' the same
proccrdure to flncl that rlL is also in tension. \\'e norr 'l'he bottom end c,f the verticll rotl is threoded, larger than thc I,980 lb carricd bv the sloping rods,
linor,r'the directions ancl n-ragnittrdes olt the, three iirrces u.hich nieans tl'rat it has beetr gir.en a helical ridgir so it is suitable for these nrernbers, [rtrt is irot slrong
'l'hr: next largcr: roil
rrt this node. 'l1iis corrpleles our atialysis ol the lorces that r,vill engallc ri nut or a fitting r.r'ith a sirnilar ridge. er-roLrgl-r lor the rerticai nrernbers.
irr the [lrrce rocls.
'l'hreacls are Ltsrrallv prodrrced 11.\, r,,u't,rt'ttr* material is 0.250 in. ll/4 in.) in cliameter ancl can carrv 3,2'{0
frol.r a rocl, br-rt this reclrrc:cs the diameter and strengtlr 11, r,hich is larger tlian the ltorci:s in lhe vertical rods

Sizing the Rods
Nor,r' tliaL lrc knou, the lbrccs in the rocls r-lnclcr the
cstir-natecl maxirnuln loarl on thc bridge. rte are abk'
to c'letermine hou' large the rods rnust be in orcler to
srrstain these forces sa|clr..
\Ve u,orli fronl a table ol allor.r,ahk: strr:ngtl-rs that
is lrascd on cl:rta firrnished lv a rnanitfactttrcr cl stain-
lt'ss steel rocls (Irigure 1.24). t'hc: t'ieltlstrctqth o[cach
ciimeter of rrocl, u'hich is ttre tcnsiie fbrce t n'hich
the rod rvotrld begin Io strctcl'r irreversiblr', hrs been
clivirled bv a/ocior cl sul:eh ol I.rr7 to arrive at tlrc l'al-
trcs in this tailc. ll'thee uere a lilll loatl ori the lrriclgc,
each rccl uotild bc loaderi to 1/i.67. or 0.6 olits vield
section 'I'hc remaining 0.4 is rcrsetn'e strength, a por-
strength.
I
tion of n.hich mar- r:orle into plal' uncler uneq;cctcd
crenls such rs floods ncl tornacloes.
ol the rocl. 'I'hc' rnanr.rlar-turer o{ thest: particrtlar rods
riaccs the r:ntl of tlre rod in a rnaci'linc lhat squeezes
and e-fbrnrs it to proclucr: an cnrl region u,ith a larger
n this rttset entl
cliirrret:r. \\jhr.:rr tirrearls are Iilnnecl
dctiril. the rnininrum clirmeter at the roots of tltc:
threads elr:cctls slightiv fhe djanrcfer of thc. rocl. rncl
rrraintains thc ituli strength of the rod cven u'het' it is
thrr:adcd (FigLrrc I .25).
I.br ctr briclge rle ncccl roils to sLlslairr safely
tcrrsiie lbrces oi'2,800 lb and 1,980 lb in the ierti'
cal and inr:linecl rocls, rcspectivelv. Startirrg lrorn the
top ol the table in liigrrre i.2'1. ().t25-in. (liS-in.)
'l'his
diameter rocl can saliv sLrstairi a lbrce til 810 1l.
is not cnolrgir lbr eitl'rer of tlie, rods in this briclge. i\
0. 188-in. diameter rr.,cl can carry 1,800 lb; again. rrot
enough. ,'\ 0.225-in. rc.,cl crn carr,v 2,640 lb, n'hich is
ol or-rr bridge. For rirggedness, bertter apperarance. alrcl
silnplicitv o tirbrication ancl maintenancr: , \\'e clercidt:
to use quarter-inch rocls throughoLrt thc strLlctllre.
'lhe rrse ol' quarter"inch fittings and rocls lbr all the
meml>ers ol] ther bridge x,ill incrcasc the t-ost slightlri
i-rrrt it e]irninrtes .i potL'nliai source of constnct.iot-t
e:rror u-lci rcr.lrrces the numlrt'r ol parts tht mtrst be
lrrotrgl'rt to the sitc.
\\t neecl to revir:r.r' orrr earlier assuniplion thaf
thc r,veight oir thc rods thenrseives is negligible in
comparison to the or,crall cleacl and livc loads on the
briilge.'l'he catalog data fbr the rocls tell trs that. qtrar
ter..inch rocls rveigh 0.1b7 lb per i'oot of length.
'l'he
trvo ver:ticrl rocls totai abot.rt 22 ft in lt-'ngth, taking
into account their I-lt cxposcd length and thc aclcii
tional length neecled to ptlss through the crossbearn.
 I

16 CHAPTER 1 ,/ DESIGNING A SERIES OF SUSPENSION FOOTBRIDGES

i_il:r I'

ffi ,t

ili

Ir

li,

t' Figure 1.26 (a) A mockup of the mdn rod connection for the disk. For the sake of speed and
rl,

Rd Did/rnt8f Pin Diamater(P) Jaw Gep(B) Thrt bpth(q Edge DistancE(ED) Take-up I'
i
krch (mn) hch (rrn) lnch (mm) ,nch (mm) tndt (mm) htch (mm) ease of fabrication, the circular plate is modeled with medium-density fiberlroard rather than t,,
stainless steel. (b) How the rod connection works: The stainless steel rod is cut to length. The
l 0.188 (4.8) 0.31 (8.0) 0.28 r/.1) 0.58 (14.n 0.44 (11.2) 0.75 (19.1) end of the rod is cold-headed into a flared shape that seats snugly into a matching cavity in
tl,
.I
0.225 (5.4 0.38 (s.5) 0.28 r/.1) 0.69 {17.5) {12.7) 1.00 (25.4}
0.50 the end of the threaded bushing (right). The bushing, which rotates freely around the rod, is
inserted into the fork fitting (left) and rotated clockwise to engage the threads. The pin (top)
0.250 (6.4) 0.50 (12.4 0.40 (10.2) O.e2 (23.4) 0.63 (15.9) 1.00 (25.4) l,
is inserted into one side of the fork, through the connecting plate, and out the other side. lt is
0.330 (8.4) 0.56 (14.3) 0.40 (10.2) 1.04 (26.4) 0.65 (16.s) 1.00 (25.4) held in position by a small, flat stainless steel ring that snaps into a matching groove near the
I

(15-s) small end of the pin. Using a wrench on the flat end of the bushing, the assembly is tightened
0.37s (9.5) 0.63 o.53 n3.s) 1.16 (29.5) 0.75 (19.1) 1.25 (31_8)
l
as needed to adjust the length of the rod and provide tension if necessary. A recessed screw
0.437 (11.1) 0.75 (r9.1) 0.53 (1s.5) 1.39 (35.3) 0.88 (22.4) 1.25 (31.8) in the side of the fork fitting is tightened to maintain the bushing in the desired position. This
I
0.500 (12.7) (22.2t
0.88 0.65 (16.s) 1.62 (41.1) 1.10 (27.9) 1.2s (31.8) ingenious assembly avoids the need for a turnbuckle by building adlustability into the end

0.625 (15.9) 1.13 (28.6) 0.78 (19.8) 2.08 {52.8) 1.50 (3S.1) 1.7s (44.s)
fittings. il
I Photo: Edward Allen, The stainless steel components are manufactured by TriPyramid
Figure 1.25 Dimensions of the jaw fitting {or 1/2-in. rods. At the upper left, upset end (a) and Structures, Westford, MA.
plain threaded end rods. IU

t,,
llr

tl
Multiply.ing 22 ftby 0.167 lbltt, we find that the ver- themselves. Our design is sufficiently strong-and that is captr-rred by the head on the rod. 'lhis bushing I

tical rods r,veigh less than 4lb. The four inclined rods much more. is free to rotate about the rod, threading into or out lr

l
are each about 34 ft long, for a total length of t30 ft.
'fheir total weight is abotrt 23 lb. 'I'he total weight of
I all the rods is 23 plus 4, or 27 lb. ftis is less than I
percent of the weight of the beams and decking. We
have chosen to use quarter-inch rods, which have
of the fitting to provide length acljustment. 'I'hreads
Selecting Fittings are completely concealed rvhen the fitting is properly
The rod manufacturer furnishes dertailecl infbrma- adjLrsted (see Figure i.26b). rl,
tion on a r.r,ide variety of fittings for stainless steel
rod structures. We select fittings that are attached Detailing the Rods t,

ll an allowable tensile strength of 3,2+0 lb, to resist to the tension rods by cold-headir-rg the end of the Figure 1.25 shows dimensions for a quarter-inch jaw ,t,

I
total forces that are unlikely to exceed 2,800 lb.'l'his rod. (Cold-leading is a roorn-temperatLrre process fitting that we will use to attach the quarter-inch rods .,1
oversizing of the rods gives them an excess capacity of squeezing the end of the rod into a flared shape.) to the stainless steel plates.'l'he opening of theiaw,s is ,t,
lr of 440Ib, whlch s 16 times the weight of the rods Adjustment is providecl by a threaded bushing (nose) 0.40 in. 'fhis suggests that we use 0.375 in. (-3l8 n.) ,t,

Jri
 BRI DGE #3 17

rlrrtcs fbr the connections, which vvill leave a clear-

ttttcc ol 0.025 in., r,hich will make it easy lor work-
t'rs tr install the plates and fittings. These ttings are
rk'signecl to be stronger than the quarter-inch rod with
rvlrit'h they are used. In Figure 1.26a, r,ve har.,e mocked
rrr tlrc: pical rod components at full scale.

BRIDGE #2

llrirlge #2 is identical to #l in every particular except

lllirt areas of weak, fractured rock in the canyon walls
rr'< r r irc that the cable anchorages be placed lor,ver with
red and r('sl)cct to the deck of the bridge. Whereas the rods in
:r than llrirlge /ll are inclined at about 45'to the horizontal,
th. The t lursc in Bridge #2 are inclined at only 30'. What is the
Free*boyDiaqram
rity in
cl'li'<:t of the lower angle? ZBOO tb
rod, is
Wc find the ansner to this question with the dia-
n (top)
ide. lt is ,.nrrrr in Figure L27 .'I1ne force polygon for Bridge #l
ear the is rlrawn u,ith gray lines rnd that for Bridge #2 with
ghtened s,lirl black lines. 'Ihe fbrces in the inclined rods are
screw l,!t(X) lb in #2, as compared \\,ith 1,980 lb in +t.
n. This Wc consult FigLrre 1.24 to find that the required
end rrrrl size for the sloping members is still only 114 h.
'l'his is also the size r,r,e need for the vertical members.

BRIDGE #3

lrr llridge #3, the span remains the same, except that the
rrrrclrclrages must be located higher on the cliffs, r'vhich
int:rclses the steepness of the inclined rods (Figure
lrr rshing I .Zti).'lhe resr-rlt is that while the inclined rods are srb-

() ()r out strrntially longer, the forces in the rods are only 1,530 Ib,
'l'hreads corrrpared to 1,980 lb in +t, and 2,800 ll> in#2.
rrt:perly lirom these frrst three bridges we can conclude
that. in general, the steeper the inclination of the
rotls, the lor.r,er their forces will be. As the rods grow
s(('(:per, the overall structure of the bridge grows
Force Tolvqon
Lnch jaw rlr:cper. In all structures-beams, trusses, hanging 5calet1" :\OOO lb
lch rods crrblcs, and arches-other factors being equal, a
c jaw,s is clt'eper structlrre (that is, one rvith a greater ratio ol
(J/B in.) rlcpth to span) r.r,ill have lower internal forces. Figure1.27 lnBridge#2,theslopesof theinclinedrodsaredecreased,whichcausestheforcesintherods
are the vectors for the original slopes; the solid lines represent the new slopes.
 CHAPTER I ,/ DESIGNING A SERIES OF SUSPENSION FOOTBRIDGES

BRIDGE #4

Th,o areas of fractured rock on the site of Bridge #4

require us to relocate one of the anchorages. We test
\'
trvo alternative designs (Figures 1.29, 1.30). One has
r1

,a the anchorage higher than the top of the vertical rod

and one has it lou,er. Both designs increase the force in
the rod whose angle is unchanged fiom that of Bridge
#1. Either design rvill work, but the higher of the tr,vo
anchorage locations produces lower rod forces.

BRIDGE #5

Bridge #5 mrst span 60 ft instead of the 40 ft of

Free-godyDiaaram the previous four bridges. We rryill do this by using
Y three beams end-to-end, each supported at inte-
2AOOb rior points by crossbeams and vertical rods (Figure
1.3 1). The tributary area of each vertical rocl remains
the same as before, but there are now four vertical
rods, so the total load that must be supported by the
inclined rods is doubled. We isolate as a free body
the two nodes of the rocl system and the horizon-
tal rod letween them. In Figr"rre 1.31, rve construct
\i a force polygon for the node abc. In Figr-rrer 1.32,
o we constrlrct a fbrce polygon fbr the node acd. In
doing this, rve recognize that line ac occurs in both
force polygons. Rather than drar,r, this line tr'ice,
u,e simply attach the second force polygon to the
first along line ac. 'l'his rvorks out well: '['l're two
loads, bc and cd, form a single load line u,ith point
c common to both. We find that the accuracy ol
our construction of the force polygon is checked
automatically-when we draw the last vector, da, on
the fbrce polygon, it must intersect both point d and
point a with reasonable precision. If it does not, we
a(} mllst start the diagram over again. 'I'he forces in the
o
two inclined rods measure as 3,960 lb, and the force
Force Tolygon in the horizontal segment is 2,800 lb. Reference to
5aalet1" -
|OOO lb Figure 1.24 tells us that we must use rods with a
diameter of 0.330 in. for the inclined tension mem-
lers in this bridge.
Figure1.28 lftherodsareslopedmoresteeply,astheyareinBridge#3,theforcesinthemdecrease. ll|iltr.
lr , lrr'
, ,
r llrl ,r
 BRIDGE #5 19

riclge #4
We test
[)ne has
tical rod
lbrce in
,l'llridge
lhe two

40 ft of Fraature
Free-ody Diaqram
-r#f,"rno Fee-bodypiaaram
ry using rock
2800 tb 2,600 tb
ot inte-
(lligure
rcmains
vcrtical
d by the 29Bo Ib
'cc body -\ ab
lrorizon-
onstruct
rc 1.32,
ttc. ln "oc*
in both
rc' twice,
n to the
l'he two
th point
trracy of 7^
'o^
checked ./
r, da, on
nt l and .5
; not, we o*o
cs in the /
he fbrce
rence to Force ?olygon
Forae ?olylon
s with a 5aalez1" :1OOO lb
-
Scalet'1" |OOO lb
)n mem-

Figure 1 .29 The <uter end of one of the inclined rods in Bridge #4 is lowered to avoid areas of Figure'1.30 Staticequilibriumispossibleevenwiththeouterendof onerodlowerthanits
fractured rock. The magnitudes of the forces in the rods rise, but the bridge remains in static inner end.
equili[:rium.
2A cHAPTER L/ DEStGNtNG A SERIES OF SUSPENSIoN FOOTBR1DGES
l)

t,,

: 40tr T.A. =2'xZO' = 4O il .,1

f.A.: 2'x2O'
ad = (N ft) (7O pet) = 2,O0O lb.
a : (4o fr) (7o ?rf) : 2'ooo tb
t"'
bc : (4o fr) (7o Pei) : z,ooo tb
ba = (4O fil {7O pef) = Z,OO lb.
rl
rl,
lrl
rl
lrt
t,,l
t,'

t
Z,boo lb

2,OOO lb i
(

2,OO0lb 2,800\b
Free-$ody Oiagram Foroe ?olyaon
aalez1" : 2,OOO lb

Figure 1.31 Finding forces in Bridge #5, which has a span

of 60 ft'
Free'\ody Diaaram Forae?olyaon
for the right node' abc'
StIp 1: A force polygon is constructed 9,aalezl"= 2,OOO lb
I iir
, ll

Figure't.32Step2:Theanalysisiscompletedbyconstructingaforcepolygonfortheleft l,r,
nu u, an extenson of the force polygon for the right node'
 BR]DGE #5 21

l Deformation by Nonuniform Loads

\\ Ir'rr tlri'clccli is sirpportecl at lt,\,o points alotrg each
l)( irn riltll.rr than onc, a irear.v loacl srrch as a group
tiglitc-r-ieci. '['1csc l-rolclthe cr"oss]reams clolr,n so t]rat
the'r' cannot rise. 'l'hev canllof sag. eithcr. l;ecausc irr
rrder fir one of] ther to sag, the other wouiil lravc tt
have been elirninatecl h'onl the ri ood clccli bcams. mak-
ing tht: clccli stilT tlrrotrghoLrt its length. 'l'he stifl dc,ck
allou.s onlv \ely slight rises and sags in the cablcs.
,,1 Iril,r'r-s aprlicd at one of thc points can causer that risc:, anr'l its stay rocl n,ill not allor:r,it to do that. Slietcl-r Irigrrre i.35 sl'rrr,r,s that a stllT cleck coirld be cre-
\\ ,r ,irr( to sag ancl thc otl-rer point lri risc (irigule 1.-33). (b) in lrigure 1..1-1 shou's anothe u,v of cleaiing n'ith atcd in this bridgc br, bLrilding rrp eacll bcam from
I lrir is rr rroblem tht or,rcLlrs in anv hangirrg s[ntcture this prc;blerrtr. It indictes svrbolicalh.,thar thc loinrs tlinner l;eams placed side bv sicle and nailccl together.
rlr.rt sul)l)orls lu,o or m{)rc loacls. (\tiu rTrav finci it heip-
lul lr \,orlr trnclerstanding to rnodel this sitrration r,vith
.r riccc ol strin-e that sLrpports t.r,r,o u,eighls a short dis-
t,rrrct' ;rpart^) lf nothing is rlone to accrlnmrdatit this
l,, lrrvior. the bridgc r,111 feel unstblr rnd the connec
lrons lrctnecn br.arns ancl crossbealns ln,ly l1cx exces-
',rr,'lr. lr:lrding to er.entu:r1 lailrrre.
I'lri'rc aro r nLrmbe'r ol'rl,ays of counlr:ractir-rg this
1,,,,1,k'nr. tu,o of r,r'l-rich rc illustl'trtertl in l;igtrre 1.3-1. hl
,.1.r'tt h (a), irrclincd.slr.)'rcds har.c'been installcd belorv
tlrt' rlc.r'k at cach crosslrean'1, anchoret] to t.hc rocli. ancl

Figure 1.33 A heavy live load concentrated at one of the

vortical rods can cause serious disruption of the shape of the Figure 1.34 Two ways of avoiding or minimizingthe problem illustrated in Figure 1.33: (a) Rods below the deck restrain the bridge
the left
lrridge. against upward movement. (b) The deck is stiffened so that it is resistant to abrupt changes rn shape at the supporting cables.
 22 ;: CHAPTER I ,/ DESIGNING A SERIES oF SUSPENSIoN FOOTBRIDGTS
Figure1.35 Astiffdeckcouldbecreatedforthisbridgebynail-laminatingthinplankstogethertoformeachof
staggering the joints in the various layers so there are no points of major weakness.
'I'he joints in the thinner beams rvould be
staggered
to avoid creating weak spots. Ihe result would be a
thick beam that is stiff all aiong its length and rhtrs
suitable for the strategy ourlined in the previolrs
paragraph. We could, of course, simply order very
long beams clirect from the sawmill br-rt they wouid
be so unwieldy that they would be almosr impossible
to instail in the cramped space of the canyon. 'lhe
naillaminated beams would be much easier to put
in place.
BRIDGE #
'fhe sixth brldge in the series also spans 60 fr, the
same as #5,but the right anchorage must be lorner
t< avoid an area of fractured rock in the cliff. \/e will
thebeams,
attempt to do this while retaining the remainder of the
bridge's geometry as ir was in #5 (Figure 1.36).
We discover that this strategy cloesn'r work. 'Ihe
force polvgon does not close, ,hich indicates that this
design is not in static equilibrium. fhus lve discover
that we can't give an arbitrary shape to a hanging rod or
cabie. When designing a hanging structure, we must
learn what shape the structure itself r,vants to take. We
can find this by using the force polygon to determine
the geometry of the rocls. We can start by establish-
ing arbitrarily the inclination of any two rods of the
three, btrt the inclination of the third rod must then
be found by constructing its parallel ray on the tbrce
polygon in such a rvay that the force polygon closes.
In Figrire 1.37, we have chosen to incline rod ad at an
angle of 45"and ab at 30". -iheir corresponding vectors
on the lbrce polygon intr,:r'-sect to esLablish ther locrriol
<l. 'I'hus thc. ir-rclinition ofrrector ac is flxecl le.cusc:
it nrust irass throlrgir roints a rncl c on ther fbrce po[v-
gon. \,\'b drarl' roc{ seg}riL.nt nc parallel to lherse \..cctors
ancl coltitect the ends of hc rod st)gnrellts to conrpiLrte
the picttrre ri| rhe brdge. \{ can scale the lncs ir-r the
lbrce polvgon to fincl tire frrrcts in a1l the rods. )bLr
mv r-ish to finci the shape thc rods nlust take if the
centcr rod is horizontal nd tlic ini:lination o1, onc ,tf
the sloping rods is sir.cn.
'l'hc lirrnr lhat uc har.c tbLrncl lbr
thc Lrppcr rocls
ol tliis briclge is a funicrtlat-lirm. one that u,oulcl be
talien lrr- a ropo, cabk:, chain, or string rrncler a similar
set olt lcacis similarlr, rlar:ecl. 'I'l'ie r,r,.ord conrcs h.orlr
tl"re [-atin -ftLrticulus, rn".]rich means "string." ]lunir:-
rrlr forms errerience onlv a-xial firrces, pushes or
pulls that act akrng the IongitLrdinrl aris ol the elc,
merlt, \\'hen loacled in the pattcrr-r lor u,.hich thev ar-e
sha,ed. Axial forcr:s can ire resistcd rvith the abso-
Iutc n-rinimunr amount of strrrctirral materirl. II the
lirrrn of i:] strlrLrtLrre is not ltnicrlar fbr its loacling.
it u,ill expr-rienc.e bencling firrces. Later in this book
lr.'e r,r,i1l r,r,ork r.r.ith bending aclions in strrrcture:s,
and w,c u,ill fincl that l strtrct-trc that acts in bendin.q
uses rnlny tintcs as much nlatcrial tr resist t forcc
as a sLructurc that acts ariailu
Sicncler structtrral elcmenrs sr-rch as rorls, crbles,
ropr:s, i,r.ir<,s, and strin.qs talic fi-rnicular forms l;r,catrse
tl're1' are v-er-r, lleribie, r,r.ith nc; significant capabilitv I i',,r,.
to rcsist ltcnding fbrccs. ln a veri. real u.a\,, tirer, re llr,.l,,
ir-rtciligent: Lr rcspt.rnsc to Ar)\ ne\\i loading conrlition ll'rl,r,
thel,' aluravs r"r:share lhemseives in srrch r rvav thaf
rrr,lrr .rlr
l,rllrl
thev cxperir:ice onlr, arial tcnsior-r. Becatrsc ol this
capabiliin furictLlar fbrns can span much |,rrthcr than
l,r r, l7,r ,
anv olhc.r elenrent-s it-r the dersigner's rcpertoirc.
BRIDCE #7
I'[re so,entil bridge has a spal] ol 80 fi.'l'hs retlrrires
lbrn' 20-lt bc.arns laicl encl-to-ernd on cach side of'
thc bridge, thcir encis supportccl at [hrc-r: points ltv
 BRIDGE #7 23

ocation
)ccause
'('poly-
\\
v(lctors
)nlplete
s in the
tls. You
c if'the
'rne of

,cr rods 3t'

rtlcl be
similar
..s lrom
l;unic-
b
she,s or
he ele-
hcy are
c obso-
\M
/l f"l'
C
I
. If the
olcling,
is book
>5
t('t Ltres,
rcnding \ \ b

lbrce
cables,
)cctuse
Figure 1"36 lf we attempt to change Figure 1"37 We can use
rabiliry 1he slope of one of the inclined rods,
hcy are the force polygon to find a
lhe force polygon will not close. This funicular form for the bridge
rndition
indicates that this form is not funicular in Figure 1.36. Slopes are
/ily that
37eob
or the two vertical loads. A stable
__
--1I
f
assumed in this case for rods
rl'this bridge cannot be built in this form.
lcr than
da and ac. This determines
the location of point a on the
\
force polygon, which then
gves us the slope of rod ab.
We transfer these slopes back
to the drawing of the bridge
to find the form that we are
'c:qurres Forae ?olyqon seeking.
5aalez1" :2,AOO b
sicle of
rints by
24 cHAprER r ,/ DESTGNTNG A 5ERTES oF suspENSroN FooTBRTDGES

crossbeams and vertical rods (Figure l.3B). We have ll' r t

decided to make the anangement of inclinecl rods 1,1r,,,,

spnmetrical, with its lor,v point 8 ft above the bridge
deck.'l'he Park Service has rods left over from an ear- l,rrrrtl
lier project that can safely sr-rstain a tensile force of tl,, l,,
5,940 lb, and w,ould like to use them in this bridge. , lll\

We will use the force polygon to lenerate the shape of

e" /( r,,,1.1,
|

the inclined rods to meet these given conditions.

'Ihe load line is made up of threevertical segments, A

each of them 2.800 lb, that represent the forces in the

three vertical rods on each side ofthe bridge. Because
the arrangement of rods is sl,rnmetrical, the vectors he D c (
that represent their forces on the lbrce polygon will
come together at a point that lies on a horizontal line \
through the center of the load line. \A/e construct this
line, but r,r,e do not ,vet knorv the location of the point
on it where the vectors will converge.
Ib utilize the rods that the Park Service is offering
from stock, the longest vector on the furce polygon 0
must have a length of 5,940 lb. Inspection of the force o'o'
polygon tells us that either the topmost inclined vec- 9"
tor or the bottommost u,ill be the longest-each w,ill
,,8
be 5,940 lb long. Using a scale ruler andlor compass,
w-e find the inclination of a line 5,940 lb long that has
,/// ,/
one end at point b and the other end on the horizontai ,/- AAbl

line that we have just drawn. 'I'he point w.here it inter-

sects the horizontal Iine is a.

\\,,, 7'---
Because all four segments of the rod have a in
38 Bridge
Figure 1.38 Bridgr #7. Available rods 'a' mual lie on this line
their names, all their vectors w,ill pass through point rllowable strength of 5,94O
have an allowable
a on the force polygon. We clecided at the outset that lb, so we make thetht longest sloping
the low point of the rods will be 8 ft above the bridge he force polygon, ab and ae,
lines on the 4430
deck; this will occur at the middle of the span. th scale we have
5,94O lb long at the
b I

On the force polygon, we construct inclined vec- adopted. The intersection

inter of these .^
tor ac frrst, because we know that the corresponding two lines determin
determines the location of a,
cws us to complete the force
which allows
rod segment must pass through point ACD, which is 8
ft above the center of the span. We draw this segment polygon. From it, we r transfer parallel \n r |tfrv ,,l

lines to the drawin of the bridge,

re drawing
parallel to vector AC on the picture of the bridge.
startng with ar ac, both of which
vith ad and
Vcctor ab is already drawn on the force pol,vgon.
go through given point acd. Lines ab
gh given
We draw rod segment aD parallel to it thror-rgh node abc
and ae are e connected
connec to the ends of For 'ce Tolygon
on the picture of the bridge.'Ib complete this construc- these twor lines at nodes abc and ade.
tion, we draw vector ad on the force polygon, and rod
r
9ci zle:l" - 2,OOO lb

segment a parallel to it on the picture of the bridge.

 BRIDGE #8 25

'l'lrcrr, tl'rrough node ade, we draw rod segment
It'l t<r vcctor ae on the force polygon.
Wc scale the vectors on the force polygon to
It'irrrr that ab an ae represent forces of 5,940 lb in
tlrt'ir corresponding rod segments, and rods ac and ad
t rrrry 4,500 lb each. In theory we cor-rld use smaller
r,,tls fbr these two segments than fbr the more
ae paral- heavil1, loaded segments. In practice, it is much sim-
pler and will save labor to use the same diameter rod
throughout.
'Ihis bridge, like its three-beam-span predecesso will
tend to distort in response to aslmrmetrical loading pat-
terns, and we will have to provicle a stiff deck or inclined
stay cables fuom belou,,to restrain such distorrions.
BRIDGE #8
Bridge #8, with its 100-lt span is the longest of the
group (Worksheet lA, shor,r,n in Figure 1.39). It
requires five lengths of beams, as well as vertical rod
supports (often called kangers) at four locations. Yor-r
have been assigned to find the form of this bridge

\
\

I
zo@b

z,@tb zoooh

l^l I
I
I
{

fyphal q*lo
Salel'=16tu.
'illaT=$rr.
E-levallon

Ff.
mT--r-l
o10 20 50 40 50 60 70

zotb

5 bay 5pan
I loft we arc \lvei a btlge wllhl 2,600 tb
- 5 paa6 1OO
= il
- Marlfrun lor@ in rc 9,6oOlba Figure 1.39 Worksheet 1A, where you are asked to find
=
- Oirecon ol od sege!rt a
e the form that the rods will take in Bridge #8, the longest in
I n/:
- Di?eetlon an low6 in rce ab, aa, ae, af the group. The location and direction of rod ad is given. No
rod may experience a force greater than 9,9O0 lb under the
assumed loading. This figure has been reduced in scale from
rg:t"\s9!
5aalet1" = 260O lba the worksheet and will not give accurate forces.
26 cHAprER r ,/ DESTGNTNG A sERr[s oF suspENSroN FooTBRTDGES

rncl the lirrcers iir all its rods.'l'lrc groLrp of clersigncrs

u,orliing on the lrriclges has agreed th:rt jtrnctions of
rods shotrlcl rever bc lcss t]ran fJ ft abor,c the cler:k.
ffi
I tr lr lr
so as to rninimize yar-rdalism. allcl the nra.rinlum lbrcc:
.rt, lrt
in the rods cannot ercced t).900 1l; (the allou'able
strerngth c| 0.4l7-in. rorl ). (liven this inl'ornrttiol , l,'v,'
f .rlrlr
nrl the site rs sholyn ,:rn \\,trrlishect i A, Iinil thl:
lirlrn ol- tlris bridge nd thc li:ces in all irs rod seg- ll''t tt '
rnc:nts. 'l'his bricigi.: is tlc jst of tie sr:rics ol suspen- l,f, ,,t,

sion briclges lir r.hich rr.e har,e lret:n askecl to prepr)r'c .'rl,r ,

1;rclin-rir-ran' clt-:s igrr s ^ til,,, I

"Geometry is the mathematics of structural lY'tr

imagination." ,il IlilI

Z,qrwsm l'l,ur,
-Wrcuw
Arrllr
lll, ,'.
ERECTING THE BRIDGES
II t,' ',,

,\n importart aspcct ol the clesign of' anv strlctur:c I l,rt l'
is to clesign thc r;i'al,in u,hich iL r,r,ill Lre bLilt. Ilrric lrrrl
can't figrre out at lcst or-re. practical, cccrnontlcrl rr,av r r rl l"l
to bLrilcl our bririgc.s. it is unliki.lv that thc.y u.ill get lr",l r'
l;rrilt. ,1,",Ili
Iligrrre l.-10 is a scqLtcnce o[ sir slietcl-rc's that rve l" riltl
hai,e prepaxrrl to srrggest a conslnction nlcrthod. In wlllr
sketch r., r.r,orliers in sfttv harnesses llavc lererr let ,llli I

don'n the canyon u,all orr ropes to drill bolt holes rntl
l,,,rl,r
install anchor p1alcs olr bofh sides. 'l'hery strncl on a
I it lf,l I

srnrll rvooden plartfornr called a _flottt dtat hangs on

I'y lrlt
rc4rcs lr:orlr the top o1'the clifT.
,1,., ,t,
\Vh1le this u,ork is goirrg on, a solt r,r,eight such Figure '1 .40 A proposed erection seq uence for Bridge #1 .

as a snr:rll sck liiltd u,ith sancl is ticd to the eld ofl ,', l ll
a kl-rg, stirrclv coril ancl propcllecl acrcss thc top o| l,',t, l,'
thc r:anvon u.ith slir-rgshot. archcry. lor,, or othcr Arr r r.

ttrrr.lr,r,ing cJevicc. 'l'his cord is uscd to pLrll sLlcccs- lltl,',

sir,elv h<'ar.icr cords ancl roprs across the top o[ the at the left anchorage. Workers attach the jaw fittings final position. 'lhis r:r'rtire process is rcpcated I'or all ,rrr,l lr
canvol-l rintil a rc4-re sul'ficir:ntly strong lor thc nert at the ends of the rod assemblies to the anchorages tlrc other conll)oncnts. '[']re dercking anri railing arcr lr r'i, ,

step of corist.rtction lias Lree-n ilrstallecl. In sketch ,
each cll Ihc ror] assem[.llic:s is lou,ered clou'n thc clitT
bv a sma[1 r.r,irc,h on the cralrrr rinr. ]'hr: rope fi'orn
thc- othcr rirn is treci to the lef-t top end ol'crach assenr,
blv to act ls r lE liir: thrt is Lrsed to pLrll it into plact:
(sketch c).
'Ihe first beam is lowered by winches on both
sides of the canyon working in coordination. Workers
positioned below guide both ends of the beam with
tag lines (d). In sketch e, the beam is bolted inro irs
installcci, and ir sketr:h/, the last o| thc: crnstrrrction
cqtriprnent is erlearircl arv:rr,, leaving thc bridge readv
lor serrrice.
'l'he bridgc r1llv not he crcctecl in errctlv tllis rrar.
'l'hi' u'orkcrs and supern.isors ullo do tlre ctLral n'orli
 I RESISTING LATERAL AND UPLIFT FORCES 27

may have better ideas and methods. We rryill consult in a horizontal plane u,ithin the deck structure to cre-
with them as soon as possible to seek agreement on ate a ,mrss. In our wocden bridges, the diagonals n ould
'190s hor,v the work will be done, using this sequence of be easy to install and highly effective in resisting lat-
I rr the late
rrr rli and 1970s, a group of
sketches as a starting point. It is likely that the method eral forces (Figure I.4l).
,rrr lritects and engineers centered in London
u,ill be further modified during the consffuction Uplift resistance is created automatically in many
, l,,vt.loped a particutar approach to structuraI
process in response to problems and ideas that occr-r bridges' the dead weight of the bridge is srrbstantiallv
,,xl)rossionsm that led to what is known
on the site. larger than the expected uplift forces. In or-rr bridges,
,,,r rcricalty as "high-tech architecture." This u,ith their relatively lightweight rvood decks, the dead
l,r o,r d category, characterized by e laborately weight is insufEcient fbr this puryose. An appropri-
RESISTING LATERAL AND UPLIFT FORCES
,,x -,osed, exqu isitely fi n ished structuraI members, ate solution would be to add steel rods r-rnder the
rrrcc:lranical equipment and services, and other In adclition to the downward gruvitl, forces that we bridge to pull it down. If these rods li in two planes
tylrically hidden features, found resonance have been considering, the bridges also rnust resist that are suffrciently tilted lrom the vertical, they
,rrnong designers such as Norman Foster, Renzo r,ind forces fronl the side and from below, r,vhich are can serve several purposes simultaneously: to resist
I'i.rno, Richard Rogers, Nichotas Grimshaw classifred as lateral forces and upltft fo,ces, respecti\rely. both lateral and uplift fbrces created by wind, and
Arrthony Hunt, and Meinhard von Gerkan. Peter Lateral force resistance is provided in most bridges by to restrain the main supporting rods from chang-
making the deck act as a beam lyir-rg on its side. A ing shape in response to variable loading conditions
Ilrc.e and Ted Happold, who both worked at
common way of doing this is to add diagonal mewbers (Figr-rres 1.42, 1.43).
lhe seminal interdisciplinary office founded by
I)anish-British engineer Ove Arup (.l895-1988) in
l-ondon, teft to found independent engineering
consutting practices (RFR and Buro Happold,
respectively), which further expanded retated
design approaches. Buildings such as the Centre
Pompidou (1977-f977) by Piano, Rogers, and Rice,
with its cantilevered external tubular escalators
and ducts, demonstrated how the "high-tech"
look made possibte some of the machine-
oriented visions for futuristic architecture drawn
by members of Archigram in London only a
decade earlier. Many of these firms have grown
as internationaI practices even after changes in
leadership or the death of their founders (e.g.,
Arup, Happold, Rice). Generalty speaking, the
H i-Tech desi gners are structu rat ly know{edgeabte

'd for all and have produced buildings whose structures are
riling are {ogicatly formed.
struction
lgc ready Fgure 1.42 Funicular arrangements of rods could be used to
Figure 1.41 Diagonal bracing in a horizontal plane just below resist both lateral forces and uplift forces on all the bridges.
lhis way. the deck creates a truss that prevents lateral distortion of the They would also help to restran the bridge against changes of
ual u,ork deck by wind loads. shape from concentrated loads.
 28 CHAPTER 1 ,/ DESIGN]NG A SERIES CF SUSPENSION FOOTBRIDGES

ALTERNATVE POSITIONS FOR THE R.ODS

'l'here are nlanv possible varirtions on orr lrridge
cltsign that involve changing tlre elatior-lship oi the
loris to the decli. Figure 1.-i4 shrrvs a configulrrtlc.,rr
il1ilil1
that sinrplifies thc ciesign br,' onri{tirrg the r,crtical
rorls. '['lrc briclgr in l]igtrr:q 1 .45 rclocate:s the r"ocls
belorv the deck, r'i.here tl-rev srrpi;ort the rnicldlt' o1
thc span bv lrcans oI a cr:iltral r:onrprr:ssion slrrrt.
'['he deck learns in this ilesign must act in r:orn-
pression to resist the inu,ar:d pull of the incl:ined
rocis. 'l'his briclge has no nered lor tensile anchors t.o
the clifTsr it nr:ecls onlv sir-nple rrnchor bolts at ear--h
encl to kr:er thr: encls ol' thr: br:ams liorn mor.irrg
sidcn'avs.
Ali tl-iese lariatiors h:rve adyantages n'itl-r respect
to saying stcd. lor.r'r:rilrg ther or,crall profile r-,lt the
brid.qe s. aLr iliin g their apllearrnce.
cl sirnpl
'l'he builclng in Figure 1..16 makes ingenlorrs trsr:
of steel rods to suppor"t thc rorl olr a u'archoLrsc anrl
shonroorn brrilding. IiigLrre I"-17 nrkes cleal hon'thc:
rocls are deploverd, ancl in ljigurc I ..18 ',r,c adapt this
con[iguration tn our: 80-fi-krng suspensiorr bridge.

LOOKING AHEAD

In this lesson n,e hrr,e cler,crlope'd Lhc rticlirncnts of

a graphic:rl technique tl-]at can be usecl to design
strspension briclges ancJ suspension roo['s, onr:s lhat
re sul)ported i-,y rods or cabhs that takc lirniculrr
lbnns. it is also applicrLle to thr: clesigrr ol inr.errted I ll.rrrr
Fgure1.43 TheRoyal CorgeSuspensionBridge,designedbyCeorgeColeandcr:nstructedin1929,spans268.2rn(880ft)over Itr'nls ol tliescstrrrr:trrrcs tlrat u,orli in cornpression.
the Arkansas River in Colorado. The river lies 321 rn (1 ,053 ft) below. Two dramatic funicular cables pull both down and out on the Iu {lie lic'rt cirapler. u,e \{,ill cleyelor this leri:l-rlritrtt'
deck io stabilize the narrow bridge. One is visible as a whte arc to the iower left. further as r,r'e arph.' it to the dcsign ol' a sLrspendecl
l,l.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Donald Branum. rool'. In tlie third chaptr:r. u'c u,i]l explore the invertecl,
compressive a;1;lclitic;n. Bcfbrc \\,c nro\c or-r to theser
t:liaPterrs, hou'cvcr. )]ou are invitecl to applv rvhat t,ou
havc learnecl to the task o| r'lesignir-rg an rer:ial u.lku,ar.
tbr an ecological parli.
 LooKrNG AHEAD 29

RODS

rr bridge
rir of the
igLrration
' vertical
the rods
niddle of
on strut.
in com-
inclined
nchors to
s t each
r rnoving

h respect
lc of the

nious use
rotrse and
r how the
rcleipt this
riclge.

irncnts of
to design
ones that
lirnicular
rl' inverted I igure 1.44 A bridge alternative that omits the veftical rods. Figure 1.45 A bridge alternative with the rods completely Figure 1.45 The roof of the Renault Centre at winclon, England.
rrpression. below the deck. is supported Lry an ingenious arrangement of steel rods ard beams.
tcrchnique (Architect: Norman Foster. Structural engineer: Arup A.ssociates.)
.iuspencled
Photo courlesy of Richard Davies.
r: inverted,
rn to these
' rvhat y,slt
rl walkway
30 cHAprER r ,/ DESTGNTNG A sERTES oF suspENSroN FoOTBRTDGES

1,,1, \

' , .rl,

Figure 1.48 This configuration of rods and struts from the

Fgwe'l.47 Given a measured drawing of the roof structure of the Renault Centre, how would you go about Renault Centre could be envisioned in modified form as a
finding the forces in its members? solution for the footbridge as well.

lmage courtesy of Foler Assocates, as shown in Chris Abel, Renault Centre, Norman Foster.

ANOTHER CHALLENGE: DESIGNING AN
AERAL \IALK\IAY
A nerv eco-park on the Pacific Coast of Oregor-r u,ill
feattre an elevated rvalkvvay 8 ft u,ide that makes it
possible for visitors to stroll through the treetops of
mammoth Douglas firs and red cedars, w,here thev can
obserue the birds, mammals, insects, fungi, lichens,
and other lif'e foms that make up the unique ecosys-
tem of a forest canopy. Worksheet 1B (available on the
srrpplerrrental webste) is set up to make it easy fbr you
to clesign this rvalkr.vay (Figure 1.49). 'lhe structural
concept that has been suggested by the client's struc-
tural engineer is to erect a series of 10O-ft-high cedar
log fuarnes 72 ft apat, using these to support the
walkway at a height of approximately 60 ft above
the ground. 'lhe available wooden beams can span no
farther than 24 ft between the stainless steel rod sup-
ports that you r,rrill prode. 'lhe gravity load includes a
live load estimate of ttlO lb per square foot (pst) and
a dead Ioad of 24 psf . You must propose ways of resist-
ing graty loads, lateral forces, and uplift forces fiom
wind. A large constrr-rction crane is available to help
erect the walkway.
lr l,
'lb present yoLlr strllctural concept. you are to
complete an elevation drarning (side vieu.,) of the ll, l,
brdge and a section, both of which are shou.n par-
tially completed on the worksheet. Notice that in the
elevation, because of the zigzagging path of the r,valk-
way, only Span II appears in its true size and shape, I , '., ll
so you should lind the fbrm and forces on this span
before transferrng the shapes to the other spans. Yor-r
are to determine the forces in the rods that sr-rpport
I l,,rrr. I ,l'
the walku,a-v and to shou,your means of finding these
florces on your drawing. A load line location is shown
as the starting point for a fbrce polygon. 'l'he fbrce
 il
ANOTHER CHALLENGE: DESIGNING AN AERIAL WALKWAY 31

l'w;r"t:T61
z

t o? Vlgtt (Aan)
Scale:1" : 3O tt
Spanl Span ll Span lll Span lV

n the
#
fvoical Conneclions

a5a

fvoical Section
m
Ff. o 10 20 50 40 50 6a 70 ao
5cale 1" = 3O ft
90100
freetop Catwalk
u are to You've been eelected lo esign a aatwalk at an ecopark along lhe Oregon aoaat,
) of the lhe Deaign guielineo for this ?roieat are;
)wn Par- 72'between su??orto
at in the -Wood towers (tree trunko) Loa Line
hc walk- -Wood deck, can opan 24'
-Supportwalkway on ltainless steel rods andlor large otrute
cl shape, Loading Coniliont
his span *LiveloadlOO pef
rans. You Oead load 24 pef
support
ng these
is shown
he force
 32 cHAprER r ,/ DESTGNTNG A SERTES oF suspENsroN FooTBRtDGES

polygon will overlap the elevation of the r,valkway, as

is often done to save space on a sheet of drawings.
Find and indicate the required diameters of the rods.
'lhe meanclering plan of the walkway presents
a problem, At most towers, the suspension rods for
the two adoining spans do not lie in the same plane.

h
Il they did, their horizontal pulls r.vould balance one
another. In this nonorthogonal walhvay layout, l-row-
ever, components of these forces will tend to pr-rll the
towers over sideways. Work out a simple way of resist-
ing this tendency and sholv it on your drarvings.

\
-\
l1iil )Figure 1.50 The Menai Bridge (1818-1826) was designed
and built by Thomas Telford to provide a crossing of the Menai
Strait for the road connecting London and Holyhead. The
-
eyebar links that make up the chains were made of wrought
iron, which is much less brittle than cast iron, in the era before .Ifr ^
plentiful, economical steel was available. The span of the
bridge, approximately 580 ft, was by far the longest in the
world at the me of its construction. The bridge still carries
vehicular traffic nearly two centuries later. For more information
on Thomas Telford, see his biography on the overleaf.
Photo courtesy of Kyle Cann.

) Ii.,ru,'
r lrl lrr r1,

Al.rr, Ir
rl'..11,,
l,! ,,,,,r1
1,rr, lr,
ll ','lr
l' (Figure 1.51 Schlaich Bergermann collaborated in 1988 r'l '.rl,l
with architect Eberhard Schunck to use funicular rods to llr,,l,,l.
iisd. fl .]I
support a pedestrian bridge over the railroad tracks at Bad ilt.ilt ill
Windsheim in Cermany.
.'{. ' r, lr/,
Photo courtesy of Schlaich Bergermann and Partners. l'l',,i,,1i
mii:o
r#
 ANCTHER CHALLENGE: DESIGNING AN ATRIAL WATKWAY 33

THOMAS TELFORD
Thomas Telford was born in Scotland in 1757. He
began his career as a mason and builder, but gradually
transitioned to work as a surveyor and then to design
and construction of several dozen road bridges in
Shropshire. Fle became involved in the creation of
the Ellesmere Canal. inciuding, in 1792 the dramatic
Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, which carries a navigable
. (Figure 1.52 The engineers at
rid cast-iron trough of water 126 ft above the River Dee"
Schlaich Bergermann used a similar
.,ti
:i arrangement of rods to suspend this Between lSll and 1826, he designed and constructed
large-span factory roof at Dachwig, the 580-ft span Menai suspension bridge to enabte
Cermany, providing an efficient travel between London and the port at Holyhead. This
solution and eye-catching profile early suspension bridge was a major rnfiuence on the
i; l lo satisfy the clienl's desire lor
,r,p.-. .,,,"{+--. {4. succeeding generation of British engineers. Arnong
il*..-'',- {a* corporate identity. lt is shown here
durng ronstruttion in 1993. its notable features were its rock anchor design,
its efficient depth of curvature, and its parailet bar
..r "+ ,ffi1*6i.# .. ."4- :,1{ Photo courtesy of Schlaich
Bergermann and Partners. wrought-iron chain and hangers. Nearly two centuries
later it continues to carry traffic. Although Poet
Laureate Robert Southey referred to Telford, in jest, as
the 'tolossus of roads," in fact, Tetford's professional
output included docks, railway construction, buildings,
travel writing, and even published poetry, in addition
to his roadway, canal, and bridge projects. He became
the first president of the lnstitute of Civil Engineers
and served from 1820 until his death in 1834. He is
buried in Westmnster Abbey.

lFigure 1.53 The Lowry f3ridge,

;r lifting footbridge over the
Manchester (England) Ship Canal
,t Salford Quays, was designed
liy engrneers at the Parkman (now
Mouchel) Croup and built in 2000.
lls 92-m (301-ft) span has rod
988 rnd cable elements that suspend
ito llrc derk lrom inrlined rches. in
It Bad irn arrangement designed to resist
racking and vibration.
Photo: David M. Foxe.
 34 cHAprER r ,/ DESTGNtNG A SERIES oF susPENStoN FooTBRtDGES

Key Terms and Concepts

sPan point of application of force deformation axial force

deck scalar quantity leld strength bending force

suspension bridge vector quantity factor of safety restraining fu nicular srructures

stainless steel tension threads character of, foi"e

I

grout compression upset end graty forces l tt",

ja*' principle of transmissibility right-hand and left-hand threads lateral forces / )r",

cold heading diagonals lttt)l

fork concurrent forces
clearance fruss l,ttt
clevis nonconcurrent forces

steel fabricator free-body diagram (FBD) r-rltimate load lrplift forces "t,tt
lr

stay rods hanger I ()/l

rvasher free body
funicular winch ' ,l 't
jam nut graphical methods

numerical methods funicular fbrm tag line Ltlt

plate

anchor plate node /ilt,

load static equilibrium Further Resources

dead load parallelogram larv Abel, Chris. Renauh Centre, I'lorwan Foster. [,ondon, UK: Architecture Design and
I 'fechnology Press, I 994.
live load resultant wwrv.clevelandcityforge.com: A manufactttrer of rod and cable hardware See espe-
cially "upset forged threacled rods." 1,,
total load equilibrant ,t,
i u,wwronstan.com: Another useftrl manufacturer's site; see the section on "fuchitec-
pound antiresultant lttl
tLrral rgging systems."

tributary area tip-to-tail addition of vectors lvww.tripyramid.com:'lhPyrarnid Structures is a firm that acts as a specialized con-
sultant for designing and fabricating precision components, inclLrding archi- rlr,l,.tl
force force polygon tectural tension connections, cables, and rods. See the product and technical rrrll rrl
sections, in particular, for infbrmation about rod materials. 1,,11,,"
push, pull graphical solution rll,,rr tl
stress numerical solution ril'l .r\r
li, , .ru,
deformation Bow's notation l ttilttr,

magnitude of force l<acl line ,t,,,,rr,,

ll,,
direction of force clockwise reading of member names , t,1,,,t,,
line of action of fbrce buckling ll,r,',r,
t,,,,1,,,